# data_bpressures_threats_info

pressures_source:
Whelan, R., Hayes, W. & Caffrey, B. (2019) Saving Swifts. BirdWatch Ireland, Wicklow. This document was funded by the Department of Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht through the National Parks & Wildlife Service 's National Biodiversity Action Plan Fund.

pressures_info:
The following pressure(s)/threat(s) are considered to be the most relevant and include:

F02 - Construction or modification (e.g. of housing and settlements) in existing urban or recreational areas.  This pressure and/or threat can result in the loss of breeding sites - partial or whole loss of colony; reduced availability of suitable nest sites; scaffolding/hoarding can prevent adult swifts getting to their eggs/chicks, leading to starvation/failure.

N01 - Temperature changes (e.g. rise of temperature & extremes) due to climate change. 
Leading to higher average temperatures and more frequent severe weather events. Birds can be affected on migration, and they may find it increasingly difficult to find insect prey during severe weather events.


pressures_source:
Cummins, S. & Crowe, O. (2009) An Assessment of the Effects of Arterial Drainage Maintenance on Birds Dependent on Riparian Habitats II. A report commissioned by the Office of Public Works and prepared by BirdWatch Ireland.

Cummins, S., Fisher, J., Gaj McKeever, R., McNaghten, L. & Crowe, O. (2010) Assessment of the distribution and abundance of Kingfisher Alcedo atthis and other riparian birds on six SAC river systems in Ireland. A report commissioned by the National Parks and Wildlife Service and prepared by BirdWatch Ireland.

Crowe, O., Cummins, S., Gilligan, N., Smiddy, P. & Tierney, T.D. (2010) An assessment of the current distribution and status of the Kingfisher Alcedo atthis in Ireland. Irish Birds, 9, pp 41-54. 

Tierney, D. and O'Boyle S. (2018). Water quality in 2016: an indicators report. Environmental Protection Agency. Report available:  https://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/water/waterqua/Water%20Quality%20in%202016%20An%20Indicators%20Report.pdf

Cummins, S., Fisher, J., Gaj McKeever, R., McNaghten, L. & Crowe, O. (2010) Assessment of the distribution and abundance of Kingfisher Alcedo atthis and other riparian birds on six SAC river systems in Ireland. A report commissioned by the National Parks and Wildlife Service and prepared by BirdWatch Ireland.

pressures_info:
For undertaking an assessment of the pressures and threats to Kingfisher in Ireland, a number of known and potential impacts were considered (see below).

A25 - Agricultural activities generating point source pollution to surface or ground waters
Eutrophication of waterways through slurry spills causing fish kills etc. Please refer Crowe et al. 2010 for further detail.		

A26 - Agricultural activities generating diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters
Eutrophication of waterways causing fish kills etc. Please refer Crowe et al. 2010 for further detail.		

B23 - Forestry activities generating pollution to surface or ground waters	
Pressure of acidification of waterways from non-native coniferous plantations through drainage and run-off and secondary impacts on Kingfisher through changes in prey availability. Please refer Crowe et al. 2010 for further detail.		

F11 - Pollution to surface or ground water due to urban run-offs		
Eutrophication of waterways causing fish kills etc. Please refer Crowe et al. 2010 for further detail.		

J01 - Mixed source pollution to surface and ground waters (limnic and terrestrial)	
Please refer Crowe et al. 2010 for further detail.		

K05 – Physical alteration of waterbodies
Arterial drainage management carried out on some sections of rivers and canals can have negative impacts on riverbanks used by Kingfisher, particularly if suitable nesting banks are damaged, but likely the risk is considered low 

Additional pressures/threats considered to be currently low:
F07 - Sports, tourism and leisure activities	
With nesting Kingfisher sensitive to disturbance from humans and human activities, the increasing use of waterways for recreation could see this pressure become more significant in the future if not adequately managed.
I02 – Other invasive alien species and I04 – Problematic native species
Potential predators include Brown Rat, Fox, Stoat, Mink and Otter likely having an impact in particular in catchments with afforestation.

N01 – Temperature changes
Cold weather is known to impact Kingfisher populations in Britain, with extreme cold weather events causing freezing of waterways, but thought to be less of a pressure/threat in Ireland where the climate is more oceanic and mild.


pressures_source:
Balmer, D., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B., Swan, B., Downie, I. & Fuller, R. (2013) Bird Atlas 2007-11 The breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland.  British Trust for Ornithology.


Desmond, M., O'Brien, P. & McGovern, F. (2017) A summary of the state of knowledge of climate change impacts for Ireland - Report NO. 223. Environmental Protection Agency, Wexford.

Management Plan for Skylark (Alauda arvensis) 2007-2009. Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds. Technical Report 006-2007.

pressures_info:
The following pressure(s)/threat(s) are considered to be the most relevant and include:

A03 - Conversion from mixed farming to specialised production.  Agricultural intensification resulting in reduced crop diversity, increased use of pesticides and fertilisers are a considerd a pressure/threat to Skylarks within the State, responsible for significant losses (Balmer et al. 2013; EU Action Plan 2007).

N09 - Other climate related changes in abiotic conditions
Cold winters in 2009/10, 2010/11 and 2017/18 had a noticeable impact on the range and densities of this species, as detected through CBS. Similar cold spells during winter or spring, and particularly when this occurs in susbequent years, will have a significant negative impact on their range and numbers. The EPA predicts that the number of frost and snow days will decrease in Ireland in the future however, under climate change models (Desmond et al 2017).


pressures_source:
Cummins, S., Lewis, L.J., Fennessy, G. (2017) Fluctuations in breeding activity of Sand Martins Riparia riparia at a coastal site in the west of Ireland. Irish Birds 10: 501-510.

Donnelly, A., Cooney, T., Jennings, E., Buscardo, E., & Jones, M. (2009) Response of birds to climatic variability: evidence from the western fringe of Europe. International Journal of Biometeorology 53: 211-220.

pressures_info:
The following pressure(s)/threat(s) are considered to be the most relevant and include:

N09 - Other climate related changes in abiotic conditions
Patterns of arrival of these spring migrant insectivores indicate earlier arrival in recent years (Cummins et al. 2017), consistent with trends in other species such as Reed Warbler (Donnelly et al. 2009) with spring arrival negatively correlated with March temperatures (Donnelly et al. 2009).


pressures_source:
Lewis, L. J., Coombes, D., Burke, B., O’Halloran, J., Walsh, A., Tierney, T. D. & Cummins, S. (2019) Countryside Bird Survey: Status and trends of common and widespread breeding birds 1998-2016. Irish Wildlife Manuals (in prep). National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, Ireland.

pressures_info:
Population has shown considerable fluctuation over the course of CBS surveying, with large decreases followed by several years of growth and recovery, until the next crash etc. It is likely that survival outside the breeding range is the main driver of these crashes/declines (Baillie & Peach, 1992; Robinson et al., 2014). Robinson et al. (2003) found that the number of swallows breeding each year in Britain was not correlated with rainfall on their wintering grounds, but was correlated with rainfall in the western Sahel on spring migration.


pressures_source:
Desmond, M., O'Brien, P. & McGovern, F. (2017) A summary of the state of knowledge of climate change impacts for Ireland - Report NO. 223. Environmental Protection Agency, Wexford.

pressures_info:
The following pressure(s)/threat(s) are considered to be the most relevant and include:

N09 - Other climate related changes in abiotic conditions
Cold winters in 2009/10, 2010/11 and 2017/18 had a noticeable impact on the range and densities of this species, as detected through CBS. Similar cold spells during winter or spring, and particularly when this occurs in susbequent years, will have a significant negative impact on their range and numbers. The EPA predicts that the number of frost and snow days will decrease in Ireland in the future however, under climate change models (Desmond et al 2017).


pressures_source:
Desmond, M., O'Brien, P. & McGovern, F. (2017) A summary of the state of knowledge of climate change impacts for Ireland - Report NO. 223. Environmental Protection Agency, Wexford.

Herremans, M. (2010) Can current data scheme’s in Flanders assess winter impact on Grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea numbers ? 
Bird Census News, 23/1-2, 113-116.

Johnson, A.C., Acreman, M.C., Dunbar, M.J., Feist, S.W., Giacomello, A.M., Gozlan, R.E., Hinsley, S.A., Ibbotson, A.T., Jarvie, H.P., Jones, J.I. & Longshaw, M., (2009) The British river of the future: how climate change and human activity might affect two contrasting river ecosystems in England. Science of the Total Environment, 407(17), pp.4787-4798.

pressures_info:
The following pressure(s)/threat(s) are considered to be the most relevant and include:

N09 - Other climate related changes in abiotic conditions
Cold winters in 2009/10, 2010/11 and 2017/18 had a noticeable impact on the range and densities of this species, as detected through CBS. Similar cold spells during winter or spring, and particularly when this occurs in susbequent years, will have a significant negative impact on their range and numbers. The future impact of climate changes in Ireland on this species is less certain.  The EPA predicts that the number of frost and snow days will decrease in Ireland in the future under climate change models (Desmond et al 2017).  For now, the current pressure and future threat is considered to be at a medium-level impact.


pressures_source:
Copland, A., Kenny, K.  & McMahon, B. (2015). Timing of Mowing for the Conservation of Whinchat (Saxicola rubetra) in Ireland. Conference Paper. 1st European Whinchat Symposium, at Helmbrechts, Bavaria, Germany.

Crowe, O. (2019). Status of rare breeding birds in the Republic of Ireland 2013 - 2018. Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin, Ireland.

Norriss, D.W. & Wilson, H.J. 2014. Status of Whinchats Saxicola rubetra in Coronation Plantation, Co. Wicklow. Irish Birds 10: 119-120.

pressures_info:
The following are the list of current pressures and/or threats considered to be affecting the Whinchat population.
Pressures:
A08 Mowing or cutting of grasslands - Intensive land management changes likely to impact ground-nesting birds (Copland 2015; Crowe, 2019)

G10 Illegal shooting/killing - Deliberate capture of birds on the wintering grounds is high and may be a factor in declines (Collar 2015).

Threats:
A08 and G10 - see above

A19 Application of natural fertilisers on agricultural land - Intensive land management changes likely to impact on ground-nesters (Crowe, 2019).

B29 Other forestry activities, excluding those relating to agro-forestry - Maturation of young conifer crops will have negative effect on breeding Whinchats which curently utilise young rotation forestry (Crowe 2019).


pressures_source:
Desmond, M., O'Brien, P. & McGovern, F. (2017) A summary of the state of knowledge of climate change impacts for Ireland - Report NO. 223. Environmental Protection Agency, Wexford. Additional source material?


pressures_source:
Crowe, O. (2019) Status of rare breeding birds in the Republic of Ireland 2013 - 2018. Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin, Ireland.

Burfield, I. (2002) The breeding ecology and conservation of the Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus in Britain. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.

Sim, I.M.W., Rollie, C., Arthur, D., Benn, S., Booker, H., Fairbrother, V., Green, M., Hutchinson, K., Ludwig, S., Nicoll, M., Poxton, I., Rebecca, G., Smith, L., Stanbury, A. & Wilson, P. (2010) The decline of the Ring Ouzel in Britain. British Birds, 103, 229–239.

Innes Sim, C.R.,  Ludwig, S., Grant, M., Loughrey, J. L., Graham, R. & Reid, J.M. (2013). Postfledging Survival, Movements, and Dispersal of Ring Ouzels (Turdus torquatus). The Auk. 130. 69-77. 10.1525/auk.2012.12008.

Mee, A. (2018) The status and ecology of a remnant population of Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus in the MacGillycuddy's Reeks, Kerry. Irish Birds 11:13-22.

pressures_info:
The following pressures/threats are considered to be the most relevant and current to breeding Ring Ouzel including:

A09 Intensive grazing or overgrazing by livestock. Increased grazing intensities in Britain over recent decades have had complex effects on Ring Ouzels, the precise impacts depending on the initial mosaic of heather moor and grass moor (see Crowe 2019 & Mee 2018 for further details).

B09 Conversion to forest from other land uses, or afforestation (excluding drainage) -  In contrast, the species’ active avoidance of conifer plantations suggests that upland afforestation (and associated increased numbers of potential predators) has probably had negative consequences for Ring Ouzels (Burfield 2002; Sim et al. 2010).

N02 - Droughts and decreases in precipitation due to climate change - Relationship between summer rainfall and subsequent breeding, also rainfall (or lack of) on wintering grounds and knock-on effects on breeding poopulation (Sim et al. 2010). 

I04 - Problematic native species. Given the population is now so restricted in its range and number, the cuurent pressure and threat of predators on the remaining population is considered high (Sim et al. 2013).


pressures_source:
Best expert opinion - Irish Rare Breeding Birds Panel

pressures_info:
Drainage of reedbeds have negatively affected Reed Warbler habitat at some local sites (e.g. Ballyvergan Marsh, Co. Cork).


pressures_source:
Carroll, D., Gaj-McKeever, R., Trewby, M., & Newton, S. (2010) The seasonal distribution and foraging behaviour Bird species’ status and trends reporting format for the period 2008-2012 (Annex 2) of Red-billed Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in County Clare, February 2009 to January 2010. Unpublished BirdWatch Ireland Report to National Parks & Wildlife Service.
Gray, N. & Newton, S. (2005) The distribution and feeding ecology of the Chough in Co. Kerry: September 2003 – August 2004. BirdWatch Ireland Conservation Report No. 05/2.
Gray, N., Trewby, M., Cummins, S., Thomas, G. & Newton, S. (2006) The distribution and feeding ecology of Choughs P.Pyrrhocorax in Co. Donegal: September 2004 to August 2005. BirdWatch Ireland Conservation Report No. 06/1.
Kerbiriou, C. & Julliard, R. (2007) Demographic consequences of prey availability and diet of Red-billed Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. Bird Study 54, 296-306.
Meyer, R.M., Buckland, P.C. & Monaghan, P. 1994 The diet of the Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocrax as indicated by the analysis of digested prey remains. Avocetta N018: 95-106.
Moore, P.D. (1983) The decline of the Chough. Nature, Vol. 306, p 664.
Robertson, A., Jarvis, A.M. & Day, K.R. (1995) Habitat selection and foraging behaviour of breeding Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in County Donegal. Biology and Environment, 95B: 69-74.
Rylands, K., Mucklow, C. & Lock, L. (2012) Management for Choughs and coastal biodiversity in Cornwall: the need for grazing. RSPB Report.
Thomas, G., Gray, N., & Newton, S. (2003) The distribution and feeding ecology of the Chough in southwest Ireland. BirdWatch Ireland Conservation Report No. 03/4. Trewby, M. (2006) Choughs in southwest Co. Mayo, Killary Harbour to Achill Island: a review of information and observations in October-November 2006. Unpublished BirdWatch Ireland Report, Newtownmountkennedy, Co.Wicklow.
Trewby, M., Carroll, D., Farrell, F., Gaj- McKeever, R., Mugan, N. & Newton, S. (2010). The seasonal distribution and foraging behaviour of Red-billed Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in Counties Sligo and Leitrim, February 2009 to January 2010. Unpublished BirdWatch Ireland Report to National Parks & Wildlife Service.
Trewby, M., Carroll, D., Gaj-McKeever, R., & Newton, S. (2010) The seasonal distribution and foraging behaviour of Red-billed Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in north Co. Kerry, September 2008 to September 2009. Unpublished BirdWatch Ireland Report to National Parks & Wildlife Service.
Trewby, M., Carroll, D., Mugan, N. O’Keeffe, D. & Newton, S. (2010) The seasonal distribution and foraging behaviour of Red-billed Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in Counties Waterford and Cork, February 2008 to January 2009. Unpublished BirdWatch Ireland Report to National Parks & Wildlife Service.
Trewby, M., Thomas, G. & Newton, S. (2005) The distribution and feeding ecology of the Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in southwest Co. Cork. BirdWatch Ireland Conservation Report No. 05/1.
Trewby, M. (2006) Choughs in southwest Co. Mayo, Killary Harbour to Achill Island: a review of information and observations in October-November 2006. Unpublished BirdWatch Ireland Report, Newtownmountkennedy, Co.Wicklow.
Woodhouse, S.P., Good, J.E.G., Lovett, A.A., Fuller, R.J., Dolman, P.M., 2005. Effects of land-use and agricultural management on birds of marginal farmland: a case study in the Llyn peninsula,Wales. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 107, 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2004.12.006.

pressures_info:
For undertaking an assessment of the pressures and threats to Chough in Ireland, a number of known and potential impacts were considered.
A02 - Conversion from one type of agricultural land use to another (excluding drainage and burning).  
The Chough is dependent on open habitats shaped by traditional agriculture and pastoralism. Chough prefer extensively managed unimproved grassland habitats often with heath, scrub and bracken (Woodhouse et al. 2005).  Closely tied to nesting sites during the breeding season, changes/losses of their preferred feeding habitats can negatively affect breeding birds and therefore this pressure has been categorised as medium-level.  
A06 - Abandonment of grassland management (e.g. cessation of grazing or mowing)
Abandonment of agricultural practices have been suggested as an important factor leading to declines in Chough populations and their eventual extinction in parts of western Europe in the second half of the 20th century (Kerbiriou et al. 2007).  Increases in the extent of abandoned agricultural land in Europe has seen Chough more restricted to areas with a greater proportion of natural habitats, such as maritime grassland and coastal heathland (Kerbiriou et al. 2007).
A decrease in grazing pressure will negatively affect the distribution of Chough (Rylands et al. 2012) which prefers extensive habitat mosaics that includes areas of both short swards and long-grass swards found in permanent/semi-improved pastures, dry heath/coastal heath with patches of acid grassland, dune systems, overwintered stubble fields and beaches/strandlines. If managed, grazing can create areas of short sward and patches of bare ground, allowing birds to access the soil and providing a source of dung and associated invertebrates. 
This pressure is currently classified as medium, as land abandonment along the western seaboard, would have significant implications for breeding Chough. 
A03 - Conversion from mixed farming and agroforestry systems to specialised (e.g. single crop) production
Fields with hay/silage are unsuitable for Choughs through most of the breeding season (Rylands et al. 2012). During the breeding season, close proximity of suitable foraging habitat to the nest site is essential for Choughs (Trewby et al. 2005). Given the ties Chough has to its nest site during the breeding season, changes from more mixed farming to intensive grasslands along coastal margins are not likely to benefit breeding Chough.
A21 - Use of plant protection chemicals in agriculture
Choughs feed largely on invertebrates including beetles, dipterous larva, especially tipulids/cranefly with seasonal differences in their diet with more hymenoptera (e.g. ants) consumed in summer and early autumn, and more spiders and beetles consumed through winter and early spring (Meyer et al. 1994; Kerbiriou et al. 2007).  The use of chemicals in agriculture such as avermectin (i.e.worming treatment for livestock) affects the dung fauna on which Chough feed. Furthermore, the application of fertilisers produces a taller sward with lower invertebrate density and therefore not as suitable for feeding Chough (Moore 1983).
The pressures/threats listed above are those considered to be of medium/high ranking importance for Chough.  In addition, the following pressures/threats are currently ranked as low:
H08 - Other human intrusions and disturbance not mentioned above 
Due to the dispersed nature of Chough breeding along the coastline this particular pressure and threat is considered to be quite low however such activities may negatively impact on the Chough population at the local level where activities occurring at or close to the nest sites or at communal roosting areas leads to nest  or roost abandonment. Such activities include rock climbing and cliff top walking. In fact there may be some positive effects from the latter as areas that are frequently used as pathways often have short vegetation suitable for Chough foraging.
F04 - Construction or modification of commercial / industrial infrastructure in existing commercial / industrial areas i.e. demolishment of buildings & human structures:
In 2002/2003 approximately 3% of the national population was estimated to use buildings but this is probably an underestimate, with no recent data. The renovations of these buildings could result in them becoming unsuitable as breeding sites for breeding Chough. Due to the lack of reliable information on extent of this pressure, it is considered to be low, affecting populations at a local but not regional/national level.


pressures_info:
Closing down of sewage ponds used for Sugar Beet production could cause loss of major habitat for this species in Wallonia


pressures_info:
Pressures on trecking route outside EU
Indirect effect on wild bees population
Based on the situation in the Netherlands where Goshawk predation in nestling is very high


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 559-561.
Pongrácz, Á. (2018): A békászó sas (Clanga pomarina) magyarországi helyzete 2016-ban. Lesser Spotted Eagle (Clanga pomarina) population data in 2016 in Hungary. (In Hungarian with English summary). Heliaca 14, 32-34.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (1984): Magyarország fészkelo madarai. Natura, Budapest. 59-60 p.
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 552-555.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy, L. (szerk.) (1998): Magyarország madarai. Mezogazda Kiadó, Budapest. 112-113 p. 
Ecsedi Z. (szerk.) (2004): A Hortobágy madárvilága. Hortobágy Természetvédelmi Egyesület, Winter Fair, Balmazújváros - Szeged. 2004. 244-246 p.
National park directorates’ databases


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 645-647.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 532-534.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 566-568.


pressures_source:
Hámori Dániel, Csörgo Tibor (szerk, 2017): Magyarországon eloforduló bagolyfajok határozása és gyakorlati természetvédelme, Herman Ottó Intézet, 46-47. o.
Consultation with national experts.
National park directorates' databases


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 641-644.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 573-576.
Securing prey sources for endangered Falco cherrug and Aquila heliaca population in the Carpathian Basin (LIFE13 NAT/HU/000183): 2014-2018


pressures_source:
Pigniczki, Cs. 2017. A vaddisznó (Sus scrofa) pusztítása gémtelepen: esettanulmány a tömörkényi Csaj-tavon / Damage caused by wild boar (Sus scrofa) in heronries: a case report on Tömörkény Csaj-tó. Aquila 124, p. 94-95 & 106-107.
Pigniczki, Cs., Mikuska, T., Nagy, Sz., Bino, T., Kotrosan, D., Sarac, M., Sackl, P., Saveljic, D., Feltrup-Azafzaf, C., Smart, M., Emiliani, D., Durst, R. & Navedo, J. G. 2017. Improving connectivity for the conservation of the Central European population of the Eurasian Spoonbill: conclusions from the 2nd Adriatic Flyway Conference. In: Sackl, P. & Ferger, S. (eds): Adriatic Flyway – Bird conservation on the Balkans. Euronatur, Radolfzell. p. 160-167.

pressures_info:
Only limited data is available from Africa (except Tunisia) and the Middle East, Balkans.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 548-551.


pressures_source:
Raptor Conservation Group of MME/Birdlife Hungary.
Consultation with national experts.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (1984): Magyarország fészkelo madarai. Natura, Budapest. 155-156.


pressures_source:
Sallai R. B. (szerk.): Veszélyeztetett Natura 2000- es fajok egyesületi fajvédelmi tervei. Nimfea Természetvédelmi Egyesület, 2013, p. 133-152.
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 597-600.
Kiss, Á., Molnár, A., Monoki, Á. et al. (2019): Nature conservation status of Collared Pratincoles (Glareola pratincola) breeding in agricultural habitats in Hungary and recommendations for their conservation especially in the Nagykunság area. Aquila (2018), Vol. 125, p. 49-72.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (1984): Magyarország fészkelo madarai. Natura, Budapest. 72-73 p.
Haraszthy, L. (szerk.) (1998): Magyarország madarai. Mezogazda Kiadó, Budapest. 113 p. 
Ecsedi Z. (szerk.) (2004): A Hortobágy madárvilága. Hortobágy Természetvédelmi Egyesület, Winter Fair, Balmazújváros - Szeged. 2004. 246-247 p.


pressures_source:
Danko Štefan, Darolová Alžbeta, Krištín Anton: Rozšírenie vtákov na Slovensku. VEDA, vyd. SAV Bratislava, 2002.
Gúgh, J., Trnak, A., Karaska, D., Ridzon, J., 2015. Zásady ochrany významných druhov vtákov a
ich biotopov. Štátna ochrana prírody SR, Banská Bystrica, 332 str.


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp.
Threat Xxt: Expert judgement based on habitat type and ecological vulnerability

pressures_info:
Threat Xxt: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp. Harvey, P.V. & Heubeck, M. 2012. Changes in the wintering population and distribution of Slavonian grebes in Shetland. British Birds 105: 704-715.


pressures_source:
Pressure G14: Newth, J.L., Cromie, R.L., Brown, M.J., Delahay, R.J., Meharg, A.A, Deacon, C., Norton, G.J., O'Brien, M.F. & Pain, D.J 2012. Poisoning from lead gunshot: still a threat to wild waterbirds in Britain. European Journal of Wildlife Research, DOI 10.1007/s10344-012-0666-7. Green R.G. & Pain, D.J. 2016. Possible effects of ingested lead gunshot on populations of ducks wintering in the UK. Ibis 158: 699-710.
Threat G14: Newth, J.L., Cromie, R.L., Brown, M.J., Delahay, R.J., Meharg, A.A, Deacon, C., Norton, G.J., O'Brien, M.F. & Pain, D.J 2012. Poisoning from lead gunshot: still a threat to wild waterbirds in Britain. European Journal of Wildlife Research, DOI 10.1007/s10344-012-0666-7. Green R.G. & Pain, D.J. 2016. Possible effects of ingested lead gunshot on populations of ducks wintering in the UK. Ibis 158: 699-710.


pressures_source:
Pressure A33: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp.
Threat A33: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp.


pressures_source:
Threat N05: Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Johnston, A., Ausden, M., Dodd, A., Newson, S.E., Ockendon, N., Thaxter, C.B., Bradbury, R.B., Chamberlain, D.E, Jiguet, F., Rehfisch, M.M. & Thomas, C.D. 2011. Final Report to the Climate Change Impacts on Avian Interests of Protected Area Networks (CHAINSPAN) Steering Group. BTO Report to DEFRA. 90 pp. Available at: http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=9962_CHAINSPANFINALREPORT.pdf. Holt, C., Austin, G., Calbrade, N., Mellan, M., Mitchell, C., Stroud, D.A., Wotton, S. & Musgrove, A. (2011). Waterbirds in the UK 2009/10. The Wetland Bird Survey. BTO, WWT, RSPB & JNCC, Thetford. 185 pp.

pressures_info:
Threat N05: Modelled population declines due to climate change, change of migration phenology and distribution


pressures_source:
Pressure F07: Pienkowski, M. W. 1992. The impact of tourism on coastal breeding waders in western and southern Europe: an overview. Wader Study Group Bulletin 68: 92-96. Lilley, D. & Sutherland, W.J. 2007. Predicting the population consequences of human disturbance for Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula: a game theory approach. Ibis 149: 82-94. Prater, A.J. 1989. Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula breeding population in the United Kingdom in 1984. Bird Study 36: 154-159.
Pressure I02: Jackson, D. & Green, R.E. 2000. The importance of the introduced hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) as a predator of the eggs of waders (Charadrii) on machair in South Uist, Scotland. Biological Conservation 93: 333-348. Buxton, N. 2007. Common Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula hiaticula Linnaeus. Pp. 562-565. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Calladine, J., Humphreys, E.M. & Boyle, J. 2015. Changes in breeding wader popuations of the Uist machair between 1983 and 2014. Scottish Birds 35: 207- 2015.
Pressure Xu: Calladine, J., Humphreys, E.M. & Boyle, J. 2015. Changes in breeding wader popuations of the Uist machair between 1983 and 2014. Scottish Birds 35: 207- 2015. Balmer et. al. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat F07: Pienkowski, M. W. 1992. The impact of tourism on coastal breeding waders in western and southern Europe: an overview. Wader Study Group Bulletin 68: 92-96. Lilley, D. & Sutherland, W.J. 2007. Predicting the population consequences of human disturbance for Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula: a game theory approach. Ibis 149: 82-94. Prater, A.J. 1989. Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula breeding population in the United Kingdom in 1984. Bird Study 36: 154-159.
Threat I02: Jackson, D. & Green, R.E. 2000. The importance of the introduced hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) as a predator of the eggs of waders (Charadrii) on machair in South Uist, Scotland. Biological Conservation 93: 333-348. Buxton, N. 2007. Common Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula hiaticula Linnaeus. Pp. 562-565. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Calladine, J., Humphreys, E.M. & Boyle, J. 2015. Changes in breeding wader popuations of the Uist machair between 1983 and 2014. Scottish Birds 35: 207- 2015.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat N04: Watkinson, A.R., Gill, J.A. & Hulme, M. 2004. Flying in the face of climate change: a review of climate change, past, present and future. Ibis 146 (Supplement s1): 4-10

pressures_info:
Pressure I02: Introduced Hedgehogs
Threat I02: Introduced Hedgehogs


pressures_source:
Pressure L06: Caldow, R.W.G. & Furness, R.W. 2000. The effect of food availability on the foraging behaviour of breeding great skuas Catharacta skua and Arctic skuas Stercorarius parasiticus. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 367-375. Furness, R.W. 2010. The Skuas. T & AD Poyser, London.
Pressure N07: Meek, E.R., Bolton, M., Fox, D. & Remp, J. 2011. Breeding skuas in Orkney: a 2010 census indicates density-dependent population change driven by both food supply and predation. Seabird 24: 1-10. Furness, R.W., Wade, H.M. & Masden, E.A. 2013. Assesssing vulnerability of marine bird populations to offshore wind farms. Journal of Environmental Management 119: 56-66.
Threat G12: Furness, R.W. & Tasker, M.L. 2000. Seabird-fisheries interactions quantifying the sensitivity of seabirds to reductions in sandeel abundance and identification of key areas for sensitive seabirds in the North Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 202: 253-264. Caldow, R.W.G. & Furness, R.W. 2000. The effect of food availability on the foraging bevaious or breedin great skuas Catharacta skua and arctic skuas Stercorarius pomarinus. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 367-375. Furness, R.W. 2002. Management implications of interactions between fisheries and sandeel-dependent seabirds and seals in the North Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 59: 261-269. Furness, R.W. 2007. Arctic Skua Stercorarius pomarinus (Linnaeus). Pp. 726-730. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Furness, R.W. 2010. The Skuas. T & AD Poyser, London.
Threat L06: Caldow, R.W.G. & Furness, R.W. 2000. The effect of food availability on the foraging behaviour of breeding great skuas Catharacta skua and Arctic skuas Stercorarius parasiticus. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 367-375. Furness, R.W. 2010. The Skuas. T & AD Poyser, London.
Threat N01: Russell, D.J.F., Wanless, S., Collingham, Y.C., Huntley, B. & Hamer, K.C. 2015. Predicting future European breeding distributions of British seabird species under climate change and unlimited/no dispersal scenarios. Diversity - Basel 7: 342-359. Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat N07: Meek, E.R., Bolton, M., Fox, D. & Remp, J. 2011. Breeding skuas in Orkney: a 2010 census indicates density-dependent population change driven by both food supply and predation. Seabird 24: 1-10. Furness, R.W., Wade, H.M. & Masden, E.A. 2013. Assesssing vulnerability of marine bird populations to offshore wind farms. Journal of Environmental Management 119: 56-66.

pressures_info:
Threat G12: Impact of bycatch is not known
Threat L06: Predation by Great Skuas


pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Increasing population
Threat Xxt: Increasing population


pressures_source:
Pressure L07: Hewson, C.M., Thorup, K., Pearce-Higgens, J.W. & Atkinson, P.W. 2016. Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7: 12296.
Pressure N02: Hewson, C.M., Thorup, K., Pearce-Higgens, J.W. & Atkinson, P.W. 2016. Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7: 12296.
Pressure Xe: Ockenden, N., Hewson, C.M., Johnston, A. & Atkinson, P.W. 2012. Declines in British-breeding populations of Afro-Palaearctic migrant birds are linked to bioclimatic wintering zone in Africa, possibly via constraints on arrival time advancement. Bird Study 59: 111-125.
Pressure Xo: Hewson, C.M., Thorup, K., Pearce-Higgens, J.W. & Atkinson, P.W. 2016. Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7: 12296.
Pressure Xu: Balmer, D.E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B.J., Swann, R.L., Downie, I.S. & Fuller, R.J. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat L07: Hewson, C.M., Thorup, K., Pearce-Higgens, J.W. & Atkinson, P.W. 2016. Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7: 12296.
Threat N02: Hewson, C.M., Thorup, K., Pearce-Higgens, J.W. & Atkinson, P.W. 2016. Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7: 12296.
Threat Xe: Ockenden, N., Hewson, C.M., Johnston, A. & Atkinson, P.W. 2012. Declines in British-breeding populations of Afro-Palaearctic migrant birds are linked to bioclimatic wintering zone in Africa, possibly via constraints on arrival time advancement. Bird Study 59:111-125
Threat Xo: Hewson, C.M., Thorup, K., Pearce-Higgens, J.W. & Atkinson, P.W. 2016. Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7: 12296.

pressures_info:
Pressure L07: Decline of large moths whose caterpillars are major food source for adult Cuckoos
Pressure N02: Decreasing rainfall on migration routes in Spain and elsewhere leading to droughts and wildfires
Pressure Xe: Afro-Palearctic migrant. Strong correlational evidence of effects of land-use in Humid (Southern) zone of west Africa affecting birds breeding in UK that winter there
Pressure Xo: Decreasing rainfall on migration routes in Spain and elsewhere leading to droughts and wildfires as well as large-scale habitat changes on wintering areas
Pressure Xu: Regional contraction of range in Ireland
Threat L07: Decline of large moths whose caterpillars are major food source for adult Cuckoos
Threat N02: Decreasing rainfall on migration routes in Spain and elsewhere leading to droughts and wildfires
Threat Xe: Afro-Palearctic migrant. Strong correlational evidence of effects of land-use in Humid zone of west Africa affecting birds breeding in UK that winter there
Threat Xo: Decreasing rainfall on migration routes in Spain and elsewhere leading to droughts and wildfires as well as large-scale habitat changes on wintering areas


pressures_source:
Pressure Xu: Balmer, D.E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B.J., Swann, R.L., Downie, I.S. & Fuller, R.J. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat Xt: Expert assessment

pressures_info:
Pressure Xu: Small long-term decline in population and small contraction of distribution (Atlas)


pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Regional contraction of range in Ireland, but stable/increasing range elsewhere (Atlas) and stable/increasing population trend (BBS)


pressures_info:
Pressure Xu: Increasing population (BBS: +14% during reporting period), but regional contraction of range in eastern England


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Short-term increase of 31%. Johnstone, I., Thorpe, R., Moore, A. & Finney, S. 2007. Breeding status of Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in the UK and Isle of Man in 2002. Bird Study 54: 23-24. Hayhow, D.B., Johnstone, I., Moore, A.S., Mucklow, C., Stratford, A. Sur, M. & Eaton, M.A. 2018. Breeding status of Red-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax in the UK and Isle of Man 2014. Bird Study 65: 458-470.
Threat A06: Johnstone, I., Mucklow, C., Cross, T., Lock, L. & Carter, I. 2011. The return of the red-billed chough to Cornwall: the first ten years and prospects for the future. British Birds 104: 416-431. McKay, C.R. 2007. Red-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhorcorax (Linnaeus). Pp.1345-1348. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.


pressures_source:
Pressure A02: Moorcroft, D. & Wilson, J.D. (2000) The ecology of Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland. In Ecology and Conservation of Lowland Farmland Birds (eds Aebischer, N.J., Evans, A.D., Grice, P.V. & Vickery, J.A.), pp 173-181. British Ornithologists' Union, Tring.
Pressure A03: Moorcroft, D., Wilson, J.D. & Bradbury, R.B. (2006) The diet of nestling Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland before and after agricultural intensification. Bird Study 53: 156-162.
Pressure A05: Baillie et al. 2006
Pressure A21: Moorcroft, D., Wilson, J.D. & Bradbury, R.B. (2006) The diet of nestling Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland before and after agricultural intensification. Bird Study 53: 156-162.
Threat A02: Eaton et al (2015), BTO online, Siriwardena et al (2000), Moorcroft, D. & Wilson, J.D. (2000) The ecology of Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland. In Ecology and Conservation of Lowland Farmland Birds (eds Aebischer, N.J., Evans, A.D., Grice, P.V. & Vickery, J.A.), pp 173-181. British Ornithologists' Union, Tring.
Threat A03: Moorcroft, D., Wilson, J.D. & Bradbury, R.B. (2006) The diet of nestling Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland before and after agricultural intensification. Bird Study 53: 156-162.
Threat A05: Moorcroft, D., Wilson, J.D. & Bradbury, R.B. (2006) The diet of nestling Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland before and after agricultural intensification. Bird Study 53: 156-162.
Threat A21: Moorcroft, D., Wilson, J.D. & Bradbury, R.B. (2006) The diet of nestling Linnets Carduelis cannabina on lowland farmland before and after agricultural intensification. Bird Study 53: 156-162.

pressures_info:
Pressure A02: BOCC4 review classified Linnet as red (code BDp2) due to 60% long-term decline in its UK breeding population since 1969 (Eaton et al. 2015). However, this severe decline ceased in the 1990s and the breeding population has relatively stabilised (CBC/ BBS data, BTO online. Nest failure at egg and chick stages had increased with a corresponding reduction in juvenile/ adult ratio (Siriwardena et al 2000) and the trend in the number of fledglings per breeding attempt continues its long-term decline (BTO online).
Pressure A03: Agricultural intensification created oilseed rape as food source and changed nestling diet through reduced quantity of traditional weed seeds in the environment to an increase in dandelions and chickweed (Moorcroft et al 2006)
Pressure A05: Changes in hedgerow management suggested to have increased exposure of nests to predation (Baillie et al. 2006)
Pressure A21: Agricultural intensification created oilseed rape as food source and changed nestling diet through reduced quantity of traditional weed seeds in the environment to an increase in dandelions and chickweed (Moorcroft et al 2006)
Threat A02: BOCC4 review classified Linnet as red (code BDp2) due to 60% long-term decline in its UK breeding population since 1969 (Eaton et al. 2015). However, this severe decline ceased in the 1990s and the breeding population has relatively stabilised (CBC/ BBS data, BTO online. Nest failure at egg and chick stages had increased with a corresponding reduction in juvenile/ adult ratio (Siriwardena et al 2000) and the trend in the number of fledglings per breeding attempt continues its long-term decline (BTO online).
Threat A03: Agricultural intensification created oilseed rape as food source and changed nestling diet through reduced quantity of traditional weed seeds in the environment to an increase in dandelions and chickweed (Moorcroft et al 2006)
Threat A05: Changes in hedgerow management suggested to have increased exposure of nests to predation
Threat A21: Agricultural intensification created oilseed rape as food source and changed nestling diet through reduced quantity of traditional weed seeds in the environment to an increase in dandelions and chickweed (Moorcroft et al 2006)


pressures_source:
Pressure B02: Moss, R. 2007. Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus. Pp. 305-310. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Pressure B21: Baines, D. & Andrew, M. 2003. An experiment to assess the value of fence markings in reducing the frequency of collisions with deer fences by woodland grouse. Biological Conservation 110: 169-176. Summers, R.W., Dugan, D. & Proctor, R. 2010. Numbers and breeding success of Capercaillies Tetrao urogallus and Black Grouse T. tetrix at Abernethy Forest, Scotland. Bird Study 57: 437-446.
Pressure B27: Moss, R. 2007. Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus. Pp. 305-310. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Pressure F07: Summers, R.W., McFarlane, J. & Pearce-Higgins, J.W. 2007. Measuring avoidance by capercaillies Tetrao urogallus of woodland close to tracks. Wildlife Biology 13: 19-27. Moss, R., Leckie, F., Biggins, A., Poole, T., Baines, D. & Kortland, K. 2014. Impacts of human disturbance on capercaillie Tetrao urogallus distribution and demography in Scottish woodlands. Wildl. Biol. 20: 1-18.
Pressure I04: Kortland, K. 2008. Management factors influencing capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) lek persistence in Scotland. MSc Thesis, University of Aberdeen. Summers, R.W., Green, R.E., Proctor, R., Dugan, D., Lambie, D., Moncrieff, R., Moss, R. & Baines, D. 2004. An experimental study of the effects of predation on the breeding productivity of capercaillie and black grouse. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 513-525. Baines, D., Moss, R. & Dugan, D. 2004. Capercaillie breeding success in relation to forest habitat and predator abundance. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 59-71. Baines, D., Aebischer, N.J. & Macleod, A. 2016. Increased mammalian predators and climate change predict declines in breeding success and density of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, an old stand specialist, in fragmented Scottish forests. Biodiversity and Conservation 25: 2171-2186. Laurenson, M.K., Norman, R.A., Gilbert, L., Reid, H.W., & Hudson, P.J. (2003). Identifying disease reservoirs in complex systems: mountain hares as reservoirs of ticks and louping-ill virus, pathogens of red grouse. Journal of Applied Ecology, 72: 177-185. Baines, D. & Andrew, M. 2003. An experiment to assess the value of fence markings in reducing the frequency of collisions with deer fences by woodland grouse. Biological Conservation 110: 169-176. Summers, R.W., Dugan, D. & Proctor, R. 2010. Numbers and breeding success of Capercaillies Tetrao urogallus and Black Grouse T. tetrix at Abernethy Forest, Scotland. Bird Study 57: 437-446.
Pressure N03: Ewing, S.R., Eaton, M.A., Poole, T.F., Davies, M. & Haysom, S. 2012. The size of the Scottish population of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus: results of the fourth national survey. Bird Study 59: 126-138. Summers, R.W., Dugan, D. & Proctor, R. 2010. Numbers and breeding success of Capercaillies Tetrao urogallus and Black Grouse T. tetrix at Abernethy Forest, Scotland. Bird Study 57: 437-446. Moss, R. 2007. Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus. Pp. 305-310. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Baines, D., Aebischer, N.J. & Macleod, A. (2016). Increased mammalian predators and climate change predict declines in breeding success and density of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, an old stand specialist, in fragmented Scottish forests. Biodiversity and Conservation 25: 2171-2186. Summers, R.W., McFarlane, J. & Pearce-Higgins, J.W. 2007. Measuring avoidance by capercaillies Tetrao urogallus of woodland close to tracks. Wildlife Biology 13: 19-27. Moss, R., Leckie, F., Biggins, A., Poole, T., Baines, D. & Kortland, K. 2014. Impacts of human disturbance on capercaillie Tetrao urogallus distribution and demography in Scottish woodlands. Wildl. Biol. 20: 1-18.
Pressure N06: Moss, R., Oswald, J. & Baines, D. 2001. Climate change and breeding success: decline of the capercaillie in Scotland. Journal of Animal Ecology 70: 47-61.
Threat B02: Moss, R. 2007. Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus. Pp. 305-310. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat B27: Moss, R. 2007. Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus. Pp. 305-310. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat F07: Summers, R.W., McFarlane, J. & Pearce-Higgins, J.W. 2007. Measuring avoidance by capercaillies Tetrao urogallus of woodland close to tracks. Wildlife Biology 13: 19-27. Moss, R., Leckie, F., Biggins, A., Poole, T., Baines, D. & Kortland, K. 2014. Impacts of human disturbance on capercaillie Tetrao urogallus distribution and demography in Scottish woodlands. Wildl. Biol. 20: 1-18.
Threat I04: Kortland, K. 2008. Management factors influencing capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) lek persistence in Scotland. MSc Thesis, University of Aberdeen. Summers, R.W., Green, R.E., Proctor, R., Dugan, D., Lambie, D., Moncrieff, R., Moss, R. & Baines, D. 2004. An experimental study of the effects of predation on the breeding productivity of capercaillie and black grouse. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 513-525. Baines, D., Moss, R. & Dugan, D. 2004. Capercaillie breeding success in relation to forest habitat and predator abundance. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 59-71. Baines, D., Aebischer, N.J. & Macleod, A. 2016. Increased mammalian predators and climate change predict declines in breeding success and density of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, an old stand specialist, in fragmented Scottish forests. Biodiversity and Conservation 25: 2171-2186. Laurenson, M.K., Norman, R.A., Gilbert, L., Reid, H.W., & Hudson, P.J. (2003). Identifying disease reservoirs in complex systems: mountain hares as reservoirs of ticks and louping-ill virus, pathogens of red grouse. Journal of Applied Ecology, 72: 177-185.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat N03: Ewing, S.R., Eaton, M.A., Poole, T.F., Davies, M. & Haysom, S. 2012. The size of the Scottish population of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus: results of the fourth national survey. Bird Study 59: 126-138. Summers, R.W., Dugan, D. & Proctor, R. 2010. Numbers and breeding success of Capercaillies Tetrao urogallus and Black Grouse T. tetrix at Abernethy Forest, Scotland. Bird Study 57: 437-446. Moss, R. 2007. Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus. Pp. 305-310. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Baines, D., Aebischer, N.J. & Macleod, A. (2016). Increased mammalian predators and climate change predict declines in breeding success and density of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, an old stand specialist, in fragmented Scottish forests. Biodiversity and Conservation 25: 2171-2186.
Threat N05: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat N06: Moss, R., Oswald, J. & Baines, D. 2001. Climate change and breeding success: decline of the capercaillie in Scotland. Journal of Animal Ecology 70: 47-61.

pressures_info:
Pressure B02: Loss of ground cover, including bilberry
Pressure B21: Mortality through collision with deer fences
Pressure B27: Drainage of invertebrate-rich forest bogs
Pressure F07: Disturbance by horse riders, walkers and wildlife watchers and repercussions for habitat availability
Pressure I04: Predation by fox, crow, pine marten. Impact of sheep ticks on chick survival through blood loss (no species-specific reference). Deer as tick hosts.
Pressure N03: Negative effect of rainfall on productivity
Pressure N06: Hatch time and chick prey peak desynchronised
Threat B02: Loss of ground cover, including bilberry
Threat B27: Drainage of invertebrate-rich forest bogs
Threat F07: Disturbance by horse riders, walkers and wildlife watchers and repercussions for habitat availability
Threat I04: Predation by fox, crow, pine marten. Impact of sheep ticks on chick survival through blood loss (no species-specific reference). Deer as tick hosts.
Threat N03: Negative effect of rainfall on productivity
Threat N05: Habitat change due to global warming
Threat N06: Hatch time and chick prey peak desynchronised


pressures_source:
Pressure N06: Clausen K. & Clausen, P. 2013. Earlier Arctic springs cause phenological mismatch in long distance migrants. Oecologia 173: 1101-1112.
Threat N06: Clausen K. & Clausen, P. 2013. Earlier Arctic springs cause phenological mismatch in long distance migrants. Oecologia 173: 1101-1112.


pressures_source:
Pressure L01: Summers, R.W., Mavor, R.A. & Hogg, S. 1994. Factors affecting loch selection and breeding success of Slavonian Grebes in Scotland. Unpublished RSPB report to SNH. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Pressure L06: Summers, R.W. 2007. Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus (Linnaeus). Pp. 353-356. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Pressure M08: Summers, R.W., Mavor, R.A. & Hogg, S. 1994. Factors affecting loch selection and breeding success of Slavonian Grebes in Scotland. Unpublished RSPB report to SNH. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Pressure N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat I02: Summers, R.W. 2007. Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus (Linnaeus). Pp. 353-356. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Threat L01: Summers, R.W., Mavor, R.A. & Hogg, S. 1994. Factors affecting loch selection and breeding success of Slavonian Grebes in Scotland. Unpublished RSPB report to SNH. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Threat L06: Summers, R.W. 2007. Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus (Linnaeus). Pp. 353-356. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Threat M08: Summers, R.W., Mavor, R.A. & Hogg, S. 1994. Factors affecting loch selection and breeding success of Slavonian Grebes in Scotland. Unpublished RSPB report to SNH. Perkins, A.J., Hancock, M.H., Butcher, N. & Summers, R.W. 2005. Use of time-lapse video cameras to determine causes of nest failure of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus. Bird Study 52: 159-165.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.

pressures_info:
Pressure L06: Crow, Coot, Common Gull, Otter, Stoat
Threat I02: Mink
Threat L06: Crow, Coot, Common Gull, Otter, Stoat


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Holling, M. & the Rare Breeding Birds Panel 2017. Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2015. British Birds 110: 706-754.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: 25 year trend = +44% increase


pressures_source:
Pressure G01: Phillips, R.A., Petersen, M.K., Lilliendahl, K., Solmundsson, J., Hamer, K., Camphuysen, C.J. & Zonfrillo, B. 1999. Diet of the northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis: reliance on commercial fisheries? Marine Biology 135: 159-170.
Pressure G12: WWT Consulting 2016. Risk assessment of seabird bycatch in UK waters. Report to Defra. Project MB0126. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust Consulting, Slimbridge. Mendel, B., Sonntag, N., Wahl, J., Schwemmer, P., Dries, H., Guse, N., Muller, S. & Garthe, S. 2008. Profiles of seabirds and waterbirds of the German North and Baltic Seas. Distribution, ecology and sensitivities to human activities within the marine environment. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn. DUNN, E.K. & STEEL, C. 2001. The impact of long-line fishing on seabirds in the north-east Atlantic: recommendations for reduced mortality. RSPB/JNCC, Sandy. ICES 2013. Report of the Workshop to review and advise on Seabird Bycatch (WKBYCS) 14-18 October 2013, Copenhagen, Denmark. ICES CM 2013/ACOM:77. Tasker, M.L., Camphuysen, C.J., Cooper, J., Garthe, S., Montevecchi, W.A. & Blaber, S.J.M. 2000. The impacts of fishing on marine birds. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 531-547.
Pressure I02: Tasker, M.L. 2007. Northern Fulmar Fulmaris glacialis (Linnaeus). Pp. 363-367. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat G01: Phillips, R.A., Petersen, M.K., Lilliendahl, K., Solmundsson, J., Hamer, K., Camphuysen, C.J. & Zonfrillo, B. 1999. Diet of the northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis: reliance on commercial fisheries? Marine Biology 135: 159-170.
Threat G12: Tasker, M.L., Camphuysen, C.J., Cooper, J., Garthe, S., Montevecchi, W.A. & Blaber, S.J.M. 2000. The impacts of fishing on marine birds. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 531-547. Mendel, B., Sonntag, N., Wahl, J., Schwemmer, P., Dries, H., Guse, N., Muller, S. & Garthe, S. 2008. Profiles of seabirds and waterbirds of the German North and Baltic Seas. Distribution, ecology and sensitivities to human activities within the marine environment. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn. WWT Consulting 2016. Risk assessment of seabird bycatch in UK waters. Report to Defra. Project MB0126. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust Consulting, Slimbridge. Mendel, B., Sonntag, N., Wahl, J., Schwemmer, P., Dries, H., Guse, N., Muller, S. & Garthe, S. 2008. Profiles of seabirds and waterbirds of the German North and Baltic Seas. Distribution, ecology and sensitivities to human activities within the marine environment. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn. DUNN, E.K. & STEEL, C. 2001. The impact of long-line fishing on seabirds in the north-east Atlantic: recommendations for reduced mortality. RSPB/JNCC, Sandy. ICES 2013. Report of the Workshop to review and advise on Seabird Bycatch (WKBYCS) 14-18 October 2013, Copenhagen, Denmark. ICES CM 2013/ACOM:77.
Threat I02: Tasker, M.L. 2007. Northern Fulmar Fulmaris glacialis (Linnaeus). Pp. 363-367. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.

pressures_info:
Pressure G12: Impact of bycatch is not known
Pressure I02: Mink
Threat G12: Impact of bycatch is not known
Threat I02: Mink


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D. & Pearce-Higgins, J.W. 2017. The Breeding Bird Survey 2016. BTO Research Report 700 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. Balmer et. al. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Expert assessment: increase in numbers and range (BBS - 11% in reporting period & Atlas)


pressures_source:
Pressure Xp: Frost, T.M., Austin, G.E., Calbrade, N.A., Holt, C.A., Mellan, H.J., Hearn, R.D., Stroud, D.A., Wotton, S.R. & Balmer, D.E. (2017). Waterbirds in the UK 2015/16: The Wetland Bird Survey. BTO, RSPB and JNCC, in association with WWT. British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. 40 pp. Balmer et. al. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat G12: Kirby et al (1993) Wintering seaducks in Britain and Ireland: population, threats, conservation and research priorities. Aquatic conservation: marine ad freshwater ecosystems 3, 105-135.
Threat J02: Kirby et al (1993) Wintering seaducks in Britain and Ireland: population, threats, conservation and research priorities. Aquatic conservation: marine ad freshwater ecosystems 3, 105-135. Forrester et al (2007) Birds of Scotland (Vol 1). Hearn et al (2015) International single species action plan for the conservation of the long-tailed duck Clangula hyemalis 2016-2025. Bonn: AEWA. Camphuysen et al (2009) Oil pollution and seabirds. Thematic report no. 5.3 In: Marencic & Vlas (Eds) 2009. Quality Status Report 2009. Waddensea Ecosystem No.25.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xp: Increase in distribution (Atlas) and numbers (WeBS). It is notoriously difficult to survey seaducks using land based surveys like WeBS and Atlas. Therefore actual trends are unknown at UK level.
Threat G12: Poor understanding of this threat at UK level. Impacts of ghost fishing on seaducks also unknown but may be a pressure/threat, large amounts of ghost gear found in Scapa Flow by the Global Ghost Gear Initiative where internationally important of Long-tailed Ducks overwinter.


pressures_source:
Pressure A07: Pearce-Higgins, J.W. & Yalden, D.W. 2003. Variation in the use of pasture by breeding European Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria in relation to prey availability. Ibis 145: 365-381. Baines, D., Warren, P. & Calladine, J. 2002. Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Aspects of Applied Biology 67: 245-252.
Pressure A09: Fuller, R. J. & Gough, S. J. 1999. Changes in sheep numbers in Britain: Implications for bird populations. Biological Conservation 91: 73-89. Baines, D., Warren, P. & Calladine, J. 2002. Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Aspects of Applied Biology 67: 245-252.
Pressure A10: Baines, D., Warren, P.K. & Calladine, J.R. (2002). Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Aspects of Applied Biology, 67: 245-252.
Pressure B01: Thompson, D.B.A. 2007. Eurasian Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria (Linnaeus). Pp. 581-584. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Stroud, D.A., Reed, T.M., Pienkowski, M.W. & Lindsay, R.A. 1987. Birds, bogs and forestry: the peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough. 121 pp. Thompson, D.B.A., Stroud, D.A. & Pienkowski, M.W. 1988. Afforestation and upland birds: consequences for population ecology. In: Ecological change in the uplands. Ed. D.B.A. Thompson & M. Usher. NCC/British Ecological Society Symposium. Blackwell, Oxford. Pp. 237-259. Amar et al 2011. Exploring the relationships between wader declines and current land-use in the British uplands. Bird Study, 58, 13-26. Wilson et al 2014. Wilson, J.D., Anderson, R., Bailey, S., Chetcuti, J., Cowie, N.R., Hancock, M.H., Quine, C.P., Russell, N., Stephen, L. & Thompson, D.B.A. 2014. Modelling edge effects of mature forest plantations on peatland waders informs landscape-scale conservation. J. Appl. Ecol. 51: 204-213.
Pressure D01: Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Leigh, S., Langston, R.H.W., Bainbridge, I.P. & Bullman, R. 2009. The distribution of breeding birds around upland wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 1323-1331. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x/abstract Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Stephen, L., Douse, A. & Langston, R.H.W. (2012). Greater impacts of wind farms on bird populations during construction than subsequent operation: results of a multi-site and multi-species analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 49: 386-394. Sansom et al 2016. Negative impact of a wind farm develoment on a breeding shorebird assessed using a BACI study design. Ibis, 158, 541-555
Pressure I04: Parr, R. 1992. The decline to extinction of a population of Golden Plover in North-East Scotland. Ornis Scandinavica 23:152-158. Parr, R. 1993. Nest predation and numbers of Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and other moorland waders. Bird Study 40: 223-231. Fletcher, K., Aebischer, N.J., Baines, D., Foster, R. & Hoodless, A.N. 2010. Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology 47: 263-272.
Pressure L06: Thompson, D.B.A. 2007. Eurasian Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria (Linnaeus). Pp. 581-584. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Stroud, D.A., Reed, T.M., Pienkowski, M.W. & Lindsay, R.A. 1987. Birds, bogs and forestry: the peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough. 121 pp. Thompson, D.B.A., Stroud, D.A. & Pienkowski, M.W. 1988. Afforestation and upland birds: consequences for population ecology. In: Ecological change in the uplands. Ed. D.B.A. Thompson & M. Usher. NCC/British Ecological Society Symposium. Blackwell, Oxford. Pp. 237-259.
Pressure N06: Pearce-Higgins J.W., Yalden, D.W., Whittingham, M.J. 2005. Warmer springs advance the breeding phenology of golden plovers Pluvialis apricaria and their prey (Tipulidae). Oecologia 143: 470-476. Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Dennis, P., Whittingham, M.J. & Yalden, D.W. (2010). Impacts of climate on prey abundance account for fluctuations in a population of a northern wader at the southern edge of its range. Global Change Biology: 16: 12-23.
Threat A07: Pearce-Higgins, J.W. & Yalden, D.W. 2003. Variation in the use of pasture by breeding European Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria in relation to prey availability. Ibis 145: 365-381. Baines, D., Warren, P. & Calladine, J. 2002. Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Aspects of Applied Biology 67: 245-252.
Threat A09: Fuller, R. J. & Gough, S. J. 1999. Changes in sheep numbers in Britain: Implications for bird populations. Biological Conservation 91: 73-89. Baines, D., Warren, P. & Calladine, J. 2002. Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Aspects of Applied Biology 67: 245-252.
Threat A10: Baines, D., Warren, P.K. & Calladine, J.R. (2002). Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Aspects of Applied Biology, 67: 245-252.
Threat B01: Thompson, D.B.A. 2007. Eurasian Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria (Linnaeus). Pp. 581-584. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Stroud, D.A., Reed, T.M., Pienkowski, M.W. & Lindsay, R.A. 1987. Birds, bogs and forestry: the peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough. 121 pp. Thompson, D.B.A., Stroud, D.A. & Pienkowski, M.W. 1988. Afforestation and upland birds: consequences for population ecology. In: Ecological change in the uplands. Ed. D.B.A. Thompson & M. Usher. NCC/British Ecological Society Symposium. Blackwell, Oxford. Pp. 237-259.
Threat D01: Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Leigh, S., Langston, R.H.W., Bainbridge, I.P. & Bullman, R. 2009. The distribution of breeding birds around upland wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 1323-1331. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x/abstract Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Stephen, L., Douse, A. & Langston, R.H.W. (2012). Greater impacts of wind farms on bird populations during construction than subsequent operation: results of a multi-site and multi-species analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 49: 386-394.
Threat I04: Parr, R. 1992. The decline to extinction of a population of Golden Plover in North-East Scotland. Ornis Scandinavica 23:152-158. Parr, R. 1993. Nest predation and numbers of Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and other moorland waders. Bird Study 40: 223-231. Fletcher, K., Aebischer, N.J., Baines, D., Foster, R. & Hoodless, A.N. 2010. Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology 47: 263-272.
Threat L06: Thompson, D.B.A. 2007. Eurasian Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria (Linnaeus). Pp. 581-584. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Stroud, D.A., Reed, T.M., Pienkowski, M.W. & Lindsay, R.A. 1987. Birds, bogs and forestry: the peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough. 121 pp. Thompson, D.B.A., Stroud, D.A. & Pienkowski, M.W. 1988. Afforestation and upland birds: consequences for population ecology. In: Ecological change in the uplands. Ed. D.B.A. Thompson & M. Usher. NCC/British Ecological Society Symposium. Blackwell, Oxford. Pp. 237-259.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat N05: Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Johnston, A., Ausden, M., Dodd, A., Newson, S.E., Ockendon, N., Thaxter, C.B., Bradbury, R.B., Chamberlain, D.E, Jiguet, F., Rehfisch, M.M. & Thomas, C.D. 2011. Final Report to the Climate Change Impacts on Avian Interests of Protected Area Networks (CHAINSPAN) Steering Group. BTO Report to DEFRA. 90 pp. Available at: http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=9962_CHAINSPANFINALREPORT.pdf
Threat N06: Pearce-Higgins J.W., Yalden, D.W., Whittingham, M.J. 2005. Warmer springs advance the breeding phenology of golden plovers Pluvialis apricaria and their prey (Tipulidae). Oecologia 143: 470-476. Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Dennis, P., Whittingham, M.J. & Yalden, D.W. (2010). Impacts of climate on prey abundance account for fluctuations in a population of a northern wader at the southern edge of its range. Global Change Biology: 16: 12-23.

pressures_info:
Pressure A07: Abandonment of moorland management
Pressure A09: Over-grazing by sheep
Pressure A10: Relative lack of sheep now in parts of the uplands (coupled with reduced burning) could impact markedly on ability of moorland habitats to support Golden Plover
Pressure B01: Habitat loss through upland afforestation
Pressure D01: Impact of wind farms
Pressure I04: Predation by fox, crow, mustelids
Pressure L06: Habitat loss through upland afforestation
Pressure N06: Breeding and food supply desynchronised
Threat A07: Abandonment of moorland management
Threat A09: Over-grazing by sheep
Threat A10: Relative lack of sheep now in parts of the uplands (coupled with reduced burning) could impact markedly on ability of moorland habitats to support Golden Plover. Situation is complex however, grazing may be beneficial by creating short swards favoured by Golden Plover. However grazing at too high a level could lead to deterioration in habitat quality through changes in vegetation composition.
Threat B01: Habitat loss through upland afforestation
Threat D01: Impact of wind farms
Threat I04: Predation by fox, crow, mustelids
Threat L06: Habitat loss through upland afforestation
Threat N05: Fewer winter visitors because of short-stopping
Threat N06: Breeding and food supply desynchronised


pressures_source:
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.
Threat N03: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.

pressures_info:
Threat N03: Increased spring rainfall (particularly wet days) in North and West Highlands of Scotland may result in reduced chick survival


pressures_source:
Threat N02: Robinson, R.A., Balmer, D.E. & Marchant, J.H. 2008. Survival rates of hirundines in relation to British and African rainfall. Ringing & Migration 24: 1-6. Ockendon, N., Hewson, C.M., Johnston, A. & Atkinson, P.W. 2012. Declines in British-breeding populations of Afro-Palaearctic migrant birds are linked to bioclimatic wintering zone in Africa, possibly via constraints on arrival time advancement. Bird Study 59: 111-125.

pressures_info:
Threat N02: Survival linked to rainfall patterns in Sahel


pressures_source:
Pressure A02: Nelson, S.H., Court, I., Vickery, J.A., Watts, P.N. & Bradbury, R.B. 2003. The status and ecology of the yellow wagtail in Britain. British Wildlife 14: 270-274. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2000. Local extinctions and changes in species richness of lowland farmland birds in England and Wales in relation to recent cihanges in agricultural land-use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78: 1-17. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2001. Contrasting patterns of change in the distribution and abundance of of farmland birds in relation to farming systems in lowland Britain. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 399-409. Vickery, J.A., Tallowin, J.R., Feber, R.E., Asteraki, E.J., Atkinson, P.W., Fuller, R.J. & Brown, V.K. 2001. The management of lowland neutral grasslands in Britain: effects of agricultural practices on birds and their food resources. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 647-664.
Pressure A06: Nelson, S.H., Court, I., Vickery, J.A., Watts, P.N. & Bradbury, R.B. 2003. The status and ecology of the yellow wagtail in Britain. British Wildlife 14: 270-274. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2000. Local extinctions and changes in species richness of lowland farmland birds in England and Wales in relation to recent cihanges in agricultural land-use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78: 1-17. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2001. Contrasting patterns of change in the distribution and abundance of of farmland birds in relation to farming systems in lowland Britain. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 399-409. Vickery, J.A., Tallowin, J.R., Feber, R.E., Asteraki, E.J., Atkinson, P.W., Fuller, R.J. & Brown, V.K. 2001. The management of lowland neutral grasslands in Britain: effects of agricultural practices on birds and their food resources. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 647-664.
Pressure A33: Nelson, S.H., Court, I., Vickery, J.A., Watts, P.N. & Bradbury, R.B. 2003. The status and ecology of the yellow wagtail in Britain. British Wildlife 14: 270-274. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2000. Local extinctions and changes in species richness of lowland farmland birds in England and Wales in relation to recent cihanges in agricultural land-use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78: 1-17. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2001. Contrasting patterns of change in the distribution and abundance of of farmland birds in relation to farming systems in lowland Britain. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 399-409. Vickery, J.A., Tallowin, J.R., Feber, R.E., Asteraki, E.J., Atkinson, P.W., Fuller, R.J. & Brown, V.K. 2001. The management of lowland neutral grasslands in Britain: effects of agricultural practices on birds and their food resources. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 647-664.
Threat A02: Nelson, S.H., Court, I., Vickery, J.A., Watts, P.N. & Bradbury, R.B. 2003. The status and ecology of the yellow wagtail in Britain. British Wildlife 14: 270-274. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2000. Local extinctions and changes in species richness of lowland farmland birds in England and Wales in relation to recent cihanges in agricultural land-use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78: 1-17. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2001. Contrasting patterns of change in the distribution and abundance of of farmland birds in relation to farming systems in lowland Britain. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 399-409. Vickery, J.A., Tallowin, J.R., Feber, R.E., Asteraki, E.J., Atkinson, P.W., Fuller, R.J. & Brown, V.K. 2001. The management of lowland neutral grasslands in Britain: effects of agricultural practices on birds and their food resources. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 647-664.
Threat A06: Nelson, S.H., Court, I., Vickery, J.A., Watts, P.N. & Bradbury, R.B. 2003. The status and ecology of the yellow wagtail in Britain. British Wildlife 14: 270-274. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2000. Local extinctions and changes in species richness of lowland farmland birds in England and Wales in relation to recent cihanges in agricultural land-use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78: 1-17. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2001. Contrasting patterns of change in the distribution and abundance of of farmland birds in relation to farming systems in lowland Britain. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 399-409. Vickery, J.A., Tallowin, J.R., Feber, R.E., Asteraki, E.J., Atkinson, P.W., Fuller, R.J. & Brown, V.K. 2001. The management of lowland neutral grasslands in Britain: effects of agricultural practices on birds and their food resources. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 647-664.
Threat A33: Nelson, S.H., Court, I., Vickery, J.A., Watts, P.N. & Bradbury, R.B. 2003. The status and ecology of the yellow wagtail in Britain. British Wildlife 14: 270-274. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2000. Local extinctions and changes in species richness of lowland farmland birds in England and Wales in relation to recent cihanges in agricultural land-use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78: 1-17. Chamberlain, D.E. & Fuller, R.J. 2001. Contrasting patterns of change in the distribution and abundance of of farmland birds in relation to farming systems in lowland Britain. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 399-409. Vickery, J.A., Tallowin, J.R., Feber, R.E., Asteraki, E.J., Atkinson, P.W., Fuller, R.J. & Brown, V.K. 2001. The management of lowland neutral grasslands in Britain: effects of agricultural practices on birds and their food resources. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 647-664.

pressures_info:
Pressure A02: Conversion of pasture to arable; switch from spring to autumn sown cereals
Pressure A06: Loss of insects associated with cattle
Pressure A33: Agricultural drainage
Threat A02: Conversion of pasture to arable; switch from spring to autumn sown cereals
Threat A06: Loss of insects associated with cattle
Threat A33: Agricultural drainage


pressures_info:
Pressure Xu: Range contraction. BBS decline of -15% 1995-2015


pressures_source:
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.


pressures_source:
Pressure A07: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Pressure A09: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Pressure A12: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast.
Pressure A14: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Pressure B01: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Pressure I04: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Threat A07: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Threat A09: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Threat A12: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast.
Threat A14: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Threat B01: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.
Threat I04: EHSNI (2008). Northern Ireland Species Action Plan: Red Grouse. Environment & Heritage Service of Northern Ireland, Belfast. See also references under Lagopus l. scoticus.

pressures_info:
Pressure A07: Cessation of traditional heather management reduces habitat suitability
Pressure A09: Loss of heather moorland due to overgrazing
Pressure A12: Cessation of burning in some areas has caused deterioration in habitat quality
Pressure A14: Louping ill transmission from sheep to grouse via ticks
Pressure B01: Loss of heather moorland due to afforestation
Pressure I04: Predation by fox, crow, mustelids. Deer and mountain hare as tick hosts. Heather beetle outbreaks.
Threat A07: Cessation of traditional heather management reduces habitat suitability
Threat A09: Loss of heather moorland due to overgrazing
Threat A12: Cessation of burning in some areas has caused deterioration in habitat quality
Threat A14: Louping ill transmission from sheep to grouse via ticks
Threat B01: Loss of heather moorland due to afforestation
Threat I04: Predation by fox, crow, mustelids. Deer and mountain hare as tick hosts. Heather beetle outbreaks.


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Short-term increase of 27.5%. BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey data: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D., PearceHiggins, J.W. & Woodcock, P. 2018. The Breeding Bird Survey 2017. BTO Research Report 706 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/bbs-report-2017.pdf


pressures_source:
Pressure A03: Crick, H.Q.P., Robinson, R.A. & Siriwardena, G.M. (2002) Causes of the population declines: summary and recommendations. In H.Q.P. Crick, R.A. Robinson, G.F. Appleton, N.A. Clark & A.D. Rickard (eds) Investigation into the causes of the decline of Starlings and House Sparrows in Great Britain. BTO Research Report No 290, pp 265-292. DEFRA, Bristol. Robinson, R. A., Siriwardena, G. M. and Crick, H. Q. P. (2005), Size and trends of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus population in Great Britain. Ibis, 147: 552-562.
Pressure E01: Summers-Smith, D. 2003. The decline of the house sparrow: a review. British Birds 96,: 439-446. Peach, W. J., Vincent, K. E., Fowler, J. A. and Grice, P. V. (2008), Reproductive success of house sparrows along an urban gradient. Animal Conservation, 11: 493-503.
Pressure F02: Shaw, L.M., Chamberlain, D., Conway, G. & Toms, M. (2011). Spatial distribution and habitat preferences of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus in urbanised landscapes. BTO Research Report 599, British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. Peach, W. J., Vincent, K. E., Fowler, J. A. and Grice, P. V. (2008), Reproductive success of house sparrows along an urban gradient. Animal Conservation, 11: 493-503.
Threat A03: Crick, H.Q.P., Robinson, R.A. & Siriwardena, G.M. (2002) Causes of the population declines: summary and recommendations. In H.Q.P. Crick, R.A. Robinson, G.F. Appleton, N.A. Clark & A.D. Rickard (eds) Investigation into the causes of the decline of Starlings and House Sparrows in Great Britain. BTO Research Report No 290, pp 265-292. DEFRA, Bristol.
Threat E01: Summers-Smith, D. 2003. The decline of the house sparrow: a review. British Birds 96,: 439-446. Peach, W. J., Vincent, K. E., Fowler, J. A. and Grice, P. V. (2008), Reproductive success of house sparrows along an urban gradient. Animal Conservation, 11: 493-503.
Threat F02: Shaw, L.M., Chamberlain, D., Conway, G. & Toms, M. (2011). Spatial distribution and habitat preferences of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus in urbanised landscapes. BTO Research Report 599, British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. Peach, W. J., Vincent, K. E., Fowler, J. A. and Grice, P. V. (2008), Reproductive success of house sparrows along an urban gradient. Animal Conservation, 11: 493-503.

pressures_info:
Pressure A03: Lack of seed food in rural areas due to arable intensification causes poor survival. Although the large scale changes happened last century, the continued intensive arable is limitting recovery, ie pressure continues to act, and threat will continue in future.
Pressure E01: Air pollution from roads in urban areas reduces successful nesting due to impacts on insect food.
Pressure F02: Lack of insect food in urban areas due to lack of high quality garden habitat, homogenous greenspace and loss of brownfield sites. Also renovation of property leading to loss of nest sites.
Threat A03: Lack of seed food in rural areas due to arable intensification causes poor survival. Although the large scale changes happened last century, the continued intensive arable is limitting recovery, ie pressure continues to act, and threat will continue in future.
Threat E01: Air pollution from roads in urban areas reduces successful nesting due to impacts on insect food.
Threat F02: Lack of insect food in urban areas due to lack of high quality garden habitat, homogenous greenspace and loss of brownfield sites. Also renovation of property leading to loss of nest sites.


pressures_source:
Pressure A02: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Aebischer, N.J. & Ewald, J.A. (2010). Grey Partridge Perdix perdix in the UK: recovery status, set-aside and shooting. Ibis 152: 530-542. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Pressure A03: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Pressure A05: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Rands, M.R.W. (1986). Effect of hedgerow characteristics on partridge breeding densities. Journal of Applied Ecology 23: 479-487. Ewald, J.A., Aebischer, N.J., Richardson, S.M., Grice, P.V. & Cooke, A.I. (2010). The effect of agri-environment schemes on grey partridges at the farm level in England. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 138: 55-63. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Pressure A08: Warren, P., Hornby, T. & Baines, D. (2017). Habitat use, nest-sites and chick diet of Grey partridge Perdix perdix on hill farms in north east England. Bird Study 64: 138-145.
Pressure A10: Baines, D., Warren, P.K. & Calladine, J.R. (2002). Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Asp. Appl. Biol. 67: 245-252.
Pressure A17: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Rands, M.R.W. (1986). Effect of hedgerow characteristics on partridge breeding densities. Journal of Applied Ecology 23: 479-487. Ewald, J.A., Aebischer, N.J., Richardson, S.M., Grice, P.V. & Cooke, A.I. (2010). The effect of agri-environment schemes on grey partridges at the farm level in England. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 138: 55-63. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Pressure A21: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Sotherton, N.W., Robertson, P.A. & Dowell, S.D. (1993). Manipulating pesticide use to increase the production of wild game birds in Britain. In Quail III: National Quail Symposium (eds K.E. Church & T.V. Dailey), pp. 92-101. Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Pratt. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Pressure I04: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Tapper, S.C., Potts, G.R. & Brockless, M.H. (1996). The effect of an experimental reduction in predation pressure on the breeding success and population density of grey partridges (Perdix perdix). Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 965-978. Watson, M., Aebischer, N.J., Potts, G.R. & Ewald, J.A. (2007). The relative effects of raptor predation and shooting on overwinter mortality of grey partridges in the United Kingdom. Journal of Applied Ecology 44: 972-982. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London. Warren, P.K., Hornby, T. & Baines, D. (2017). Habitat use, nest-sites and chick diet of Grey Partridge Perdix perdix on hill farms in north-east England. Bird Study 
Threat A03: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Threat A05: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Rands, M.R.W. (1986). Effect of hedgerow characteristics on partridge breeding densities. Journal of Applied Ecology 23: 479-487. Ewald, J.A., Aebischer, N.J., Richardson, S.M., Grice, P.V. & Cooke, A.I. (2010). The effect of agri-environment schemes on grey partridges at the farm level in England. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 138: 55-63. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Threat A08: Warren, P., Hornby, T. & Baines, D. (2017). Habitat use, nest-sites and chick diet of Grey partridge Perdix perdix on hill farms in north east England. Bird Study 64: 138-145.
Threat A10: Baines, D., Warren, P.K. & Calladine, J.R. (2002). Spatial and temporal differences in the abundance of black grouse and other moorland birds in relation to reductions in sheep grazing. Asp. Appl. Biol. 67: 245-252.
Threat A17: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Rands, M.R.W. (1986). Effect of hedgerow characteristics on partridge breeding densities. Journal of Applied Ecology 23: 479-487. Ewald, J.A., Aebischer, N.J., Richardson, S.M., Grice, P.V. & Cooke, A.I. (2010). The effect of agri-environment schemes on grey partridges at the farm level in England. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 138: 55-63. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Threat A21: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Sotherton, N.W., Robertson, P.A. & Dowell, S.D. (1993). Manipulating pesticide use to increase the production of wild game birds in Britain. In Quail III: National Quail Symposium (eds K.E. Church & T.V. Dailey), pp. 92-101. Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Pratt. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London.
Threat I04: Potts, G.R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. Collins, London. Tapper, S.C., Potts, G.R. & Brockless, M.H. (1996). The effect of an experimental reduction in predation pressure on the breeding success and population density of grey partridges (Perdix perdix). Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 965-978. Watson, M., Aebischer, N.J., Potts, G.R. & Ewald, J.A. (2007). The relative effects of raptor predation and shooting on overwinter mortality of grey partridges in the United Kingdom. Journal of Applied Ecology 44: 972-982. Potts, G.R. (2012). The Partridge: Countryside Barometer. Collins, London. Warren, P.K., Hornby, T. & Baines, D. (2017). Habitat use, nest-sites and chick diet of Grey Partridge Perdix perdix on hill farms in north-east England. Bird Study

pressures_info:
Pressure A02: Loss of rotational leys, shift to winter cropping, arable reversion to grassland; lack of over winter stubbles likely to be a threat.
Pressure A03: Polarisation of farming at regional scale (livestock in west, arable in east)
Pressure A05: Loss of field boundaries and hedgerows through field enlargement
Pressure A08: Mowing dates of upland meadows risks damage to late clutches and chick mortality. Rush cutting during the breeding season ditto.
Pressure A10: Lower densities on moorland sites with reduced grazing.
Pressure A17: Cutting of vegetation along field boundaries
Pressure A21: Direct and indirect effect of pesticides
Pressure I04: Predation by foxes, crows, magpies, mustelids, rats, raptors
Threat A03: Polarisation of farming at regional scale (livestock in west, arable in east)
Threat A05: Loss of field boundaries and hedgerows through field enlargement
Threat A08: Mowing dates of upland meadows risks damage to late clutches and chick mortality. Rush cutting during the breeding season ditto.
Threat A10: Lower densities on moorland sites with reduced grazing.
Threat A17: Cutting of vegetation along field boundaries
Threat A21: Direct and indirect effect of pesticides
Threat I04: Predation by foxes, crows, magpies, mustelids, rats, raptors


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey data: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D., PearceHiggins, J.W. & Woodcock, P. 2018. The Breeding Bird Survey 2017. BTO Research Report 706 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/bbs-report-2017.pdf

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Increasing population (BBS: +11% during reporting period)


pressures_source:
Pressure N01: Pavon-Jordan, D., Fox, A.D., Clausen, P., Dagys, M., Deceuninck, D., Devos, K., Hearn, R.D., Holt, C.A., Hornman, M., Keller, V., Langendoen, T., Lawicki, L., Lorentsen, S.H., Luigujoe, L., Meissner, W., Musil, P., Nilsson, L., Paquet, J.Y., Stipniece, A., Stroud, D.A., Wahl, J., Zenatello, M. & Lehikoinen, A. 2015. Climate-driven changes in winter waterbird abundances in relation to EU protected areas. Diversity and Distributions 21: 571-582.
Threat N01: Pavon-Jordan, D., Fox, A.D., Clausen, P., Dagys, M., Deceuninck, D., Devos, K., Hearn, R.D., Holt, C.A., Hornman, M., Keller, V., Langendoen, T., Lawicki, L., Lorentsen, S.H., Luigujoe, L., Meissner, W., Musil, P., Nilsson, L., Paquet, J.Y., Stipniece, A., Stroud, D.A., Wahl, J., Zenatello, M. & Lehikoinen, A. 2015. Climate-driven changes in winter waterbird abundances in relation to EU protected areas. Diversity and Distributions 21: 571-582.


pressures_source:
Pressure F07: Tasker, M.L. 2007. Little Tern Sternula albifrons Pallas. Pp. 805-807. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Liley, D. (2008) Little Terns at Great Yarmouth. Disturbance to birds and implications for strategic planning and development control. Unpublished report commissioned by Great Yarmouth Borough Council and the RSPB. Footprint Ecology, Wareham, Dorset. Report commissioned by Steve Jones, RSPB, Norwich. Ratcliffe, N., Schmitt, S., Mayo, A., Tratalos, J. & Drewitt, A. 2008. Colony habitat selection by Little Terns Sternula albifrons in East Anglia: implications for coastal management. Seabird 21: 55-63.
Pressure F08: Miles R (2017) Humber habitat delivery report to EA. Miles R (2017) RSPB Sustainable Shores
Pressure I02: Moore, N.P., Roy, S.S. & Helyar, A. 2003. Mink (Mustela vison) eradication to protect ground-nesting birds in the Western Isles, Scotland, United Kingdom. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 30: 443-452
Pressure L06: Tasker, M.L. 2007. Little Tern Sternula albifrons Pallas. Pp. 805-807. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. RATCLIFFE, N., SCHMITT, S., MAYO, A., TRATALOS, J. & DREWITT, A. 2008. Colony habitat selection by little terns Sternula albifrons in East Anglia: implications for coastal management. Seabird 21: 55-63.
Pressure N03: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-5406 Burthe, S., Wanless, S., Newell, M.A., Butler, A. & Daunt, F. (2014) Assessing the vulnerability of the marine bird community in the western North Sea to climate change and other anthropogenic impacts. Marine Ecology Progress Series 507, 277-295.
Pressure N04: RATCLIFFE, N., SCHMITT, S., MAYO, A., TRATALOS, J. & DREWITT, A. 2008. Colony habitat selection by little terns Sternula albifrons in East Anglia: implications for coastal management. Seabird 21: 55-63. Millin, S. (ed.) 2010. UKCP09 sea level change estimates. UK Climate Impacts Programme Briefing Note. 7 pp. http://www.ukcip.org.uk/wordpress/wp-content/PDFs/UKCIP_sea-level.pdf
Threat F07: Tasker, M.L. 2007. Little Tern Sternula albifrons Pallas. Pp. 805-807. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Liley, D. (2008) Little Terns at Great Yarmouth. Disturbance to birds and implications for strategic planning and development control. Unpublished report commissioned by Great Yarmouth Borough Council and the RSPB. Footprint Ecology, Wareham, Dorset. Report commissioned by Steve Jones, RSPB, Norwich. Ratcliffe, N., Schmitt, S., Mayo, A., Tratalos, J. & Drewitt, A. 2008. Colony habitat selection by Little Terns Sternula albifrons in East Anglia: implications for coastal management. Seabird 21: 55-63.
Threat F08: Miles R (2017) Humber habitat delivery report to EA. Miles R (2017) RSPB Sustainable Shores
Threat I02: Moore, N.P., Roy, S.S. & Helyar, A. 2003. Mink (Mustela vison) eradication to protect ground-nesting birds in the Western Isles, Scotland, United Kingdom. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 30: 443-452
Threat L06: Tasker, M.L. 2007. Little Tern Sternula albifrons Pallas. Pp. 805-807. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. RATCLIFFE, N., SCHMITT, S., MAYO, A., TRATALOS, J. & DREWITT, A. 2008. Colony habitat selection by little terns Sternula albifrons in East Anglia: implications for coastal management. Seabird 21: 55-63.
Threat N01: Arnott, S.A. & Ruxton, G.D. 2002. Sandeel recruitment in the North Sea: demographic, climatic and trophic effects. Marine Ecology Progress Series 238: 199-210. Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp. Mitchell, I. (2006). Impacts of Climate Change on Seabirds in Marine Climate Change Impacts Annual Report Card 2006 (Eds. Buckley, P.J, Dye, S.R. and Baxter, J.M), Online Summary Reports, MCCIP, Lowestoft, www.mccip.org.uk. Russell D.J.F., Wanless S., Collingham Y.C., Huntley B. And Hamer K.C.(2015) Predicting future European breeding distributions of British seabird species under climate change and Unlimited/no dispersal scenarios Diversity, 7, 342-359. Russell D et al (2015) Beyond climate envelopes: bio-climate modelling accords with observed 25-year changes in seabird populations of the British Isles. Diversity and Distributins 21 211-222
Threat N03: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-5406 Burthe, S., Wanless, S., Newell, M.A., Butler, A. & Daunt, F. (2014) Assessing the vulnerability of the marine bird community in the western North Sea to climate change and other anthropogenic impacts. Marine Ecology Progress Series 507, 277-295.
Threat N04: Millin, S. (ed.) 2010. UKCP09 sea level change estimates. UK Climate Impacts Programme Briefing Note. 7 pp. http://www.ukcip.org.uk/wordpress/wp-content/PDFs/UKCIP_sea-level.pdf RATCLIFFE, N., SCHMITT, S., MAYO, A., TRATALOS, J. & DREWITT, A. 2008. Colony habitat selection by little terns Sternula albifrons in East Anglia: implications for coastal management. Seabird 21: 55-63. Millin, S. (ed.) 2010. UKCP09 sea level change estimates. UK Climate Impacts Programme Briefing Note. 7 pp. http://www.ukcip.org.uk/wordpress/wp-content/PDFs/UKCIP_sea-level.pdf

pressures_info:
Pressure F07: Disturbance on breeding beaches. High level of mitigation and vigilence required to manage disturbance.
Pressure F08: Coastal squueze does not allow natural development of coastal strip and limits nesting areas. Some new reports and information available.
Pressure L06: Good evidence from monitoring for predation. Interspecific competition increasing issue as nesting sites reduced; Little Tern does not appear to do well in mixed tern/gull colonies
Pressure N03: Concerns over increased storminess during breeding season.
Pressure N04: Tidal inundation cause of large number of loss of nests.
Threat F07: Disturbance on breeding beaches. High level of mitigation and vigilence required to manage disturbance. Levels of recreation activities and beach visitors expected to increase. There are several new local studies on visitor numbers and disturbance impacts.
Threat F08: Coastal squueze does not allow natural development of coastal strip and limits nesting areas. Some new reports and information available.
Threat L06: Good evidence from monitoring for predation. Interspecific competition increasing issue as nesting sites reduced; Little Tern does not appear to do well in mixed tern/gull colonies
Threat N01: Many climate change predictions concerning seabird impacts do not consider sea temperature affecting prey species. Little tern predicted range expansion will be hampered by conservation dependancy due to other pressures. See also N05
Threat N03: Concerns over increased storminess during breeding season.
Threat N04: Tidal inundation cause of large number of loss of nests; as sea-level increases and coastal margins suitable for nesting reduce this pressure will increase. Concern over higher level of summer storm surges.


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Balmer, D.E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B.J., Swann, R.L., Downie, I.S. & Fuller, R.J. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford. Holling, M. & the Rare Breeding Birds Panel 2018. Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2016. British Birds 111: 644-694.
Threat D01: Jackson, D.B. 2007. Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica (Linnaeus). Pp. 329-333. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Furness, R.W., Wade, H.M. & Masden, E.A. 2013. Assesssing vulnerability of marine bird populations to offshore wind farms. Journal of Environmental Management 119: 56-66.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Increased breeding distribution (Atlas) and stable population (RBBP +12% - 12 year trend)


pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Expert assessment: rapidly increasing (BBS - 734% in reporting period) and spreading population (Atlas)


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D. & Pearce-Higgins, J.W. 2017. The Breeding Bird Survey 2016. BTO Research Report 700 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. Balmer et. al. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat G10: Smart, J., Amar, A., Sim, I.M.W., Etheridge, B., Cameron, D., Christie, G., Wilson, J.D. 2010. Illegal killing slows population recovery of a re-introduced raptor of high conservation concern - The red kite Milvus milvus. Biological Conservation 143(5): 1278-1286. doi: 10.1016/j.biocons.2010.03.002. Orr-Ewing, D. 2007. Red Kite Milvus milvus (Linnaeus). Pp. 448-450. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Increasing distribution (Atlas) and population (BBS: +403% short-term trend during reporting period)


pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Significant increase in breeding range (Atlas) and in population (+1,181% 25 year trend - RBBP). Some illegal persecution but this does not seem to be limiting population growth (Atlas)


pressures_source:
Pressure G10: Love, J.A. & Watson, J. 2007. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus). Pp. 482-486. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Whitfield, D.P., McLeod, D.R.A., Watson, J., Fielding, A.H. & Haworth, P.F. 2003. The association of grouse moors in Scotland with the illegal use of poisons to control predators. Biological Conservation 114: 157-163. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. 2004. The effects of persecution on age of breeding and territory occupation in golden eagles in Scotland. Biological Conservation 118: 249-259. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. 2004. Modelling the effects of persecution on the population dynamics of golden eagles in Scotland. Biological Conservation 119: 319-333. Hayhow, D.B., Benn, S., Stevenson, A., Stirling-Aird, P.K. & Eaton, M. 2017. Status of Golden Ealgle Aquila chryaeotos in Britain in 2016. Bird Study 64: 281-294.
Threat B01: Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., Gregory, M.J.P., Gordon, A.G., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. 2007a. Complex effects of habitat loss on golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos. Ibis 149: 26-36. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. 2008. A conservation framework for golden eagles: implications for their conservation and management in Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 193. (ROAME No. F05AC306). 151 pp.
Threat D01: Love, J.A. & Watson, J. 2007. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus). Pp. 482-486. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat G10: Love, J.A. & Watson, J. 2007. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus). Pp. 482-486. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady. Whitfield, D.P., McLeod, D.R.A., Watson, J., Fielding, A.H. & Haworth, P.F. 2003. The association of grouse moors in Scotland with the illegal use of poisons to control predators. Biological Conservation 114: 157-163. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. 2004. The effects of persecution on age of breeding and territory occupation in golden eagles in Scotland. Biological Conservation 118: 249-259. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. 2004. Modelling the effects of persecution on the population dynamics of golden eagles in Scotland. Biological Conservation 119: 319-333. Hayhow, D.B., Benn, S., Stevenson, A., Stirling-Aird, P.K. & Eaton, M. 2017. Status of Golden Ealgle Aquila chryaeotos in Britain in 2016. Bird Study 64: 281-294.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Short-term trend of +53.8%. Frost, T.M., Austin, G.E., Calbrade, N.A., Mellan, H.J., Hearn, R.D., Stroud, D.A., Wotton, S.R. & Balmer, D.E. (2018). Waterbirds in the UK 2016/17: The Wetland Bird Survey. BTO, RSPB and JNCC, in association with WWT. British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. 40 pp.
Threat N04: Millin, S. (ed.) 2010. UKCP09 sea level change estimates. UK Climate Impacts Programme Briefing Note. 7 pp. http://www.ukcip.org.uk/wordpress/wp-content/PDFs/UKCIP_sea-level.pdf


pressures_source:
Pressure I02: Craik, J.C.A. 1995. Effects of North American Mink Mustela vison on the breeding success of terns and smaller gulls in west Scotland. Seabird 17: 3-11. Tasker, M.L. 2007. Mew Gull Larus canus Linnaeus. Pp. 761-766. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat I02: Craik, J.C.A. 1995. Effects of North American Mink Mustela vison on the breeding success of terns and smaller gulls in west Scotland. Seabird 17: 3-11. Tasker, M.L. 2007. Mew Gull Larus canus Linnaeus. Pp. 761-766. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.


pressures_source:
Pressure G01: danhardt, a. & becker, P.H. 2011. herring and sprat abundance indices predict chick growth and reproductive performance of common terns breeding in the Wadden Sea. Ecosystems 14: 791-803. SZOSTEK, K.L. & BECKER, P.H. 2012. Terns in trouble: demographic consequences of low breeding success and recruitment on a common tern population in the German Wadden Sea. Journal of Ornithology 153: 313-326. JENNINGS, G., MCGLASHAN, D.J. & Furness, R.W. 2012. Responses to changes in sprat abundance of common tern breeding numbers at 12 colonies in the Firth of Forth, east Scotland. ICES Journal of Marine Science 69: 572-577.
Pressure I02: Craik, J.C.A. 1995. Effects of North American Mink Mustela vison on the breeding success of terns and smaller gulls in west Scotland. Seabird 17: 3-11. Craik, J.C.A. 2007. Common Tern Sterna hirundo Linnaeus. Pp. 825-828. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat G01: danhardt, a. & becker, P.H. 2011. herring and sprat abundance indices predict chick growth and reproductive performance of common terns breeding in the Wadden Sea. Ecosystems 14: 791-803. SZOSTEK, K.L. & BECKER, P.H. 2012. Terns in trouble: demographic consequences of low breeding success and recruitment on a common tern population in the German Wadden Sea. Journal of Ornithology 153: 313-326. JENNINGS, G., MCGLASHAN, D.J. & Furness, R.W. 2012. Responses to changes in sprat abundance of common tern breeding numbers at 12 colonies in the Firth of Forth, east Scotland. ICES Journal of Marine Science 69: 572-577.
Threat I02: Craik, J.C.A. 1995. Effects of North American Mink Mustela vison on the breeding success of terns and smaller gulls in west Scotland. Seabird 17: 3-11. Craik, J.C.A. 2007. Common Tern Sterna hirundo Linnaeus. Pp. 825-828. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat N04: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp. MENDEL, B., SONNTAG, N., WAHL, J., SCHWEMMER, P., DRIES, H., GUSE, N., MULLER, S. & GARTHE, S. 2008. Profiles of seabirds and waterbirds of the German North and Baltic Seas. Distribution, ecology and sensitivities to human activities within the marine environment. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn. RUSSELL, D.J.F., WANLESS, S., COLLINGHAM, Y.C., HUNTLEY, B. & HAMER, K.C. 2015. Predicting future European breeding distributions of British seabird species under climate change and unlimited/no dispersal scenarios. Diversity - Basel 7: 342-359.

pressures_info:
Pressure I02: Mink, rats
Threat I02: Mink, rats


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Short-term increase of +33%. JNCC 2016. Seabird Monitoring Programme data (http://www.jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-3201). Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
Threat D01: Furness, R.W., Wade, H.M. & Masden, E.A. 2013. Assesssing vulnerability of marine bird populations to offshore wind farms. Journal of Environmental Management 119: 56-66.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: -15% decrease in range (Atlas 1988/91- to 2008/11)


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Short-term increase of 14.3%. BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey data: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D., PearceHiggins, J.W. & Woodcock, P. 2018. The Breeding Bird Survey 2017. BTO Research Report 706 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/bbs-report-2017.pdf


pressures_source:
Pressure B01: Langston, R.H.W., Wotton, S.R., Conway, G.J., Wright, L.J., Mallord, J.W., Currie, F.A., Drewitt, A.L., Grice, P.V., Hoccom, D.G., & Symes, N. 2007. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark Lullula arborea - recovering species in Britain? Ibis 149(Suppl. 2): 250-260.
Pressure B04: Langston, R.H.W., Wotton, S.R., Conway, G.J., Wright, L.J., Mallord, J.W., Currie, F.A., Drewitt, A.L., Grice, P.V., Hoccom, D.G., & Symes, N. 2007. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark Lullula arborea - recovering species in Britain? Ibis 149(Suppl. 2): 250-260.
Pressure F01: Underhill-Day, J.C. 2005. A literature review of urban effects on lowland heaths and their wildlife. English Nature Research Report No. 623. English Nature. Peterborough.
Pressure F02: Underhill-Day, J.C. (2005). A literature review of urban effects on lowland heaths and their wildlife. English Nature Research Report No. 623. English Nature. Peterborough.
Pressure F07: Langston, R., Drewitt, A. & Liley, D. 2007. Bird conservation and access: coexistence or compromise? British Wildlife 19: 1-9. Mallord, J.W., Dolman, P.M., Brown, A.F. & Sutherland, W.J. 2007. Linking recreational disturbance to population size in a ground-nesting passerine. Journal of Applied Ecology 44: 185-195.
Threat B01: Langston, R.H.W et al. 2007. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark Lullula arborea - recovering species in Britain? Ibis 149(Suppl. 2): 250-260 . http://www.avibirds.com/pdf/N/Nachtzwaluw2.pdf. Dolman & Morrison 2012. Temporal change in territory density and habitat quality for Breckland Forest SSSI woodlark and nightjar populations. University of East Anglia report to Forestry Commission.
Threat B04: Langston, R.H.W et al. 2007. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark Lullula arborea - recovering species in Britain? Ibis 149(Suppl. 2): 250-260 . http://www.avibirds.com/pdf/N/Nachtzwaluw2.pdf. Dolman & Morrison 2012. Temporal change in territory density and habitat quality for Breckland Forest SSSI woodlark and nightjar populations. University of East Anglia report to Forestry Commission.
Threat F01: Liley, D. & Clarke, R.T. 2003. The impact of urban development and human disturbance on the numbers of nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus on heathlands in Dorset, England. Biological Conservation 114: 219-230.
Threat F02: Underhill-Day, J.C. (2005). A literature review of urban effects on lowland heaths and their wildlife. English Nature Research Report No. 623. English Nature. Peterborough.
Threat F07: Langston, R., Drewitt, A. & Liley, D. 2007. Bird conservation and access: coexistence or compromise? British Wildlife 19: 1-9. Mallord, J.W., Dolman, P.M., Brown, A.F. & Sutherland, W.J. 2007. Linking recreational disturbance to population size in a ground-nesting passerine. Journal of Applied Ecology 44: 185-195.

pressures_info:
Pressure B01: Population recovery has coincided with the availability of suitable open ground habitat resulting from felling of forests planted in late 1920s and 30s, often on former heathland habitats. However, lack of further clearfelling is limiting recovery. Therefore, lack of forestry management is an issue as well as the continued planting of trees on former heathland.
Pressure B04: Population recovery has coincided with the availability of suitable open ground habitat resulting from felling of forests planted in late 1920s and 30s, often on former heathland habitats. However, lack of further clearfelling is limiting recovery. Therefore, lack of forestry management is an issue as well as the continued planting of trees on former heathland.
Pressure F01: Whilst Wood Lark population has increased, their recovery is limited by urban development
Pressure F02: Whilst Wood Lark population has increased, their recovery is limited by urban development
Pressure F07: Whilst Wood Lark population, recreational disturbance limits recovery
Threat B01: Population recovery has coincided with the availability of suitable open ground habitat resulting from felling of forests planted in late 1920s and 30s, often on former heathland habitats. However, lack of further clearfelling is limiting recovery. Therefore, lack of forestry management is an issue as well as the continued planting of trees on former heathland.
Threat B04: Population recovery has coincided with the availability of suitable open ground habitat resulting from felling of forests planted in late 1920s and 30s, often on former heathland habitats. However, lack of further clearfelling is limiting recovery. Therefore, lack of forestry management is an issue as well as the continued planting of trees on former heathland.
Threat F01: Whilst Wood Lark population has increased, their recovery is limited by urban development
Threat F02: Whilst Wood Lark population has increased, their recovery is limited by urban development


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Balmer, D.E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B.J., Swann, R.L., Downie, I.S. & Fuller, R.J. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford. Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D., Pearce-Higgins, J.W. & Woodcock, P. 2018. The Breeding Bird Survey 2017. BTO Research Report 706 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/bbs-report-2017.pdf
Threat Xxt: Expert judgement based on habitat type and ecological vulnerability

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Stable distribution and increasing popuation (BBS +23% 1995-2015)
Threat Xxt: Stable distribution and increasing popuation (BBS +23% 1995-2015)


pressures_source:
Pressure A03: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp.
Threat A03: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp.
Threat B09: Brown, A.F. & Grice, P.V. 2005. Birds in England. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. 694 pp. Donald, C. 2007. Common Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia (Boddaert). Pp. 1169-1171. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat K02: Donald, C. 2007. Common Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia (Boddaert). Pp. 1169-1171. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.
Threat L02: Donald, C. 2007. Common Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia (Boddaert). Pp. 1169-1171. In: Forrester, R.W., Andrews, I.J., McInerny, C.J., Murray, R.D., McGowan, R.Y., Zonfrillo, B., Betts, M.W., Jardine, D.C. & Grundy, D.S. (eds.) The Birds of Scotland. The Scottish Ornithologists' Club, Aberlady.

pressures_info:
Threat B09: Hedgerown removal; loss of thick hedges
Threat L02: Maturation of forestry plantations beyond thicket stage


pressures_source:
Pressure Xu: Balmer, D.E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B.J., Swann, R.L., Downie, I.S. & Fuller, R.J. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.
Threat Xt: Balmer, D.E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B.J., Swann, R.L., Downie, I.S. & Fuller, R.J. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford.

pressures_info:
Pressure Xu: Atlas indicates population size is only an average of 4 pairs. Numbers declined since 1980s perhaps due to conditions in Sahel
Threat Xt: Atlas indicates population size is only an average of 4 pairs. Numbers declined since 1980s perhaps due to conditions in Sahel


pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: CBC/ BBS UK trend shows a significant and linear increase since 1990 and through the reporting period (+15% 2009-2014) most noticeable in England and NI and with more modest increases elsewhere in UK. Negligible peripheral change in breeding distribution 1988-1991 to 2007-2011 (BTO Atlas online) and abundance generally stable or increasing, except in Wales.


pressures_source:
Pressure Xxp: Massimino, D., Woodward, I.D., Hammond, M.J., Harris, S.J., Leech, D.I., Noble, D.G., Walker, R.H., Barimore, C., Dadam, D., Eglington, S.M., Marchant, J.H., Sullivan, M.J.P., Baillie, S.R. & Robinson, R.A. (2017) BirdTrends 2017: trends in numbers, breeding success and survival for UK breeding birds. Research Report 704. BTO, Thetford. www.bto.org/birdtrends. Balmer et. al. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. BTO Books, Thetford. BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey data: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D., PearceHiggins, J.W. & Woodcock, P. 2018. The Breeding Bird Survey 2017. BTO Research Report 706 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/bbs-report-2017.pdf
Threat Xxt: Expert judgement based on habitat type and ecological vulnerability

pressures_info:
Pressure Xxp: Increasing distribution (Atlas) and population size (BBS = +17% 1995-2015). Although nest failure rates at both egg and chick stages are in significant curvilinear or linear decline, fledglings per breeding attempt has increased (BTO BirdTrends online). More gains than losses on the edge of its range in W Scotland and eastern N Ireland. Abundance in England and Wales has experiecned long-term lineal or curvilineal increases, although overall in the UK abundance has stablised, balanced by a decline in Scotland since 2000 (CBC/BBS data BTO online). Widespread increases in relative abundance has occurred in mid S and E England and parts of E Scotland (Atlas online).


pressures_source:
Pressure Xu: Short-term trend of -12% BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey data: Harris, S.J., Massimino, D., Gillings, S., Eaton, M.A., Noble, D.G., Balmer, D.E., Procter, D., PearceHiggins, J.W. & Woodcock, P. 2018. The Breeding Bird Survey 2017. BTO Research Report 706 British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/bbs-report-2017.pdf
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.


pressures_source:
Pressure A02: Kyrkos, A, Wilson, JD & Fuller, RJ 1998. Farmland habitat change and abundance of yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella): an analysis of Common Birds Census data. Bird Study 45: 232-246.
Pressure A03: Kyrkos, A, Wilson, JD & Fuller, RJ 1998. Farmland habitat change and abundance of yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella): an analysis of Common Birds Census data. Bird Study 45: 232-246.
Pressure A05: Bradbury, R. B.; Kyrkos, A.; Morris, A. J.; Clark, S. C.; Perkins, A. J.; Wilson, J. D. 2000. Habitat associations and breeding success of yellowhammers on lowland farmland. Journal of Applied Ecology 37: 789-805
Pressure A17: Perkins, A.J., Whittingham, M.J., Morris, A.J. and Bradbury, R.B. 2002. Use of field margins by foraging yellowhammers Emberiza citrinella. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93(413-420).
Pressure A21: Perkins, A.J., Whittingham, M.J., Morris, A.J. and Bradbury, R.B. 2002. Use of field margins by foraging yellowhammers Emberiza citrinella. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93(413-420).
Threat A02: Kyrkos, A, Wilson, JD & Fuller, RJ 1998. Farmland habitat change and abundance of yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella): an analysis of Common Birds Census data. Bird Study 45: 232-246.
Threat A03: Kyrkos, A, Wilson, JD & Fuller, RJ 1998. Farmland habitat change and abundance of yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella): an analysis of Common Birds Census data. Bird Study 45: 232-246.
Threat A05: Bradbury, R. B.; Kyrkos, A.; Morris, A. J.; Clark, S. C.; Perkins, A. J.; Wilson, J. D. 2000. Habitat associations and breeding success of yellowhammers on lowland farmland. Journal of Applied Ecology 37: 789-805
Threat A17: Perkins, A.J., Whittingham, M.J., Morris, A.J. and Bradbury, R.B. 2002. Use of field margins by foraging yellowhammers Emberiza citrinella. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93(413-420).
Threat A21: Perkins, A.J., Whittingham, M.J., Morris, A.J. and Bradbury, R.B. 2002. Use of field margins by foraging yellowhammers Emberiza citrinella. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93(413-420).


pressures_source:
Pressure B04: Lewis, A. J. G., Amar, A., Cordi-Piec, D. and Thewlis, R. M. (2007), Factors influencing Willow Tit Poecile montanus site occupancy: a comparison of abandoned and occupied woods. Ibis, 149: 205-213.
Pressure B27: Lewis, A.J.G, Amar, A., Charman E.C. & Stewart, F.R.P. 2009. The decline of the Willow Tit in Britain. British Birds 102: 386-393.
Pressure I04: Newson, S.E., Johnston, A., Renwick, A.R., Baillie, S.R. & Fuller, R.J. 2012. Modelling large-scale relationships between changes in woodland deer and bird populations. Journal of Applied Ecology 49: 278-286.
Threat B04: Lewis, A. J. G., Amar, A., Cordi-Piec, D. and Thewlis, R. M. (2007), Factors influencing Willow Tit Poecile montanus site occupancy: a comparison of abandoned and occupied woods. Ibis, 149: 205-213.
Threat B27: Lewis, A.J.G, Amar, A., Charman E.C. & Stewart, F.R.P. 2009. The decline of the Willow Tit in Britain. British Birds 102: 386-393.
Threat N01: Huntley, B., Green, R.E., Collingham, Y.C. & Willis, S.G. 2007. A climatic atlas of European breeding birds. Durham University, RSPB and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 521 pp.

pressures_info:
Pressure B04: Abandonment of traditional management and maintenance of secondary forest habitats. However, management generally results in a loss of scrub/understory that WT like and so a lack of management is usually good on some habitats such as wet grassland where it generates young woodland. Having said that, mangement of mature woodland habitat would generally be temporary and might create the right/better conditions within a few years. With the loss of understory, or landscape factors then B04 becomes an threat.
Pressure B27: Willow tit need early succession woodlands with dead wood therefore a threat is drainage of damp woodlands.
Pressure I04: Geographic and temporal pattern of decline strongly correlated with spread and increase of Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus via likely impacts on understorey vegetation
Threat B04: Abandonment of traditional management and maintenance of secondary forest habitats. However, management generally results in a loss of scrub/understory that WT like and so a lack of management is usually good on some habitats such as wet grassland where it generates young woodland. Having said that, mangement of mature woodland habitat would generally be temporary and might create the right/better conditions within a few years. With the loss of understory, or landscape factors then B04 becomes an threat.
Threat B27: Willow tit need early succession woodlands with dead wood therefore a threat is drainage of damp woodlands.


pressures_source:
Krunoslav Pintur: Uzgoj sitne divljaci, Veleucilište u Karlovcu, Karlovac, 2010.
Mustapic Zvonko i suradnici: „Lovstvo“, Zagreb, 2004.
Florijancic, Tihomir i dr.: Koncentracija teških metala u jetri dvije vrste divljih pataka, Zbornik sažetaka 45. hrvatskog i 5. medunarodnog simpozija agronoma, Osijek: Poljoprivredni fakultet, 2010.
Janicki, Zdravko i sur.: Zoologija divljaci, Veterinarski fakultet Sveucilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, 2007.


pressures_source:
Krunoslav Pintur: Uzgoj sitne divljaci, Veleucilište u Karlovcu, Karlovac, 2010.
Marijan Grubešic, Kristijan Tomljanovic, Saša Kunovac: Distribution and abundance of rock partridge (alectoris graeca meisner) in croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Šumarski List 135(11-12):567-574 , January 2011.
Dragan Lozancic: Stanišne prilike za prirodni uzgoj jarebice kamenjarke (Alectoris graeca Meisner) u pojedinim dalmatinskim lovištima, Sveucilište u Zagrebu, 2013, https://urn.nsk.hr/urn:nbn:hr:108:400446
Mustapic Zvonko i suradnici: „Lovstvo“, Zagreb, 2004.
Janicki, Zdravko i sur.: Zoologija divljaci, Veterinarski fakultet Sveucilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, 2007.


pressures_source:
Tutiš, V., Kralj, J., Radovic, D., Cikovic, D., Barišic, S. (ur.) (2013): Crvena knjiga ptica Hrvatske. Ministarstvo zaštite okoliša i prirode, Državni zavod za zaštitu prirode, Zagreb, 258 str.

Grubešic M. , K. Tomljanovic, M. Ancic (2015): Monitoring tetrijeba gluhana (Tetrao urogallus) na podrucju Primorsko-goranske županije za 2015. godinu s analizom razloga ugroženosti i prijedlogom mjera zaštite tetrijeba gluhana i njegovih staništa. Strucna studija. Šumarski fakultet Sveucilišta u Zagrebu. Zagreb. 39 str.


pressures_source:
Jurcevic, Ivancica; Mikuska, Jozsef: Promjene u ekologiji roda Corvus (Aves) u nizinskoj kontinentalnoj Hrvatskoj, Zbornik sažetaka priopcenja Sedmog hrvatskog biološkog kongresa,
Zagreb, Hrvatsko biološko društvo, 2000.
Mustapic Zvonko i suradnici: „Lovstvo“, Zagreb, 2004.
Janicki, Zdravko i sur.: Zoologija divljaci, Veterinarski fakultet Sveucilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, 2007.


pressures_info:
This species has been an irregular breeding bird/ breeding in low numbers for years. The Netherlands is outside the species' breeding range.


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), species experts, http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/common-murre-uria-aalge/tekst

pressures_info:
Pressure/theat outside member state: breeding effort affected by changes in food availability due to climate change and overfishing


pressures_source:
winterbird in stable numbers. No major pressures known

pressures_info:
winterbird in stable numbers. No major threats known


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), van Kleunen et al. (2014, 2017), Sovon


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017)


pressures_info:
outside EU-territory at breeding grounds: low breeding effort


pressures_info:
Species has increased in numbers as winter bird  and has a favourable conservation status. No pressures known


pressures_source:
van Kleunen et al. (2017), Buij et al. (2018), van de Pol et al. (2010), species experts


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2018), Hallman et al. (2014), Buij et al. (2018)


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Buij et al. (2018)


pressures_info:
Species' numbers have recovered from declines in the past related to poor water quality. Nowadays numbers are mainly affected by Cold winter periods.


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), Noordhuis (2010), species experts


pressures_info:
Species has established a rather small but growing breeding population in the Netherlands. No major pressures affecting the population.


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018),


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), van der Winden et al. (2017), https://www.walterwaddenmonitor.org/themas/toerisme/hoofdstuk/achtergrond/, Foppen et al. (2016), Sovon


pressures_source:
Oehoewerkgroep Nederland, Bekhuis et al. (2015), Buij et al. (2018)


pressures_source:
van Kleunen et al. (2017), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), Foppen et al. (2016)


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017), Sovon


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017)


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), Oudman et al. (2017), Foppen et al. (2016)

pressures_info:
Although there might be some pressures acting, their impact is relatively low; numbers have increased strongly, conservation status is considered favourable.


pressures_info:
Species' numbers in the Netherlands have declined as a consequence of shift in wintering range.


pressures_source:
Sas (2016), Foppen et al. (2016), Buij et al. (2018), van Gils et al. (2016), Sovon


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017), van der Winden (2010)


pressures_source:
Bobbink et al. (2012), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018)


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017), Foppen et al. (2016), species experts


pressures_source:
van Kleunen et al. (2007,2014), Bobbink et al. (2012), Sovon


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Koffijberg & van Winden (2013), Sovno

pressures_info:
Some traditional feeding sites have been abandoned, although the habitat still seems suitablable.


pressures_source:
Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017), BirdLife International (2018), Foppen et al. (2016)


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), van der Winden et al. (2017), https://www.walterwaddenmonitor.org/themas/toerisme/hoofdstuk/achtergrond/, Sovon


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), Foppen et al. (2016), species experts


pressures_info:
IAS union concern :  Procyon lotor Linnaeus, 1758;
IAS union concern :  Procyon lotor Linnaeus, 1758;
IAS union concern :  Procyon lotor Linnaeus, 1758;
based on field observations and expert opinion


pressures_info:
Reduction of prey availability supposed to be a main factor


pressures_source:
Haraszthy, L. (szerk.) (1998): Magyarország madarai. Mezogazda Kiadó, Budapest. 441 p. 
Bíró, I. (2016): Terepi madárhatározó halgazdálkodóknak. Magyar Madártani és Természetvédelmi Egyesület, Budapest. p. 3.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 527.
National park directorates' databases
Consultation with national experts.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 556-558.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 605-607.


pressures_source:
Hámori Dániel, Csörgo Tibor (szerk, 2017): Magyarországon eloforduló bagolyfajok határozása és gyakorlati természetvédelme, Herman Ottó Intézet, 46. o.


pressures_source:
Dr. Endes M. (2004): Szikipacsirta In: Ecsedi Z. (szerk.) (2004): A Hortobágy madárvilága. Hortobágy Természetvédelmi Egyesület, Winter Fair, Balmazújváros – Szeged. 2004.


pressures_info:
There may be more factors affecting the breeding population.


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Fox et al. (2016), https://www.sovon.nl/nl/soort/1790

pressures_info:
pressure/threat outside EU-territory: decline of breeding effort in N-Europe


pressures_info:
pressure from outside EU: habitat loss, pollution, hunting


pressures_source:
Sas (2016), Buij et al. (2018), van der Winden et al. (2017), Sovon


pressures_info:
This species has increased in numbers and has favourable conservation status, currently no major pressures affecting the  population.


pressures_info:
main factor impacting population is cold winter


pressures_info:
Species has increased in numbers as winter bird  and has a favourable conservation status. No pressures known.


pressures_source:
Sas (2016), van der Winden et al. (2017), https://www.walterwaddenmonitor.org/themas/toerisme/hoofdstuk/achtergrond/, Sovon


pressures_info:
A decline of the  winterpopulation probably as a consequence of unknown pressures to the breeding population which is partly the source of the wintering population.


pressures_source:
Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), van Kleunen et al. (2017), Foppen et al. (2016)


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), van Kleunen et al. (2014), van Kleunen et al. (2017), van der Winden et al. (2018)


pressures_source:
Oudman et al. (2017), Sovon, species experts


pressures_info:
Numbers have declined recently in IJsselmeer and parts of Waddensea, exact causes unknown. May be related to fish stocks.


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), Foppen et al. (2016), Sovon


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Hallman et al. (2014, 2018), Buij et al. (2018)


pressures_source:
Sas (2016), Foppen et al. (2016), Buij et al. (2018), species experts


pressures_info:
increasing breeding numbers. No major pressures known


pressures_source:
Buij et al. (2018), species experts, Foppen et al. (2016), van Kleunen et al. (2017)


pressures_info:
Amazing population recovery. Species has favourable conservation status


pressures_source:
Sas (2016), Foppen et al. (2016), Buij et al. (2018), van der Winden et al. (2017), https://www.walterwaddenmonitor.org/themas/toerisme/hoofdstuk/achtergrond/


pressures_info:
Species has increased in numbers as passage migrant and has a favourable conservation status. No major pressures/threats known.


pressures_source:
Robinson, R.A., Morrison, C.A. & Baillie, S.R. (2014) Integrating demographic data: towards a framework for monitoring wildlife populations at large spatial scales. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5: 1361–1372.

pressures_info:
The following pressure(s)/threat(s) are considered to be the most relevant and include:

I05 - Plant and animal diseases, pathogens and pests.  
The Trichomonas gallinae parasite has been responsible for a huge decline in Greenfinch numbers since it was first recorded in Ireland over 10 years ago (around 2007). It persists as a problem in the population, leading to severe but local reductions in densities. Greenfinches tend to recover to some extent at a local level, but have not been able to return to their previous densities and it is likely this will be a problem that continues to depress Greenfinch numbers into the future.


pressures_source:
Cummins, S., Bleasdale, A., Douglas, C., Newton, S., O'Halloran, J. & Wilson, J.W. (2010) The status of Red Grouse in Ireland and the effects of land use, habitat and habitat quality on their distribution. Irish Wildlife Manuals No. 50, National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dublin, Ireland
http://www.npws.ie/publications/irishwildlifemanuals/IWM50.pdf.

Murray, T., Clotworthy, C. & Bleasdale, A. (2013) A Survey of Red Grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) in the Owenduff/Nephin Complex Special Protection Area. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 77. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of the Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, Ireland.

pressures_info:
For further information on the pressures and threats affecting Red Grouse populations in Ireland, please refer to Cummins et al. 2010.  
A summary is provided below:
Main Pressures & Threats – Red Grouse

A09 - Intensive grazing or overgrazing by livestock
While traditional hill sheep grazing plays an important role in the production and maintenance of young palatable heather shoots (integral to Red Grouse diet), overgrazing by sheep has had detrimental impacts on local Red Grouse populations and cumulatively, this can affect the structure, height and species composition of heather, limiting feeding and nesting habitats for local grouse populations.  Overgrazing was considered one of the primary pressures affecting grouse distribution in the past and while steps have been taken since the early 2000s to address this issue, grazing pressure needs to be managed in order to benefit grouse.

A11 - Burning for agriculture
Evidence of burning was found in just under a fifth of sites (19%) surveyed by the Red Grouse Habitat Survey (2007/2008), with the damage from burning considered severe in 8% of the 100 sites surveyed. These results highlight that burning of heather is still a relatively common practice but anecdotal evidence from some regions (i.e. Wicklow Mountains National Park & SPA) suggests that inappropriate burning, particularly outside prescribed burning period (Wildlife (Amendment) Act 2000), is a concern and where left uncontrolled, burns can cause irreparable damage to the underlying peat soils.

A31 - Drainage for use as agricultural land 
Drainage as part of agricultural activities to create more grazing for livestock has occurred in the past, is also a current pressure and likely will continue into the future with associated negative consequences for Red Grouse which avoid grassier slopes in favour of heather dominated ones.

B01 - Conversion to forest from other land uses, or afforestation (excluding drainage) 
Large scale afforestation schemes have had the greatest impact on blanket bog in the Republic of Ireland with planting on 27% of the area of blanket bogs.   Not only has afforestation of peatlands resulted in less available habitat for grouse, these forests also act as a refuge for predators.

C05 - Peat extraction
Red Grouse lost a significant portion (up to 20%) of their former range on raised bogs in Ireland due to peat extraction (Cummins et al. 2010).

N05 - Change of habitat location, size, and / or quality due to climate change 
Grouse are a cold adapted species and a predicted future warmer climate will not benefit them with warmer drier summers perishing peatlands and increasing the risk of wildfires, reducing invertebrate availability etc. Additional pressures and/or threats which are likely having an impact include:

I02 - Other invasive alien species and I04 - Problematic native species 
The main predators of red grouse and their eggs are mink (invasive) and foxes , hooded crows and ravens (Murray et al. 2013) and as ground-nesting birds, they are vulnerable to both ground and avian predators.


pressures_source:
Crowe, O. (2019). Status of rare breeding birds in the Republic of Ireland 2013 - 2018. Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin, Ireland.

McLoughlin, D.T. (2011). Management prescriptions for twite in Ireland. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 52. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dublin, Ireland (http://www.npws.ie/publications/irishwildlifemanuals/IWM%2052.pdf).

pressures_info:
For undertaking an assessment of the pressures and threats to the Twite in Ireland, a number of known and potential impacts were considered:

A02 - Conversion from one type of agricultural land use to another (excluding drainage and burning).
Loss of hay meadows considered to be the primary cause of declines, with agricultural intensification responsible for fields planted with perennial rye grass, earlier cutting dates and more intensive grazing (culminating in loss of foraging habitat) (McLoughlin 2011).

A03 - Conversion from mixed farming and agroforestry systems to specialised (e.g. single crop) production.
Landscape-scale changes in agricultural practices leading to changes from extensive mixed farming to more intensive specialised farming and subsequent loss of suitable foraging/nesting sites.

A08 - Mowing or cutting of grasslands	
Linked to pressures above. Inappropriate techniques/timing of mowing can negatively affect availability of food for granivorous birds such as Twite.

A09 - Intensive grazing or overgrazing by livestock
Increase in sheep populations in the uplands from the 1980s to 1990s gave rise in many western areas to serious overgrazing of upland areas and a subsequent decreases in bird populations, with short swards less suitable as foraging habitat.

B01 - Conversion to forest from other land uses, or afforestation (excluding drainage). This pressure is considered to have caused loss of suitable habitat for Twite.

L05 - Reduced fecundity / genetic depression (e.g. inbreeding or endogamy) -  genetic drift due to population fragmentation and isolation may also pose a further threat to populations  (McLoughlin 2011).


pressures_source:
Buckley, K., Kelly, P., Kavanagh, B., O’Gorman, E.C., Carnus, T. & McMahon, B.J.
(2012) Every Partridge counts, successful techniques used in the captive conservation breeding programme for wild grey partridge in Ireland. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 35 (2) 387-393.

Kavanagh B. (1998) Can the Irish grey partridge (perdix perdix) be saved? A national conservation strategy. In: Birkan M, editor. Perdix VII, International symposium on partridges, quails and pheasants. Gibier Faune Sauvage, Game Wildlife. 1998; 15(4):533-546.

National Grey Partridge Conservation Project. Annual Report 2010.

National Grey Partridge Conservation Project. Annual Report 2011.

Potts, G. R. (1980) The effects of modern agriculture,nest predation and game management on the population ecology of partridges (Perdix perdix and Alectoris rufa). Advances in Ecological Research 11:2–79.

Potts, G. R. (1986) The partridge: Pesticides, predation and conservation. Collins, London, UK.

Potts, G. R. (1997) Cereal farming, pesticides and greypartridges. Pages 150–177 in D. J. Pain and M. W.Pienkowski, editors. Farming and birds in europe. Academic Press, London, UK.

Scallan, D. (2016) NARGC Predator Control Manual. National Association of Regional Game Councils. 

Tompkins, D.M., Draycott, R.A.H. & Hudson, P.J. (2000) Field evidence for apparent competition mediated via the shared parasites of two gamebird species. Ecology Letters 3, 10–14.

pressures_info:
Supporting information in relation to current pressures identified:

A02 - Conversion from one type of agricultural land use to another (excluding drainage and burning). The conversion of semi-natural agricultural habitats (e.g. meadows) into intensive production areas (e.g. intensive grasslands and/or changes to autumn/winter-sown cereals) causing denser/taller crop structure have affected Grey Partridge populations prior to and during the current reporting period along with A03 and A08 described below.

A03 - Conversion from mixed farming and agroforestry systems to specialised (e.g. single crop) production.  Intensification of agriculture has been one of the primary factors driving the Grey Patrridge losses (Balmer et al. 2013) including the application of herbicides on plants which are important food sources to the invertebrate prey of young Grey Partridge (Potts 2012).

A08 - Mowing or cutting of grasslands
Given their nesting habits, the mechanisation of mowing for agricultural purposes has had a detrimental impact on this ground-nesting farmland bird. 

I02 - Other invasive alien species (other then species of Union concern)
Annual monitoring at projects e.g.  Boora, have highlighted the problem with non-native species i.e. mink (National Grey Partridge Conservation Project - Annual Reports e.g. 2010 & 2011).

I04 - Problematic native species
Hooded crows and foxes are known to take young from nests (Kavanagh 1998).

I05 - Plant and animal diseases, pathogens and pests
Some research suggests that infection with caecal nematodes from farm-reared Pheasants maybe be affecting the population (Tompkins et al. 2000).

L05 - Reduced fecundity / genetic depression (e.g. inbreeding or endogamy) 
The current population has increased from an estimated minimum 'spring' population of 4-6 pairs in 1998-2001 (Buckley et al. 2012) and has been supplemented by a captive breeding programme since then which has included 'source' birds from France (12 pairs)  Estonia (30 birds)  (Kavanagh, 2017). Therefore the genetic diversity of the current population is likely to be lower than a typical wild population.

B01 - Conversion to forest from other land uses, or afforestation (excluding drainage).
Results in direct loss of suitable habitat for partridges and associated problems with ground and avian predators (Potts 1986).

L06 - Interspecific relations (competition, predation, parasitism, pathogens).
Pine martens can predate gamebird chicks and the recovery of the species is putting pressure on conservation projects managing for Grey Partridges, including those releasing hand-reared gamebirds (Scallan 2016).


pressures_source:
Crowe, O. (2019). Status of rare breeding birds in the Republic of Ireland 2013 - 2018. Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin, Ireland.

pressures_info:
For undertaking an assessment of the pressures and threats to Great Spotted Woodpecker in Ireland, a number of known and potential impacts were considered (see below). Please refer to Crowe (2019) for further detail.

B05 - Logging without replanting or natural regrowth
A species associated with mature deciduous including oak and mixed broadleaf species, and where there is much standing deadwood. Likely to be less of a pressure in the future if the species continues to expand its range.

B08 - Removal of old trees (excluding dead or dying trees)
Old trees are used as nest sites and therefore an important part of the species' breeding territory. One again, likely to have less impact in the future if the species' range expansion continues.	

I04 - Problematic native species
Predation by avian predators such as hooded crows. Not consdiered to be having a population-level impact given the species is continuing to expand its range.	

L06 - Interspecific relations (competition, predation, parasitism, pathogens)	
Predation by Pine Marten also considered to be having an impact currently, possibly less so as the species establishes itself across more of the country.


pressures_source:
BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: Calonectris borealis. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 22/07/2019. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2019) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 22/07/2019


pressures_source:
Butet, A., Michel, N., Rantier, Y., Comor, V., Hubert-Moy, L., Nabucet, J. & Delettre, Y. (2010) Responses of common buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) to land use changes in agricultural landscapes of Western France. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, Vol. 138, Issues 3-4, pages 152-159.

Caloni, F., Berny, P., Croubels, S., Sachana, M. & Guitart, R. (2018) Chapter 3 - Epidemiology of Animal Poisonings in Europe. In Veterinary Toxicology (Third Edition), Basic and Clinical Principles, pp 45-56.

Crosse, J.D., Shore, R.F., Jones, K. & Pereira, M. (2013) Key factors affecting liver PBDE concentrations in sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus). Environmental Pollution 177 171-176. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.006

Crosse, J.D., Shore, R. F., Wadsworth, R. A., Jones, K. C. & Pereira, M. G. (2012) Long-term trends in PBDEs in sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) eggs indicate sustained contamination of UK terrestrial ecosystems. Environmental Science and Technology, 46 (24). 13504-13511. http://doi.org/10.1021/es303550f

Dolman, P.M., Hinsley, S.A., Bellamy, P.E. & Watts, K. (2007) Woodland birds in patchy landscapes: the evidence base for strategic networks. Ibis, 149 (Suppl 2) 146-160.

Garratt, C.M., Hughes, M., Eagle, G., Fowler, T., Grice, P.V. & Whittingham, M.J. (2011) Foraging habitat selection by breeding Common Kestrels Falco tinnunculus on lowland farmland in England. Bird Study, Vol. 58, Issue 1, pp 90-98.

Hughes, J., Sharp, E., Taylor, M.J., Melton, L., Hartley, G., (2013). Monitoring agricultural rodenticide use and secondary exposure of raptors in Scotland. Ecotoxicology 22: 974–984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-013-1074-9. 

Lohr, M.T. (2018) Anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in an Australian predatory bird increases with proximity to developed habitat. Science of the Total Environment Vol 643, 134-144.

Mineau, Pierre & Fletcher, M.R. & Glaser, L.C. & Thomas, N.J. & Brassard, Candace & Wilson, Laurie & Elliott, John & Lyon, L.A. & Henny, Charles & Bollinger, T & Porter, S.L.. (1999). Poisoning of raptors with organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides with emphasis on Canada, U.S. and U.K. Journal of Raptor Research. 33. 1-37. 

NPWS R.A.P.T.O.R. Reports (2013-2018 inclusive) available online at https://www.npws.ie/research-projects/animal-species/birds/raptor-protocol.

pressures_info:
The following pressures/threats are considered to be the most relevant and current to breeding Sparrowhawks including:

A05 - Removal of small landscape features for agricultural land parcel consolidation (hedges, stone walls, rushes, open ditches, springs, solitary trees, etc.) - loss of connectivity through removal of the hedgerow network for example can impact availability of prey species, movement etc. and intensification of farming (i.e. A03 - Conversion from mixed farming and agroforestry systems to specialised (e.g. single crop) production) is also a pressure likely to be negatively affecting the population (Butet et al. 2010; Garrat et al. 2011).  Likely these pressures will continue into the next reporting period.

A21: Use of plant protection chemicals in agriculture: Secondary poisoning of adults (Crosse et al. 2012; Crosse et al 2013; https://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/sites/default/files/PBMS_Rodenticide_Sparrowhaw_2013.pdf; Mineau et al. 1999) including ingestion of contaminated invertebrates (e.g. earthworms).

Other pressures/threats categorised as low include:
G13 - Poisoning of animals (excluding lead poisoning) - R.A.P.T.O.R. Protocol reports indicated a number of reported incidents of deliberate poisoning (1 incident reported in 2018; 1 in 2016; 3 in 2014), but not thought to currently be having a population level impact on the species.

G10 - Illegal shooting/killing - - R.A.P.T.O.R. Protocol reports indicated one incident in 2015 of illegal shooting/killing, but not thought to currently be having a population level impact on the species.

B09 - Clear-cutting, removal of all trees. Local-level impacts (e.g. habitat loss/fragmentation (Dolman et al. 2007)) where this activity is occurring but not likely having a medium/high level impact given the national population trend.


pressures_source:
See: Hunt, J., Heffernan, M.L., McLoughlin, D., Benson, C. & Huxley, C. (2013) The breeding status of Common Scoter, Melanitta nigra in Ireland, 2012. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 66. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of the Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, Ireland.


pressures_source:
Crowe, O. (2019). Status of rare breeding birds in the Republic of Ireland 2013 - 2018. Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin, Ireland


pressures_source:
International Species Action Plan for the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) 2002. Compiled by Bjorn Helander & Torsten Stjernberg.

Best expert opinion, Allan Mee, Irish Raptor Study Group I.R.S.G. http://irsg.ie/irsg.html#!/

pressures_info:
For undertaking an assessment of the pressures and threats to White-tailed Eagles in Ireland, a number of known and potential impacts were considered:

A21 - Use of plant protection chemicals in agriculture
Incidents of secondary poisoning from eagles consuming prey which have been poisoned by rodenticides.  Also threat of impaired reproduction as a result of secondary poisoning. Please refer to R.A.P.T.O.R. reports (NPWS 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018) for further information.  One reported incident in 2014; one in 2015; none in 2016; one in 2017; one in 2018.

A26 - Agricultural activities generating diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters.  
White-tailed Eagles are strongly associated with aquatic habitats for hunting and feeding, which makes them vulnerable to any changes in the water systems that would have an impact on the prey base. This also includes a strong sensitivity to pollution with persistent, bio-accumulating chemical substances, which eventually turn up as contaminants in the eagles' prey  (Helander & Stjernberg 2002).

B08 - Removal of old trees (excluding dead or dying trees) and B09 Clear-cutting removal of all trees.  White-tailed eagles build huge nests which are added to year by year, and therefore need strong nest-trees; such trees are usually much older than the rotation period in modern forestry (Helander & Stjernberg 2002).  Loss of such mature trees (due to storm damage or forestry operations) could limit suitable nesting sites for breeding pairs.

B16 - Wood transport. 
Building roads for forestry increases access to previously secluded areas, thus increasing disturbance rates from the public and opening them up for other permanent human activities and development. Human disturbance from forestry activities (e.g. logging and the plantation of clearings) in the vicinity of occupied nests can threaten the success of breeding attempts (Helander & Stjernberg 2002). 

F07 - Sports, tourism and leisure activities.  Sensitive to disturbance at the nest; the White-tailed Eagle requires breeding sites with low human activity (Helander & Stjernberg 2002), increasing tourism and recreation pressures need to be managed.

G14 - Use of lead ammunition or fishing weights.  Lead poisoning, from ingested gunshot and pellets carried by wounded prey, seems to be a more important threat to sea eagles than previously realised. Likely underestimated, one case of bird ingesting carrion shot with lead shot, saved due to human intervention, largest cause of mortality in White-tailed Eagles in parts of Europe (Crowe 2019).

L05 - Reduced fecundity / genetic depression (e.g. inbreeding or endogamy). Indications that mate availability may be limiting population expansion due to low numbers (best expert opinion, Allan Mee, IRSG).

G13 - Poisoning of animals (excluding lead poisoning). 
Deliberate poisoning is considered to be more of a threat than G10 - deliberate shooting/killing with chemicals such as Alphachloralose, Carbofuran, Brodifacoum and Flocumafen used.  One reported incident in 2017; none in 2016 and 2018;  one in 2013 and 2014 and 2015. Please refer to NPWS R.A.P.T.O.R. Reports. 
Incidents where exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides cause the deaths of animals are of increasing concern. Anticoagulant rodenticides take some time to poison animals (the onset of symptoms is delayed to prevent target rodents from being put off bait). So, it can be difficult to identify all the sources of anticoagulant rodenticide, particularly as the species involved may hunt over a large area. Birds of prey are exposed to anticoagulant rodenticides through secondary poisoning (by eating poisoned animals), and this emphasises the need for thorough searches for carcasses after bait has been left. However, it is not only the carcases of targeted rodents that may be eaten by other animals. It is also likely, particularly where baits are in use for a long time and are not placed in appropriate positions, that other small mammals and birds could be poisoned and so have the potential to contaminate other animals.

D01 - Wind,wave and tidal power, including infrastructure. 
Eagles regularly recorded within the foot-print of existing windfarms in Ireland. During the current reporting period, at least three birds recovered dead due to collision.  Also considered a threat due to new windfarms in or near breeding sites (Crowe 2019).
D06 - Transmission of electricity and communications (cables). One bird recovered dead due to powerline collision during the reporting period (2013/2018) and other cases of birds landing on high voltage poles. Considered to be a current pressure/future threat, and acting at a moderate level considering the size of the national population (Crowe 2019).

I05 - Animal Pathogens and pests. In 2018, two adults were known to have succumbed to Avian Influenza and therefore this pressure/threat is qualified as high (Crowe 2019).

N03 - Increases or changes in precipitation due to climate change -  The threat of wetter springs could have negative consequences for the species (Helander & Stjernberg 2002) which has a restricted range and small population size in Ireland (Crowe 2019).


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (2014): Natura 2000 fajok és élohelyek Magyarországon. Pro Vértes Közalapítvány, Csákvár. p. 620-622.


pressures_source:
Haraszthy L. (szerk.) (1984): Magyarország fészkelo madarai. Natura, Budapest. 83-84 p.
Haraszthy, L. (szerk.) (1998): Magyarország madarai. Mezogazda Kiadó, Budapest. 160 p. 
Ecsedi Z. (szerk.) (2004): A Hortobágy madárvilága. Hortobágy Természetvédelmi Egyesület, Winter Fair, Balmazújváros - Szeged. 2004. 313-314 p.


pressures_source:
van Kleunen et al. (2007, 2014), Bobbink et al (2012),https://www.sovon.nl/nl/soort/70, Sovon

pressures_info:
van Kleunen et al. (2007, 2014), Bobbink et al (2012),https://www.sovon.nl/nl/soort/70, Sovon


pressures_info:
Threats and pressures from outside the EU territory: Habitat loss and deterioration in African wintering grounds and hunting pressure.


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), Buij et al. (2018), species experts


pressures_info:
Although species' numbers have increased  a part of its habitat in the Randmeren is affected by high pressure of water recreation.


pressures_source:
Foppen et al. (2016), species experts, Fox et al. (2016)


pressures_source:
Sas (2016), van der Winden et al. (2017, Buij et al. (2018), species experts


pressures_info:
Species is expanding as a breeding bird in the Netherlands, its conservation status is considered favourable.


pressures_info:
IAS union concern :  Myocastor coypus Molina, 1782; Procambarus clarkii Girard, 1852;


pressures_source:
Palumbo G & Lo Valvo F. 2002. Management Statement for the Sicilian Rock Partridge (Alectoris graeca whitakeri). BirdLife International/European Commission, T-PVS/Inf 18


pressures_source:
Nissardi S., Zucca C., Pontecorvo C., Casti M., 2014. Piano D’azione per la conservazione della Gallina Prataiola Tetrax Tetrax e dei suoi habitat in Sardegna. In Tinarelli R., Andreotti A., Baccetti N., Melega L., Roscelli F., Serra L., Zenatello M. (a cura di). Atti XVI Convegno italiano di ornitologia, Cervia (RA), 22-25 settembre 20122. Scritti, Studi e Ricerche di Storia Naturale della Repubblica di San Marino: 405-406.


pressures_source:
Todorov, E. (2020). National monitoring scheme of wintering geese in South-east Romania. Retrieved June 19, 2020 from Romanian Ornithological Society electronic database, http://pasaridinromania.sor.ro/.
Cranswick, PA, L Raducescu, GM Hilton & N Petkov. 2010. International Single Species Action Plan for the conservati on of the Red-breasted Goose Branta ruficollis, 2011–2020. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust/BirdLife International.
Todorov, E. 2017: Monitoring of the Lesser White-fronted Goose in Romania in 2012-2016. Pp. 149-153 in Vougioukalou, M., Kazantzidis, S. & Aarvak, T. (Eds.) Safeguarding the Lesser White-fronted Goose Fennoscandian population at key staging and wintering sites. Special publication. LIFE+10 NAT/GR/000638 Project. HOS/BirdLife Greece, HAOD/Forest Research Institute, NOF/BirdLife Norway report no. 2017-2.


# data_change

sub_unit:
Central & Eastern Europe/Sub-Saharan Africa


sub_unit:
[excluding meridionalis, but including koenigi]


sub_unit:
W Europe & North-west Africa/Sub-Saharan Africa


sub_unit:
sensu stricto [excluding italiae]; non-native populations


sub_unit:
[including degener, hedwigii, ombriosus, palmensis and ultramarinus]


sub_unit:
sensu stricto [excluding canariensis, ibericus and tristis]


sub_unit:
sensu stricto [excluding nitidus and plumbeitarsus]


# ref_bird_grouping

subUnit:
W Europe & North-west Africa/Sub-Saharan Africa


subUnit:
Central & Eastern Europe/Sub-Saharan Africa


subUnit:
sensu stricto [excluding canariensis, ibericus and tristis]


# ref_effectivenessSAPs

label:
further deteriorating away from the plan’s aim/objective(s)


label:
moving towards the plan’s aim/objective(s)


# ref_measures

label:
Measures related to agriculture and agriculture-related habitats


label:
Prevent conversion of natural and semi-natural habitats, and habitats of species into agricultural land


label:
Restore small landscape features on agricultural land


label:
Maintain existing extensive agricultural practices and agricultural landscape features


label:
Reinstate appropriate agricultural practices to address abandonment, including mowing, grazing, burning or equivalent measures


label:
Adapt mowing, grazing and other equivalent agricultural activities


label:
Stop mowing, grazing and other equivalent agricultural activities


label:
Adapt soil management practices in agriculture


label:
Manage the use of natural fertilisers and chemicals in agricultural (plant and animal) production


label:
Reduce/eliminate point pollution to surface or ground waters from agricultural activities


label:
Reduce diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters from agricultural activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate air pollution from agricultural activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate marine pollution from agricultural activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate soil pollution from agricultural activities


label:
Manage drainage and irrigation operations and infrastructures in agriculture


label:
Other measures related to agricultural practices


label:
Measures related to forestry and forest-related habitats


label:
Prevent conversion of (semi-) natural habitats into forests and of (semi-)natural forests into intensive forest plantation


label:
Maintain existing traditional forest management and exploitation practices


label:
Reinstate forest management and exploitation practices


label:
Adapt/manage reforestation and forest regeneration


label:
Adapt/change forest management and exploitation practices


label:
Stop forest management and exploitation practices


label:
Manage the use of chemicals for fertilisation, liming and pest control in forestry


label:
Reduce diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters from forestry activities


label:
Reduce air pollution from forestry activities


label:
Reduce marine pollution from forestry activities


label:
Reduce soil pollution from forestry activities


label:
Manage drainage and irrigation operations and infrastructures


label:
Other measures related to forestry practices


label:
Measures related to resources extraction and energy production


label:
Adapt/manage extraction of non-energy resources


label:
Adapt/manage exploitation of energy resources


label:
Adapt/manage renewable energy installation, facilities and operation


label:
Reduce impact of hydropower operation and infrastructure


label:
Adapt/manage fossil energy installation, facilities and operation


label:
Reduce impact of service corridors and networks


label:
Habitat restoration/creation from resources, exploitation areas or areas damaged due to installation of renewable energy infrastructure


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate point pollution to surface or ground waters from resource exploitation and energy production


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters from resource exploitation and energy production


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate air pollution from resource exploitation and energy production


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate marine pollution from resource exploitation and energy production


label:
Reduce/eliminate noise, light, thermal and other forms of pollution related to resource exploitation and energy production


label:
Manage water abstraction for resource extraction and energy production


label:
Other measures related to extraction and energy exploitation activities


label:
Measures related to development and operation of transport systems


label:
Reduce impact of transport operation and infrastructure


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate pollution to surface or ground water from transport


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate air pollution from transport


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate marine pollution from transport


label:
Manage/reduce/eliminate noise, light and other forms of pollution from transport


label:
Habitat restoration of areas impacted by transport


label:
Measures related to residential, commercial, industrial and recreational infrastructures, operations and activities


label:
Manage conversion of land for construction and development of infrastructure


label:
Habitat restoration of areas impacted by residential, commercial, industrial and recreational infrastructure, operations and activities


label:
Reduce impact of outdoor sports, leisure and recreational activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate point source pollution to surface or ground waters from industrial, commercial, residential and recreational areas and activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters from industrial, commercial, residential and recreational areas and activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate air pollution from industrial, commercial, residential and recreational areas and activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate marine pollution from industrial, commercial, residential and recreational areas and activities


label:
Reduce/eliminate marine contamination with litter


label:
Reduce/eliminate noise, light, heat or other forms pollution from industrial, commercial, residential and recreational areas and activities


label:
Manage changes in hydrological and coastal systems and regimes for construction and development


label:
Manage water abstraction for public supply and for industrial and commercial use


label:
Other measures related to residential, commercial, industrial and recreational infrastructures, operations and activities


label:
Measures related to the effects of extraction and cultivation of biological living resources


label:
Management of professional/commercial fishing (including shellfish and seaweed harvesting)


label:
Management of hunting, recreational fishing and recreational or commercial harvesting or collection of plants


label:
Reducing the impact of (re-) stocking for fishing and hunting, of artificial feeding and predator control


label:
Control/eradication of illegal killing, fishing and harvesting


label:
Reduce bycatch and incidental killing of non-target species


label:
Manage changes in coastal conditions for marine aquaculture


label:
Reduce/eliminate marine pollution from marine aquaculture


label:
Other measures to reduce impacts from marine aquaculture infrastructures and operation


label:
Manage water abstraction and modifications of hydrological conditions for freshwater aquaculture


label:
Reduce/eliminate point source pollution to surface waters from freshwater aquaculture


label:
Reduce/eliminate diffuse pollution to surface waters from freshwater aquaculture


label:
Reduce/eliminate marine pollution from freshwater aquaculture


label:
Other measures to reduce impacts of freshwater aquaculture infrastructures and operation


label:
Other measures related to exploitation of species


label:
Measures related to military installations and activities and other specific human activities


label:
Reduce impact of military installations and activities


label:
Reduce impact of other specific human actions


label:
Measures related to alien and problematic native species


label:
Early detection and rapid eradication of invasive alien species of Union concern


label:
Management, control or eradication of established invasive alien species of Union concern


label:
Management, control or eradication of other invasive alien species


label:
DO NOT USE Management, control or eradication of other alien species


label:
Management of problematic native species


label:
Other measures related to problematic species


label:
Controlling and eradicating plant and animal diseases, pathogens and pests


label:
Measures related to mixed source pollution and human-induced changes in hydraulic conditions for several uses


label:
Reduce impact of multi-purpose hydrological changes


label:
Restore habitats impacted by multi-purpose hydrological changes


label:
Other measures related to mixed source pollution and multi-purpose human-induced changes in hydraulic conditions


label:
Measures related to natural processes, geological events and natural catastrophes


label:
Management of habitats (others than agriculture and forest) to slow, stop or reverse natural processes


label:
Minimise/prevent impacts of geological and natural catastrophes


label:
Restore habitats following geological and natural catastrophes


label:
Other measures related to natural processes


label:
Adopt climate change mitigation measures


label:
Implement climate change adaptation measures


label:
Measures related to management of species from the nature directives and other native species


label:
Reinforce populations of species from the directives


label:
Improvement of habitat of species from the directives


label:
Support conservation measures in another EU Member State


label:
Support conservation measures in countries outside the EU


# ref_measures_identified

label:
Measures needed but cannot be identified


# ref_measures_purpose_birds

label:
Expand the current distribution of the species


label:
Increase the population size and/or improve population dynamics (improve reproduction success, reduce mortality, improve age/sex structure)


label:
Maintain the current distribution, population and/or habitat for the species


# ref_measures_response

label:
Medium-term results (within the next two reporting periods, 2019-2030)


label:
Short-term results (within the current reporting period, 2013-2018)


# ref_methodsUsed

label:
Complete survey or a statistically robust estimate


label:
Based mainly on expert opinion with very limited data


label:
Based mainly on extrapolation from a limited amount of data


# ref_presence_status_bird

label:
The species has colonised the Member State during the short-term trend period of the reporting round (2007-2018)


label:
Not present - delete from the check-list


label:
The species is present and occurs regularly in the Member State in the season in question


# ref_threatsPressures

label:
Conversion into agricultural land (excluding drainage and burning)


label:
Conversion from one type of agricultural land use to another (excluding drainage and burning)


label:
Conversion from mixed farming and agroforestry systems to specialised (e.g. single crop) production


label:
Changes in terrain and surface of agricultural areas


label:
Removal of small landscape features for agricultural land parcel consolidation (hedges, stone walls, rushes, open ditches, springs, solitary trees, etc.)


label:
Abandonment of grassland management (e.g. cessation of grazing or mowing)


label:
Abandonment of management/use of other agricultural and agroforestry systems (all except grassland)


label:
Intensive grazing or overgrazing by livestock


label:
Extensive grazing or undergrazing by livestock


label:
Reseeding of grasslands and other semi-natural habitats


label:
Tillage practices (e.g. ploughing) in agriculture


label:
Other soil management practices in agriculture


label:
Harvesting of crops and cutting of croplands


label:
Application of natural fertilisers on agricultural land


label:
Application of synthetic (mineral) fertilisers on agricultural land


label:
Use of plant protection chemicals in agriculture


label:
Use of physical plant protection in agriculture


label:
Use of other pest control methods in agriculture (excluding tillage)


label:
Waste management practices in agriculture


label:
Agricultural activities generating point source pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Agricultural activities generating diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Agricultural activities generating air pollution


label:
Agricultural activities generating marine pollution


label:
Agricultural activities generating soil pollution


label:
Active abstractions from groundwater, surface water or mixed water for agriculture


label:
Development and operation of dams for agriculture


label:
Modification of hydrological flow or physical alteration of water bodies for agriculture (excluding development and operation of dams)


label:
Introduction and spread of new crops (including GMOs)


label:
Agricultural crops for renewable energy production


label:
Agriculture activities not referred to above


label:
Conversion to forest from other land uses, or afforestation (excluding drainage)


label:
Conversion to other types of forests including monocultures


label:
Replanting with or introducing non-native or non-typical species (including new species and GMOs)


label:
Abandonment of traditional forest management


label:
Logging without replanting or natural regrowth


label:
Logging (excluding clear cutting) of individual trees


label:
Removal of dead and dying trees, including debris


label:
Removal of old trees (excluding dead or dying trees)


label:
Cork extraction and forest exploitation excluding logging


label:
Forest management reducing old growth forests


label:
Tillage practices in forestry and other soil management practices in forestry


label:
Application of synthetic fertilisers in forestry, including liming of forest soils


label:
Use of plant protection chemicals in forestry


label:
Use of physical plant protection in forestry, excluding tree layer thinning


label:
Use of other pest control methods in forestry


label:
Forestry activities generating pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Forestry activities generating air pollution


label:
Forestry activities generating marine pollution


label:
Forestry activities generating soil pollution


label:
Modification of hydrological conditions, or physical alteration of water bodies and drainage for forestry (including dams)


label:
Other forestry activities, excluding those relating to agro-forestry


label:
Extraction of resources (minerals, peat, non-renewable energy resources)


label:
Extraction of minerals (e.g. rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell)


label:
Extraction of oil and gas, including infrastructure


label:
Dumping/depositing of inert materials from terrestrial extraction


label:
Dumping/depositing of dredged materials from marine extraction


label:
Extraction activities generating point source pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Extraction activities generating diffuse pollution to ground or surface waters


label:
Extraction activities generating marine pollution


label:
Extraction activities generating noise, light or other forms of pollution


label:
Abstraction of surface and ground water for resource extraction


label:
Mining and extraction activities not referred to above


label:
Energy production processes and related infrastructure development


label:
Wind, wave and tidal power, including infrastructure


label:
Hydropower (dams, weirs, run-off-the-river), including infrastructure


label:
Geothermal power generation (including infrastructure)


label:
Development and operation of energy production plants (including bioenergy plants, fossil and nuclear energy plants)


label:
Transmission of electricity and communications (cables)


label:
Energy production and transmission activities generating pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Energy production and transmission activities generating air pollution


label:
Energy production and transmission activities generating marine pollution


label:
Energy production and transmission activities generating noise pollution


label:
Energy production and transmission activities generating light, heat or other forms pollution


label:
Abstraction of surface and ground water for energy production (excluding hydropower)


label:
Energy production and transmission activities not referred to above


label:
Development and operation of transport systems


label:
Roads, paths, railroads and related infrastructure (e.g. bridges, viaducts, tunnels)


label:
Shipping lanes and ferry lanes transport operations


label:
Shipping lanes, ferry lanes and anchorage infrastructure (e.g. canalisation, dredging)


label:
Flight paths of planes, helicopter and other non-leisure aircrafts


label:
Land, water and air transport activities generating pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Land, water and air transport activities generating air pollution


label:
Land, water and air transport activities generating marine pollution


label:
Land, water and air transport activities generating noise, light and other forms of pollution


label:
Land, water and air transport activities not referred to above


label:
Development, construction and use of residential, commercial, industrial and recreational infrastructure and areas


label:
Conversion from other land uses to housing, settlement or recreational areas (excluding drainage and modification of coastline, estuary and coastal conditions)


label:
Construction or modification (e.g. of housing and settlements) in existing urban or recreational areas


label:
Conversion from other land uses to commercial / industrial areas (excluding drainage and modification of coastline, estuary and coastal conditions)


label:
Construction or modification of commercial / industrial infrastructure in existing commercial / industrial areas


label:
Creation or development of sports, tourism and leisure infrastructure (outside the urban or recreational areas)


label:
Development and maintenance of beach areas for tourism and recreation incl. beach nourishment and beach cleaning


label:
Modification of coastline, estuary and coastal conditions for development, use and protection of residential, commercial, industrial and recreational infrastructure and areas (including sea defences or coastal protection works and infrastructures)


label:
Deposition and treatment of waste/garbage from household/recreational facilities


label:
Deposition and treatment of waste/garbage from commercial and industrial facilities


label:
Pollution to surface or ground water due to urban run-offs


label:
Discharge of urban waste water (excluding storm overflows and/or urban run-offs) generating pollution to surface or ground water


label:
Plants, contaminated or abandoned industrial sites generating pollution to surface or ground water


label:
Other residential and recreational activities and structures generating point pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Other industrial and commercial activities and structures generating point pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Other residential and recreational activities and structures generating diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Other industrial and commercial activities and structures generating diffuse pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Residential and recreational activities and structures generating air pollution


label:
Industrial and commercial activities and structures generating air pollution


label:
Residential or recreational activities and structures generating marine pollution (excl. marine macro- and micro-particular pollution)


label:
Industrial or commercial activities and structures generating marine pollution (excluding marine macro- and micro-particular pollution)


label:
Residential or recreational activities and structures generating marine macro- and micro- particulate pollution (e.g. plastic bags, Styrofoam)


label:
Industrial or commercial activities and structures generating marine macro- and micro- particulate pollution (e.g. plastic bags, Styrofoam)


label:
Residential or recreational activities and structures generating noise, light, heat or other forms of pollution


label:
Industrial or commercial activities and structures generating noise, light, heat or other forms of pollution


label:
Drainage, land reclamation and conversion of wetlands, marshes, bogs, etc. to settlement or recreational areas


label:
Drainage, land reclamation or conversion of wetlands, marshes, bogs, etc. to industrial/commercial areas


label:
Modification of flooding regimes, flood protection for residential or recreational development


label:
Construction or development of reservoirs and dams for residential or recreational development


label:
Construction or development of reservoirs and dams for industrial or commercial development


label:
Other modification of hydrological conditions for residential or recreational development


label:
Other modification of hydrological conditions for industrial or commercial development


label:
Abstraction of ground and surface waters (including marine) for public water supply and recreational use


label:
Abstraction of ground and surface waters (including marine) for commercial/industrial use (excluding energy)


label:
Extraction and cultivation of biological living resources (other than agriculture and forestry)


label:
Marine fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational) causing reduction of species/prey populations and disturbance of species


label:
Marine fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational) activities causing physical loss and disturbance of seafloor habitats


label:
Freshwater fish and shellfish harvesting (professional)


label:
Freshwater fish and shellfish harvesting (recreational)


label:
Harvesting or collecting of other wild plants and animals (excluding hunting and leisure fishing)


label:
Illegal harvesting, collecting and taking


label:
Bycatch and incidental killing (due to fishing and hunting activities)


label:
Poisoning of animals (excluding lead poisoning)


label:
Use of lead ammunition or fishing weights


label:
Modification of coastal conditions for marine aquaculture


label:
Marine aquaculture generating marine pollution


label:
Introduction and spread of species (including GMOs) in marine aquaculture


label:
Other impacts from marine aquaculture, including infrastructure


label:
Abstraction of water, flow diversion, dams and other modifications of hydrological conditions for freshwater aquaculture


label:
Freshwater aquaculture generating point source pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Freshwater aquaculture generating diffuse source pollution to surface or ground waters


label:
Freshwater aquaculture generating marine pollution


label:
Introduction and spread of species (including alien species and GMOs) in freshwater aquaculture


label:
Other impacts from freshwater aquaculture, including infrastructure


label:
Other activities related to extraction and cultivation of biological living resources not referred to above


label:
Military action, public safety measures, and other human intrusions


label:
Military, paramilitary or police exercises and operations on land


label:
Military, paramilitary or police exercises and operations in the freshwater and marine environment


label:
Abandonment of terrestrial military or similar exercises (loss of open habitats)


label:
Tree surgery, felling/removal of roadside trees and vegetation for public safety


label:
Closure or restricted access to site/habitat


label:
Intrusive and destructive research and monitoring activities


label:
Other human intrusions and disturbance not mentioned above


label:
Other invasive alien species (other than species of Union concern)


label:
DO NOT USE Other alien species (not invasive)


label:
Plant and animal diseases, pathogens and pests


label:
Mixed source pollution to surface and ground waters (limnic and terrestrial)


label:
Mixed source marine water pollution (marine and coastal)


label:
Mixed source air pollution, air-borne pollutants


label:
Mixed source soil pollution and solid waste (excluding discharges)


label:
Abstraction from groundwater, surface water or mixed water


label:
Natural processes (excluding catastrophes and processes induced by human activity or climate change)


label:
Abiotic natural processes (e.g. erosion, silting up, drying out, submersion, salinization)


label:
Natural succession resulting in species composition change (other than by direct changes of agricultural or forestry practices)


label:
Natural processes of eutrophication or acidification


label:
Reduced fecundity / genetic depression (e.g. inbreeding or endogamy)


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Interspecific relations (competition, predation, parasitism, pathogens)


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Absence or reduction of interspecific faunal and floral relations (e.g. pollinators)


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Temperature changes (e.g. rise of temperature & extremes) due to climate change


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Droughts and decreases in precipitation due to climate change


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Increases or changes in precipitation due to climate change


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Sea-level and wave exposure changes due to climate change


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Change of habitat location, size, and / or quality due to climate change


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Desynchronisation of biological / ecological processes due to climate change


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Decline or extinction of related species (e.g. food source / prey, predator / parasite, symbiote, etc.) due to climate change


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Change of species distribution (natural newcomers) due to climate change


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Other climate related changes in abiotic conditions


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Unknown pressures, no pressures and pressures from outside the Member State


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Threats and pressures from outside the EU territory


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Threats and pressures from outside the Member State


