# European_Red_List_2017_December

population:
The European population is estimated at 281,000-653,000 pairs, which equates to 563,000-1,310,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 60,500-125,000 pairs, which equates to 121,000-251,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occurs in open country with wooded areas. It is often found in plantations of all kinds, including olive, pecan (Carya) and avocado in the south, and vineyards in central Europe, where it is also seen in roadside trees and groups of trees, mainly near habitations, as well as forest edges, parks and gardens. It inhabits oak (Quercus) woodland and light montane forest in the southeast and breeds in coniferous forest at lower levels in Turkey. Egg-laying occurs from mid-April to May, rarely to June. The nest-hole is excavated by both sexes, but mostly by male, in a trunk or large branch of a tree, or occasionally in a utility pole or similar structure. Old nests are sometimes reused. Clutch size is three to seven eggs (Winkler et al. 2014). It is omnivorous, feeding on various insects, snails, earthworms, fruit, berries, sap, nuts and seeds (Gorman 2014). The species is resident and dispersive; sometimes long distances are covered during dispersal (Winkler et al. 2014).

threats:
Hybridization is known to occur with Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), however once sufficient females of D. syriacus colonize an area, the extent of hybridization becomes insignificant (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryobates   minor (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus   Dendrocopos.

population:
The European population is estimated at 491,000-1,050,000 pairs, which equates to 983,000-2,110,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 165,000-348,000 pairs, which equates to 330,000-695,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is present in temperate and boreal deciduous woodland in lowlands. It prefers open forest with softwood deciduous trees in vicinity of lakes or rivers, as well as forest edge, parks, orchards and gardens. It requires a good number of thin snags, as in old stands or in riparian woodland. Courtship begins in February and laying takes place from April to May (June in the north). Clutches are usually five or six eggs. It is monogamous and the pair-bond may continue for several years. The nest is excavated by both sexes, in soft wood of a dead or decaying trunk, a stump or the underside of a branch. Its diet comprises mainly of small insects; in the summer mostly caterpillars, aphids, ants, beetles, and other surface-dwelling arthropods and in the winter, wood-boring larvae and those living under the bark become important (Winkler and Christie 2002). The species is essentially sedentary but dispersal movements in August and November may give rise to eruptive movements in the north (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
This species has declined due to a loss of deciduous habitats, especially riverine forest and old orchards and due to the admixture of conifers (Winkler and Christie 2002). It is sensitive to forest fragmentation due to its large home range (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. Monitoring of the species is generally poor with some exception; declines of the species have been well observed in Finland, Sweden and England (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Most important is the conservation of adequate suitable habitat remains for this species (Winkler and Christie 2002).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,110,000-1,820,000 pairs, which equates to 2,210,000-3,630,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 242,000-501,000 pairs, which equates to 483,000-1,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in all types of mature forest, so long as it is not extremely dense and gloomy and it also uses forest edges. In Scandinavia and Siberia it occupies spruce (Picea) and pine (Pinus) forests with larch (Larix), birch (Betula), aspen (Populus) and alder (Alnus); In Poland all habitat types in primeval forests; in central Europe occurs in all types of not over-dense deciduous, mixed or coniferous forest, from riparian woodland to subalpine forest. Mating behaviour may begin in mid-January although egg-laying is generally from mid-March to mid-May. The nest is excavated in a tall tree, usually living and either coniferous or deciduous. Clutch size is typically three to five eggs. Its diet consists mainly of ants (Camponotus, Formica, Lasius) and their brood. Wood-boring beetles and bark beetles and their larvae (e.g. Cerambycidae, Elateridae) are also taken, as well as various other arthropods, and occasionally snails, fruits and berries. It has been reported to break into beehives. In most areas the species is resident and even northern populations only partially migratory (Winkler and Christie 2002).

threats:
The species is not threatened across its range (Winkler and Christie 2002), however locally logging and forestry management do pose a risk (Garmendia et al. 2006, Zhelezov 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring should be established to ensure logging and forest management does not become a serious threat.


population:
The European population is estimated at 674,000-1,600,000 pairs, which equates to 1,350,000-3,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 287,000-727,000 pairs, which equates to 574,000-1,450,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is widespread over most of lowland Europe, and also occurs in low numbers in mountainous areas. Breeding occurs in a variety of forest-types, from dry pine (Pinus) stands to riparian forest. Dense forest blocks are avoided, the birds tending to settle along south-facing forest edges, or in clear-felled or burned patches. Where summers are relatively cold or humid, localities with dry sandy soil are preferred (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is territorial and partners display by head-swinging with ruffled head feathers. Laying occurs from May to June. The nest-site is selected by both sexes and is usually in a natural cavity, an old hole of another woodpecker, or an artificial nestbox. Typically seven to twelve eggs are laid (Winkler and Christie 2002). It feeds mostly on the larvae and pupae of ants. In northern areas or during bad weather insects, spiders, even tadpoles and berries may be fed to young (Tucker and Heath 1994). Across most of its range, it is fully migratory and winters mainly in south of the Sahara and occasionally in the Mediterranean basin (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Declines have been attributed to climatic changes, resulting in increased rainfall during the breeding season (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Winkler and Christie 2002). Since the 1950s, the loss of important habitats such as orchards and unimproved meadows and the replacement of hardwoods with conifers have also caused declines and the conversion of many areas to agriculture combined with an increase in the use of pesticides have also decreased the abundance of ants (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. It is listed as a priority species in the U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The use of pesticides should be reduced in agricultural areas and orchards and low-intensity management techniques applied to meadows, pastures and orchards in order to help sustain ant populations. These habitats should also be preserved from conversion to intensively managed open fields or commercial forestry plantations. In addition suitable nest-sites in woods and along forest edges should be protected and where nest-sites are limiting, nest boxes should be erected (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Leiopicus   medius (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus   Dendrocopos.

population:
The European population is estimated at 301,000-678,000 pairs, which equates to 602,000-1,360,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 213,000-528,000 pairs, which equates to 426,000-1,060,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is restricted to mature deciduous forest. It prefers mixed oak (Quercus), on which it depends on in large parts of its range, and hornbeam (Carpinus) in primeval forest.  Old open orchards bordering deciduous woodland also used, but are of dwindling importance. In the south it occupies beech, mixed oak-beech and oak forest and beech forest in north-east Anatolia and the Caucasus. Breeding begins from mid-April to the beginning of May. The nest is excavated by both the male and female in the trunk or a larger branch of a deciduous tree, mainly in dead or decaying wood. Clutch size is typically five to six eggs. It feeds mainly on bark-dwelling arthropods, caterpillars, dipterans and aphids. Small beetles and ants predominate in the adult food, whereas nestlings are fed with caterpillars, bugs, lice, beetles, hymenopterans and dipterans, as well as arachnids. Plant material is taken mainly in the winter (Winkler et al. 2014). The species is non-migratory (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Declines in the species have mostly been driven by forest management , especially fragmentation of oak forests, elimination of old and decaying trees and the replacement of indigenous deciduous forest with coniferous. The effects of atmospheric pollution may pose a risk (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Climatic changes and adverse weather also influence populations on a local scale (Winkler et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. A species action plan for Switzerland was published in 2008 (Pasinelli 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conservation actions for this species must be taken on several spatial scales. Within areas of forest, sufficient nesting and foraging trees must be maintained and within the landscape the maintenance of traditional sylvopastoral is essential. On the regional scale, adequate areas of land must be preserved for the species (Robles et al. 2007). The effects of atmospheric pollution on the availability and abundance of arthropod prey of the species needs to be fully understood (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).


taxonomicNotes:
Picoides tridactylus and P. funebris (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as P. tridactylus following AOU (2003). P. tridactylus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously split into P. tridactylus and P. dorsalis following AOU (2003), and pri

population:
The European population is estimated at 598,000-1,450,000 pairs, which equates to 1,200,000-2,900,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 41,200-235,000 pairs, which equates to 82,300-470,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits mature conifer forests, particularly spruce Picea spp., and is somewhat irruptive, being found commonly where disturbance such as fire has caused local outbreaks of insects (Winkler et al. 1995). Courtship begins from the second half of March and laying from mid-May, although it can be up to two weeks earlier in southern Europe, to June, occasionally July. The nest-hole is excavated two to ten metres up in a dead tree, or in a dead section of live tree with heart-rot. Spruce and other conifers are preferred but some non-coniferous species (Populus, Betula, Alnus) are also used (Winkler and Christie 2002). Clutch size is generally three or four eggs in the Alps. It feeds primarily on engraver and spruce bark-beetles (Ips and Polygraphus spp.) as well as wood-boring beetles and other invertebrates (Gorman 2014). In the mountains populations are largely resident, but often shift to lower altitudes or move short distances after breeding. Northern Eurasian populations perform eruptive migrations at long intervals (Winkler and Christie 2002).

threats:
Large-scale commercial logging and modern forestry management practices, including fire suppression, removal of dead or insect-infested trees (Tucker and Heath 1994) and pesticide use (Winkler and Christie 2002) have led to declines. Wide spread death of spruce and fir, stands caused by acid rain in central Europe, may temporarily benefit the species, but may pose a serious threat in the long term (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Intensive management of favoured habitats, such as old spruce- or fir-dominated forest with abundant dead wood in mountains or damp lowlands of this species should be avoided. Protected areas should cover at least 50 ha, in order to sustain a single pair. Within intensively managed mature forests, dying or dead trees should be left. If there is insufficient dead wood then cutting single mature trees to around 10 m and leaving to decay, may provide suitable nest sites (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Picus canus, P. guerini and P. dedemi (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as P. canus following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 187,000-360,000 pairs, which equates to 374,000-720,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 83,600-212,000 pairs, which equates to 167,000-424,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies a wide range of habitats. It uses open country with many copses, in not over-dense forest, floodplain-forest, parks, orchards and gardens. It is associated mostly with deciduous trees, but locally in pine-oak (Pinus-Quercus) woodland, or more open coniferous montane forest with larch (Larix). In Europe it is found in lowlands and hills up to 1,700 m and non-breeders up to 2,000 m. It lays from the end of April to early June and clutches are four to ten eggs. The nest-hole is excavated in dead wood or soft living wood, or in fungus-afflicted hard wood and most often in deciduous trees of variety of species. Its diet is chiefly ants (Myrmica, Lasius), termites (Isoptera) and their brood, which often make up more than 90% of stomach contents but it also feeds on other insects and spiders as well as the nest contents of other birds, fruits, berries, seeds, nuts, acorns and nectar. The species is non-migratory although some local post-breeding movements occur (Winkler and Christie 2015).

threats:
The large-scale clearance of old deciduous woodland and conversion to coniferous plantations, resulting in habitat loss and isolation is a major threat. Changes in forestry practice are shortening the rotation period, resulting in the loss of potential nesting trees and a marked reduction in the time-span available for nesting. High levels of nutrient input from agriculture are thought to reduce habitat suitability for ants and thus driving declines in the species main food supply. Orchards are also being lost through the expansion of villages. The extent and quality of riverine forests is also decreasing through flood-prevention schemes, canalization and damming (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The establishment of protected areas is insufficient to conserve this species. Forestry management should be reduced in intensity and the clear cutting of older woodland avoided in order to help build and maintain a network of old deciduous woodland. In addition rotation periods in forestry should be extended and the replacement of deciduous forest with coniferous halted. The reduction of nutrient input into areas outside of forest is required and nutrient poor grasslands should be maintained (Tucker and Heath 1994). There is very little research on this species in Europe. Studies on the species's ecology and population dynamics are needed (Pasinelli 2006). Also research should focus on the influence of modern forestry and agricultural land use on the distribution and frequency of the species (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Picus viridis has been split intoP. viridis and P. sharpei  by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group following studies by Perktas  (2011) and Olioso and Pons (2011), based on analysis of morphological  differences betweenviridis,sharpei andvaillantii, and

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This woodpecker is undergoing moderately rapid population declines in Spain, which holds the vast majority of the population of this EU27 endemic. It is therefore classified as Near Threatened in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is resident in the Iberian Peninsula, Pyrenees and in the extreme south of France, where it is found irregularly from Pyrénées-Atlantiques to Hérault (del Hoyo et al. 2015).

population:
The European population is estimated at 246,000-471,000 pairs, which equates to 492,000-941,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in relatively dry open woodland, both deciduous and mixed, as well as plantations, orchards, farmland and pastures, parks and garden and locally in grassy dunes.  It requires some mature trees and clearings with adjacent grassland and is found in the lowlands and hills to mountains up to ca 3,000 m. It lays from the end of March to June. Both parents incubate the clutch which is usually five to eight eggs. The nest is excavated at up to 10 m in a tree (del Hoyo et al. 2015). It feeds on ground-dwelling ants. Other insects are taken on the ground or in trees and occasionally fruit is taken too (Gorman 2014). The species is resident with some local movements outside the breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 2015).

threats:
No serious threats have been identified for this species. Habitat loss not yet a great problem, but it is believed that in future years it could become so (del Hoyo et al. 2015). It is thought the intensification of agriculture and forestry, as well as the conversion of pasture to arable land can affect populations of this species by reducing the population of ants. The clearing of wooded hedgerows, copses, isolated and river groves can limit potential nesting sites. Wildfires may have caused a decrease in the populations in Mediterranean regions. Other threats include localized illegal hunting and very cold winters (Martí and del Moral 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Habitat management for this species should include the conservation of old trees for nesting in woodlands, orchards and villages and the maintenance and restoration of feeding grounds such as small meadows, pastures, orchards and heaths (Tucker and Heath 1994). Monitoring and research are needed to inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Picus viridis has been split intoP. viridis and P. sharpei by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group following studies by Perktas (2011) and Olioso & Pons (2011), based on analysis of morphological differences betweenviridis,sharpei andvaillantii, and the n

population:
The European population is estimated at 587,000-1,050,000 pairs, which equates to 1,180,000-2,120,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 515,000-899,000 pairs, which equates to 1,030,000-1,800,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species uses a great variety of semi-open habitats. It is confined to larger open sections or clearings in extensively wooded areas, forest edges, copses, parks, orchards and residential areas, usually near mature deciduous trees, but often associated with conifers in mountains and in the north. Laying occurs from early April to June and clutches are usually five to eight eggs. The nest is excavated in dead or soft, living wood in unbroken trees. It feeds predominantly on ants with larger ant species generally preferred. Other insects are also taken, as are earthworms and snails and occasionally reptiles, fruits, berries and seeds. The species is resident, although some local winter movements occur (Winkler and Christie 2015).

threats:
The main threats to this species are the intensification of agriculture and forestry, and the conversion of pasture to arable land, which considerably reduces ant populations (Winkler and Christie 2015). Intensive forestry has also resulted in the loss of nest-sites (Tucker and Heath 1994). Harsh winter weather can also cause major mortality, effects of which may last for years (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Winkler and Christie 2015) and can be exacerbated by the impacts from other threats (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Wide-scale habitat conservation needs to be undertaken to maintain nesting and feeding habitats close to each other within structurally diverse landscapes. Actions should include the conservation of old trees for nesting in woodlands, orchards and villages and the maintenance and restoration of feeding grounds such as small meadows, pastures, orchards and heaths (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this grebe is undergoing moderately rapid population declines, and it is therefore classified as Near Threatened. Within the EU27 declines are more rapid and the total population is small, meaning that the regional classification here is Vulnerable.

range:
The species can be found across from Iceland, northern United Kingdom and Scandinavia in Europe, and throughout the centre of Russia. Wintering grounds occur further south, including the North Sea, Adriatic Sea, Black Sea and the Caspian Sea (Llimona et al. 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,400-9,200 pairs, which equates to 12,900-18,500 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,500-6,200 pairs, which equates to 7,000-12,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on small, shallow fresh (Llimona et al. 2014), brackish or slightly alkaline (Fjeldsa 2004) waters between 0.5 and 2 m deep and between 1 and 20 ha in area (Snow and Perrins 1998) with rich floating (Konter 2001), submergent and emergent vegetation (Fjeldsa 2004). Habitats include small pools, marshes with patches of open water and secluded sections of larger lakes and rivers (Llimona et al. 2014). In its wintering range the species frequents coastal inshore waters (Llimona et al. 2014) up to 10?20 m in depth (Fjeldsa 2004) including sheltered bays (Llimona et al. 2014), lagoons and estuaries (Ogilvie and Rose 2003). It may also occur on large lake and river systems south of its breeding range (Llimona et al. 2014, Fjeldsa 2004). The species breeds from April to August, generally in solitary isolated pairs. The nest is a platform of aquatic vegetation either floating and anchored to emergent vegetation, built from the lake bottom (where water is shallow) or built on rocks at water level. Clutch size can be between one to eight eggs but normally four to five in Europe. Its diet consists predominantly of fish and invertebrates such as adult and larval insects, crustaceans (Llimona et al. 2014), crayfish (Fjeldsa 2004) and crabs (Konter 2001), molluscs and worms. Fish and crustaceans are more important components of the diet during the winter when the species is at sea (Llimona et al. 2014). This species is fully migratory (Llimona et al. 2014) and travels over land in stages on a broad front, some populations only moving short distances to the nearest ice-free coast (Fjeldsa 2004).

threats:
The main threats to the species are human disturbance, forestry operations around breeding lakes (e.g. afforestation leading to hydrological changes and resulting in reduced numbers of invertebrate prey), fluctuating water levels, and the stocking of lakes with rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) (which competes with the species for aquatic insects) (Llimona et al. 2014). Historical range contractions have also occurred due to acidification and increased humus content of lakes, and the species is vulnerable to hypertrophication (Fjeldsa 2004). It is commonly caught and accidentally drowned in fishing nets (Llimona et al. 2014) and is particularly vulnerable to oil spills in the marine environment during the winter (Llimona et al. 2014, Ogilvie and Rose 2003, Fjeldsa 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II (western Palearctic populations). EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identify sites of international importance for the species and implement site protection. Populations should be closely monitored to determine whether numbers are stable or whether local declines are symptomatic of more widespread problems. Conduct survey work to accurately ascertain the current population sizes of both subspecies of horned grebe. Marginal populations in north-western Europe which have shown strong historical fluctuations should also should be monitored (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997). Stricter legislation on oil drilling and transport should be enforced and mitigation measures against bycatch in fisheries implemented.


population:
The European population is estimated at 330,000-498,000 pairs, which equates to 660,000-997,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 186,000-286,000 pairs, which equates to 373,000-572,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on fresh or brackish waters with abundant emergent and submerged vegetation, showing a preference for non-acidic eutrophic waterbodies with flat or sloping banks and muddy or sandy substrates (Snow and Perrins 1998) and large areas of open water. Suitable habitats include small pools or lakes, backwaters of slow-flowing rivers and artificial waterbodies (Llimona et al. 2014). The species overwinters on large exposed ice-free (Fjeldsa 2004) lakes and reservoirs, moving to sheltered coastal inshore waters (Snow and Perrins 1998) less than 10 m deep (Fjeldsa 2004) such as brackish estuaries, deltas, tidal channels and tidal lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998) during cold spells (Fjeldsa 2004). In Europe, it breeds between April and September. The nest is a platform of aquatic plant matter either floating on water and anchored to emergent vegetation or built from the lake bottom in shallow water (Llimona et al. 2014). Typical nest sites include reedbeds or flooded thickets as well as more open sites such as floating mats of water-weed or kelp fronds (Fjeldsa 2004). Normally three to five eggs are laid. Its diet consists predominantly of large fish as well as insects, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish, shrimps) and molluscs, occasionally also adult and larval amphibians. The species's invertebrate consumption is highest during the breeding season. The majority of this species is fully migratory although some populations may only undergo local dispersive movements (Llimona et al. 2014).

threats:
The species suffered declines in the nineteenth century as a result of hunting for the plume trade (this is no longer a threat). Amelioration of climate has actually helped this species expand in some areas (Llimona et al. 2014). The species is commonly drowned accidentally in monofilament gill-nets (fishing nets) (Fjeldsa 2004, Llimona et al. 2014). It may also be threatened by future coastal oil spills (Gorski et al. 1977), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species was included in the Grebes Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan published in 1997 (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation of this species relies on the protection of lake habitats, limiting water-based recreation at key sites and enhancing nesting habitat in predator-free environments. Key international sites should be identified and protected. Evaluate the potential of the species as a keystone indicator of wetland health (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997). Mitigation measures to reduce bycatch should be enforced. Strict legislation on the transportation of oil should be implemented to reduce the risk of future spills.


population:
The European population is estimated at 27,700-47,900 pairs, which equates to 55,400-95,800 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,400-18,400 pairs, which equates to 24,800-36,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on small, shallow inland waters with abundant emergent vegetation and stretches of open water, showing a preference for waters in forested areas or in shrub tundra further to the north. Suitable habitats include small pools and lakes, backwaters of large rivers, pools cut off from the sea in estuaries (Llimona et al. 2014) and coastal lagoons. In coastal locations the species often makes foraging flights to inland lakes or offshore areas, and if foraging at sea it shows a preference for sub-tidal locations down to a depth of 15 m with sand or gravel substrates, scattered rocks and patches of seaweed (Fjeldsa 2004). When moulting, on passage or during the winter the species frequents large inland lakes or shallow coastal areas (Fjeldsa 2004) with abundant fish stocks (Llimona et al. 2014), often considerable distances from the shore, amongst islands in archipelagos or over drop-off zones (Fjeldsa 2004).

The bird breeds from April or May to June or August. The nest is a floating platform of plant matter anchored to submerged or emergent vegetation. Clutches are normally three or four eggs (Llimona et al. 2014). Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates (Snow and Perrins 1998) such as adult and larval aquatic insects, crayfish and molluscs (Konter 2001), although fish are also important locally or seasonally. This species is fully migratory (Llimona et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is threatened by the modification and degradation of lakes and by human disturbance from water-based recreational activities. It may also be threatened by future oil spills at sea during the winter (although during this season the species is widely scattered along coasts, so the effects of oil spills are likely to be small) (Llimona et al. 2014). The species is also at risk from gillnet fisheries, wind turbines and the reduction of bottom habitats by dredging and coastal development (HELCOM 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species was included in the Grebes Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan published in 1997 (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key breeding and wintering sites should be identified and protected. In addition, boats near nesting areas should be restricted to minimise disturbance of incubating or brooding adults and prevent damage to nests. Research should be undertaken on the wintering and non-breeding activities of the species (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999). The enforcement of strict legislation on oil transportation would help reduce the risk of spills in the future and measures to reduce the impact of bycatch should be enforced. Impact assessments should be undertaken for wind energy development.


population:
The European population is estimated at 46,400-77,500 pairs, which equates to 92,800-155,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,900-17,700 pairs, which equates to 19,700-35,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species frequents permanent and temporary (Snow and Perrins 1998) small, shallow, highly eutrophic pools with lush vegetation, such as freshwater marshes and lakes (Llimona et al. 2015) with dispersed submergent vegetation and patches of reeds (Konter 2001, Fjeldsa 2004), as well as ponds and fish ponds, sewage farms, quiet river backwaters and newly flooded areas (Llimona et al. 2015). In southern Russia it shows a preference for variably developed reed swamps and gypsotrophic lakes (alkaline waters with rich submergent vegetation such as Chara and Potamogeton pectinatus) (Fjeldsa 2004). Outside of the breeding season the species moves to salt lakes (Llimona et al. 2015), hyper-saline industrial evaporation ponds (Fjeldsa 2004) and reservoirs, or to coastal estuaries, arms of the sea, and inshore shallows in bays and channels (Snow and Perrins 1998).

The breeding season runs from April to August with peak egg-laying in May and June (Llimona et al. 2015). It usually nests colonially in thinly spaced, emergent marsh vegetation (such as Scirpus, Typha or sedge Carex), or on dense mats of floating waterweed, sometimes far from the shore (Fjeldsa 2004). The nest is a floating platform of aquatic vegetation anchored to emergent vegetation. It usually lays three or four eggs (Llimona et al. 2015). The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of adult and larval insects, molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians (Llimona et al. 2015), midges and brine-flies, nereid worms, small fish (Fjeldsa 2004) and snails (Konter 2001). This species is fully migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998), although the extent of migration varies between populations and some populations remain predominantly sedentary, such as in Spain (Llimona et al. 2015).

threats:
The species is vulnerable to oil pollution as it frequently winters on the coast (Ogilvie and Rose 2003, Llimona et al. 2015), and is susceptible to avian cholera (Ogilvie and Rose 2003, Friend 2006), Erysipelas (Jensen and Cotter 1976, Friend 2006) and avian botulism (van Heerden 1974) so is threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. Populations have also been known to crash in winter habitats during El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events due to reductions in food availability due to warming sea-surface temperatures, although they afterwards rebound (Jehl et al. 2002). Local declines of this species are also attributed to human disturbance (especially recreational activities on lakes) (Llimona et al. 2015), and it is commonly killed by collisions with power transmission lines (Malcolm 1982). The species is predated by American Mink (Neovison vison) in the Slonsk Reserve, western Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species was included in the Grebes Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan published in 1997 (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key international sites should be identified and protected and monitoring of population fluctuations implemented at these sites. Evaluate the potential of the species as a keystone indicator of wetland health (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997). Power lines should be moved or made more visible to reduce collisions and predator control introduced at important breeding sites. Strict legislation on the transportation of oil should be implemented to reduce the risk of future spills.


taxonomicNotes:
Tachybaptus ruficollis (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into T. ruficollis and T. tricolor by Mlikovsky (2010) on the basis oftricolor's larger bill and darker underparts. Examination of material in Tring shows a very much darker belly than in oth

population:
The European population is estimated at 129,000-208,000 pairs, which equates to 258,000-417,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 94,300-143,000 pairs, which equates to 189,000-286,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits a wide range of small and shallow wetlands (Llimona et al. 2014) usually less than 1 m deep (Fjeldsa 2004) with rich vegetation (floating, submerged and emergent) and high densities of aquatic invertebrates, generally avoiding waters with large predatory fish (Konter 2001). Suitable habitats include small lakes, ponds, the sheltered bays and vegetated shores  of larger freshwater and reservoirs, canals (Llimona et al. 2014), slow-flowing rivers (Konter 2001), flood-plain oxbows, coastal brackish lagoons, alkaline or saline lakes, rice-fields (Brown et al. 1982), seasonally inundated areas, swamps, sewage lagoons (Fjeldsa 2004) and gravel pits (Santoul and Mastrorillo 2004). Outside of the breeding season it is common on more open waters and is occasionally observed along the coast in estuaries or sheltered bays protected from strong wave action (Llimona et al. 2014) and when moulting the species requires rich feeding areas (Fjeldsa 2004).

The timing of breeding varies geographically and depends on the growth of emergent vegetation and water-levels (Llimona et al. 2014). In Europe, egg-laying begins in late February (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a floating platform of aquatic plant matter (Llimona et al. 2014) anchored to emergent vegetation (Fjeldsa 2004), submerged branches or bushes close to the edge of shallow wetlands (Brown et al. 1982). Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects, especially mayflies, stoneflies, water bugs, beetles, flies, caddisflies and dragonflies, as well as molluscs, crustaceans, adult and juvenile amphibians and occasionally small fish (up to 11 cm) (Llimona et al. 2014) during the winter (Konter 2001). This species is sedentary, locally dispersive or fully migratory depending on the winter temperatures of its breeding grounds (Llimona et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). In Europe numbers often fluctuate, mainly as a result of winter conditions, such as the marked decline in Britain after the cold winter of 1962–1963, and similarly in the Netherlands after that of 1984–1985. The species suffers from the transformation of wetlands by destruction, pollution or recreational use but this is often offset by construction of man-made ponds, reservoirs and dams, leading to expansion of species in many areas (Llimona et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species was included in the Grebes Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan published in 1997 (O'Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997). In France it was found that the presence of aquatic macrophytes was the most important factor in attracting the species to new artificial habitats (such as gravel pits) (Santoul and Mastrorillo 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring and protection should be introduced to ensure the destruction of wetland habitats is mitigated and where possible prevented.


taxonomicNotes:
Hydrobates castro (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus  Oceanodroma. Oceanodroma castro (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was previously split into O. castro and O. monteiroi following Bolton et al. (2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,600-6,900 pairs, which equates to 13,100-13,700 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on undisturbed islets, in flat areas near the sea or inland on cliffs (Carboneras et al. 2014). Marine and highly pelagic, it occurs in warm temperate waters and rarely approaches land except near colonies. The species feeds mostly on planktonic crustaceans, small fish and squid; also feeds on some human refuse and scraps scattered by predators. Off the Azores its main diet includes lanternfish, small crustacea and squid. Feeds mainly on the wing, by pattering and dipping; also surface seizes. Most feed by day, and occur alone and in small aggregations in the Atlantic Ocean (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is directly exploited by local fishermen, particularly on some North East Atlantic islands. It is also susceptible to predation by introduced mammals, (e.g. rats, cats, mice and mongoose; Caral et al. 2005, Bried et al. 2009) and from native gull species such as Larus cachinnans. Habitat degradation and destruction in its breeding colonies is considered an issue (ICN 2006).  It is affected by light pollution at sea, and mortality might be significant around the Canary Islands (Rodriguez and Rodriguez 2009, Carboneras et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
  It is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention , and on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It occurs in 21 existing marine Important Bird Areas. In the EU it is listed in 17 Special Protection Areas.  

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued management of invasive predators at breeding colonies. Management of light pollution and shipping traffic to reduce collisions at night.


taxonomicNotes:
Hydrobates leucorhous (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Oceanodroma as O. leucorhoa.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be>10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is restricted to a small area when breeding and has an apparently decreasing population. There is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species has an extensive global range. Breeding colonies are confined to the northern hemisphere, and in Europe are found in Iceland, northern United Kingdom and Norway. Northern populations migrate south into the tropics in winter (Carboneras et al. 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 213,000-287,000 pairs, which equates to 426,000-574,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 36,300-65,300 pairs, which equates to 72,600-131,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine and pelagic, often occurring in areas of convergence or upwelling or over continental shelves, rarely coming near land except at colonies. Its diet comprises mainly of small fish, squid, planktonic crustaceans and offal which is catches on the wing by dipping, skimming or snatching from the surface. It sometimes follows marine mammals feeding on left overs or faeces. Its breeding season is variable depending on locality, forming colonies on offshore islands on high ground or slopes, usually among rocks but also in soft soil between trees (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
Species suffers severe predation, chiefly by native species including gulls (e.g. Herring (Larus argentatus), Great Black-backed (L. marinus) and Lesser Black-backed Gulls (L. fuscus)), Great Skuas (Catharacta skua), as well as from introduced mammalian predators; rats (Rattus spp.), cats (Felis catus), mice (Mus musculus), mink, otters and foxes; these are responsible for some local declines, and some colonies having moved to predator-free offshore stacks (Carboneras et al. 2014). It may be vulnerable to collisions with wind farms, although the current risk to the population is assessed as low (Bradbury et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
It is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is listed as occurring in nine marine Important Bird Areas, with sites in Iceland, Ireland and the United Kingdom. In the EU it is listed within 25 Special Protection Areas in France, Ireland, Spain and the United Kingdom. Various countries, including the United Kingdom have introduced artificial nest boxes to breeding colonies to reduce the predation risk and to facilitate monitoring of breeding success (Newson et al. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued monitoring of breeding success at colonies, including the provision of artificial nest boxes. Management of invasive predators.


taxonomicAuthority:
(Bolton, A.L. Smith, E. Gomez-Diaz, V.L. Friesen, R. Medeiro

taxonomicNotes:
Hydrobates monteiroi (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Oceanodroma. Oceanodroma castro (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was previously split into O. castro and O. monteiroi following Bolton et al. (2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This storm-petrel is endemic to the Azores (Portugal), where it has a very small population which is restricted to breeding on just two islets. It is therefore highly susceptible to stochastic events, and remains at risk of mammalian introductions and avian predators, and is listed as Vulnerable both in Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species breeds on two islets off the island of Graciosa in the Azores, Portugal. Breeding is suspected on further islets (including some stacks off Flores and Corvo island) in the Azores, but proof is still lacking (Bolton et al. 2008, J. Bried in litt. 2010).  It is thought to remain in the vicinity of the Azores during the non-breeding season, a suggestion which is supported by the analysis of carbon isotopes (Bolton et al. 2008). Although unlikely to occur eslewhere, identification amongst Madeiran Storm-petrel O. castro is difficult (W. Bourne in litt. 2012).

population:
The European population is estimated at 250-300 pairs, which equates to 500-600 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on small islets and forages over the open ocean. Breeding occurs during the 'hot season'; females lay eggs between early May (perhaps late April) and early July, incubating a single egg until as late as early August, with the first chicks hatching in early June and the latest chicks fledging in early October. Nests are burrows excavated in the soil (Fjeldså and Kirwan 2014). Its diet is poorly known, but thought to consist of small fish and squid, and it generally feeds on prey of a higher trophic level than Band-rumped Storm-petrel (Hydrobates castro) (Bolton et al. 2008). The movements of this species are virtually unknown but it is thought to forage throughout the year in local seas around the Azores (Fjeldså and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
Threats include high predation rates by Long-eared Owls (Asio otus) that are resident in the Azores; up to 40 adults are killed in some seasons (Bolton et al. 2008). Both breeding islets are currently free of ground predators, but their close proximity to Graciosa and the large numbers of visitors to one islet in the summer means that the introduction of rodents is a continuing threat (Bolton et al. 2008). Both islets lie within 2 km of the main shipping route for large passenger ferries and container ships docking on Graciosa. A cargo ship containing livestock ran aground on one of the breeding islets in 2000, leading to concerns over pollution and rodents escaping ashore (Bolton et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. Both breeding islets are designated under European legislation as Special Protection Areas and are assigned a full-time warden based on Graciosa (Bolton et al. 2008). Recent work to reduce interspecific competition for nest cavities with rabbits and other larger Procellariiform species through the installation of nest boxes has met with considerable success, leading to a large increase in annual productivity (Bolton et al. 2008). Nest boxes had higher productivity than natural nest sites, probably due to the greater degree of protection they provided from inclement weather and interspecific competition for nest space (Bried et al. 2009). Data from a MRR (mark-recapture-recovery) ringing study is being analysed, with preliminary results suggesting annual survival is high (F. Jiguet in litt. 2010).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Obtain an up-to-date population census. Continue constructing artificial nest-sites. Consider re-introducing the species to other islets in the Azores, reducing the potential impact of rodents being introduced to one of the current breeding islets. Monitor the breeding islets for rodent introductions. Assess predation by other potential predators including gulls and reptiles (particularly Madeira Lizard (Teira dugesii)).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 438,000-514,000 pairs, which equates to 876,000-1,030,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 137,000-154,000 pairs, which equates to 274,000-308,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a marine species feeding mainly on small fish, squid and crustaceans, but it will also feed on medusae and offal. It feeds mainly on the wing by pattering and fishing, and will occasionally follow ships and attend trawlers. Breeding starts in May and June, resulting in the formation of colonies on rocky ground on offshore islands and stacks that are largely free of mammalian predators (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
The accidental introduction of predators, such as rats and cats to breeding colonies is a major threat to this species, particularly in southern Europe and the Mediterranean (Cadiou et al. 2012, Carboneras et al. 2014). In some areas, increases in numbers of skuas and large gulls appear to have increased the rate of predation. Reduction of prey, caused by unsustainable fisheries may also impact this species (Madroño et al. 2005). There may be some risk from eating contaminated food items or taking indigestible matter but, by feeding in flight, the species is less vulnerable to oil spills than some other seabirds (Tucker and Heath 1994, Newbury et al. 1998). Coastal development, particularly in the Mediterranean region has caused habitat destruction and disturbance (Carboneras et al. 2014). The species is also vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including shifts in prey availability, and storms and extreme weather events. Light pollution from ships and coastal developments may also create a problem at night for this species (Jiménez et al. 2009, Sultana et al. 2011). In Molène archipelago, France, population has declined over last two decades due to continuous nest-site destruction (Carboneras et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species occurs within 88 existing marine Important Bird Areas (IBAs) across the region. Within the EU it is listed in 130 Special Protection Areas, in the Natura 2000 network. Conservation prospects for Mediterranean population recently improved through provision of nestboxes, which has led to increase in numbers breeding through heightened nesting success, while selective culling of gulls on same Spanish islands led to marked reduction (c. 65%) in number of petrels predated, and to relative increase in their survival and breeding success probabilities of 16% and 23%, respectively (Carboneras et al. 2014). There is active rat eradication and management programme in Britain designed to improve the conservation status of both the present species, H. leucorhous and Manx Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Rats, cats and other invasive mammals should be kept off breeding islands and these species should be removed from islands on which they are present (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This species is restricted to a very small area of Europe and the EU27 when breeding, and is apparently declining. It therefore qualifies as Endangered (B2ab(iii,v)) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species breeds in the north Atlantic, with colonies present in Canary Islands, Spain and Savage Islands (Portugal). Outside the breeding season birds from the Atlantic have been seen off the east coast of North America and South America, and off the western coast of Central Africa (Carboneras et al. 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 77,800-111,000 pairs, which equates to 156,000-221,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species uses marine and pelagic habitats (Carboneras et al. 2014). It comes ashore only to breed (Jouanin and Roux 1965, Jensen 1981). On the Selvagens (Portugal) egg-laying is reported mid-March to early June, with the clutch a single egg (Carboneras et al. 2014). Birds excavate long burrows in sandy soil usually among thick vegetation which conceals the entrance hole (Snow and Perrins 1998). The breeding grounds on the Selvagens have a good covering of vegetation, mostly of ice-plants (Mesembryanthemum cristallinum), the roots of which stabilize the very sandy soil (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is present on breeding islands from March to September and may disperse to areas off the east coast of North America (Carboneras et al. 2014). It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
In general this species is highly sensitive to human disturbance and locally subject to exploitation by fishermen. It is also affected by predators such as mice (Mus musculus), rats (Rattus spp.), cats (Felis catus), owls, skuas (Catharacta), large gulls (Larus spp.) and snakes (Carboneras et al. 2014). Other threats include: habitat degradation and problems caused by rabbits, disturbance from other birds, attraction to light at night (Madroño et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is listed as Vulnerable in the Spanish Red Data Book. The current breeding colonies in Spain are covered by the ENP (Espacios Naturales Protegidos) network. In 1992 the Department of the Environment launched a program to monitor the population and breeding success of the species. The European Union has granted the governing body of Lanzarote funding for a LIFE project in the Natural Park of the Chinijo Archipelago which provided some conservation actions that benefit the species. Chief among them was the eradication of rabbits from Clara Mountain Island, which has been a great success (Madroño et al. 2004). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Human exploitation should be terminated and eradication of introduced predators on all breeding islands is also recommended (Carboneras et al. 2014). Develop and publish a Plan of Conservation for the species and ensure its guidelines are implemented. Planning tools of ENP should be developed and approved to restrict access to breeding sites. Light-reducing mechanisms should be developed in urban areas next to the breeding areas and injured birds recovered (Madroño et al. 2004). Programmes of eradication or control of cats and rabbits on islets with the species should be set up (Madroño et al. 2004, Carboneras et al. 2014) and mechanisms established to prevent the spread of potentially dangerous mammals, especially on Clara Mountain Island. Continue regular monitoring of the population and reproductive success, as well as conducting surveys in potential habitats in order to detect new colonies (Madroño et al. 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 6,100 pairs, which equates to 12,100 mature individuals.The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine and highly pelagic, usually being found far from land except during the breeding season. Nests can be burrows, crevices, cracks or caves, under debris or vegetation cover. Its diet comprises mainly of fish and squid, with minor proportions of crustaceans and sea-striders, feeding largely at night by surface-seizing (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
Predation by cats, rats and endemic invertebrates occurs at breeding colonies in the North East Atlantic (Cabral et al. 2005, Matoas et al 2009). A large colony in Desertas Island (Madeira) suffers intense human exploitation for food or fish bait, which also occurs in other North East Atlantic sites although not in Salvage Island (Madeira), since the declaration of the island as a national park (Carboneras et al. 2014). Light pollution at night might be important cause of mortality in some areas. Habitat loss at colony sites is also considered a threat to this species in the Canary Islands, Madeira and Azores (Carboneras et al. 2014). The species is vulnerable to oil spills and marine pollution. It is at risk of being caught as bycatch in fishing gear including pelagic longlines (Waugh et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
It is listed under Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and under Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is currently listed as occurring in 26 marine Important Bird Areas. In the EU it is listed within 23 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Ongoing management and eradication of invasive predators at breeding colonies; enforcement and regulation of human exploitation; mitigation and reduction of light pollution from shipping and human settlements; bycatch monitoring on board vessels and reduction and mitigation on fishing vessels where appropriate.


taxonomicNotes:
Calonectris diomedea and C. borealis (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as C. diomedea following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), which was also formerly lumped with C. edwardsii following Hazevoet (1995), contra Brooke (2004).

population:
The European population is estimated at 252,000-253,000 pairs, which equates to 504,000-507,000 mature individuals.The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine and pelagic, usually keeping well away from land, except at colonies (del Hoyo et al. 2014). It breeds on barren offshore islands, occupying cliffs, caves and boulder fields; sometimes inland on rocky slopes and also under Myrica faya trees in the Azores (Thibault et al. 1997). It returns to colonies at the start of February and breeding starts in April (del Hoyo et al. 2014). The species is colonial, often nesting near other tubenoses (Thibault et al. 1997). It nests in burrows, rock crevices, natural hollows or cracks, with or without some nesting material (Ramos et al. 1997). Clutch size a single egg. There are few if any known differences in diet and foraging behaviour from Calonectris diomedea (del Hoyo et al. 2014), with fish, squid, crustaceans and occasionally zooplankton taken (Monteiro et al. 1996). The species is migratory, regularly recorded mainly from July and October between the Bay of Biscay and south-west Ireland, with sometimes 1,000s reported in single year off British Isles (Fraser & Ryan 1992, White & Kehoe 2014). It winters off the east coasts of North and South America (Olmos et al. 1995, Pacheco and Maciel 1995, Azevedo Júnior et al. 2001, Olmos 2002, Lima et al. 2004), south to Argentine waters (Flood et al. 2013), and in the south-west Indian Ocean, where the species is recorded in large numbers, December–March (mainly November–February off South Africa) (Howell 2012). Off the east coast of North America, the species mainly occurs May to November, with occasional records as early as April and as late as December (del Hoyo et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is threatened by the impacts of introduced mammals and shows marked increases in breeding success following mammal control actions (Zino et al. 2008). Other threats on the Azores include the poaching of chicks on one island (500–1,500 chicks taken annually on Santa Maria island (J. Bairos per comm., Fontaine et al. 2011)) and mortality of fledglings caused by artificial lights (Fontaine et al. 2011). The population on Selvagem Grande is not thought to be suffering unsustainable mortality from fisheries bycatch, although it may not be representative of other Atlantic islands occupied by the species (Granadeiro et al. 2006). A study by Ramos et al. (2012) utilising long-term capture-recapture data and year-round tracking data for birds on Selvagem Grande suggests that incidental bycatch by long-line fisheries contributes to a decrease in adult survival probability during the breeding season. The species may also suffer the impacts of bycatch in its non-breeding range (e.g. Granadeiro et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
In Europe most important breeding areas are in protected areas (Madroño et al 2004, Cabral et al. 2005). In Spain, sporadic counts of breeding populations occur in some colonies, mostly in the Balearic Islands but in the Columbretes, counts are more regular. Reproductive success is also monitored in the Chafarinas (Madroño et al 2004). A study of the incidental mortality of seabirds in waters around the Columbretes Islands (SEO/BirdLife, General Secretariat of Fisheries) found high numbers of this species were killed by longline fisheries, however mortality could be reduced by avoiding setting lines around sunrise and sunset (Belda and Sanchez 2001). Research projects and awareness campaigns, some of which were financed through the LIFE Programme have taken place in Portugal (Cabral et al. 2005).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Adequate protection (e.g. through SPAs) of all breeding areas both current and historical should be ensured. Actively managing the breeding colonies (eliminating predators, recreating the breeding habitat) and removing predators from the former breeding colonies to promote the natural return of the species, will also help secure the species. The proper use of corrective measures in longline fisheries to avoid accidental capture of birds should be promoted and specific corrective measures to prevent accidental capture of the species in longline fisheries should be developed, in collaboration with the fishing industry. Marine areas which are important for the conservation of the species should be designated SPAs and assessments of the environmental impact of new developments and activities that are planned need to be established. Conduct national censuses of this species and monitor breeding colonies to determine accurate populaton trends. Water sports in the vicinity of breeding colonies should be regulated, especially at night, in order to avoid disturbing the birds. The regulation of artificial lighting in the breeding areas and adjacent coastal areas, to minimize their impact particularly on young birds at the time of fledging, is also important (Madroño et al 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 30,500-48,100 pairs, which equates to 60,900-96,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 29,300-46,200 pairs, which equates to 58,500-92,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is marine and pelagic usually keeping well away from land, except at colonies (Carboneras et al. 2014). It breeds on barren offshore islands, occupying cliffs, caves and boulder fields; sometimes inland on rocky slopes, up to 435 m above sea-level (Thibault et al. 1997). Birds return to colonies in February and breeding starts April (Carboneras et al. 2014). It is colonial, nesting in burrows (c. 2 m long) (Fernandez 1995) rock crevices, natural hollows or cracks, sometimes in caves up to c. 20 m deep (Carboneras et al. 2014). Clutch size a single egg (Thibault et al. 1997). It feeds mainly on fish, squid, crustaceans, other zooplankton and offal at least during the breeding season (Brooke 2004). The species is migratory, generally departing the breeding grounds in mid to late October (Carboneras et al. 2014). It is known to winter mainly in the Canary Current (Navarro et al. 2009). Mediterranean birds exit into the Atlantic, where they move rapidly south, but also uncommon to rare off eastern North America (mainly May-October) (Howell 2012), and some birds occasionally range northwards in the north-east Atlantic, to British Isles (Fisher & Flood 2004, 2010) and Sweden (Erterius 2005), with other accidental records from Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland and Ukraine (Thibault et al. 1997). It was previously thought to occur off South Africa in November-May but recent work found that Calonectris borealis is far more abundant over the continental shelf and in offshore areas than C. diomedea (Camphuysen & van der Meer 2001) and the two species appear well-segregated during northern winter (Navarro et al. 2009).

threats:
The main threats to this species include the impacts of invasive, non-native mammals and mortality from fisheries bycatch (Derhé 2012, Carboneras et al. 2013). Recent studies have highlighted the pressures imposed by introduced mammal species, and colonies have shown marked increases in breeding success during mammal control measures (e.g. Igual et al. 2006, Pascal et al. 2008). This species is one of the most frequent seabird species to occur in bycatch in the Mediterranean (Valeiras and Caminas 2003, García-Barcelona et al. 2010, Laneri et al. 2010), with estimates of the number of individuals killed annually by Spanish fleets ranging from 200 (García-Barcelona et al. 2010) to 467-1,867 (estimated 4-6% of the local breeding population; Belda and Sanchez 2001). There have been fewer assessments of the impacts of long-line and other national fisheries on this species. Results from a questionnaire suggest an annual bycatch of up to 1,220 individuals of this species by Maltese fleets (8.5-10% of the breeding population), although this is likely to be an over-estimate skewed by high bycatch in a small number of vessels (Dimech et al. unpubl. per Derhé 2012). The species may also suffer significant bycatch in its non-breeding range (e.g. Granadeiro et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. In most areas human exploitation has ceased or is only occasional and some breeding islands have been declared reserves. Feasibility of eradicating Rattus rattus from Italian islands with breeding seabirds has been evaluated, but would apparently be of much greater benefit to Puffinus yelkouan than the present species, while an intensive rat-control programme was successfully initiated at two subcolonies on Chafarinas Is (Spain) in 1999-2004 (Carboneras et al. 2014). In addition, censuses, monitoring, creation of protected areas and studies of the species's biology and ecology have all taken place. At colonies mammal control, provision of artificial nest sites and management to reduce disturbance have also been implemented (Anselme& Durand 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Rat control programmes appear to deliver only a small increase in the population growth rate whereas change in adult survival has a much larger impact. Therefore increasing adult survival is of greater importance and rat eradication programmes can only be used to 'buy' time (Igual et al. 2009). Further research and monitoring is required and the continuation of measures to reduce disturbance. Actions to reduce the impact of L. michahellis where appropriate should be implemented. An international network with the aim to prioritize conservation actions and monitoring programmes should be developed. Mortality in longline fishing should be monitored and measures such as setting longlines only at certain times of the day to reduce the accidental catch should be followed (Belda and Sanchez 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This seabird began undergoing rapid declines across parts of its European breeding range during the 1980s and 1990s. Extrapolated over a three generation period (92 years), allowing for considerable uncertainty given the long trend period (and even assuming current rates of decline do not continue), the species warrants classification as Endangered (A4abcde) in Europe and Vulnerable (A4abcde) in the EU27 (where declines have been less rapid).

range:
The species is found throughout the north Atlantic and North Sea, north of 45°N (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Its boreal distribution  has increased over the last 250 years to Iceland, the Faroes, Spitsbergen and suitable areas of coastline in Britain (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,380,000-3,500,000 pairs, which equates to 6,760,000-7,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 533,000 pairs, which equates to 1,070,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species spends large amounts of time in waters over continental shelf; ranging from the Arctic pack ice through to subarctic and temperate waters in the North East Atlantic. The species typically breeds on cliffs and rock faces, occasionally in sand dunes or on flatter ground (e.g., North Rona, Scotland), sometimes > 2 km inland (up to 10 km in Svalbard); in places it nests near habitation, sometimes even on occupied houses along seafronts of towns (Carboneras et al. 2014). Its diet is variable, but includes fish (e.g., capelin (Mallotus villosus), Norway pout (Trisopterus esmarkii), whiting (Merlangius merlangus)), squid and zooplankton, especially amphipods (Thysanoessa, Hyperia, Gammarus, Themisto) and jellyfish (e.g., Aurelia aurita, Cyanea capillata, Rhizostoma octopus); also fish offal and carrion. In the North Sea its diet includes mainly lesser sandeels (Ammodytes marinus) (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
The species was subject to intensive exploitation for food in the past, and hunting remains in Greenland, Svalbard and the Faroe Islands (Thorup et al. 2014).  In some breeding colonies the species is susceptible to predation from invasive mammals, such as foxes, rats, mice etc. It is vulnerable to oil spills, particularly in the North East Atlantic, but increasingly in its Northern range (Mendel et al. 2008). It is highly susceptible to ingesting marine litter and plastics (Van Franeker et al. 2011). Bycatch in fisheries is also a significant threat, with large numbers recorded as caught in longline fisheries in the North East Atlantic and in trawl fisheries (Dunn et al. 2001, Anderson et al. 2011) as well as in gillnet fisheries (Žydelis et al. 2013) . It is susceptible to collision and displacement from offshore wind farms, although this is currently considered to be a very low risk (Bradbury et al. 2014). It may also be disturbed and displaced by shipping lanes. Large wrecks of this species in North Sea in Feb 2004 thought to be caused by multiple factors, namely low food abundance, persistent bad weather, higher levels of pollutants, and secondary diseases (Van Franeker 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered by the EU Birds Directive as a migratory species. It occurs within 29 marine Important Bird Areas, including in the Faroe Islands, France, Germany, Iceland, Svalbard (Norway) and the United Kingdom. Within the EU it is listed within 46 Special Protection Areas. Under the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive it will be monitored for plastic ingestion.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification and protection of important sites at sea, as well as for prey species. Continued monitoring of marine litter ingestion, and increased efforts for removal of plastic from oceans. Monitoring of seabird bycatch across all relevant fishing gears and implementation of bycatch mitigation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Pterodroma feae and P. deserta (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as P. feae following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This recently-split petrel is endemic to Europe and the EU27, breeding on just one small islet in Madeira (Portugal). It is listed as Vulnerable in both Europe and the EU27 because, although its population appears to be stable, it is nevertheless very small, and the species occupies a very small range on only one island when breeding, and is therefore susceptible to human impacts, including introduced species and stochastic events.

range:
The species breeds on Bugio in the Desertas off Madeira, Portugal (Ramírez 2008). Outside the breeding season it is found in the North Atlantic during the pre-laying exodus, incubation and check-rearing periods, and will range further south during the winter (Ramírez et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 160-180 pairs, which equates to 320-360 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine and pelagic. It breeds at 80-300 m asl, usually in burrows excavated in the soil, although recently nests were found in rock crevices in areas where soil is not present (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007). Clutch size is a single egg (Fjeldså and Kirwan 2014). Birds return to their breeding grounds in early June and juveniles fledge throughout December (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007). It feeds on squid and small fish. Outside of the breeding season birds disperse over subtropical waters in the east of the North Atlantic (Fjeldså and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
Historically, the species and its breeding sites have been affected by habitat degradation caused by introduced goats, rabbits and mice (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007). However, rabbits and mice have been controlled since 2006 (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007) and goats are reported to only rarely visit the plateau where the breeding sites are located on Bugio (Ramirez 2008). Predation and disturbance by Yellow-legged Gulls (Larus cachinnans) are potential threats on Bugio. Despite mitigation work, soil erosion at nesting areas remains a threat (J. Sultana in litt. 2013, I. Ramirez in litt. 2014), with extreme weather events, especially in winter, having the potential for major impacts on the areas of soil used for nesting burrows (I. Ramirez in litt. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
A European action plan was published in 1996 (Zino et al. 1996) and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Since 2006, an eradication programme for rabbits and mice has been in force, and is on-going. As a result, their effect on the most sensitive areas is already negligible. A contingency plan for accidental introductions of invasive species is being developed. A goat eradication programme is on-going and not yet complete. The threat from Yellow-legged Gulls is being monitored (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007). Natural vegetation has been replanted, anti-erosion blankets installed, wardening and monitoring conducted and artificial burrows installed on Bugio as part of a LIFE Nature project (Menezes 2007, Menezes et al. 2011). Geolocators were attached to some individuals from 2007 to investigate foraging ecology (Ramirez 2008). Monitoring of the species is carried out by staff from the Madeiran Natural Park and other researchers, although such work requires great efforts, as the southern plateau of Bugio is extremely remote (I. Ramirez in litt. 2014).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct coordinated surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate for the total breeding population. Continue annual surveys to monitor population trends. Study the at-sea distribution of the species. Complete control measures against goats. Continue control measures against rabbits and mice. Assess the impact of Yellow-legged Gulls through detailed research.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This species qualifies as Endangered because it has an extremely small population breeding on six cliff ledges in the central mountain massif of Madeira. A fire at the breeding colony in 2010 decimated fledgling numbers, although the long-term effects on the population size and trend are as yet unknown. Should new studies reveal the population to be decreasing, the species's status would warrant revising.

range:
The species has a breeding population in the central mountain massif of Madeira, Portugal, though subfossil remains elsewhere in Madeira and on the neighbouring island of Porto Santo (Zino et al. 2001) suggest that it was formerly more widespread. Currently, birds are only known to breed on six inaccessible ledges although ongoing surveys may yet reveal more breeding sites (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007).

population:
The European population is estimated at 70-80 pairs, which equates to 130-160 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on ledges on inland cliffs at 1600 m. Good vegetation and sufficient earth to dig burrows is essential for nesting (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). During the day it is seen no closer than 3–5 km to the shore and only returns at night (Tucker and Heath 1994). The breeding season begins in early April with egg-laying occurring May to early June. Clutch size is a single egg (Carboneras et al. 2014). Little is known about the diet but regurgitated material has contained small fish, squid and crustaceans (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is migratory however there is little information on where it goes outside of the breeding season. Current evidence indicates most birds disperse widely to Mauritania and Senegal, NE Brazil, and the tropical waters along the southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge to St Helena and west of the Gulf of Guinea (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
Following the removal of all livestock from the breeding areas, the ecosystem had been recovering well prior to the 2010 fire, although breeding only occurs on ledges that were never accessible to grazing animals (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007). The fire in 2010 (see Zino and Biscoito 2011) highlights the vulnerability of the species to such events, since it breeds on only six ledges at one location. As well as having a catastrophic impact on the survival of the year's fledglings and some adults, fires also increase soil erosion and make the habitat more barren, making the chicks more vulnerable to predation (P. Oliveira in litt. 2010). Currently, the main threats are predation of eggs and chicks by introduced black rats (Rattus rattus) and of nesting adults by feral cats (Felis catus). The increasing number of visitors at night may also cause disturbance to breeding birds, although this is being carefully monitored by the relevant authorities (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira in litt. 2007). The sole remaining breeding site is threatened by the construction of a NATO radar station on the summit of Mt Areeiro which began in November 2009. Although an Environmental Impact Assessment has been conducted to minimise the threat to the species, is it still feared that the construction and presence of the station will have a negative impact (Barov and Derhé 2011). The species is also potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 1,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (1,861 m) (BirdLife International unpublished data). Shepherds formerly collected juveniles for food, and egg-collectors have raided nest-burrows in the past.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is protected under Portuguese law. The breeding sites have been designated a Special Protection Area (SPA) under the EU's Wild Birds Directive and lie within the Parque Natural da Madeira. A European Action Plan was published in 1996 and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Successful predator control and research has been carried out since 1986 by the Freira Conservation Project and the Parque Natural da Madeira, which has led to increases in the productivity of this species (Zino et al. 2001, Carlile et al. 2003). This programme was expanded in 2001 with additional funding provided by a multidisciplinary EU LIFE project, which also enabled the purchase of c.300 ha of land around the main breeding site (Menezes and Oliveira 2003, Unwin 2004). A project on the identification of marine IBAs in Portugal may allow the species to be studied at sea (I. Ramirez in litt. 2005). Over 2007-2010, dataloggers were attached to 14 breeding birds to determine the distribution of the birds at sea and seasonal changes in distribution from the breeding to non-breeding season (Zino et al. 2011). The Parque Natural da Madeira and SPEA have been monitoring the colony intensively since the 2010 fire and have developed an action plan for the breeding colony which includes immediate emergency measures to mitigate the consequences of the fire along with more long-term activities. As part of the emergency measures following the fires, anti-erosion coconut mesh was installed on the breeding ledges to protect the soil in some of the most critical places and c.100 natural nests were restored, while 60 new artificial nests were built. A protective cordon was also built around the known breeding areas, with cat traps and bait boxes (BirdLife International 2012, D. Menezes in litt. 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Investigate novel methods of cat predator control and continue control of rats. Exclude grazing stock from potential breeding areas. Continue research to determine the species's population status and distribution, such as searching for new breeding ledges. Monitor the known breeding population. Establish a management plan for the Parque Natural da Madeira. Control human access and disturbance to breeding sites. Assess the potential impact of the proposed radar station. Assess the impact of the 2010 fires on the species's population size and trends.


taxonomicNotes:
Puffinus lherminieri (incorporating baroli), P. bannermani, P. persicus, P. subalaris and P. bailloni (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as P. lherminieri and baroli was subsumed under P. assimilis, following Brooke (2004), before which P.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species has a small, apparently decreasing population in Europe and the EU27, which is restricted to a small area when breeding. It therefore qualifies as Near Threatened in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is found in the tropical and subtropical waters of the eastern Atlantic Ocean, breeding in the Azores, Madeira, Desertas, the Savage Islands and the Canary Islands (Carboneras et al. 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,900-3,800 pairs, which equates to 5,900-7,600 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is marine and is normally found in offshore waters, but also pelagic and near land in the vicinity of colonies. It breeds on oceanic islands and rocky offshore islets, occupying cliffs and earthy slopes, usually with little more than herbaceous vegetation, or amongst rocks. In the north-east Atlantic it breeds mainly late February to March (Carboneras et al. 2014). It breeds from late January in the, birds from the Salvages (Madeira) arrive at colonies in July. The species is colonial, often nesting at low densities and in small numbers, sometimes in mixed colonies with other species, for example Calonectris diomedea, which out-competes the present species for burrows in the Azores (Monteiro et al. 1996). It nests in rock crevices or self-excavated burrows and clutch size is a single egg. It feeds mainly on fish, squid and crustaceans. Little is known about the species’s movements. Adults are thought to be largely sedentary and immatures probably more dispersive (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
This species is vulnerable to human exploitation; along, with habitat destruction this may be responsible for some local extinctions and near-extinctions. In the Canary Islands, light-induced mortality has been reported (Carboneras et al. 2014). Other potential threats are marine pollution, predation by introduced species, development for tourism, collection for consumption and bycatch from fisheries (Madroño et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. In Spain, awareness campaigns have been run to promote the conservation of this species (Madroño et al. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Control of invasive rats and cats is needed in colonies. Breeding areas and their surroundings should be protected and new marine reserves created. Censuses and monitoring is needed to ascertain distribution and it population size. In the Canaries, studies on the impact of fisheries would help inform conservation (Madroño et al. 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
Puffinus yelkouan (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into P. yelkouan and P. mauretanicus following Brooke (2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

This species, endemic to Europe and the EU27 as a breeder, has a tiny breeding range and a small population which is undergoing an extremely rapid population decline owing to a number of threats, in particular predation at breeding colonies by introduced mammals and at-sea mortality as a result of fisheries by-catch. Population models predict an extremely rapid decline over three generations (54 years), qualifying the species as Critically Endangered (A4bcde). However, this assumption was based on the existence of a population of c.2,000 breeding pairs, which could have been underestimated according to recent population estimates and records at sea, plus a recent re-evaluation of some colonies (i.e. increased accuracy in the estimates). Updated population viability analysis to re-evaluate the species's status is planned, incorporating recent population estimates and improved demographic data. Should this analysis reveal that the species is declining at a more moderate rate, this species will warrant downlisting.

range:
The species occurs in the western and central Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic Ocean. It breeds in the Balearic Islands, Spain (del Hoyo et al. 2014), with colonies present on Mallorca, Cabrera, Ibiza and Formentera (Arcos 2011).

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,200 pairs, which equates to 6,400 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine, usually found around inshore waters (del Hoyo et al. 2014). It breeds on cliffs and small islets and lays only one egg. Adult birds do not breed until their third year (Oro et al. 2004). Breeding occurs between February and June (Ruiz & Martí 2004). The species nests in colonies, in rock crevices or on cave ledges lined sparsely with plant material. It feeds mostly on small shoaling fish, squid and crustaceans (del Hoyo et al. 2014). After breeding, most birds leave the Mediterranean for the Atlantic coast of south-west Europe, mainly Portugal, north-west Spain and the Bay of Biscay (Ruiz and Martí 2004, Ramírez et al. 2008, Arcos et al. 2009).

threats:
This is a long-lived species and therefore immediate threats affect adult mortality rates. Adult survival is the main conservation concern, as this is unusually low for a Procellariiform (Oro et al. 2004). In accordance, the main threats identified are predation by introduced carnivores such as cats, martens and genets in the breeding colonies (Arcos and Oro 2004, Ruiz and Martí 2004, Jones et al. 2008, Arcos 2011) and fisheries by-catch at sea (Arcos 2011). The species's gregarious behaviour and its close association with fishing boats means that occasional mass mortality is likely to occur when long-line boats fish close to flocks (Arcos et al. 2008) and it appears that bycatch is fairly common but often occurs on an irregular basis, suggesting that estimates derived from observations on a limited number of trips onboard fishing vessels could be largely underestimates (Boue et al. 2013). Increasing evidence on this has been compiled in the last few years, with events of up to a hundred or more birds caught in a single event, in occasions involving other fishing gear such as purse-seiners (ICES 2008, Louzao et al. 2011). Due to the congregatory behaviour of the species, acute pollution events such as oil spills also pose a very serious threat as a large number of casualties could result from a spill occurring in a congregation area (Ruiz and Martí 2004, Gutiérrez 2011). Other threats include: the reduction of prey due to fishing overexploitation; a potential reduction in fishing discards (an alternative to the overexploited natural prey) and/or anthropogenic environmental change (Arcos 2011); habitat degradation and disturbance in the breeding grounds; background pollution (Oro et al. 2008); the development of marine windfarms (Arcos 2011a); and human harvesting (nowadays a relict activity). Predation by Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in the breeding colonies has also been recently reported (García 2009, Wynn et al. 2010), though this should be considered as a factor of natural mortality that likely has little influence on the decline of the species. The gradual northward movement of the non-breeding population may be affecting adult survival, and this shift may be due to climate change or alterations in fish distributions as a result of fisheries' activities (Yésou 2003, Wynn and Yésou 2007). The recent demographic decline has not yet decreased the species's genetic variability and connectivity found among colonies at least does not exacerbate the species's extinction risk (Genovart et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I. All breeding sites are currently protected as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Natura 2000 network, with the unique exception of the colony of Punta Prima in Formentera where new information has revealed that the prevailing colony (50 pp.) lays right outside the SPA (and the overlapping Important Bird Area, IBA) designated for this species. The management plans for the Balearic SPAs have not been yet implemented. Management plans are therefore limited to colonies covered by other designations, such as the National Park of Cabrera and the Natural Park of Sa Dragonera. Rat eradication campaigns have been conducted at several colonies, including Cabrera archipelago and Dragonera Island, but less effort has been directed at the colonies of greatest concern where carnivores are present (e.g. Formentera and Menorca). At sea, the Spanish Government has started the process of SPA designation based on the inventory of marine IBAs conducted by SEO/BirdLife, which, once concluded, will provide protection to the main hotspots for the species in Spanish waters. So far only a few small coastal sites have been designated as SPAs by the regional governments in Spain. Portugal already has an inventory of marine IBAs, but their designation as SPAs is still pending. Finally, France has also proposed a network of SPAs that include hotspots for the species. Management plans for all the marine SPAs are still pending. Action Plans for the species have been published at local, national or international level in 1991, 1999, 2004, and 2005 (Jones et al. 2008). A LIFE project for the species ran from 1991-2001 (Ruiz and Martí 2004), and Spain and Portugal had a joint LIFE project running from 2004-2008 aimed at identifying marine IBAs, including for this species (Ramírez et al. 2008, Arcos et al. 2009). A number of actions are currently being implemented through Species Guardians SEO/BirdLife and SPEA as part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme. Moreover, research on the species is also being conducted by BirdLife partners in collaboration with several research centres, with funding from EC projects LIFE+ INDEMARES (Spain) and Interreg FAME (Portugal, Spain, France, UK and Ireland). The main initiatives include the assessment of bycatch through questionnaires to fishermen, observers onboard fishing vessels and conducting beached bird surveys, and the identification of hotspots at sea through boat surveys, coastal counts and tracking studies (breeding and non-breeding grounds).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Control and eradicate introduced predators (with particular emphasis on carnivores) in breeding colonies identified as at risk. Thoroughly study the problem of bycatch by long-line fishing and develop awareness campaigns directed at the fishing sector, in order to mitigate this threat, plus assess and implement the appropriate mitigation measures. Ensure effective protection for nesting sites and marine hotspots, and the implementation of monitoring schemes and management plans. Develop a rapid response plan for a potential oil spill close to main feeding and breeding areas. Raise awareness and stop human exploitation. Study small pelagic fish populations in the western Mediterranean and in the Bay of Biscay to assess extent of over-exploitation and how this affects the species. Assess the impact of pollutants and heavy metals on this species. Improve understanding of at-sea distribution, including during the non-breeding season.


population:
The European population is estimated at 342,000-393,000 pairs, which equates to 684,000-785,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 314,000-359,000 pairs, which equates to 629,000-718,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Breeding starts in March, and the species forms colonies on coastal or offshore islands, nesting in burrows (Carboneras et al. 2014). At sea this species is mainly found on waters over the continental shelf, feeding predominantly on small shoaling fish (Clupea harengus, Sprattus sprattus, Ammodytes marinus) but also on some squid, crustaceans and offal. It feeds mainly by pursuit-plunging and pursuit-diving; also by surface-seizing and pattering either alone or in small flocks (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
Considerable human exploitation continues in the Azores and in Islands of Madeira (Carboneras et al. 2014) and legal harvesting (1,000–5,000 chicks per annum) also continues on the Faeroe Islands (Thorup et al. 2014). The species suffers predation by rats and feral cats at many of its breeding colonies (control programmes are in effect at some, while additional work is planned) (Zonfrillo 2007). Light pollution causing mortality has been recorded at some sites (e.g., Canary Islands) (Carboneras et al. 2014) and the species may also be displaced from foraging areas by shipping lanes. Habitat destruction and fire induced damage to breeding colonies within the Canary Islands is believed to impact on the species. The species is vulnerable to oil spills (Votier et al. 2005) and to other types of marine water pollution (Camphuysen et al. 2010). The species is vulnerable to being caught as fisheries bycatch, including in longlines and gillnets (Žydelis et al. 2013).  While the increasing number of wind farms may cause collisions or displacement, it is currently considered a very low risk for this species (Bradbury et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is covered by the EU Birds Directive as a migratory species. It occurs in 20 marine Important Bird Areas including in the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Ireland, the U.K. and Spain. Within the EU it is listed in 53 Special Protection Areas in France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and Spain. Current work in the United Kingdom and Ireland is tracking their seasonal movements and identifying foraging hotspots for protection.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification and designation of important sites at sea. Management of invasive alien species within breeding colonies and monitoring and enforcement (where appropriate) of human exploitation. Increased observer effort on board fishing vessels to monitor bycatch rates, and implementation where appropriate of bycatch mitigation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 19,400-31,200 pairs, which equates to 38,800-62,400 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 19,100-29,800 pairs, which equates to 38,200-59,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine, frequenting mostly inshore waters. It breeds on rocky coastal and offshore islets, and on the mainland (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is a colonial breeder, nesting in rock crevices or ledges in caves, occasionally in old rabbit burrows, lined with sparse plant material. It sometimes nests on cliffs. Clutch is a single white egg. The species forages mostly by pursuit-plunging and pursuit-diving. Diet composition varies through the year but consists mostly of fish, squid and crustacea (Carboneras et al. 2014). In the non-breeding season it disperses widely within the Mediterranean and Black Seas, often congregating in large flocks (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The most serious threat to the species is mortality from incidental fishing bycatch, followed by predation by invasive predators (predominantly rats (Rattus rattus) and to a lesser extent, feral cats (Felis catus)). A study in France and Malta (Oppel et al. 2011) implicated fishing bycatch as a critical cause of mortality for the species, since the majority of the adult mortality of birds breeding in Malta occurred during the non-breeding season. This pattern is consistent with the presumed cause of low adult survival probabilities in the Balearic Shearwater (Oro et al. 2004, Tavecchia et al. 2008). Long-liners in particular affect the species (Arcos et al. 2008, Louzao et al. 2011), often on an irregular basis, but impacting fairly large numbers at a time. Since Procellariiforms are generally long-lived, their populations are highly sensitive to changes in adult survival. The increased adult mortality induced by accidental bycatch is therefore a significant danger to them and a highly important threat (Lebreton 2000). These shearwaters have been shown to suffer substantial predation pressure by introduced mammalian predators on breeding grounds (Bourgeois et al. 2008, Bonnaud et al. 2009) with observed population declines in Italy being attributed to alien predators, predominantly rats (Sultana and Borg 2006, Capizzi et al. 2010), which heavily limit reproductive success by predation upon chicks and eggs. On the Tavolara archipelago, Italy, the colony size has been much reduced in the last 30 years and vast sectors of the islands have been deserted; breeding success was assessed for the first time in 2006 and it was found to be zero (due to rat predation) in several colonies (J. J. Borg in litt. 2006). Feral cats are a major threat. On the Hyères islands (French Mediterranean coast), feral cats have been identified as the primary predator of the species: shearwater remains were found in up to 6% of cat scats, representing hundreds of adults killed each year, especially during the pre-breeding period (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008). Increasing tourism and coastal urbanization in the Mediterranean create sound and light disturbances at colonies and damages fragile breeding habitats (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008, Oppel et al. 2011). Breeding success may be affected by reduced abundance of anchovies and sprats due to competition from fisheries (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008). The gregarious behaviour of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to oil spills and the intense maritime traffic in the Mediterranean and Bosporus increases the risk of oil spills. Less prominent threats include competition for nest sites with Cory's Shearwater, collisions with wind turbines, pollution and contaminants (e.g. plastic (R. Crnkovic in litt. 2012)), environmental events (such as toxic algal blooms and geological erosion) and illegal hunting (Derhé 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Annex II of the Bern Convention. A new IBA project has been started in Malta. An EU Life/BirdLife Malta project aimed at conserving a colony of c. 500 pairs at Rdumtal-Madonna, Malta, has recently been completed. A rat eradication project is being implemented at Montecristo Island, Italy during 2011–2012 as part of the 2010 Montecristo LIFE project that aims to eradicate several invasive species from Montecristo and Pianosa (see http://www.montecristo2010.it/index.asp).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Determine whether the species breeds in Turkey. Search for colonies at sites in Turkey and Greece. Carry out population censuses at breeding colonies for which there is currently little reliable, up-to-date population size data, particularly those in Sicily, Sardinia and Greece. Continue breeding and non-breeding period counts at the Bosporus and conduct breeding and non-breeding counts at other bottleneck sites. Research ecological requirements and carry out extensive demographic monitoring. Research the impact of introduced predators across breeding range. Research impact of predator control/eradication programmes on annual survival and breeding success at different sites. As a precaution, control or if possible eradicate feral cats and rats at breeding colonies, according to a priority analysis and at sites with evidence of predation. Quantify extent of mortality from accidental bycatch and encourage policymakers to implement and enforce measures that reduce accidental bycatch of this species and other seabirds in commercial fishing operations in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Identify and implement measures to reduce/mitigate the effects of light pollution on the species (e.g. Raine et al. 2007).


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,200-6,200 pairs, which equates to 8,400-12,400 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,100-5,700 pairs, which equates to 8,200-11,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits steppe habitats requiring dry, open grassland plains without trees or high bushes (de Juana 1989). It favours lowland plains with a mosaic of natural pastures, arable fields and uncultivated sandy or saline land (Cramp 1985). In Spain it requires reasonable amounts of fallow and stubble land and this is probably true elsewhere (Suárez et al. 1997). In central Spain it avoids cereal crops, olive groves and vineyards (Martín et al. 2010a). It also avoids dense scrub, tall crops and hilly areas and is typically found below 1,000 m (Madge and McGowan 2002). It often associates with the Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax) particularly in winter (Martín et al. 2010b). It lays between April and August but mostly in May-June (Madge and McGowan 2012). On average it lays three eggs (Urban et al. 1986). The nest is a slight scrape or natural depression in the ground and is usually unlined (Madge and McGowan 2002). It mainly feeds on seeds, but to a lesser extent also green shoots and leaves (de Juana and Kirwan 2013). The species is sedentary and nomadic in Europe (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

threats:
This species is declining due to changes in agricultural practices (Madge and McGowan 2002). In Spain, 55% of disturbance to the species came from raptors, although mammalian predators and man were also sources of disturbance (Ferns and Hinsley 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Due to its close positive interactions with Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax), conservation measures for on species is likely to benefit the other (Martín et al. 2010b).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Low-impact farming methods should be promoted to help preserve and expand suitable habitat. Key sites should be protected to help minimise disturbance. Monitoring programmes should be set up to record species's trends and research into the species's habitat requirements and population dynamics be undertaken.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

In Europe this sandgrouse is undergoing very rapid population declines in the two main range states, Turkey and Spain, and it is therefore classified as Endangered (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd).

Within the EU27 declines are also very rapid and the regional classification is also Endangered (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd).

range:
The species is resident in Iberia, the Canary Islands (Fuerteventura, Lanzarote), Anatolia, Cyprus and Transcaucasia (de Juana and Boesman 2013). In addition, a breeding population (subspecies arenarius) occurs between the Volga and Ural Rivers in Russia (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 10,400-19,100 pairs, which equates to 20,800-38,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,000-8,300 pairs, which equates to 12,800-20,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits dry grassland steppe (Tucker & Heath 1994). It favours open, treeless steppes or pseudo-steppes which incorporate uncultivated areas, fallow land and arable stubbles (Cramp 1985). It tolerates occasional shrubs or trees and occupies foothills and upland plateaux (de Juana and Boesman 2013). It lays between March and August with timing dependent on latitude, generally laying in April in the Canary Islands and mostly June in Spain and the former USSR with replacement clutches until September (de Juana and Boesman 2013). It normally lays three eggs (de Juana and Boesman 2013). The nest is an uncovered, bare scrape in bare, stony areas such as those found on the edges of ploughed fields (Tucker and Heath 1994). It often feeds on small or very small seeds apparently preferring Leguminosae, as well as cereal grain and cultivated legumes (de Juana and Boesman 2013). It is sedentary in Iberia and nomadic or partially migratory in Turkey (de Juana and Boesman 2013).

threats:
The main threat to this species is the intensification of agriculture. Ploughing of pasture and irrigation have reduced available habitat while the removal of marginal areas of semi-natural vegetation and the increased application of agro-chemicals has reduced food availability and these practices have probably been responsible for the extinctions in some areas. On the remaining grasslands, overgrazing affects the vegetation composition and structure, reducing both food availability and cover for nesting. Conversely, land abandonment is also a major threat, as the open, treeless steppe habitat is quickly lost when grazing is removed. Hunting, which is legal in Turkey during the breeding season, may be a problem; the species's habit of concentrating in large numbers at traditional drinking sites throughout the year means that it forms an attractive and relatively easy target (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. Several EU LIFE programmes have focused on its steppe habitat and the species occurs in some SPAs in Spain. It is listed in the Spanish Red Book as 'vulnerable' (Madroño et al. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Suitable habitats should be maintained through the continuation of long-established, low-intensity farming systems. These can be maintained through agri-environment schemes. In addition restrictions on grazing rates and the use of herbicides should be implemented and the maintenance of fallow land should be encouraged (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large range across central and eastern Asia with tiny numbers breeding within the region in Russia. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Critically Endangered under the small population criterion, with unknown trend. The species could therefore be listed as Critically Endangered but given the potential for rescue from outside the region the final category is downlisted to Endangered (EN° D).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
The species has a predominantly Asian distribution, which just extends into Europe in south-western Russia. It breeds from the lower Volga to the Volga-Ural steppes; its occurrence there is somewhat sporadic (Snow and Perrins 1998),  but nesting territories there are thought to be densely occupied. Irregular irruptions have taken place in western Europe and the species has bred in several European countries after these (de Juana and Boesman 2013).

habitat:
This species inhabits steppe and semi-desert, with low, sparse vegetation of grasses or shrubs, as well as fallow land and abandoned fields. It is thought to favour clay to sandy or stony soils and it occurs in flat or hilly terrain and mountain valleys. Egg-laying occurs from mid-April to June and it typically lays three eggs, sometimes two. The nest is set on the ground and is sometimes sheltered by a bush or grasses and is often close to other pairs. It feeds on seeds and also some green shoots of many different plants. The species is partially migratory.  Irregular irruptions have taken place in western Europe, notably in 1863, 1888 and 1908 (de Juana and Boesman 2013).

threats:
The size of the European population renders it susceptible to the risks affecting small populations; however it is adjacent to a much larger non-European population (BirdLife International 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 90,900-309,000 pairs, which equates to 182,000-619,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 32,300-128,000 pairs, which equates to 64,600-256,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies coniferous (taiga) forests, breeding mainly in spruce (Picea) forests but also uses mixed forests of pine (Pinus), birch (Betula) and aspen (Populus tremula) and even uses pure pine forests (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Breeding may begin in February, in good vole years (Mikkola 1983) and continue until July (Holt et al. 1999) but most eggs are laid in April. It nests in holes, such as disused woodpecker holes or where these are not available it will use nest boxes. No nest is made and eggs are laid directly onto debris, although if there is soft material in the hole it will make a shallow depression (Mikkola 1983). Clutches are usually three to seven eggs. It feeds principally on small voles as well as mice, shrews and small birds (Snow and Perrins 1998), but also recorded taking flying squirrels, bats, frogs and beetles (Mikkola 1983). This species is generally a year-round resident within a stable home range, but it disperses in years when prey is scarce (Holt et al. 1999).

threats:
The breeding population of this species fluctuates with vole cycles and the depth of annual snow cover, which inhibits foraging. Forestry can reduce primary prey populations, remove forest structure necessary for foraging, and eliminate nest cavities (Holt et al. 1999). At one time the species frequently used old Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) holes but declines in the species has resulted in less nesting opportunities (Mikkola 1983). Tawny owls (Strix aluco) and martens (Martes spp.) are serious predators of this species and in some years the latter can destroy a high percentage of broods and kill many females on the nest. In Germany, the Nuthatch (Sitta europea) may reduce the size of nest-hole entrances with plastered mud and has even been known to wall in brooding females, resulting in the birds starving to death. It is also vulnerable to pesticides (König et al. 2008)

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway

CITES Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. Nest boxes have been employed extensively in Europe to help mitigate loss of nest-sites and to monitor demographic characteristics, for example by ringing nestlings; Around 11,000 boxes have been installed in Finland from which fledglings ringed annually (Holt et al. 1999).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Careful forestry management is required for this species. Selective harvesting may allow tree removal while maintaining suitable habitat for the species. In addition, because forest succession is slow in spruce-fir forest, practices must acknowledge that clear-felled sites will remain unsuitable for roosting or foraging for up to a century, and new nest trees will not develop for up to two centuries (Holt et al. 1999). The provision of nest boxes has proved effectiveand this practice should continue. Predation by martens can be reduced by placing a strip of metal or plastic c. 50 cm wide above and below nest holes and the use of ‘anti-marten’ boxes can be effective (König et al. 2008).


population:
The European population is estimated at 54,700-186,000 pairs, which equates to 109,000-372,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,200-22,400 pairs, which equates to 4,500-44,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies open country such as, tundra, marsh, grassland, moorland, as well as montane forest. In Europe, this species breeds mainly on tundra, moorland, marshes and bogs, in newly cleared forest and young evergreen plantations, in uncultivated grassland and in steppe (Olsen et al. 2013). It breeds between late march and June and generally lays seven to ten eggs (König 2008). It nests on the ground on a dry site, sometimes in wetter situation and female shows tendency to build nest (almost unique behaviour among Strigidae) (Olsen et al. 2013). It feeds mostly on small mammals but also other small vertebrates and insects (König 2008), but usually relies on rodent populations which can determine its spatial distribution and nesting success (Hagemejer and Blair 1997). In the north of its range it is thought to be highly migratory although migration may be confused with nomadic food searches and juvenile dispersal. Wintering areas may also become breeding areas if food is plentiful (Olsen et al. 2013).

threats:
Due to its nesting habits and nomadic nature, the species is vulnerable to habitat loss at any season; conversion of open habitats to agriculture, grazing, recreation, housing and resort development is a key factor in decline, as well as reforestation in some areas. Wind-turbine developments may also impact the species. In central Europe declines have been caused by drainage and the intensification of agriculture, together with persecution, rodenticide poisoning, urbanization and traffic mortality. It does not always occupy apparently suitable habitat, which may be due to levels of prey or predation or the effects of distribution and abundance. Domestic and feral cats and dogs cause disturbance (Olsen et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway

CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I.  The protection of nesting cover for waterfowl and reclaimed and replanted strip-mines and dyke land, which provide nesting and foraging cover has indirectly benefited this species (Olsen et al. 2013).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Large continuous tracts of habitat should be maintained (Olsen et al. 2013); importantly marshlands and moorlands need to be protected from destruction, drainage and afforestation and agricultural habitats such as meadows and old pasturelands should be managed for conservation (Tucker and Heath 1994). Other management suggestions have included establishing a standardized survey protocol, monitoring predation and human disturbance and public education and research (Olsen et al. 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
Asio otus and A. abyssinicus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) are retained as separate species contra Cramp (1985) and Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993) who include abyssinicus as a subspecies of A. otus.

population:
The European population is estimated at 304,000-776,000 pairs, which equates to 609,000-1,550,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 115,000-268,000 pairs, which equates to 229,000-537,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in dense vegetation adjacent to open areas such as grassland or shrubland, including open forest, nesting and roosting in forest. In mainland Europe, breeding occurs in edge woodland and scrub and in Britain it favours shelterbelts, small groves and thickets surrounded by moorland, grassland, marshes or farmland. Outside the breeding season it is found in similar habitats, including farmland with hedgerows. The breeding season is from February to July (Olsen 1999). It uses the abandoned stick nests of other species, such as crows (Corvus), magpies (Pica), raptors, herons (Ardea) (König and Weick 2008). It also accepts artificial baskets, and sometimes lays in cavities in trees or cliffs, or on the ground. Clutches are generally five to seven eggs. It feeds principally on small mammals, although some studies have found birds to be important (Olsen 1999). The species is mainly migratory in Fennoscandia and Russia but further south in Europe it is more sedentary (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Declines in Britain are thought to be due to the expanding population of Tawny Owl (Strix aluco), competing for space, food and nest sites (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Olsen 1999). Agricultural intensification and declining vole populations are also driving declines in Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Locally, threats include pesticide use, persecution and road traffic collisions (König and Weick 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. In Britain the species has benefited from the provision of artificial nesting sites (Marks et al. 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
It is suggested that road collisions could be decreased by reducing the availability of small rodents in close proximity to roads, through allowing vegetation to grow naturally or by planting short bushes (Baudvin 1997). Management to prevent vole declines should involve the creation of a mosaic of different habitat types with grassland mown at different times of the year together with undisturbed strips (Aschwanden et al. 2005). Breeding can be encouraged through the provision of artificial nesting platforms and open fronted nestboxes (Olsen 1999). In addition in harsh winters, food supplies can be augmented through the provision of feeding stations near day roosts (König and Weick 2008).


population:
The European population is estimated at 618,000-1,170,000 pairs, which equates to 1,240,000-2,340,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 218,000-412,000 pairs, which equates to 436,000-823,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in a variety of habitats, ranging from parkland, orchards and cultivated fields with hedges to rocky, semi-desert regions and steppes (Mikkola 1983) and extends from boreal to tropical areas. It is monogamous and breeds from March to August. The nest is built in a cavity and the hole is cleaned and scraped but will also use nest boxes. Clutches are usually three to six eggs (Holt et al. 2014). It feeds on insects, small rodents and plant matter. Birds and frogs are an important food source during the nesting season (Mikkola 1983). The species is sedentary although large displacements do occur (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Population levels can suffer marked decreases after severe winters. Its range has contracted locally in many parts of Europe, which is thought to be mainly due to habitat changes, including the loss of suitable nest-sites and, less often, the use of pesticides. Industrialised farming practices have resulted in a reduction of prey items such as voles and earthworms. Agricultural intensification, ground clearance, excessive use of toxic chemicals and road traffic deaths all contribute to declines as well (Holt et al. 2014). The loss of nest holes from the felling of old hollow trees and the restoration of old buildings is also likely to affect the species (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway

CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is listed as ‘endangered’ on the Dutch national Red List (Hustings et al. 2004). The provision of nest boxes and pollarding of old nesting trees has been successful in Belgium and Germany at offsetting declines (Holt et al. 2014).
Conservation Actions Proposed 
Measures should address conservation at the wider countryside scale. The preservation of the species’s habitat, including old trees and hedges, as well as the reduction in the use of pesticides are important. Organochloride pesticides should be replaced with less aggressive products or biological pest control methods. The provision of nest boxes should continue. The maintenance of perches near roads (2 m high, 10–15 m apart and 5 m from the road), is advisable to help reduce car-collisions. Further research into habitat requirements, population size and trends and threats is required (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Bubo bubo and B. ascalaphus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) are retained as separate species contra AERC TAC (2003) and Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993) who include ascalaphus as a subspecies of B. bubo.

population:
The European population is estimated at 18,500-30,300 pairs, which equates to 36,900-60,600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,500-17,900 pairs, which equates to 25,000-35,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits mainly rocky country with cliffs and ravines, caves, patches of woodland, scattered trees or groves, generally in undisturbed wilderness areas. It also uses open forest, taiga and other types of woodland, wooded steppe, river valleys with gorges, overgrown quarries and farmland with suitable rocky areas or cliffs. The species is monogamous and breeds from February to August in Scandinavia, however egg-laying occurs in December in France. It nests on sheltered cliff ledges or in crevices, in a cave entrance, on the ground on steep slope or on flatter ground in taiga. Occasionally it uses old tree nests of other species and rarely in hole in tree. The same site is often used for several years or in rotation with other favoured sites. Clutches are usually two to four eggs (Holt et al. 2013). It feeds mostly on mammals from small rodents to hares and birds to the size of herons and buzzards, but it also consumes reptiles, frogs, fish and larger insects. It also preys on other owl species in its range (König 2008). The species is resident in most of its range and juveniles disperse over variable distances (Holt et al. 2013).

threats:
Most declines are due to human activity. It is extremely sensitive and the slightest disturbance can cause the abandonment of the nest. Unfortunately cross-country skiing, mountaineering, alpinism and other leisure activities often take people unknowingly near nests (Tucker and Heath 1994). It suffers from human persecution and poisoning from mercury seed-dressings, and deaths through road traffic, barbed wire (Holt et al. 2013) and overhead wires (Tucker and Heath 1994) are not insignificant (Holt et al. 2013). These threats still persist despite its protected status in most countries (König 2008). A significant decline in Mediterranean countries in the 1960s is thought to be due to the effects of myxomatosis on rabbit populations (Holt et al. 2013). Egg-collectors impose a relatively high level of nest-robbing on the species (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is protected in most countries within its range (König 2008). Extensive reintroduction programmes, especially in Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland and Scandinavia aided by protection have enabled recovery in parts of Europe since the 1970s. The species is also likely to have benefited from an increased food supply created by the proliferation of refuse tips and large clearfell areas, which have increased prey species populations (Holtet al. 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Nesting territories, and potential territories, should be protected from development and from extensive logging (Holtet al. 2013). Awareness should be raised of the species's susceptibility to disturbance, particularly with the public, birdwatchers and photographers (Tucker and Heath 1994). Enforcement of protection should be strengthened.


taxonomicNotes:
Bubo scandiacus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously listed as B. scandiaca.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the tiny declining population qualifies as Critically Endangered (D). Since the species is declining within the EU27 region there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species breeds from western and northern Scandinavia east across northern Russia (including Novaya Zemlya), as well as in northern and eastern Greenland. Breeding has occasionally been recorded in Iceland and northern Britain (Shetland Islands). In winter some occasionly travel south to the southern Baltic region of Europe (Holt et al. 2015).

population:
The European population is estimated at 700-2,300 pairs, which equates to 1,400-4,600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 0-12 pairs, which equates to 0-24 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in open tundra or quasi-tundra  from sea level up to 1,500 m Asl (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), with hummocks, rocks or other low prominences, and sparse low vegetation and dwarf shrubs and lichen. In winter it also occupies marshes, fields and dunes. It breeds between May and September and is monogamous, often pairing for life but occasional incidents of polygyny and polyandry occur. The male performs an undulating courtship flight; a series of flaps followed by glide with wings held in dihedral. The nest is a shallow scrape on ground, usually in slightly elevated site providing a good view. Clutch size varies with food supply, generally 3–5 eggs when limited, 7–11 when plentiful (Holt et al. 2015). It feeds principally on small and medium-sized rodents such as lemmings (Lemmus lemmus) (Tucker and Heath 1994). Other prey taken according to availability and includes birds to the size of ptarmigans (Lagopus), ducks and medium-sized geese, occasionally fish, amphibians, crustaceans and beetles. The species is mostly migratory and nomadic (Holt et al. 2015). Juvenile wintering areas lie south of the adult areas and females winter further north than males. Some birds may sometimes move as far south as central Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Harvesting of species for food, feathers and claws by native peoples may have local impact on population, but unlikely to have any wider effect on total numbers. Electrocution and airplane strikes may also threaten this species (Holt et al. 2015). Climate change has a significant impact on the onset of spring and snowmelt in the breeding areas which may change the availability of prey for the species (International Snowy Owl Working Group 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. An International Working Group was set up in 2007 to collect and share information on the species and to initiate research on the ecology, movement patterns, habitat needs, population size and threats. Several satellite tracking studies have been undertaken (International Snowy Owl Working Group 2010). Protective measures currently prohibit the shooting and trapping of owls for any reason and policies enacted to protect large birds from electrocution and airplane strikes should benefit this species (Holt et al. 2015).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue research into movements of the species and its ecology and habitat requirements. An International Species Action plan should be developed and implemented. Monitoring should be developed to ensure that subsistence harvesting is sustainable.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 99,600-195,000 pairs, which equates to 199,000-391,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 32,200-71,400 pairs, which equates to 64,300-143,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies coniferous and mixed forests and is found mainly in tall forest interior, dominated by conifers and often interspersed with beech (Fagus), aspen (Populus), birch (Betula) and other broadleaved trees used for nesting. It occurs in taiga and montane forest and in lowlands at upper and middle latitudes; in temperate zone ranging from 250–300 m in narrow cool and moist ravines (Holt et al. 1999). It is monogamous and breeds from April to July. The nest is in a tree cavity, either a natural hole or one excavated by a woodpecker; it will also make use of nestboxes. Debris is removed from the hole and no material is added to it (Holt et al. 1999, Mikkola 1983). Clutches are usually four to seven eggs. It feeds on small mammals, especially voles, although also shrews (Sorex), bats (Myotis) and mice (Micromys, Apodemus) and small birds (Holt et al. 1999). The species is mainly resident, although some dispersal occurs during winter and bad weather and low prey numbers can cause irruptive movements (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Breeding densities and numbers can fluctuate significantly with weather conditions and rodent cycles. Despite large scale deforestation in Finland, there is no evidence of population declines there, however in west Germany its disappearance in many areas has been linked to destruction of forests and the resulting changes in ecosystem, such as increase in population of Tawny Owls (Strix aluco) at higher elevations (Holt et al. 1999). It is also thought that acid rain damage in conjunction with increasing forest disease will weaken trees to storm damage and result in changes in the ecosystem and increased predation from S. aluco again (König et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species became extinct in the Black Forest by 1967 so a captive-breeding programme was initiated in 1968. By 1995, 150 breeding territories had been established in the Black Forest (Holt et al. 1999).
Conservation Action Proposed 
The species requires more research to inform conservation measures (König et al. 2008). Conservation of forest habitats, including the preservation of old trees and provision of nest boxes would be beneficial to this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

In Europe this species has an extremely small, apparently declining population, estimated at between 100-160 mature individuals, and is therefore classified as Critically Endangered. The bird does not occur in the EU27.

range:
The species has a predominantly Asian distribution which extends into Europe, in to south-eastern Turkey, where it has an extremely small and disjunct range (Holt et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 50-80 pairs, which equates to 100-160 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in deciduous, semi-deciduous and open evergreen woodland as well as well-vegetated ravines, steep banks and canal sides, old plantations and groves with mature trees. It is almost always found near water. In the Middle East it occupies undisturbed wadis and valleys with trees and bushes in hilly areas. It breeds between November and May (Mikkola and Willis 1983). In Turkey juveniles are seen from June to July.  The species is thought to pair for life. Nests are built in hollows or depressions in trees, rock ledges or steep stream banks, normally near water. Old raptor nests are sometimes used as well. Clutch size is typically two. Its diet is mainly fish, frogs and freshwater crabs. It will also eat crayfish, snakes and lizards and occasionally rodents and birds. It hunts from perches overlooking water from where it swoops down and seizes prey from the water. It will also wade after food. This species is resident (Holt et al. 2013).

threats:
In Europe little is known of this species. It is apparent that locals have known of these birds for some time but not of their rarity and as a result, fish farm workers have shot them due to their food preference. Disturbance from humans, such as those wishing to see this rare species is a threat (van den Berg et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Suggested it be named in Turkish as Yenger Baykuşu (Crab-owl) as opposed Balik Baykuşu (Fish-owl).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The areas where it resides should also be protected from environmental changes such as logging and infrastructure development (van den Berg et al. 2010). Research into European population should continue. Local people could be educated on the rarity of this species and involved in its protection. To minimise disturbance, controlled eco-tours should be developed and protected areas created where the species is found (van den Berg et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

In Europe this species has a very small, declining population and is therefore classified as Endangered (C2a(i); D). It does not occur in the EU27.

range:
The species has a predominantly Asian and Middle Eastern distribution, which just extends into Europe in south-eastern Turkey (Holt et al. 1999), where it is known from three sites on the Euphrates at Birecik and Halfeti (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 50-250 pairs, which equates to 100-500 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species frequents semi-open areas with trees and bushes, including cultivation, palm groves, orchards, riverine woodland as well as parks and large gardens in towns. It generally prefers more arid areas than Otus scops. Pairing begins on arrival at breeding areas, normally in March with laying occurring April to May. The nest is built 3–6.5 m above ground in a hollow tree or old woodpecker hole. It often favours poplar (Populus), willow (Salix) or mulberry (Morus) but also uses cavities in banks, walls, cliffs or buildings as well as nest boxes. Clutch size is four to six eggs. It feeds on insects, spiders, small mammals, birds and lizards, depending on availability. It hunts from a perch, dropping down to take prey from branches or the ground. Also known to pursue and catch aerial prey such as bats and moths. The species is resident and migratory. In Europe, it is most likely a summer visitor to Turkey arriving late March or April and leaving in September or October (Holt et al. 1999).

threats:
The threats to this species are not well known (Holt et al. 1999). Pesticides may be a potential danger to this species (König 2008)

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. There are no known conservation measures specifically targeting this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Develop research into the species's range, ecology, habitat requirements and movements to inform future conservation work. In particular, investigate potential threats and assess the impacts of pesticide use on the species. Legal protection of the species and key sites is needed, as well as the development and implementation of Regional Recovery Plans.


taxonomicNotes:
Otus scops (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into O. senegalensis following Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), O. sunia following AOU (1998), O. alius following Rassmussen (1998) and O. scops (with species limits accordingly revised).

population:
The European population is estimated at 232,000-393,000 pairs, which equates to 463,000-785,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 64,900-126,000 pairs, which equates to 130,000-251,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in semi-open areas which contain a mosaic of fallow land and copses and include old trees for daytime shelter and a breeding site. It also uses riverine forests, olive and almond groves, old fruit plantations, parks and gardens, tree-lined village streets and even town centres (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It is mostly monogamous but occasionally polygynous and breeds from May to June (Holt et al. 1999). The nest is usually a hole in a tree or occasionally in walls, ruins, on the ground and in the old nests of magpies or other corvids. No material is added and typically four eggs are laid (Mikkola 1983). It feeds mostly on insects and other invertebrates and some small birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals (Holt et al. 1999). Northernmost populations are fully migratory, wintering from the Mediterranean to the Equator but most southern populations are partially migratory or sedentary (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Declines in this species are most likely down to habitat changes and a reduction in insect populations (Holt et al. 1999), probably from the use of pesticides (König 2008). The spread of large-scale farming, modernisation of agricultural methods and the reduction in the number of hollow trees may have driven its extirpation from areas in France and Spain (Holt et al. 1999, König 2008). In Switzerland, suitable habitat has been fragmented by spread of viniculture and agricultural intensification (Holt et al. 1999). Locally, increases in predator populations, such as Tawny owls (Strix aluco) may lead to decreases in this species (König 2008). Hunting, along migration routes in Italy and Malta, are also thought to impact the species (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. The provision of nest boxes has proven effective for this species in various countries (Tucker and Heath 1994).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Reducing the use of highly toxic pesticides that accumulate in insectivores, combined with reducing broad-spectrum insecticides would be beneficial for this species. Old trees should be preserved and where appropriate (Tucker and Heath 1994), nest boxes should be provided (König 2008, Tucker and Heath 1994). In areas of high hunting pressure, protection of this and other species should be enforced and awareness campaigns developed to inform hunters of the need for conservation measures for this species (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Strix aluco and S. nivicolum (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as S. aluco following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 535,000-939,000 pairs, which equates to 1,070,000-1,880,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 371,000-630,000 pairs, which equates to 743,000-1,260,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The primary habitat of this species is broad-leaved forest, however it adapts well to man-made and altered habitats. It is found in urban areas, clear-felled areas and intensive agricultures. In woodland habitats it inhabits mixed conifer and broad-leaved forests, sub-alpine conifer forest and conifer plantations (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It is monogamous and pairs for life, although is occasionally bigamous. The breeding season is from February to July (Holt et al. 1999). It nests in holes in trees, cliffs, buildings and steep river banks. Also often uses, nestboxes, the old nests of large birds, burrows of large mammals (König 2008), dreys of squirrels (Sciurus) (Holt et al. 1999) and shallow depressions on the ground at the base of a tree or beneath a bush. Typically it lays three to five eggs (König 2008). It feeds on small mammals and small birds and will also consume amphibians, reptiles, earthworms, snails, beetles and other insects and occasionally fish (Holt et al. 1999). The species is sedentary and highly territorial (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
In Britain, human persecution drove declines during the 19th century (Holt et al. 1999). The species is reliant on prey availability, which is often determined by woodland structure. In the north, competition with the Ural Owl (Strix uralensis) may limit the expansion of its range (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Locally, pesticide use, traffic and electrocution from powerlines also threaten this species (König 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known, specific conservation measures for this species. 
Conservation Actions Proposed
Further research on aspects of this species’s biology is recommended (König 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,900-7,500 pairs, which equates to 3,900-15,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 300-2,700 pairs, which equates to 600-5,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits dense boreal or coniferous forest. It favours areas with openings; taiga interspersed with sphagnum bogs, muskeg or open fields; pine and fir forest adjacent to montane meadows; and tamarack, black spruce and aspen forest. It occasionally uses other habitats outside the breeding season, sometimes near habitation.

The breeding season is from March to August and the species is monogamous. It lays normally three to five eggs although clutches can range from two to nine depending on food availability. It lays in the abandoned nests of other birds of prey, on broken tree snags, sometimes on a mistletoe broom, or rarely in a shallow depression at the foot of a tree. In addition it will also use artificial platforms. No material added is added to the nest site (Holtet al. 1999). It feeds mostly on small mammals, particularly voles, but also takes shrews, squirrels, small hares, lemmings, birds, frogs and beetles (König 2008). In general the species is resident and nomadic; however movement patterns can be variable and are influenced by prey (Holt et al. 1999).

threats:
The species is affected by global warming, which if it persists will continue to move the species’s range northwards (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Populations fluctuate in line with vole numbers (Cornulier et al. 2013). Locally, hunting may still be a threat (König 2008). It is also vulnerable to road traffic collisions and loss of habitat from forestry (Holt et al. 1999). Collisions with power lines and cables are also a threat.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is fully protected from hunting throughout its range and the provision of artificial nesting platforms has proved successful in Sweden. The species is reasonably well studied (König 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Its forest habitat should be protected from clearfelling, acid rain, mining and other developments (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The provision of nest platforms may continue to help the species locally. Further research should focus on its relationship with other members of the genusStrix (König 2008).


taxonomicNotes:
Strix uralensis and S. davidi were considered distinct species by Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), König et al. (1999) and Marks et al. (1999) but this treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group because the split of Strix davidi from

population:
The European population is estimated at 50,000-143,000 pairs, which equates to 99,900-286,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 17,000-28,400 pairs, which equates to 34,000-56,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies boreal forest and mixed woodland, with some open areas such as bogs, clearings or small fields, however, in central Europe, it is confined to deciduous woods, particularly of beech (Fagus sylvatica), in mountain areas. It is often found near human dwellings and also in pastureland (Holt et al. 1999). It is monogamous (König 2008) and breeds from February to July. It nests in tree holes or hollow stumps and will often use nestboxes. Also sometimes nest in cliff cavities or buildings, old raptor nests, crow nests (Corvus) or squirrel dreys (Sciurus) and rarely on ground (Holt et al. 1999). Clutches are usually three to four eggs. Its diet is made up of a large variety of mammals, birds, frogs, and insects, with voles, shrews, mice and rats as the main prey (König 2008). The species is extremely sedentary (Mikkola 1983).

threats:
In areas dominated by open areas, such as fields and clearfells, the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) outcompetes this species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It also suffers from forestry management, which has resulted in the loss of hollow and broken trees which provide nesting sites (König 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Thousands of nestboxes have been erected in Finland and Sweden to mitigate the loss of chimney-like stumps and old trees with cavities, through modern forestry practices (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Nest boxes are important for the conservation of this species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and thus should continue to be provided to prevent future declines (Holt et al. 1999). Research should focus on the species’s taxonomy and the ecological hierarchy, in Fennoscandia, between this species and Tawny Owls (Strix aluco) (König 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 10,400-53,900 pairs, which equates to 20,800-108,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,400-18,900 pairs, which equates to 2,800-37,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies forest tundra and boreal taiga as far as tree-line and ranging south to edge of forest steppe and cultivated land. It needs access to clearings, burnt areas, open peatland or muskeg, dry eminences or ridges, and sparse woodland, including birch, aspen and mixed woods. It breeds from March to September and nests in cavities, holes in trees, tops of stumps, nestboxes and  occasionally in the old nests of raptors or crows. Clutches are six to ten eggs (Holt et al. 2013). It feeds on small mammals, especially voles and small birds, hunting from an open perch, dropping or gliding on them (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is dispersive and irruptive (Holt et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is dependent on rodent populations and numbers fluctuate with the abundance of small rodents. In Finland, the population has declined since 19th century, as a result of disappearance of hollow trees and through human persecution (Holt et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species
Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation of dead trees which can be used as nesting sites is important to ensure the stability of this species locally.


taxonomicNotes:
Tyto alba (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) is retained as a cross-regional species contra Christidis and Boles (2008) who split T. alba into two cross-regional species T. alba and T. javanica.

population:
The European population is estimated at 111,000-230,000 pairs, which equates to 222,000-460,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 103,000-216,000 pairs, which equates to 206,000-431,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in a great variety of habitats. It mainly occurs in open but not treeless, lowlands, especially farmlands with spinneys hedges, ditches, ponds and banks, and some rough grass or herbage, roadside verges, and similar rough terrain. Egg-laying occurs from March to September in Britain but the season may not be so prolonged around the Mediterranean. It nests in holes in trees or buildings, in a cliff, quarry, rock outcrops (Snow and Perrins 1998) and nest boxes (Bruce et al. 2014). It reuses nests for successive broods and in successive years. Clutches are usually four to seven eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). The diet is consists mainly of small mammals and is usually dominated by only a few species, especially rats and mice. The species is mostly sedentary, with post-breeding dispersal of juveniles (Bruce et al. 2014).

threats:
The causes of decline include loss and fragmentation of grassland foraging habitat, intensification of agricultural practices, urbanization, and road development which is also linked to road mortalities. It also suffers from severe winters. Increased mechanization of farms has meant the loss of important foraging sites, such as stockyards and stables, and the loss of abandoned farm buildings suitable for nest-sites. Organochlorine pesticides in 1950s and 1960s and rodenticides in 1970s and 1980s had disastrous effects on many owl populations in Europe, particularly north-west Europe (Bruce et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Nest boxes are used as part of local conservation efforts in Europe. Conservation measures have also included protection and re-establishment of rough-grassland habitat mosaics, providing prey-rich foraging areas, and controls over use of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides. Reintroduction schemes in some areas have had mixed success, as well as conflicting with wild populations (Bruce et al. 2014).
Conservation Actions Proposed
 

Work should continue on the protection and re-establishment of rough grasslands, particularly alongside watercourses, field margins and woodland edge in order to help reduce habitat fragmentation and provide a network of prey-rich foraging grounds. The provision of nest boxes around these habitats is also important. The use of rodenticides should be controlled. Reintroduction projects need to be implemented with care and awareness of the potential dangers of introducing poor and incorrect genetic stock (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Anhinga melanogaster, A. novaehollandiae (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) and A. rufa (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993, Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993), species occurring in Asia, Australasia and Africa, are retained as separate species contra Christidis and B

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Regionally Extinct (RE)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species was once abundant in southern Turkey, but disappeared during the 20th century due to the drying out of its breeding grounds. It is therefore classified as Regionally Extinct in Europe.

range:
This species is found predominately across Africa. A small breeding population was found in southern Turkey at Lake Amik but went extinct when the area was drained  and it is thought to be no longer present in Europe (del Hoyo et al. 2014).

habitat:
This species prefers still, shallow inland waters, such as freshwater or alkaline lakes, slow flowing rivers, swamps and reservoirs and requires scattered emergent trees, forested margins or islets with dense vegetation. It is less commonly found in estuaries or tidal inlets and coastal zones. It feeds principally on fish, including Cichlidae and Cyprinidae but also takes amphibians, water snakes and aquatic invertebrates, including insects, crustaceans and molluscs. The species is generally sedentary, with sporadic movements usually related to drought conditions (del Hoyo et al. 2014).

threats:
The species was formerly abundant in southern Turkey but became extinct there when its breeding grounds at Lake Amik were lost (Kirwan et al. 2010) due to drainage and land reclamation (Smith et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are no current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
There are no proposed conservation measures for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Microcarbo pygmaeus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Phalacrocorax.

population:
The European population is estimated at 37,600-50,400 pairs, which equates to 75,100-101,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 14,600-17,200 pairs, which equates to 29,300-34,500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occurs in reedbeds, transition zones between reedbeds and open waters, extensively grazed or mowed shores and wet meadows and, in winter, in coastal wetlands, along rivers, and sometimes on inland lakes (Johnsgard 1993, Crivelli et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2004, Orta et al. 2014). The nest is a deep cup of sticks and reeds built near or over water in trees, bushes, reedbeds or on floating islets of vegetation (Johnsgard 1993, Nelson et al. 2005, Orta et al. 2014). The species breeds between April and July in large mixed-species colonies, leaving the breeding grounds towards the end of August and returning between March and April (Orta et al. 2014). The species is sedentary over much of its range with some populations migrating over short distances (Orta et al. 2014). Throughout the year it normally feeds singly or in small groups (Nelson et al. 2005, Orta et al. 2014). Diet consists predominantly of fish up to 15 cm long (Orta et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is threatened by the degradation of wetlands through drainage for agriculture (Orta et al. 2014) and changes in hydrological regimes (Eken and Magnin 1999, Kazantzidis and Nazirides 1999, Crivelli et al. 2000) including increased eutrophication. It also suffers persecution from the aquaculture industry (Eken and Magnin 1999, Kazantzidis and Nazirides 1999, Crivelli et al. 2000, Orta et al. 2014). In south-east Europe, conservation measures have ameliorated the most important threats (Crivelli et al. 2000), although concern still exists regarding habitat destruction and persecution in its wintering range (Petkov, Nikolov and Velkov in litt. 2005). It is particularly vulnerable to being caught as bycatch in gillnet fisheries (Žydelis et al. 2013). It is also susceptible to marine pollution, such as biocides and pesticides caused by agricultural run-off.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species, and is covered by the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is currently listed within 182 Important Bird Areas. Within the EU it is currently listed within 189 Special Protection Areas. In 1993 a Greek National Plan of Action was developed for the species (National Plan of Action 1993). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Improved management of wetlands and increased regulation of water extraction and water pollution for inshore water bodies. Identification and designation of protected sites. Monitoring of bycatch in inshore coastal areas and application of bycatch mitigation measures where appropriate.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species has undergone moderately rapid declines and is therefore classified as Near Threatened.

range:
The species can be found along the entire Atlantic coast of Europe as far north as Finland and including Iceland, as far south as the coast of Spain, and ranges in the entire Mediterranean nesting on parts of the coastline of most European (e.g. Italy, Turkey) countries, as well as parts of the Black Sea coast (e.g. Ukraine) (Orta et al. 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 76,300-78,500 pairs, which equates to 153,000-157,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 46,000-47,100 pairs, which equates to 91,900-94,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is a coastal species that shows high nesting site fidelity. The species breeds in colonies (Orta et al. 2014) that can hold more than a thousand well-spaced pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998, Nelson 2005). It is largely sedentary (Orta et al. 2014), although immatures may undergo post-breeding dispersive movements over short distances (Orta et al. 2014). Some birds undergo short-distance migrations during winter. Individuals often forage alone when away from nesting colonies and in winter (Orta et al. 2014, Snow and Perrins 1998), but may follow dense shoals of fish in flocks of several hundred individuals (Nelson 2005). It occupies marine habitats but does not usually occur far from land (Orta et al. 2014). It shows a strong preference for rocky coasts and islands (Orta et al. 2014) with adjacent deep, clear water (Nelson 2005), and forages over sandy and rocky seabeds (Orta et al. 2014). The species feeds on a wide range of benthic, demersal and schooling, pelagic fish. Sandeels (Ammodytidae) are the dominant prey of birds in British and some Spanish populations (Wanless et al. 1997, Velando and Friere 1999, BirdLife International 2000, Velando et al. 2005), and are consistently present in the species's diet in most other locations studied. These are usually caught at, or near, the sea bed (Wanless et al 1997). Other prey species include fish of the families Gadidae, Clupeidae, Cottidae, Labridae, and Trisopterus spp. (Orta et al. 2014), although birds also take small numbers of polychaetes, cephalopods, other molluscs and small benthic crustaceans (Wanless and Harris 1997). Adults provision their chicks with sandeels, but consume a broader variety of prey for themselves (BirdLife International 2000). The Mediterranean subspecies feeds mainly on coastal fishes, caught from the bottom or mid water over rocky or sandy seabeds, but economically important fish seem to form a very small part of the diet (Aguilar and Fernandez 1999).

threats:
The species is persecuted (e.g., shot, intentionally drowned or poisoned) at commercial fisheries and fish farms as it is perceived to be a threat to fish stocks (Carss 1994, Wanless and Harris 1997). It also suffers predation at nesting colonies by introduced American mink (Neovison vison) (Wanless and Harris 1997), is vulnerable to coastal oil pollution (Wanless and Harris 1997, Velando et al. 2005), locally suffers from accidental entanglement and subsequent drowning in gill-nets (fishing nets) (Wanless and Harris 1997, Velando and Freire 2002), and is susceptible to the Newcastle disease so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Kuiken 1999). Eggs, chicks and adults are taken from colonies for food (Wanless and Harris 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Listed on Appendix II of the Convention for Migratory Species, and Annex II in the Bern Convention and under Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. There are 212 Important Bird Areas for this species across the European region. The species occurs within 96 Special Protection Areas in the EU. Work is underway to identify new Important Bird Areas and Special Protection Areas in Slovenia for the Mediterranean sub-species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of important sites at sea for this species; and subsequent designation as Marine Protected Areas. Management of key breeding and wintering roosting sites, including eradication of invasive predators. On-board monitoring programmes of fishing vessels to determine high risk areas for gillnet bycatch, and where relevant implement mitigation and protection measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 401,000-512,000 pairs, which equates to 803,000-1,020,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 224,000-258,000 pairs, which equates to 448,000-516,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Throughout its range the species is sedentary or locally dispersive, with northerly populations also making strong migratory movements (Orta et al. 2014). The species frequents both coastal and inland habitats (Brown et al. 1982, Johnsgard 1993, Snow and Perrins 1998, Nelson 2005, Orta et al. 2014). In marine environments it occurs in sheltered coastal areas on estuaries (Orta et al. 2014), saltpans, coastal lagoons (Johnsgard 1993, Orta et al. 2014), deltas (Johnsgard 1993) and coastal bays (Brown et al. 1982), requiring rocky shores, cliffs and islets for nesting (Orta et al. 2014) but generally avoiding deep water and rarely extending far offshore (Snow and Perrins 1998). It also inhabits fresh, brackish or saline inland wetlands (Nelson 2005) including lakes, reservoirs, wide rivers, flood waters (Orta et al. 2014), deep marshes with open water, swamps and oxbow lakes (Johnsgard 1993), requiring trees, bushes, reedbeds or bare ground for nesting (Orta et al. 2014) and avoiding overgrown, small, very shallow or very deep waters (Nelson 2005). The species's diet consists predominantly of fish, including sculpins, Capelin, gadids (Gremillet et al. 2004) and flatfish (Leopold et al. 1998) as well as crustaceans, amphibians (Orta et al. 2014), molluscs and nestling birds (Brown et al. 1982). At sea the species preys mostly on bottom-dwelling fish, occasionally also taking shoaling fish in deeper waters (Orta et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is often persecuted by the aquaculture industry and may be shot, drowned or poisoned in attempts to control numbers (Carss 1994, ICN 2006) or for hunting (Bzoma et al. 2011). It may also suffer from disturbance and displacement from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) (Bradbury et al. 2014), and is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and Newcastle disease (Kuiken 1999) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these viruses (Kuiken 1999, Melville and Shortridge 2006). Recreational activities taking place at sea may also cause displacement from critical habitat. The species is susceptible to oil spills across its range.  It is also highly vulnerable to bycatch in gillnets (Žydelis et al. 2013), and the species is also caught in longlines (Bellebaum et al. 2009) and purse seines (Oliveira et al. 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. The species occurs in 242 Important Bird Areas. Within the EU it is listed in 245 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued monitoring of population control measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 683,000 pairs, which equates to 1,370,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 641,000 pairs, which equates to 1,280,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species nests in large colonies on cliffs and offshore islands, but also on the mainland. This strictly marine species wanders mostly over continental shelves, feeding on shoaling pelagic fish such as herring (Clupea harengus), mackerel (Scomber scombrus), sprat (Sprattus sprattus) and sandeels (Ammodytes). Prey is mostly caught by plunge-diving from large heights. It also attends trawlers and will form large congregations where food is plentiful. Breeding is highly seasonal starting between March and April. Young birds will migrate to the extreme south of its range, whereas adults range less extensively but still regularly winter in the Mediterranean (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
Overfishing and prey depletion is likely to affect this species, although populations in the U.K. and Ireland were not seriously affected by Shetland sandeel stock crash in the mid 1980s (Carboneras et al. 2014). Incidental capture in fishing gear, including in longlines and purse seines also poses a threat; and the species was the most commonly caught along the Portuguese mainland coast (Oliveira et al. 2015). The species is hunted for food in some places, for example, a small annual harvest is carried out on Sula Sgeir, off north-west Scotland. The small population of northern Norway has suffered local declines and extinctions thought to be mainly due to harassment by White-tailed Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla). The species is considered at high risk from collisions with offshore wind turbines (Bradbury et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreements. It is covered by the EU Birds Directive as a regularly occurring migratory species. It is currently listed within 34 marine Important Bird Areas. Within the EU it is currently listed within nine Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification and protection of important sites at sea. Collection of more information on individual movements to assist careful placement of offshore wind farms. On-board monitoring programmes on fishing vessels to determine the number of birds caught across the region, and implementation of bycatch mitigation measures where appropriate.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered as Not Applicable, because Europe is at the margin of its global distribution.

range:
In Europe, this species only occurs very locally in Spain, where it is reported from Gibraltar and Ebro estuary. There are probably no stable populations. This vagrant species sometimes turns up in other places along the Mediterranean coast. Sea-level. Its range extends to Africa and Middle East. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.

habitat:
The Zeller’s skipper is mostly seen near the coast where it lives in marsh areas with foodplants such as rice (Oryza ssp.), Maïs (Zea ssp.) or Saccharum. These butterflies are strong flyers, sometimes showing migratory behaviour. The caterpillars feed on various grasses. In North Africa, where they also occur, Sorghum halepense and Leersia hexandra are also used as foodplants. It is not clear how many generations a year the species has, but it is probably one. No detailed habitat descriptions available.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.

redListAssessors:
van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it is relatively widespread and has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years.

range:
This species is found in South and Central Europe up to 50° N. It also occurs on most Mediterranean islands. 0-2,000 m. Its range extends to Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. In Switzerland the species is expanding, largely due to sowing of Malvaceae (in the seeds mix) by farmers in their field margins, as ecological compensation measures. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Mallow Skipper is a butterfly of warm, grassy places, usually with rough vegetation, as, for example, rough patches on warm slopes. It is a mobile butterfly, that strays outside its usual habitat and that thus can be met in unexpected places. In warm summers, they migrate northwards and can be seen in warm, south-facing river valleys. The resident populations are usually small. The butterflies are often seen visiting flowers for nectar. They also spend a lot of their time basking in the sun, their wings wide open, showing to full advantage their beautiful purple to olive-green metallic sheen. Eggs are laid singly on the upperside of the leaves of mallows (Malva ssp.). The caterpillars thrive on this food, growing very quickly. This skipper has up to three or more generations in a year. As winter approaches, the fully-grown caterpillars make a cocoon in the litter layer. They pupate in spring. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), fallow land, waste places (13%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years, its European extent of occurrence (EOO) is larger than 20,000 km² and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals.

range:
Occurs over nearly all Portugal and Spain except the north coast and Pyrenees, southeastern France (Pyrenees, Provence, Alps) and adjacent part of Italian Alps, Apennines and Sicily. It has been recorded at altitudes from 0-1,700 m and is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern Marbled skipper occurs on dry, sparse vegetation, in dunes, in dry, grassy places, scrubland and on rocky slopes. Foodplants are various horehounds, including Horehound (Marrubium vulgare), Black Horehound (Ballota nigra foetida) and Ballota spp. The female lays its eggs one by one on the leaves and shoots of the small foodplant. The small caterpillars live hidden in a spun leaf. The older, larger caterpillars spin two neighbouring leaves together to make a safe shelter. When they are fully-grown, the caterpillars go down to the base of the foodplant and spin a few dried leaves together in which to pupate. The species was not seen in the Alps in the last 40 years where it probably had just one generation a year, while in Spain there are two or three generations a year. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), screes (33%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. In the EU27 countries, this species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years (including when considering the uncertainty limits).

range:
This species occurs scattered over large parts of Europe: the Iberian Peninsula (not in the south-eastern part), locally in the south and centre of France, Italy (except the Po Valley), from the French Alps to Southern Poland, the Baltic States and most Balkan countries down to central Greece. Up to 2,000 m. Its range extends to Morocco, Turkey, Iran and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovakia and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Tufted Marbled Skipper can be found on flower-rich grasslands, with very different moisture levels, ranging from dry to wet. It also occurs at the edges of woodland and in bushy vegetation. The males usually perch on a tall plant and very actively defend their territory. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaves of various woundworts (Stachys spp.). Betony (S. officinalis) is often used, but also Hedge Woundwort (S. sylvatica), Alpine Woundwort (S. alpina) and Marsh Woundwort (S. palustris). The young caterpillar lives in a curled-up leaf. When it is bigger, it spins two neighbouring leaves together to make a shelter where it remains during the day, coming out at night to feed on the leaves of the foodplant. It also pupates in such a shelter. This butterfly has one or two generations a year, depending on its location in the range. It overwinters either as a caterpillar or a pupa. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), mixed woodland (5%).

threats:
This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
Both at the European and EU27 member states level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened.

range:
This is a southern species. This species occurs in central and North-East Spain, South of France and Central Massif, Italy, North-East Balkans and North Greece. 200-1,600 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia minor and Caucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovakia and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Hungary and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova, Romania, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The green sheen on the upperside of the wings and body of the Marbled Skipper distinguish it from other skippers in this genus. It lives in warm, flower-rich places. Populations are usually small and it is exceptional to see a large number of these butterflies gathered together. On very hot days, needing to drink, they look for damp ground. The eggs are laid singly on the sepals of various woundworts (Stachys spp.), especially Perennial Yellow Woundwort (S. recta). The young caterpillars spin a loose shelter from leaves, under which they hide themselves while they feed, first eating the seeds and, later, the leaves of the plant. They hibernate in the third or fourth instar and pupate at the base of the foodplant. The Marbled Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (36%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat.

range:
This species occurs in the Balkans from the south of Croatia down to Central Bulgaria (Stara Planina) and Southeast Romania and southwards to the south of Greece and various Greek islands. 0-1,700 m, sometimes to 2,100 m. Its range extends to Caucasus, Turkey and Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bulgaria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Oriental Marbled Skipper is mostly found on grasslands, on rocky slopes with grassy vegetation and occasionally on bushy or on low, shrubby vegetation. The butterflies fly quickly, close to the ground. When they are at rest, they usually have their wings wide open. The caterpillars feed on woundworts (Stachys spp.). After the hibernation caterpillars can be found in rolled-up leaves. It has two to three generations a year according to locality and altitude of the site and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (41%), mesophile grasslands (16%), phrygana (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered as Not Applicable, as Europe is at the margin of its global distribution.

range:
In Europe, this species only occurs on some Greek islands in the eastern Aegean. Here only at sea-level. In other parts of its range (North Africa, Turkey, North Iran and Afghanistan) up to 2,400 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This skipper can be seen an dry, rocky slopes with patches of a flower-rich vegetation, on low, bushy vegetation and even in villages. The butterfly flies close to the ground and usually rests with its wings wide open. It produces one to several generations a year depending on the locality of the site; on the Aegean Islands most observations were made in May and June. In Turkey the flight period covers the time from early June to late September. In the European part of its range, the caterpillars feed on Horehounds (Marrubium sp.). Habitats: cliffs and rocky shores (50%), phrygana (50%).


range:
This species occurs in North Africa from the Sahara desert to the coast, and in the southern coast of Portugal and Spain (from Lisbon to Cadiz). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
It replaces C. alceae in the Southern edge of the Iberian peninsula. It is probably more widespread than previously thought.

habitat:
The False Mallow Skipper occurs on hot and dry places with flowers and patches of grass. It is also found in rocky gullies and on slopes. The larval hostplant is Common Mallow (Malva sylvestris). The species produces several generations a year and is on the wing from March to September. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available, but probably similar to C. alceae.

conservationAction:
Further research on the distribution of this species is needed.


range:
This species occurs in the north of the Pyrenees, central and Northern France, Southern and Eastern Belgium, Southern and Eastern Netherlands, Germany except the North, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Baltic States southwards to the Balkans and Northern Greece. 200-1,600 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Chequered Skipper usually occurs on damp grassland at woodland margins, or where there is woodland nearby, including road verges, also on the drier areas of raised bogs and at their edges. Breeding grounds are also known in somewhat drier locations at higher altitudinal levels. Populations are usually small in size, though numbers can be high. The female lays its eggs one by one on the blades of coarse-leaved grasses. The caterpillars spin folded grass leaves together into a little tube, in which they spend most of their life, leaving it only to feed. The traces of the caterpillar, small half-moons nibbled away from the edge of the grass-blade, are relatively easy to find. The caterpillars hibernate in a more substantial tube-like shelter. It pupates, its papery, pale-yellow pupa suspended from withered grass by a silken girdle. The Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (19%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%).


range:
This species occurs in Northeast Germany (Helmstedt to Schwerin See), in Northern Poland and the Baltic States, in Denmark (only on Lolland), in Norway (from Telemark and Akerhaus up to Troms). In Sweden, it is limited to Skane, Smaland, Gotland, Närke, Söderland, Uppland and Dalarna to the Arctic Circle, Finland. Level 0-200 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to Mongolia and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Latvia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Northern Chequered Skipper can be found flying on the damp, flower-rich grass of woodland rides. They can often be seen drinking nectar from various speedwells (Veronica spp.). The eggs are laid on various coarse-leaved grasses. The caterpillar lives in a shelter spun from a blade of grass. In the last larval instar, the caterpillar makes a shelter from withered leaves in which it hibernates. The pale-yellow pupa is suspended in a silken girdle in the vegetation. It pupates in spring. The Northern Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (34%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (26%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (13%), coniferous woodland (8%).


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe: Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and scattered over the Greek mainland and some islands. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Inky Skippers are very dark little butterflies that fly rapidly, close to the ground. They are found on dry grasslands, in dried-up riverbeds, on rocky slopes and in woodland clearings. They can often be seen basking in the sun, wings wide open, on light-coloured stones. The males gather in groups of sometimes more than 20 individuals on higher places in the landscape, where the females can find them to mate. Especially the females can often be seen drinking nectar on thyme. The larvae feed on bushy rosaceans particularly on Prunus spinosa and P. cocomilla. The Inky Skipper has one or two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. However, in the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien, 2008) this species shows a decline in European grasslands, its main habitat. Therefore, the species might become threatened in future.

range:
This species occurs in Europe up to 62° N, but IS absent from Northern Scotland and large parts of Ireland, Southern Portugal, South-West of Spain, Mediterranean islands except Corfu and Sicily. It is also found in parts of Western and Central Asia. 50–2,000 m. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. It is reported extinct in Latvia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Dingy Skipper is a small, inconspicuous butterfly. In the north of its range it occurs on chalk grasslands, but further to the south it is also found on road verges and on grazed grasslands. It lays its eggs on the leaves of leguminous plants such as Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia), Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis communis) and Common Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), usually choosing plants growing near bare patches. The caterpillar spins a small, tube-like shelter from leaves of the larval foodplant, living and feeding in it until fully grown. It then builds a sturdier shelter in which to pass the winter. In spring, without further feeding, it pupates, either in the shelter, or in the moss layer. The adult butterfly is often found on Bugle (Ajuga spp.) and, while visiting flowers, is easily observed. It rests, mothlike, with its wings closed over its back, but holds them open when alighting on a flower. It is the only skipper occurring in Ireland. The Dingy Skipper usually only has one generation a year, but in warm summers and in the southern part of its range, it sometimes has a second generation that may be only partial. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%), heath and scrub (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).

threats:
Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands

conservationAction:
This species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs scattered in South Europe: from the southeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula to the western coast of Italy and from the southwest of Croatia, via the southwest of Serbia, to Bulgaria and Greece. This species occurs also on Sicily, Sardinia and Crete. Mostly at lower altitudes on coast, inland to 1,600 m. It is also found in North Africa and across Turkey and the Middle East to Afghanistan, Pakistan and North India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
Like the Pigmy Skipper (G. pumilio), the Mediterranean Skipper can be found in rocky or stony places, such as dried-up riverbeds, on dry, grassy vegetation or in thickets and low scrub along the coast. The males defend their territory perched on a stone or on the ground, returning to the same spot if disturbed. These butterflies fly fast and close to the ground. The caterpillars feed on reed (Phragmites australis) and the grass Saccharum ravennae. It has one to three generations a year. There are far fewer butterflies in spring than in summer or autumn. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (37%), phrygana (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).


range:
This species occurs scattered in Mediterranean coastal areas, Italy (locally on the western coast) and from Croatia down to Greece where it is scattered on the mainland. It also occurs on many islands in the Mediterranean (Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, Crete and other Greek islands). 0-400 m, inland Greece to 1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in France. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Pigmy Skipper occurs in the same types of habitat as the Mediterranean Skipper (Gegenes nostrodamus). Dry gullies, rocky slopes, sandy or stony riverbanks with sparse vegetation, dry grassland and low scrub near the coast are all places where these butterflies can be seen, often basking in the sun on stones and bare soil. In spring, there are fewer butterflies than in summer and autumn. The caterpillars feed on the grasses Hyparrhenia hirta and Sorghum halepensis. The Pigmy Skipper has two to three generations a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (28%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), phrygana (28%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (14%).


range:
This species is widespread throughout Europe except south of Portugal and Spain, Ireland, large parts of central Scandinavia and south of Italy. In Britain, it is present only in the extreme south. 0-2,300 m. Its range extends from Northwest Africa across Europe and temperate Asia to Southwest China, the Amur and the Chukot Peninsula to North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Silver-spotted Skipper occurs on open, nutrient-nutrient-poor grasslands, heathlands and on sparsely covered blown sand. The habitat varies from dry to moist, but is never rich in nutrients. However, in their search for nectar, the skippers do visit nutrient-rich areas with flowers close to their breeding ground. Eggs are laid on various fine-leaved grasses, passing the winter in this stage. In spring, the caterpillars emerge and spin a shelter from blades of grass in which they spend most of their time, usually coming out to feed at night. When fully-grown, the caterpillar spins a cocoon of silk and grass blades near the ground in which it pupates. The Silver-spotted Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), heath and scrub (7%).

threats:
Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, and occurs only in protected areas in the Netherlands. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. The subspecies H. comma catena is listed on Annex 2 of the Habitats directive. This subspecies is restricted to mountain areas of northern Norway, Sweden and Finland. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in widely scattered locations, often isolated from each other: north of Spain (from Oviedo to San Sebastian), France (extreme western part of the Pyrenees to Brittany and Somme). Belgium and the Netherlands (near Weert), south of Sweden, central and eastern Lithuania, through Poland, northeast Germany, east Czech Republic, east Austria until the north of the Balkans, north of Italy, southeast Bulgaria and European Turkey. 0-1,000 m. Its range extends to Mongolia, North China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia, Romania and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Hungary, Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The conspicuous pattern on the underside of the wings of the Large Chequered Skipper is unlike that of any other European butterfly. Furthermore, it has a characteristic, bouncing flight, low over the vegetation. It occurs in damp, rough, grassy places, such as grasslands, road verges, edges of streams, at the edges of raised bogs and in woodland clearings. The populations are often small. The eggs are laid singly or in small batches on the blades of grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea) or Purple Smallreed (Calamagrostis canescens). The caterpillar makes a tubular shelter from grass, at first using a folded blade and later using spun grass-blades. It leaves its shelter in search of food. The caterpillars pass the winter in the shelter, making it stronger before they pupate. Pupation takes place in spring. The caterpillars then attach themselves to their shelter by a silken girdle and a small pale-green pupa is formed. The Large Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mixed woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), heath and scrub (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), water-fringe vegetation (7%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a fragmented and scattered distribution. Decline is only reported from FYR of Macedonia. In Bulgaria and Serbia, there are several unpublished localities in the border area. The situation in Southern Russia is unknown. The European area of occupency (AOO) (excluding Russia) is estimated at 42 km². Therefore, it is considered Near Threatened in Europe. In the EU27 countries, this species only occurs in Romania and Bulgaria. In both countries new populations have been found recently, but in Romania, many of them are very small and directly threatened. Therefore, it is also considered as Near Threatened.

range:
It only occurs very locally in Europe, in FYR of Macedonia (Skopje region), the border area of Bulgaria and Serbia and western Romania. 500-800 m. It is found further east in western and southern Siberia, the Altai, Sayan, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Spinose Skipper is a butterfly that likes warm, dry places. It is especially fond of dry flower-rich grassland with scattered bushes. It uses various cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.) as larval foodplant. It has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), phrygana (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (28%).

threats:
Outside Russia, the species is occuring in very small habitat patches having also very small populations, up to tens of individuals per generation. These are threatened both by agricultural activities as well as abandonment.

conservationAction:
As much is still unknow for this species, research on distribution and ecology is urgently needed. Important habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the south of Europe: in the south of Portugal, Spain (except the northwestern part), France (southeastern coast and Drôme), central Italy (Gargano, Calabria and northern Sicily), Croatia, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia and Greece (including the islands Kithira, Karpathos and Simi). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa, Palestine and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bulgaria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Sage Skipper occurs on dry, flower-rich grassland, in open scrub, on rocky ground with sparse vegetation. However, in its habitat, the larval foodplants should be abundant. Various species of Phlomis are used, such as Jerusalem Sage (P. fructicosa), P. lychnitis, P. herba-venti and perhaps also Horehound (Marrubium spp.). Although there is probably only one generation a year, the butterflies of the Sage Skipper can be seen from spring until autumn, due to prolonged emergence from the pupa. This skipper passes the winter as a caterpillar inside the egg. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (29%), phrygana (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), heath and scrub (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed.


range:
This species occurs locally in the south of the Balkans, in FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southeast Romania, northwest Greece and on Greek island Simi. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends to Turkey and Iran and across the south of Russia and Kazakhstan to Mongolia and Yakutia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Tessellated Skipper occurs on various types of open grassy vegetation, on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. The butterflies feed preferably on thymes (Thymus sp.), vetches (Vicia sp.) and yarrows (Achillea millefolium). The butterflies have a rapid flight, often quite close to the ground. The caterpillars feed on the labiates Phlomis tuberosa and P. samia, hiding in spun leaves. The Tessellated Skipper has one generation a year and passes the winter as a small caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), phrygana (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), water-fringe vegetation (6%), screes (6%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. However, since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species is widespread throughout Europe up to 64° N. It is absent from the south of Portugal, Ireland and Scotland. 0-1,800 m. Local populations are found in the south of Spain above 1,000 m. Its range extends eastwards across Turkey to Syria and Iran and across central Asia and Siberia to Mongolia, Korea and Sakhalin. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Skipper is found on sunny, grassy vegetation in or near woods and scrub. It often visits flowers and the development of some rough vegetation close to the breeding ground is thus favourable. They are especially fond of bramble blossom for nectar. The female deposits its eggs onto the blades of coarse-leaved grasses one by one. The caterpillars make a shelter by spinning blades of grass together and pass the winter in the third larval instar. When fully grown, they also spin leaves and silk together, to form a tube-like shelter in which to pupate. The Large Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mixed woodland (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), dry calcareous grassland.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered Not Applicable, as Europe is at the margin of its global distribution range.

range:
This species occurs on Cyprus and on the Greek islands of Samos and Rhodes. Its range extends through Turkey to Africa and Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The Millet Skipper can be seen on dry, grassy vegetation along the coast, in dried-up riverbeds, on rocky slopes and also where grain is grown. The butterflies have a very rapid flight, close to the ground and often colonize new areas. In North Africa, the caterpillars use Common Millet (Paniceum miliaceum) as foodplant, but the European foodplant is unknown. Millet skippers probably have two generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs in most mountains of northern Portugal, Spain, central France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, the Balkans, Greece, south and central Germany and Poland, up to 60°N in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Baltic States. 800-2,000 m. Its range extends to Northwest Africa, Turkey and the Caucasus, eastwards across Siberia and Central Asia to the Far East and East China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Norway and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Grizzled Skipper is usually found in mountainous areas on dry, poor, flower-rich grassland and rough vegetation. Quick-flying, it also likes basking on the ground and drinking from wet mud. It is a very variable butterfly with many different sub-species and forms, making identification difficult. Choosing the smaller leaves, the female lays it’s eggs singly on various cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.) and rock-roses (Helianthemum spp.). At first, the caterpillar lives between spun leaves on plants, later on it spins a tent-like shelter on the ground. It passes the winter in this stage and builds a special tube-like structure in which to pupate. There are one or two generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), heath and scrub (8%).

conservationAction:
In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years, its European extent of occurrence (EOO) is larger than 20,000km² and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals.

range:
Occurs in widely scattered areas in the Pyrenees (very rare), the Alps (from the French Alps to the Julian, Kamnikean and Karavanke Mountains), the Balkans, southwest Bosnia, southwest Serbia and northwest Former Republic of Macedonia and in Northern Europe on border between Norway and Sweden and in Lapland. Recently also reported in the Romanian Carpathians. In Switzerland 1,000-2,700 m, in Spain 1,500-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Alpine Grizzled Skipper occurs in damp, moist, grassy places, often near streams or bogs in the Alps and Pyrenees. In Scandinavia, they are seen on dwarf scrub vegetation and also in rocky places on steep slopes. The larval foodplants is White dryas (Dryas octopetala). The caterpillars live in a communal shelter of spun leaves. They hibernate, pupating in a similar shelter the following spring. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%).

threats:
Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs on Iberian Peninsula, on Corsica and Sardinia, in Italy, the Balkans, Greece and European Turkey, South and Central France, South and East Germany, Denmark (only on Seeland and Bornholm), in South Sweden, Poland and further eastwards. 0-1,700 m. Its range extends to Northwest Africa and through Turkey to Iran and Lebanon. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Poland, Portugal and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Oberthür's Grizzled Skipper is generally limited to unimproved grasslands, occurring on nutrient-poor grassland, both in the dunes and on dry, chalk slopes. In the north of its range, the populations are small, but large numbers of butterflies make up the southern populations. The butterflies can often be seen visiting flowers and seem to be especially fond of Globularia. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.) and rockroses (Helianthemum spp.). The caterpillars of the first instar only eat the surface layer, leaving translucent “windows” in the leaf. The larger caterpillars eat the whole leaf and live in a tent-like shelter, spun from one or more leaves. It is the caterpillar that hibernates. It pupates in a cocoon on the ground. There is one generation a year in the northern range. In the southern range there are two or even three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (29%), mesophile grasslands (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), heath and scrub (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years, its European extent of occurence (EOO) is larger than 20,000km² and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals.

range:
Occurs in the southeast of France (Lozère, Provence, Alps), north and northeast of Spain and Italy (Westwen Italian Alps and Apennines). Found at altitudes 500-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.

habitat:
This grizzled skipper likes flower-rich, grassy vegetation. It occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands as well as on damp, sometimes rough, grassy vegetation. Various cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.) are used as foodplant, including Tormentil (P. erecta), Silverweed (P. anserina), Spring Cinquefoil (P. tabernaemontani) and Creeping Cinquefoil (P. reptans). Helianthemum spp. have been recorded as foodplant in France. This butterfly hibernates in the larval stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%).


range:
Occurs in some mountainous areas in Europe: central Pyrenees including Andorra, the Alps (from French Alps to Austria), southwest Bulgaria and Romania and the south of the Carpathians. Found at altitudes of 1,000-2,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Damp grassland, at the edge of bogs or streams, is the habitat of the Dusky Grizzled Skipper, although they sometimes occur on dry grasslands and are most numerous near the tree-line. They are quite mobile butterflies and are therefore often seen outside their habitat. Males show marked territorial behaviour. Surveying its territory from a perch, a tall tree usually serving as a lookout, he drives away butterfly passing by. Any other male Dusky Grizzled Skipper is pursued for tens of metres before the chase is given up and the male returns home. The female lays its eggs on various species of cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), such as Tormentil (P. erecta) and Alpine Cinquefoil (P. crantzii) and also on Sibbaldia species. It prefers plants growing on drier places, such as on hummocks in damp habitats, or at a little distance from its habitat. The caterpillars live hidden between spun leaves and it is in this stage that the Dusky Grizzled Skipper hibernates. It has one generation a year. The development takes two years. Habitats include alpine and subalpine grasslands (72%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mixed woodland (9%).


range:
Occurs in western part of the Alps: French Alps (from the Drôme), northwest Italy and southwest and central Switzerland to Tessin Alps. Found at altitudes from 600-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Carline Skipper prefers dry, south-facing slopes with quite short vegetation. However, they can also be seen on damp grasslands and in very open larch woods. Large numbers can sometimes occur locally. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of various cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.). The caterpillar remains in the egg during the winter, emerging in spring. It then spins a shelter by attaching a leaf of the foodplant to the ground, in which it lives, hidden. It pupates close to the ground and has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%).


range:
This species occurs in Northeast Portugal, most parts of Spain except the southwest and the north, south and central France, Switzerland, parts of north and central Italy, the Balkans, north Greece (Phalakron and Menikion Mts.), south and east Germany, Poland, south Lithuania. 600-1,800 m. Its range extends to Turkey and Western Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Safflower Skipper is the largest grizzled skipper in Central Europe. It prefers sheltered places, occurring on dry, often calcareous grasslands and rough vegetation in sheltered places . They often rest near bushes or at the edges of woods. They lay their eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves of cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.), the caterpillar later using leaves as food. However, the caterpillars are difficult to find, because they hide in plant cushions during the day, in order to survive the summer heat. The caterpillars hibernate in spun leaves in the litter layer, probably in the last larval instar. However, in breeding experiments, each stage was found to be capable of hibernating. Before they pupate, the caterpillars make a sturdy cocoon. The Safflower Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), screes (7%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, from 60° N to Lapland, except Norwegian coast. It is also found in Northern Russia. 0-950 m. Its range extends to the mountains of Siberia and the north of Mongolia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Northern Grizzled Skipper prefers damp, moist and wet places. It is mostly found in open areas of bogs or swamps, in scrub near swamps and above the tree-line on stretches of wet ground with dwarf shrubs. With its inconspicuous colours and rapid flight, the butterflies of this grizzled skipper are difficult to follow. The female lays its eggs on Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus). Little is known about the way the caterpillars live. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (60%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), blanket bogs (20%).

threats:
This species is declining on the southern edge of its range in Finland and to a lesser extent in Sweden. It is not threatened in northern Scandinavia (Van Swaay & Warren, 1999).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the southeast of Europe, Bulgaria, FYR of Macedonia and north of Greece and very locally in central Spain (Cuenca - Montes Universales). It is also found throug Ukraine and the south of Russia to the Urals. 400-1,900 m, in Spain between 900-1,600 m. Its range extends to Turkey and the south of Urals. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Sandy Grizzled Skipper is usually found in dry, often rocky, flower-rich places, both on calcareous and non-calcareous soil. They can also be found along woodland rides, in open scrub and in dried-up riverbeds. In Spain, it occurs in clearings in pinewoods. The butterflies can often be seen congregating in groups on moist ground to obtain both water and dissolved minerals. In South-east Europe, the foodplant is Sulphur Cinquefoil (Potentilla erecta), but that of the Spanish populations is not known. This species has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), screes (12%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), cliffs and rocky shores (12%), heath and scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level, but the population in Spain is considered vulnerable due to its very limited distribution range.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe and the EU27 countries, a decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, taking a precautionary approach, this species is classified as Vulnerable.

range:
This species is found in large parts of Portugal and Spain and most of France except the north and west. In Switzerland, it occurs in Vaud, Valais and the Jura. It is rare in South Germany, Northwest Italy and Austria. The extent of distribution is not clear yet. Its elevation range is 300-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species. The status of this species in the northeast of Turkey requires revision.

population:
Although widespread in part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovenia. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Switzerland. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This grizzled skipper occurs in warm, flower-rich grasslands, preferring those in sheltered situations, for example on slopes or near shrubs or woodland. In the northern part of its range, it is only found in very warm places. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of various cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.), choosing the smaller plants. This butterfly hibernates as a very tiny caterpillar in the egg, in which it remains until the spring. It then emerges and spins a small shelter from leaves. In the last larval instar, this is replaced by a parchment-like shelter. It pupates in a cocoon. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), inland sand-dunes (10%), fallow land, waste places (10%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.


range:
This species occurs over most of Europe except the extreme south and north. It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, the south of France, Ireland, north of Britain and Fennoscandia north of 65° N. 0-1,900 m. Its range extends through Asia to Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Grizzled Skipper occurs in many different habitats, mostly on dry, as well as moist, flower-rich grasslands and also on calcareous grasslands and heaths. The butterflies often bask in the sun on patches of bare ground. The eggs are laid one by one on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.) and strawberries (Fragaria spp.), including Wild Strawberry (F. vesca). The caterpillar builds a small shelter from a leaf, in which it stays hidden, feeding on the leaves of the foodplant. The sturdy cocoon in which it pupates is spun from plant remains. This species has one or two generations, depending on the location and altitude of the breeding ground. The taras form, with large, white patches on the upperside of the wings, is found more in the Grizzled Skipper than in other skippers, especially in males. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), heath and scrub (6%).

conservationAction:
In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs in the southwest and south of Europe: from central France, south Switzerland and Austria down to Spain, Portugal and Italy. Found at altitudes from 0-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Only the genitalia, both of the males and females, distinguish this butterfly from the Grizzled Skipper (P. malvae). It can be found in a variety of damp and dry habitats, such as acid or calcareous grasslands, heathlands, bogs, rocky slopes and open scrub. Sometimes small areas of just some tens of square metres can be used for breeding. The caterpillars feed on several species of cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.), agrimony (Agrimonia spp.) and strawberry (Fragaria spp.) and especially on tormentil (Potentilla erecta). When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they leave the larval foodplant and spin a cocoon at its base in which to pupate. This species has mostly two generations a year, but at higher altitudes it is only single-brooded. It passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), mesophile grasslands (13%), heath and scrub (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), phrygana (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).


range:
This species occurs locally throughout Portugal and Spain, southeast of France (and in the Quercy), southwest of Switzerland, the Italian Alps, central and southern Italy. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Germany and Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Rosy Grizzled Skipper has a characteristic anvil-shaped spot on the underside of its hindwing. These butterflies can be seen on different types of grassy vegetation and on rocky slopes. Different foodplants are used in different parts of its range. In Switzerland the eggs are laid on rockroses (Helianthemum spp.) and cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.), in Spain, mallows (Malva spp.) are used. In most places, the Rosy Grizzled Skipper has two generations a year and in some places three. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), improved grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%).


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. In the EU27 countries, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, it is classified as Near Threatened within the EU27.

range:
This species occurs in Spain in mountainous areas, including Sierra Nevada, S. de Segura,, S. de la Demanda, S. de Guadarrama, Serrania de Cuenca, Montes Universales, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees. It is also found in the south and central France, south and central Germany, Poland, south Lithuania, Switzerland, Austria, north and central Italy (Apennines), the Balkans, Greece and European Turkey. 50-2,400 m. Its range extends through Turkey to Iran and Lebanon and across south Siberia to Mongolia and northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Luxembourg and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Olive Skipper occurs in areas that do not become too hot in summer, on poor to rough, flower-rich grasslands, which are either open or surrounded by woodland. The Olive Skipper is quite mobile and may be seen in unexpected places. The eggs are deposited on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (Potentilla spp.) and master-worts (Astrantia spp.). The caterpillar lives in a small shelter, spun from a rolled-up leaf, feeding on the leaves of the foodplant. It passes the winter in a cocoon and pupates the following spring at the base of the foodplant. This skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.

conservationAction:
In Belgium, Portugal and Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs locally in central Spain (Caceres region, Sierra de Gredos), France (from south coast to Ardèche and Maritime Alps), Italy (west coast as far as Naples, central Italy) and from Istria (Croatia), the southwest of Croatia, south of Bosnia and south of Serbia down to the north of Greece and Romania. Between 50-1,800 m. Its range extends to through Turkey to Iran and Afghanistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Serbia, Spain and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The yellow and white bands on the underside of its hindwing make the Yellow-banded Skipper unmistakable. These skippers can be found on flower-rich grasslands, flower-rich stony slopes in gullies and in open scrub. The butterflies fly slowly, close to the ground. Sulphur Cinquefoil (Potentilla recta), Potentilla hirta and perhaps also Abutilon theophrasti are used as larval foodplants. It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), mesophile grasslands (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), screes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), phrygana (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. In Spain, it is considered vulnerable due to its very limited distribution range.


range:
Occurs locally in the Alps: from southwest Switzerland (east Wallis) and Ortler Alps in Italy to the mountainous areas of South Germany, Hohe Tauern in Austria and foothills of the Alps in Slovenia. Found at altitudes from 1,800-2750 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Warren's Skipper occurs mostly on flower-rich alpine grasslands. The males fly where flowers are most abundant, along mountain streams, for example. From a perch on a bush or tall plant, they also defend their territory. The females meanwhile are often found on warm, dry patches near bushes, where they lay their eggs one by one on the rockroses (Helianthemum spp.), preferring the smaller plants. The small caterpillar lives hidden in a spun leaf, while caterpillars of later stages spin two leaves together and finally, make a larger shelter from several leaves. The Warren's Skipper has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).

conservationAction:
In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs on Sicily and in Southeast Europe from Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia and further southwards to Greece and many Greek islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also found throughout temperate Asia from Turkey across Central Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Czech Republic. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Orbed Red-underwing Skipper occurs on dry, flower-rich grasslands, on roadside verges, at the edges of woods, on abandoned agricultural land, rocky slopes and along dried-up river beds. The butterflies have a rapid flight, close to the ground. The eggs are laid on the flowerheads of Salad Burnet (Sanguisorba minor) and, in Eastern Europe, possibly also on Great Burnet (S. officinalis). The round flowerheads of the foodplant are the caterpillars' first food, but as they grow larger, they hide between spun leaves. Hibernation takes place on the ground, in the litter layer. They also pupate in rolled-up leaves of the foodplant. This skipper has two generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (29%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (23%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), cliffs and rocky shores (5%), phrygana (5%).

conservationAction:
In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs in the Balkans from Southwest Serbia to Bulgaria and Greece. 0-2,200 m. Its range extends through Turkey to the north of Israel, the north of Iran and Transcaucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Persian Skipper occurs on dry grasslands, on dry scrub, in rocky places and at woodland edges. On hot days males and females congregate on damp ground where they are easy to spot. Although the larval foodplant is not known for certain, probably various bindweeds (Convolvulus spp.) are used. Also, it is not clear how many generations it has a year, but it is probably two. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), phrygana (10%), screes (10%).


range:
This species is widespread in Central and Southern Europe: the Iberian Peninsula, France, southeast Belgium, west Germany, west Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland and Italy. 0-1650 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Red-underwing Skipper is a small butterfly that likes warm habitats. It occurs on calcareous and other dry grasslands and also in dry, rough vegetation, as long as its larval foodplant, Salad Burnet (Sanguisorba minor), is present. The eggs are laid between the buds on the flowerheads of this plant and the caterpillars feed on the young leaves. Hibernation takes place as a caterpillar, in warm areas when still small and further north when fully grown. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer, in a sturdy cocoon made from plant remains. Because of its rapid flight and inconspicuous behaviour, this small butterfly is often not even noticed. However, they are often present in large numbers over quite a small area. The butterflies like visiting flowers. It has one or two generations a year, depending on the position of the breeding ground within the range. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%).


taxonomicNotes:
This skipper used to be considered a sub-species of the Red-underwing Skipper (S. sertorius).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals.

range:
Only occurs on Corsica and Sardinia. Found at altitudes from 0-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This butterfly is the smallest of the European skippers; the wingspan of the males is only two centimetres across, that of the females slightly more. They can be found on grassy, flower-rich patches among scrub and rocks. It has two generations a year. This skipper used to be considered a sub-species of the Red-underwing Skipper (S. sertorius) and resembles it closely in the way it lives. Habitats include sclerophyllous scrub (33%), phrygana (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%).

threats:
Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although this species is widespread and often common in the southern half of its range, it shows strong declines in Central Europe. At the European and EU27 level, it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years. However, in the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien 2008), this species shows a decline of more than 30% in European grasslands, its main habitat. For this reason, the species is considered as Near Threatened.

range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe up to 54° N. In England, it is only present on Dorset coast. It is absent from the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia, large parts of northern Italy, northern Germany and northeastern Poland. 0-1,600 m. Its range extends to North Africa and the Middle East. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the northern part of its range. In the south widespread. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1980s. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Portugal, Romania, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lulworth Skipper can be found on warm, dry grassland, with bushes or scrub nearby, or at the edge of woodland. In the north of its range, it is mostly found on calcareous grassland. Populations of the Lulworth Skipper are sometimes very large. Eggs are laid on the withered leaves of many grasses. Directly after hatching, the small caterpillar spins a cocoon in which to hibernate. It does not begin to eat and grow until the following spring. It then builds a shelter by spinning blades of grass together, which it only leaves when looking for food. When fully grown, it pupates, changing into a green pupa suspended in the vegetation by a silken girdle. The Lulworth Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (31%), mesophile grasslands (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%).

threats:
This species is especially threatened by changes in agricultural activities. If the management of chalk grasslands (mostly low intensity) is stopped, T. acteon can become very abundant for a few years on the tall grasses. After the invasion of trees and shrubs, the species disappears. Heavy grazing is harmful as larvae live in a spun leaf shelter for a part of the year.

conservationAction:
In the southern half of its range (Mediterranean), the species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). In Central Europe, where the species is restricted to local calcareous grasslands, it benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. In Belarus, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


taxonomicNotes:
Thymelicus christi was formerly considered a subspecies of the Lulworth Skipper (T. acteon)

range:
This species is reported from all Canary Islands, except Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (Wiemers 1995). This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Thymelicus christi has two or three generations per year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs locally in central Greece and on islands Samos, Chios, Lesbos and Rhodes. On Greek mainland 600-800 m, on the islands from Sea-level up to 250 m. It is also found across Turkey to Iran and Israel. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Levantine Skipper occurs mostly in warm, dry places with scrub, both inland and on the coast. They have also been seen in dry, stony places and on agricultural land, including olive groves and vineyards. They fly rapidly, close to the ground. This butterfly has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are needed for this species.


range:
This species is widespread throughout Europe, except Sardinia, Ireland, North of England and North of Scandinavia. 0-2,200 m. Its range extends from North Africa through the temperate zone to East Asia. It is introduced in North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Essex Skipper occurs in many types of flower-rich places with tall grass, such as grasslands, road verges and on banks of streams. Sometimes, the populations can have thousands of individuals. It is often seen with the Small Skipper (T. sylvestris). Although very similar, these golden skippers can be distinguished by the colour of the underside of their antennal clubs. That of the Essex Skipper is black and that of the Small Skipper varies from brown to yellow. Because these butterflies need quite a lot of nectar, they can often be seen drinking on thistles, knapweeds and other purple or pink flowers rich in nectar. The female deposits its eggs in groups in the leaf-sheaths of coarse grasses and lays them when the foodplants are already withered. It is the eggs that hibernate. The development of the caterpillar takes place the following spring. At first, the caterpillar only feeds during the day, but later also at night. They pupate in the vegetation. The pupa may be suspended from a grass blade by a silken girdle, but also just by the tip. The Essex Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%).


range:
This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Ireland, North of Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland. 0-1,900 m. Its range extends to Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Skipper occurs in all types of flower-rich places with tall grass, such as grasslands, road verges and edges of streams. They are often seen with the Essex Skipper (T. lineola) and can be distinguished from it by the colour of the underside of the antennal club, which ranges from brown to yellow, while that of the Essex Skipper is black. Furthermore, the scent brand on the forewing of the male is broader, longer and more conspicuous than that of the Essex Skipper. The butterflies visit thistles, knapweeds and other purple or pink flowers for their nectar. A female deposits eggs in batches of three to twenty in the leaf-sheaths of coarse-leaved grasses. Unlike the Essex Skipper, it only uses young, green leaves. After about three weeks, the eggs hatch and the small caterpillars begin spinning a shelter straightaway in which to hibernate. The next spring, they begin to feed. At first, they only feed during the day and later also at night. They pupate in a web of loosely spun white threads. The Small Skipper has one generation a year, but the butterflies emerge over a long period. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of the South of Europe: from the north of Portugal, east and central Spain, via the southeast of France, extreme southeast of Switzerland to the south of Slovakia and further southwards in Italy and all over the Balkans. It is also found on several islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,500 m. It is furthermore found in North Africa and across Asia Minor to Korea, China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Nettle-tree Butterfly is one of the snout butterflies, so-called because of its long maxillary palps, which point forward seemingly forming a snout. They are often found in scrub or woods, whit the major foodplant, the Nettle Tree (Celtis australis). Species of Prunus, Ulmus, or other species of Celtis are possibly also used as foodplants. This butterfly is a good flyer that often roams some distance from its habitat and can be seen in all kinds of places. The eggs are laid singly on the leaf buds, early in the year because this butterfly hibernates in the adult stage, appearing again in March. The green caterpillars keep mostly to the underside of the leaves and also pupate there. The Nettle-tree Butterfly has one generation a year; the adult hibernates sometimes as soon as August, the brown underside of its wings providing a good camouflage in the dense undergrowth where it spends the winter looking very much like a dead leaf. Habitats: mixed woodland (17%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), urban parks and large gardens (13%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered Not Applicable, as Europe is at the margin of its global distribution range. However, at the Greek level, it might be considered as Near Threatened owing to its rarity and reported decline.

range:
This species occurs locally on Cyprus and in parts of Turkey. 0-1,600 m. This species occurs from central Sahara to Egypt, Middle East, Arabia, Western Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northwestern India. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
In Europe, this species is restricted to the island of Cyprus. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This butterfly occurs in dry, hot places, on abandoned agricultural ground, scrub or steppe. Populations are small. Little is known about its life cycle, or on which plant the eggs are laid or whether the first instar caterpillars feed from it. However, it is probable that the females, like those of other silver-line butterflies, accept plants from various (Leguminosae, Polygonaceae, Cistaceae) genera on which to lay their eggs. It is known that the two last instars live in the nest of Crematogaster ants, where they feed on ant grubs and pupae, and, to a lesser extent, on food that the ants bring in. It is not improbable that, as soon as they hatch, the very young caterpillars find their way to the ants’ nest. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs throughout Portugal and scattered in Spain (including Catalonia, Basque Country, Extremadura and Andalusia) and in France on the Mediterranean coast from the Pyrenees to the Maritime Alps and in the Rhône Valley. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Chapman's Green Hairstreak is mostly found in woods and scrubs with Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo). The female chooses the young leaves of the older, larger trees on which to lay its eggs. Coriaria myrtifolia has also been named as foodplant. It pupates on the ground at the base of the foodplant. It has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (25%), heath and scrub (25%).


taxonomicNotes:
The species is often misidentified as being C. rubi.

range:
This species occurs in the south of Russia, northeast Caucasus and Transcaucasia and northeast Turkey (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Callophrys chalybeitincta occurs in most of its range in the same habitat as the green hairstreak (Callophrys rubi), a widespread and common species at woodland edges and on scrubby fields in the lowland and at lower altitudes. The species is often misidentified as being C. rubi. Therefore details about its habitat, ecology and behaviour are unknown (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). In Suchumi (Kaschtak-Tchubuni) ovipositions have been observed on the flowerbuds of Rhododendron flavum, but there are no records for Turkey. In Russia, caterpillars have been found feeding on bramble (Rubus spp.). This species probably has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001), but it could also be bivoltine (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). It hibernates in the pupal stage. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species is widespread and common all over Europe. It is absent from the Atlantic islands, Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland Islands. 0-2,300 m. It is also found in Siberia to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Green Hairstreak can be found on nutrient-poor grassland, heathland and at the edges of bogs and marshes. The butterflies like resting in trees and shrubs, such as Alder Buckthorn (Frangula alnus), where they are well hidden by their green colour. However, a tap on a branch can bring tens of them out into the air. The Green Hairstreak is extremely polyphagous. The eggs are laid on a variety of plants, including Heather (Erica spp.), rockroses (Helianthemum spp.) and Alder Buckthorn (Frangula alnus), leguminous plants and species of Rosaceae. The caterpillars feed on the buds, flowers and young leaves. They pupate in the litter layer and the pupa hibernates. The Green Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), mixed woodland (10%), coniferous woodland (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (6%), raised bogs (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%).


range:
This species occurs in the south of the Ural, west and south Altai, northeast Turkey, Kazakhstan, southwest and central Asia (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
In Northeast Turkey, this species occurs on damp slopes at altitudes between 1,600 and more than 3,000 m. The vegetation at these sites consists of high herbs and shrubs, mainly Prangos species and other Umbelliferae. The soil is kept wet by melting snow (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). In Russia the habitat has been described as being steppe-clad slopes, also with shrubs and bushes at lower altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). In Russia, the foodplants of the caterpillars are different Ferula spp., but from the Turkish populations it is not known where the females lay their eggs. The species has one generation a year. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%).


range:
This species occurs all over Europe, except North Scandinavia, Scotland and large parts of Ireland. 0-1,900 m. It is also found in North Africa, Turkey, central Asia, Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Holly Blue occurs widely, although the populations are always small. This small butterfly is very often seen in parks and gardens, as well as at woodland edges and in bushy places. The eggs are laid on the calyx or stem of the flowerbuds or on the ripe fruits of various plant species, including Holly (Ilex aquifolium), Ivy (Hedera helix), Spindle-tree (Euonymus europaeus), Alder Buckthorn (Frangula alnus), brambles (Rubus spp.) and heathers (Calluna vulgaris and Erica spp.). At first, the caterpillars feed on the buds and fruits of the foodplant, only later eating leaves. They are attended by ants. The Holly Blue has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (23%), mixed woodland (16%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), urban parks and large gardens (9%), heath and scrub (8%), towns, villages, industrial sites (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered Not Applicable, as Europe is at the margin of its global distribution range.

However, at the Greek level, it might be considered as Near Threatened owing to its rarity (the extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km²) and reported decline.

range:
In Europe, it occurs only on Cyprus at low altitudes. It is also found in Asia Minor, Levant, Transcaucasia, Iran, North India and the deserts of central Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
In Europe this butterfly only occurs locally on Cyprus and in a suitable habitat it can be seen in large numbers. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
One suitable habitat is on the old town walls of Nicosia on which one of its foodplants, Prosopis farcta (Leguminosae), grows. More to the east of the island, Prosopis stephaniana and Acacia leucophloea are used as foodplants. This butterfly is a good flyer that probably roams northwards each year. However, it can only occur as a resident in areas where it does not freeze in winter. On Cyprus, it probably has two generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The species has a restricted range in Europe and is threatened by urbanisation of coastal habitats.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the south of Bulgaria, north and central Greece, on several Greek islands and Cyprus. 0-1,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Egypt, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan and throughout Africa and Southeast Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to patches with good habitat.

habitat:
The Grass Jewel is Europe's smallest butterfly. It flies rapidly keeping very close to the ground. This rapid flight and its small size make that it is rarely noticed. It occurs in warm, dry places such as open, stony ground with grassy vegetation and some bushes, or on waste places and abandoned agricultural land. The areas it occupies are sometimes very small. The caterpillar feeds on different Heliotropum species and on Adrachne telephioides. They are attended by ants. On Mount Parnassus, the caterpillars are attended by Acantholepis ants, outside of Europe also by Pheidole, Prenolepis and Iridomyrmex ant species. The Grass Jewel has two or three generations a year and passes the winter in the pupa stage. Habitats: phrygana (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.


range:
This species occurs scattered in large parts of South and East Europe: in northeast Spain and central Pyrenees, the southern half of France, north and central Italy, Switzerland (Wallis and near Geneva), via Austria to the south of Poland and to the south, some areas in the Balkans and north of Greece. 0-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, South Siberia, the Urals and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Provençal Short-tailed Blue occurs in woodland clearings, at the edges of woods, on grassy vegetation near bushes and along the banks of streams and edges of ditches. Goat’s-rue (Galega officinalis) and Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia) are its most important foodplants, but other leguminous plants, such as Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), Common Vetch (Vicia sativa) and Lucerne (Medicago sativa) are also used. The caterpillars feed mostly on the flowers, but also on the leaves and are attended by ants. These ants mostly belong to the genus Formica. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (9%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%).


range:
This species occurs in Central Europe between the north of Spain and central Germany. This species is only resident in the south of its range and a migrant in the north. It is absent from Portugal, most of Spain and large parts of Italy and Greece. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Although the Short-tailed Blue looks rather like the Holly Blue (Celastrina argiolus), it has very fine, small tails and prominent eye-spots on the hindwings. The Short-tailed Blue occurs in local populations on damp grassland, heathland and flower-rich verges. It lays its eggs on Lucerne (Medicago sativa) and various clovers (Trifolium spp.), vetches (Vicia spp.), birdsfoot-trefoils (Lotus spp.) and melilots (Melilotus spp.). When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they leave the foodplant to hibernate and later pupate in the litter layer. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (19%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), improved grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. In the EU27 countries, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been
evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to
meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past
10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat.

range:
This species occurs in Eastern Europe: from Eastern Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia and further southwards to Northwest Greece. 250-1,000 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia, Greece, Slovakia, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Short-tailed Blue occurs in clearings in deciduous woodland and on flower-rich, grassy vegetation with scattered bushes. The caterpillars feed on the flowerheads of Black Medick (Medicago lupulina) and Lucerne (M. sativa). The Eastern Short-tailed Blue has three generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%).


range:
This species occurs in Europe only on the south of the Iberian Peninsula. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
Lorquin’s blue prefers open, flower-rich scrub. The female lays its eggs on the sepals of Kidney-vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria) and when the caterpillar hatches out, it bores a hole in the calyx through which it feeds on the young fruits and ripening seeds. When the caterpillars are feeding or at rest, they position themselves lengthways on the red-flecked sepals of the foodplant, well camouflaged, their colours matching those of their surroundings. They are attended regularly by ants. Lorquin’s Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).


range:
This species is common and widespread in Central and South Europe. It is absent from Spain (except in the north), Ireland, Scotland, western Denmark, Scandinavia, Latvia, Estonia and the Balearic Islands. 0-1,700 m. It is present further east to the Middle East, Iran and Siberia up to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Romania and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Brown Argus occurs on warm grasslands, in heaths and in dunes. It can also be found on sandy, pioneer vegetation, as for example in sand-pits, or where houses are being built. It lays its eggs on small crane’s-bill (Geranium spp.) and rockroses (Helianthemum spp.). It may build up numerous, small populations. At first, the small caterpillars only scrape off the undermost layer of the leaves making little “windows” in the leaves. Later, the bigger caterpillars feed on the whole leaf. They are often attended by Lasius and Myrmica ants. The caterpillars can hibernate at any stage. Pupation takes place in the litter layer. The Brown Argus has two to three generations depending on the geographical location. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), dry siliceous grasslands (18%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has shown a 25-30% distribution and population decline over its European range. The strongest declines are reported from Bosnia and Ukraine. It is therefore classified as Near Threatened (A2c) in Europe. In EU-27 countries Bulgaria and Greece more or less stable, so classified as Least Concern.

range:
The Blue Argus occurs in the southeast of Europe from the mountains on the coast of Croatia, via Serbia, to the mountains of southwest Bulgaria and scattered in Greece as far as the Peloponnesos. It occurs between 400–2,400 m elevation. It is also found in Turkey and Iran.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Blue Argus is a species of flower-rich grasslands and rocky slopes with grassy vegetation. Sometimes, they are also seen on scrub or in woodland clearings. This butterfly is often found on calcareous soil. Various species of cranesbill (Geranium spp.) are used as food plants, including G. asphodeloides, Bloody Cranesbill (G. sanguineum) and Rock Cranesbill (G. macrorrhizum). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and are attended to by ants. Depending on the altitude, the Blue Argus has one to three generations a year. Habitats include dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mesophile grasslands (16%), screes (16%).

threats:
The species has a restricted global range. Main threats come from agricultural activities, abandonment and fires causing habitat destruction.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas.


taxonomicNotes:
This butterfly has different sub-species.

range:
This species occurs in Scotland, North of England, Scandinavia up to 70° N, locally in the Baltic States, central Europe, the Alps, the Balkans and the southwest of Europe. At sea-level in Scandinavia, but at increasing altitudes to the south of up to 2,300 m. It is also found eastward to the Altai mountains. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
It is difficult to distinguish the Northern Brown Argus from the Brown Argus (A. agestis). However, the location and type of habitat often helps. The Northern Brown Argus occurs in cooler places, at higher altitudes than the Brown Argus and its range extends much further north. It likes open grasslands or dry vegetation at the edges of woods. It is also more closely bound to calcareous soil than the Brown Argus. The eggs are laid on various rockroses (Helianthemum spp.), as well as on various crane’s-bills (Geranium spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves, often attended by Lasius ants. When the caterpillars are half-grown, they hibernate. Pupation takes place in the litter layer. There is always only one generation. This butterfly has different sub-species. Over most of its range, A. a. allous occurs, with no white spots on the upperside of the wings and distinct black spots underneath them. The sub-species A. a. artaxerxes that occurs in Scotland and northern England, does have white spots on the wing upperside, while the dark spots on the underside are either absent, or much less obvious. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), mixed woodland (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).

conservationAction:
In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in Portugal, Spain (except the northwest), the Balearic Islands and Sicily (Italy). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe.

habitat:
This butterfly species can be found in flower-rich, waste places, in scrub or at woodland edges. The most important foodplants are stork’s-bills (Erodium spp.) and crane’s-bills (Geranium spp.), of which the caterpillars eat the leaves. Knapweeds (Centaurea spp.), rockroses (Helianthemum spp.) and Leguminous plants, such as clovers (Trifolium spp.) and brooms (Cytisus spp.) have also been mentioned. This species has two to three generations a year and is often found together with Myrmica or Lasius ants. Habitats: fallow land, waste places (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (16%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (16%), heath and scrub (16%).


range:
This species occurs in Finland, Sweden (also on Öland and Gotland), in the mountains of Norway, east and south of Germany and further eastwards, in the Alps, sporadically in Italy and Sicily, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia and Bulgaria, north and central Greece, France (the Pyrenees and Central Massif), Spain (Pyrenees, Cantabrian Mts., Sierra de la Demanda, Cuenca, S. de Maria, S. de Tejeda). 700-2,500 m in central and south of Europe, below 1,000 m in Scandinavia. It is also found in Turkey and east to Mongolia, Tian Shan and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Latvia, Serbia, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Geranium Argus occurs locally, in meadows, stream valleys and at woodland edges. The female lays its eggs in the flowers of crane’s-bills (Geranium spp.), at the base of the ovary into which the small caterpillar bores its way on hatching out. It stays there for about a week. It then starts feeding on leaves, first gnawing on the stems, which causes them to wilt. When half-grown, the caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer, but pupate on the foodplant. They are sometimes attended by ants of the genera Myrmica, Lasius and Tapinoma. The Geranium Argus has only one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), mesophile grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).

conservationAction:
In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe, this species was only known from a few places in Southwest Romania. The last records come from Ruszkaberg in South Banate in the period 1908-1913. As this species has not been reported since, it can be assumed extinct in Europe (Székely, 2008).

range:
It occurred very locally in the southwest of Romania: South Banate, Poiana Ruscai Mts., Retezat Mts. and southwest of Transylvania (Székely, 2008). 600-1,200 m. It is also found in western Anatolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted in Europe to Southwest Romania. There have been no reports for almost 100 years. This species can be considered regionally extinct in Europe. It is still present in western Turkey (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In Romania this species has been reported from limestone areas, limestone gorges, rock slopes and grasslands and meadows. The caterpillars fed on Bloody Crane’s-bill (Geranium sanguineum) and had a relationship with Lasius-ants. They hibernated in the larval stage (Székely, 2008). In Turkey reported from moist habitats (Hesselbarth et al., 1995). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The main threats are unknown. The species has not been reported for almost 100 years.

conservationAction:
As this species is extinct in Europe, no actions can be taken for its persistence. Since it is still present in West Anatolia, a re-introduction can be considered. In such case, detailed research on the ecology of this species is necessary.


range:
This species occurs in the mountains of Spain. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Southern Mountain Argus is often consisdered a subspecies of the Northern Brown Argus. It is found in the mountains south of where the Northern Brown Argus occurs. The Southern Mountain Argus thrives on warm and hot rocky places with an open grassy vegetation with flowers. The eggs are deposited on various rockroses (Helianthemum spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves. The Southern Mountain Argus has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed.


range:
Occurs very locally in many mountainous areas in Spain (including the Sierra Nevada, S. de Guadarrama, S. de Gredos, Cantabrian Mts) and the Pyrenees (Ordesa) and possibly in France (Hautes Pyrénées). Found at altitudes from 800-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Spanish Argus is found in alpine and sub-alpine grasslands, on rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and on scree slopes with scanty plant growth. In the Sierra Nevada, it occurs above 2,000 m on rocky plains of dark-coloured slate with a low-growing vegetation. The eggs are laid on different species of storksbill (Erodium spp.). The caterpillars eat the leaves and hibernate when still small. They are attended by various ant species. The Spanish Argus has only one generation a year. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), screes (25%).


range:
This species occurs in the Eastern Pyrenees, the Alps (France, northwest Italy, southwest and east Switzerland), south Finland and central Sweden. 0-300 in North Europe, 1,200-2,000 m in the Pyrenees and Alps. It is also present in South and West Siberia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Silvery Argus occurs on flower-rich grasslands with some bushes or trees, in grass along the hedges, at the edge of woodland and in sunny, grassy woodland clearings. The grassland on which the Silvery Argus occurs is usually damp and high, but it is also seen on dry grassland. The female lays its eggs on the flowers of Wood Crane’s-bill (Geranium sylvaticum) and Meadow Crane’s-bill (G. pratense). The caterpillars eat the leaves as well as the flowers. They are attended by ants. In Spain and Sweden, this butterfly probably hibernates in the egg stage and in the Alps as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), coniferous woodland (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), mesophile grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), mixed woodland (10%).


range:
In Europe, it only occurs on the Canary Islands. It is furthermore found in North and tropical Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Females of the Desert Babul Blue lay their eggs on different species of Acacia trees, therefore the butterflies can only be found where these trees grow. They prefer those growing in hot and dry places. Sometimes an entire population is restricted to only one tree, even if there are others present nearby. The butterflies fly rapidly amongst the branches, the flowers of the Acacia trees are their main nectar source. They also take water from damp ground. The caterpillars are attended by ants from the genus Camponotus and Prenolepis. It is not known how many generations are produced in a year, but it is probably more than one. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has not been evaluated, as it is introduced in Europe (not native). It is originally a species from South Africa.

range:
This is originally a South African species, not native in Europe. It is spreading rapidly in the Mediterranean. It occurs in Europe since 1989. It is now found on the Balearic Islands, Spain (eastern coast and some inland areas), south of France, north and central Italy, southwest of Slovenia and the Croatian coast. The species can be expected everywhere in the Mediterranean in the coming years. This butterfly is also seen further northwards up to the south of England and the Netherlands.

population:
This species is widespread in the Western Mediterranean after its introduction in 1989 to Mallorca. It is expanding east and north. The species can be expected to colonise the rest of the Mediterranean soon. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Originally a species from southern Africa, the Geranium Bronze became a plague in Majorca at the end of the 1980s. It had probably been imported on Pelargonium cultivars, the ordinary or garden geraniums. From there out, because of the large popularity of these plants, it was imported and colonized large parts of Spain and France, using the Pelargonium cultivars as foodplant. The caterpillars mostly eat the flowers and buds of Pelargonium, but also the rest of the plants, including the inside of the main stem, where they are safe from insecticides. Finally, the plants collapse. The expansion can be expected to continue. In South Africa, the Geranium Bronze uses wild Geranium species as foodplant, making it possible that this butterfly will establish itself in the wild in warm parts of Europe. However, in cooler areas, it cannot settle permanently, because it has no diapause and could not survive the winter. Numerous generations a year, depending on the temperature. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (50%), towns, villages, industrial sites (50%).


range:
This species occurs from Norway to the north and east of Spain and from Ireland till far into Asia. 50-2,800 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1980s, though vagrants from Belgian populations are reported regularly. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Belgium, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This butterfly is well named. It is very small and its modest colours make it even seem smaller than it really is. The Small Blue can only be found on calcareous soils. An open, mostly rather short vegetation and a warm microclimate typify its habitat. The butterflies may occur in large numbers. They lay their small, white eggs on the underside of leaves and in flowerheads of Kidney-vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria). A practised eye can detect them between the flowers and the sepals. The creamy-white caterpillars feed on the flowers and seeds and are seldom seen. However, workers of various ant species attend them regularly. When fully-grown, the caterpillars hibernate either between the withered petals of dead flowers, or in the litter layer and pupate on the ground. The Small Blue has one or two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), mesophile grasslands (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).

conservationAction:
In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs locally in large parts of South and Central Europe: it is scattered, in north and central Spain, east France (from the Pyrenees to Burgundy and the Jura), southwest Switzerland (Wallis), northwest and central Italy, east Austria and most Balkan countries as far as Greece (and on Lemnos). 500-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey and central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Germany. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Osiris Blue lives on sunny, flower-rich grassland and road verges rich in sainfoin (Onobrychis spp.), which it uses for its nectar and as foodplant. The caterpillar feeds on various sainfoins (Onobrychis spp.), such as Sainfoin (O. viciifolia), Mountain Sainfoin (O. montana) and O. arenaria. In literature, other leguminous plants are also mentioned, including Bladder Senna (Colutea arborescens), Kidney-vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria) and Bitter Vetch (Lathyrus montanus). The eggs are laid on the flowerheads. The caterpillars feed on both the flowers and developing seeds and are attended by workers of different ant species, one of them being Lasius alienus. The Osiris Blue has one or two generations a year, but the second may only be partial. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate between two leaves. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (24%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (17%), mesophile grasslands (13%), coniferous woodland (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. However in the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien, 2008) this species shows a decline on European grasslands, its main habitat. The species might become threatened in the future.

range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe from central Scandinavia to Italy and Greece. It is also found Spain, in the north and in some mountain ranges (Sierra de Alfacar, S. Nevada, S. de Segura, S. de Espuna, Montes Universales, S. de Guadarrama, S. de la Demanda). It is absent from Ireland, Britain, the Peloponnese and Mediterranean islands except Sicily. 0-2,200 m. It is furthermore present east to Turkey and the Middle East and through central Asia to North China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1970s, but recently recolonised one site. Extinct in the United Kingdom. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Mazarine Blue usually occurs on quite damp vegetation in flower-rich meadows and pastures and at the edges of woodland. These butterflies are fond of basking together in groups and are then easy to find and to be observed. The female deposits its eggs on the flowerheads of Red Clover (Trifolium pratense), eating the unopened buds. The first instar caterpillar only feeds on buds and flowers, later stages also feed on leaves. The colours of the caterpillars are well adapted to their surroundings, with much pink in the first instar and the green in later stages. The caterpillars can hardly be seen while feeding on the foodplants. Ants of the genera Lasius and Camponotus attend the caterpillars. Depending on the altitude and position in the range, the Mazarine Blue has one to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (30%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).

conservationAction:
More research on distribution and ecology is needed. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Restricted to the Canary Islands. Generally found from 200 to 2,500 m, although it has been recorded near the summit of Mount Teide on Tenerife at 3500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to the Canary Islands.

habitat:
The Canary Blue can be found amongst scrub on rocky places, that are mostly at low altitudes and also on waste ground near human settlements. The larvae feed on many plant species, such as Cytisus canariensis, Spartocytisus rubigenus, Lotus sessilifolius, L. hillebrandii, L. glaucus, Adenocarpus viscosus and Teline stenopetala. At low altitudes, this species produces many overlapping generations and can be seen throughout the year. It is not known how many generations are produced and what the diapause stage might be on sites at high altitudes, such as Mount Teide on Tenerife.Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored closely by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species is common and widespread in almost all Europe. It is only in the south of Scandinavia and is absent from northern Scotland and northern Ireland. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in the Middle East, the south of Urals and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Purple Hairstreak is only found in deciduous woodlands whit oaks, its only foodplant. It occurs in oakwoods or oak scrub and also on large, solitary oak trees. The butterflies do not visit flowers. Instead, they remain near the tree, looking for leaves with a layer of honeydew left behind by aphids. This sugary secretion is the butterflies. most important source of energy. The eggs are laid at the base of the buds. The small caterpillar has developed by the time winter comes, but it remains in the egg, emerging in spring to feed on the buds and also on the flowers of the oak. It does not eat the leaves. Sometimes it is attended by Lasius ants. When mature, the caterpillars leave the foodplant and pupate in the moss layer. The Purple Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (54%), mixed woodland (13%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Research is needed to understand the causes of its decline in several countries.


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe except the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, England, Ireland, European lowlands and the north of Scandinavia. 0-1,500 m. It is also found in North Africa and central Asia to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Estonia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Romania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Green-underside Blue is a pretty sight on both dry and damp flower-rich grassy vegetation, such as meadows and woodland clearings. The females lay their eggs between the flowers of all species of leguminous plants, including brooms (Cytisus spp.), vetches (Vicia spp.), Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia), Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia), Genista spp. and melilots (Melilotus spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and are frequently attended by the workers of various ants. The Green-underside Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), mesophile grasslands (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).


range:
This species occurs in the north of Portugal, almost all of Spain, the southeast of France from the Pyrenees, via the Cevennes and Provence to the Alps and Italy in the western Ligurian Alps. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Black-eyed Blue occurs in open shrub, or open woodland, whit Genista or large bushes of broom (Cytisus spp.). Eggs are laid on the flowers of various leguminous plants, such as Dorycnium spp., birdsfoot-trefoils (Lotus spp.), Anthyllis spp., brooms (Cytisus spp.) and Genista spp.. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and are attended by ants belonging to one of the species of the genus Camponotus. The Black-eyed Blue hibernates in the pupal stage. It usually has one generation a year, although in Spain, sometimes two. Habitats: heath and scrub (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (40%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).


range:
Occurs only on Cyprus. Found at altitudes from 300-1,200 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
At lower altitudes, this Blue is found in scrub, where Genista fasselata, its probable foodplant, is growing. Above 1,000 m, these butterflies occur in clearings in pine woods. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs in large parts of central Europe, north and central Spain, north and central Italy, Sicily (the only Mediterranean island on which it occurs) and north and central Greece, south of England, southeast of Belgium, central and south Germany and central and south Poland. There is one population in Latvia and it is extinct in Lithuania and European Turkey. 50-1,600 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Lithuania. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Luxembourg, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Duke of Burgundy Fritillary occurs in woodland clearings, along the edges of paths in the woods and at woodland edges, and on tall/scrubby calcareous and damp grassland. Although the populations are often very local, the numbers of butterflies can be considerable. These butterflies resemble small fritillaries, although taxonomically they are closely related to the blues (Lycaenidae). Eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of Primula species. The caterpillars feed at night, hiding during the day by lying along the main nerve of the Primula leaf. They leave the larval foodplants to hibernate in the litter layer. Mostly, it has only one generation a year, but in warm areas, there may be a second generation late in the year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (24%), mesophile grasslands (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (9%).

conservationAction:
This species requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but occurs only in protected areas in Portugal.


range:
This is a southeastern European species: in Spain in the Sierra Nevada, Montes Universales and Catalonia, France from the eastern Pyrenees to Provence and Savoie, Switzerland (Rhone Valley), north and central Italy, Austria and further eastwards and southwards. 100-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, Turkey and Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Iolas Blue is Europe’s largest blue. It occurs locally on calcareous soil, with shrubs of Bladder Senna (Colutea arborescens). In Greece, C. cilicica is also used. This plant is practically the most important source of nectar for the butterflies. At times, the males can be seen some distance away from their habitat, but the females stay near the foodplants. They lay their eggs, usually several at a time, on the inside of the calyx and inside the bladder-like fruits. The caterpillars feed on the seeds and are visited frequently by ants, for example workers of Tapinoma erraticum and Camponotus cruentatus. Usually, the caterpillar can easily be seen by holding a pod up to the light. When fully-grown, the caterpillars pupate at the base of the foodplant, passing the winter as a pupa. Although it occasionally has a partial second generation, the Iolas Blue usually has only one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (19%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), phrygana (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%).

threats:
This species is mainly threatened by intensification of agriculture. Where it occurs in vineyards, removal of Colotis-shrubs as well as the use of herbicides and insecticides, forms a serious threat as well.


range:
Occurs in almost all of Portugal and Spain (except the northwest part) and in the southeast of France from the east of the Pyrenees to the French Alps. Found at altitudes from 100-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Spanish Purple Hairstreak occurs in damp, deciduous woods, on rough vegetation beside streams and rivers and in parkland. The butterflies spend most of their time in the top of ash trees, the larval foodplant and are difficult to see. However, when they leave the tree in search of nectar, drinking from flowers growing at the edge of the woods or on broad verges, they are more noticeable. They are especially fond of the flowers of the umbellifer Thapsia. The female lays its eggs on several species of Ash, like Fraxinus excelsior, F. ornus and F. angustifolia. The eggs remain on the tree for the rest of the summer, autumn and winter. The small caterpillars that emerge in spring, feed on the flowers and fresh leaves of the foodplants. Ants of different species of the genus Lasius sometimes visit the caterpillars. They pupate in the leaf litter. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: alluvial and very wet forests and brush (33%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), water-fringe vegetation (16%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level in this part of its distribution.


range:
This species occurs in temperate zones all over the world. In Europe, it is a long term resident in the south of Europe only. In the north of its distribution range, it is a rare vagrant. 0-2,700 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
In the southern part of its range, this species is widespread. In the northern part, it is local and the situation depends on the migration from the south. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Romania, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The underside of the wings of the Long-tailed Blue have an attractive pattern of fine, wavy lines and two striking eye-spots near the tails on the hindwings. The habitats are typified by the presence of many species of leguminous plants that serve as foodplants and plenty of nectar-rich flowers for the butterflies. The habitats are warm, dry places, sometimes in agricultural areas. Bladder Senna (Colutea arborescens) is a well-known foodplant, but other leguminous species are also used. The caterpillars feed on the ripening seeds and on farms where peas and beans are grown, they can cause outbreaks. In natural situations, the caterpillars are attended by various ant species. The life cycle of the Long-tailed Blue takes four to six weeks. It does not go into hibernation and can therefore only occur as a resident where it is warm enough for all stages to survive and where there is a continuous supply of food for the caterpillars and adult butterflies. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (17%), phrygana (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), heath and scrub (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).


range:
This species is common and widespread in Mediterranean Europe. Northwards it occurs only as migrant. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in North Africa, Middle East, Turkey, central Asia and India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
In the southern part of its range, this species is widespread. In the northern part, it is local and the situation depends on migration from the south. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Romania, Spain, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lang’s Short-tailed Blue is a small, inconspicuous butterfly that occurs in flower-rich places and on rough vegetation. It is often seen near scrub and on fields of Lucerne (Medicago sativa). The eggs are laid on various leguminous plants, such as melilots (Melilotus spp.), Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and also species of Rosaceae and Plumbaginaeceae. The caterpillar feeds on the flowers and seeds of the foodplant and has been found in association with ants of the genus Lasius. The life cycle of the Lang’s Short-tailed Blue takes four to eight weeks, depending on the temperature. Because it is not certain whether this species can go into diapause, in this case in the egg or caterpillar stage, it is also unclear, whether Lang’s Short-tailed Blue is a resident or migrant in southern Europe. It is also possible that the populations are dependent on annual recolonization from Africa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), phrygana (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).


taxonomicNotes:
There are different sub-species, L. a. alcyphron with orange males and brown females, L. a. melibaeus where the males have almost no purple and the females have black hindwings and L. a. gordius where the violet suffusion on the upperside of the wings of the males is reduced. Females of this subspecies are orange instead of brown on the upperside of the wings.

range:
It occurs locally and in sparse populations in the Baltic States, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Germany, it is widespread and common in the Balkans, north and central Greece, European Turkey and in the mountainous areas of Italy, Switzerland, south and central France and north and central Spain and in the Sierra Nevada. 50-2,500 m. It is also found in Morocco and through Turkey to the south of Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Purple-shot Copper is found both in damp and dry places on many kinds of flower-rich grassland. Only the male has the beautiful purple sheen on the upperside of its wings. Eggs are laid on sorrels (Rumex spp.), mainly Common Sorrel (R. acetosa). This butterfly species hibernates as a fully-developed caterpillar in the egg, or in the first instar. The caterpillars feed at night and stay hidden during the day. They pupate in the litter layer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), mesophile grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
Until recently the Iberian Sooty Copper was regarded as a subspecies of Lycaena tityrus (Casulo et al., 1989).

range:
Restricted to Spain and Portugal, where it is found in several mountain ranges in central Spain and in the Portuguese Alentejo. Field work is needed to find new populations in suitable areas. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The habitat consists of grassland clearings in open Quercus ilex and Q. pyrenaica woodlands, but also in traditionally grazed grasslands and open areas in pine forests. The species has two generations and hibernates as a larva in the second generation. The larva feeds on several Rumex species. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but more research is required on the distribution and ecology of the species, especially field work to find new populations in suitable areas.


range:
This species occurs in the Balkans from Croatia to Bulgaria and in north and central Greece. 900-2,000 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Balkan Copper can be found in damp grassland, sub-alpine and alpine meadows and in woodland clearings with a well-developed herb layer. Populations are usually very local, but in meadows, abundances can sometimes be very high. Different sorrels (Rumex spp.), including Common Sorrel (R. acetosa) are used as larval foodplants. It has one generation a year. This butterfly looks very like the Purple-edged Copper (Lycaena hippothoe) and used to be classified as a sub-species of it. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).


taxonomicNotes:
The Large Copper has several sub-species in Europe.

range:
This species occurs from eastern England via the Netherlands and northern Germany to Finland, southwestern France and from the north of Italy to Turkey. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore found in the temperate and subtropical parts of the palaearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. The species has several subspecies, some of them being extremely local and endangered (e.g. L. dispar batavus) or even extinct (L. dispar dispar is reported extinct in United Kingdom). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece, Italy and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Copper occurs in marshy habitats and on the peaty banks of lakes, rivers and streams and more to the East also on waste lands. Nectar plants are important, especially for the females. Eggs are laid on large sorrels (Rumex spp.) like R. crispus, R. obtusifolius and Water Dock (R. hydrolapathum), but never on Common Sorrel (R. acetosa) or Sheep's Sorrel (R. acetosella). The young caterpillars first eat from the underside of the leaves, making the characteristic ‘windows’. Later caterpillars feed on the whole leaf. They hibernate when half-grown between withered leaves at the base of the foodplant. They are sometimes associated with ants (Myrmica rubra and Lasius niger). The Large Copper has several sub-species in Europe. The largest of them, L. d. batava, is confined to the extensive wetlands in the north of the Netherlands. The males of this subspecies occupy territoria in the warmest places in depressions in the vegetation. Their caterpillars feed only on Water Dock (Rumex hydrolapathum). There are two smaller subspecies, L. d. rutila and L. d. carueli, that use other large sorrels as foodplants. The subspecies L. d. batava has one generation a year and the other subspecies two or sometimes even three. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), water-fringe vegetation (14%), fens, transition mires and springs (11%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), blanket bogs (5%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%).

threats:
Where the species lives in marshland, it is threatened by reclamation, groundwater extraction or desiccation. Grassland and wasteland habitats become unsuitable if they are abandoned and become invaded by shrubs and trees.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Estonia, Finland and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
A decline of 50-80% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Endangered. In EU27 countries, it is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years (and such a decline is also not within the uncertainty limits). It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in the EU27 countries have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This species occurs in scattered populations from the north of Norway to the Pyrenees and from the east of Belgium to East Asia: France (Ariège to the Jura and western Vosges), western Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium (Ardennes) and Germany (in the upland area including the Eifel). 100-1,800 m. It is futhermore found through the temperate and partly arctic areas of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In Central Europe, it is restricted to isolated and scattered locations. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Latvia and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Germany, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Lithuania, Norway, Romania, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Violet Copper is a rare butterfly that is often confined to very small sites, where it may be seen in large numbers. It is found in swampy, wet grassland and rough vegetation bordering streams and lakes. In Central Europe, eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of Bistort (Polygonum bistorta). In the north of its range Viviparous Bistort (Polygonum vivipara) is also used as larval foodplant. The young caterpillars eat the lower epidermis, thus making the characteristic “windows”. It passes the winter as a pupa. It has one, sometimes two, generations a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (37%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), water-fringe vegetation (8%), fens, transition mires and springs (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%).

threats:
Land drainage and agricultural improvements are the most important threats for this species. In some cases, because of agricultural abandonment, meadows get covered with rough vegetation and finally trees and shrubs. Central European populations are often small and isolated, making it hard for the species to recolonise former sites.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. In Belarus and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. None of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Austria. In spite of legal protection of important butterfly habitats special management of these habitats for L. helle is only conducted in few countries (e.g. in Belgium). It requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). Populations should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


taxonomicNotes:
The Purple-edged Copper has a few sub-species: L. h. hippothoe, L. h. eurydame and L. h. striberi

range:
Various sub-species occur: L. hippothoe stiberi in Scandinavia north of 62° N, L. hippothoe eurydame in the Alps of Switzerland, Austria, France and Italy and in the Apennines 1,500-2,500 m and L. hippothoe hippothoe in valleys and further in the north of Spain, Central Europe to the the south of the Balkans and Greece. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in Central and South Siberia and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Hungary and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Purple-edged Copper occurs on wet to damp grasslands, where the male butterflies attract the attention, perched on a tall grass or other plant, watching over their territory. The populations are mostly very local, but in a meadow, the butterflies can often be very numerous. The eggs are laid on various sorrels (Rumex spp.). At first the small caterpillar only scrapes off a few cell layers on the leaf surface, so making translucent “windows”, but later they feed on the whole leaf. The caterpillar hibernates when still small and completes its growth in spring, pupating in the litter layer. It has one generation a year in the northern part of its range. In the southern part of its range it produces two generation and can sometimes be found on dry grasslands as well. The Purple-edged Copper has a few sub-species. The lowland sub-species (L. h. hippothoe) has a largely orange forewing; the mountain sub-species, L. h. eurydame, that occurs between 1,500 and 2,500 m, has completely brown females; and the Scandinavian L. h. striberi has wholly orange forewings, resembling a Small Copper (L. phlaeas). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (30%), mesophile grasslands (24%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and drainage of wet grasslands.


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe from Bosnia and Herzegovina via Montenegro to Bulgaria and Greece (including some islands). Very rare in the northern part of distribution range. 0-1,600 m, although mostly below 1,000 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Grecian Copper can be found in low, scrubby vegetation, maquis and woodland clearings and also occurs in dry and moist grassland at the bottom of valleys. Sorrel, especially Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex acetosella), is used as larval foodplant. This butterfly species has two generations a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), mesophile grasslands (16%), mixed woodland (8%).


range:
This species occurs all over Europe south of the Arctic Circle. 0-2,400 m. It is furthermore found in North Africa, temperate and subtropical Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Copper is a very common, wide-ranging butterfly. It is found on all types of grasslands and heathlands, roadsides and along the banks of canals. The butterflies often visit flowers and the males, perched on a tall blade of grass, defend their territory fiercely, flying out towards conspecific males. Eggs are laid on different species of sorrel, mainly Common Sorrel (Rumex acetosa). In the absence of sorrel, Knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare) serves as a larval foodplant. This butterfly species overwinters as a caterpillar. In the north of its range, the Small Copper has two generations a year, whereas in the southern part, it may have three or four. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), heath and scrub (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).


range:
This species occurs in central Italy and in the Southeast and East of Europe (from eastern Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia to Romania and Greece, on Greek islands (Thasos, Kos and Rhodes and Cyprus). 0-1,600 m. It is found further east through Turkey to Israel, Afghanistan, southern Urals and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lesser Fiery Copper is mostly found on dry, flower-rich grasslands, both on calcareous and acid soils. They are also seen on waste land, very open scrub and rocky slopes. The butterflies are often seen drinking from the flowers of Danewort (Sambucus ebulus). Its most important larval foodplant is Knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare), although other Polygonaceae species are probably also used. The caterpillars feed on both the flowers and the leaves. This butterfly species hibernates as a caterpillar and has several generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).

threats:
The species is threatened by intensification and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered Not Applicable, as Europe is at the margin of its global distribution range. However, there are only 3-4 small populations in Greece and the area with larval habitat is extremely small and being destroyed and at the Greek level, it might be considered as Endangered (B2ab(iii)) owing to its rarity and reported decline.

range:
This species has a very local occurrence in south and central Greece. 1,500-2,300 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
In flight, with the rich orange-red of the upperside of their wings, Fiery Copper males do honour to their name. However, with their wings folded, they are difficult to see. It is a mountain butterfly, often seen near the tree-line, in rocky, calcareous areas with low-growing open vegetation. The foodplant Prickly Thrift (Acantholimon androsaceum) is a member of the Plumbaginaceae. The choice of a species of this family is remarkable, as all other copper butterflies have Polygonaceae species as larval foodplants. The foodplant is restricted to Greece in Europe, but more widespread in Turkey. The Fiery Copper is often seen with the Odd-spot Blue (Turanana taygetica), as both use Prickly Thrift as larval foodplant. Habitats: phrygana (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%).

threats:
The species has a limited range and no dispersal potential, as its foodplant has a restricted range. Furthermore, the area gets destroyed by new roads and other building activities.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The existing populations should be protected.


range:
This species occurs all over Europe to 58° N. It is absent from Scandinavia, Britain and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey and east to Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Altai Mountians. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania, the Netherlands and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Sooty Copper is found in a variety of habitats, damp and dry grassland, heathland, bogs, but also scrub and clearings in woodland, mostly in small numbers. Eggs are laid on sorrels (Rumex spp.), especially on Common Sorrel (R. acetosa). The caterpillar hibernates at the base of the plant in any of the instars. They pupate in the litter layer. It has up to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), heath and scrub (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).


range:
In Spain, it is present in the Sierra de Gredos, S. de Guadarrama, Cantabrian Mts. and the Pyrenees. In France in Central Massif and the Alps. It is also found in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, south of Belgium, the Baltic States, Fennoscandia to Arctic Circle, the Balkans and further eastwards to Siberia. 0-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
It would be difficult to miss the beautiful and conspicuous Scarce Copper. The white patches on the underside of the hindwing distinguish it from other coppers. It prefers sheltered, flower-rich grassland in or near woods. The female visits a wide range of composites, especially Golden-rod (Solidago virgaureae) from where it gets its species name. The female lays its eggs at the base of the flowering stems of all species of sorrel (Rumex spp.). The eggs do not hatch until the following spring when the small caterpillars make a good meal of the new, fresh vegetation. It has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (18%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%), mixed woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).


range:
This species occurs from Ukraine, western, central and eastern Kazakhstan to the Altai and Sayan Mountains. Up to 1,400 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Neolycaena rhymnus occurs on dry grassland on acid and calcareous soils. Often places with this butterfly species can be well described as steppes with occasional bushes or shrubs. The larval foodplant is Caragana frutex. The winter is passed in the egg stage. There is one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (50%), screes (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).


taxonomicNotes:
In some publications it is referred to as two distinct species: P. alcon on wet heathland, moist fen meadows and bogs at low altitude and P. rebeli on dry and subalpine calcareous grasslands. However, genetic research has shown that both have to be considered as being one species.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern at the European level, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. In the EU27 countries, a population decline of more than 25% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, it is classified as Near Threatened within the EU27.

range:
In Central Europe, this species is found from the south of Sweden down to the north of Spain and from France eastwards. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore present east through Siberia to Mongolia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species always occurs in local, isolated populations and is restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Russia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Alcon Blue occurs in local, scattered populations, on low-lying wet heathland, on moist fen meadows and bogs and on dry calcareous grasslands. In some publications it is referred to as two distinct species: P. alcon on wet heathland, moist fen meadows and bogs at low altitude and P. rebeli on dry and subalpine calcareous grasslands. However, genetic research has shown that both have to be considered as being one species. The bright, white eggs are easy to find. They are laid on the flowers and sepals of Marsh Gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe) or Willow Gentian (G. asclepiadea) in the case of the wet P. alcon form, and on Cross Gentian (G. cruciata) by the dry P. rebeli form. At first, the small caterpillars feed on the ovaries of the foodplant, but they pass the later instars in the nests of various Myrmica ants, M. ruginodis, M. scabrinodis and sometimes M. rubra. They hibernate and pupate in the ant nests. The Alcon Blue has one generation a year. Habitats of the form alcon, adapted to wet localities: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (30%), mesophile grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%). Habitats of the form rebeli, adapted to dry localities: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (5%).

threats:
Changes in agricultural management (improvements like land drainage as well as abandonment) threaten this species in grasslands. Fragmentation and isolation is the most important threat on heathlands, although the species can survive for a long time in small habitat patches. In Western Europe (the Netherlands, Belgium), it is also threatened in nature reserves by habitat degradation of wet heathlands, caused by large-scale lowering of groundwater table and nutrient input.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Especially egg-counts have proven to be very effective and are possible with a small time-investment.


redListCategoryRationale:
Strong population declines of more than 30% are reported for this species. Furthermore, based on the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien, 2008), this species has declined in European grasslands, one of its main habitats, since 1990 as well as in the last ten years by more than 90%. In the EU27 countries the decline is even more than 97%. Therefore, it is estimated that the overall decline qualifies this species for the category Endangered.

range:
This species occurs in Central Europe from north and central Spain via France to Denmark, south of Sweden and south of Finland and from the south of Italy and Greece to Siberia, Mongolia, China and Japan. Re-introduced successfully into a number of areas in southern England. 0-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). Based on the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien 2008), this species has declined in European grasslands, one of its main habitats, since 1990 as well as in the last ten years by more than 90%.

habitat:
The Large Blue occurs locally on dry, open grasslands on limestone. It is one of the larger, more conspicuous blues. The females lay their eggs on different species of thyme (Thymus spp.), but also on Marjoram (Origanum vulgare). The caterpillars feed on the buds and flowers of the foodplant. After a few weeks they leave their foodplant and allow themselves to be taken by workers of the antspecies Myrmica sabuleti and sometimes of M. scabrinodis, to the ants nest. The caterpillars feed on the ant grubs, hibernating and pupating there as well. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (9%), coniferous woodland (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), heath and scrub (6%).

threats:
In many parts of Europe this species is restricted to nature reserves. Here the main threat is inappropriate management, as this species is very susceptible to small changes in grazing pressure or other changes in management. Where the species is more widespread, loss of habitat by agricultural intensification and abandonment, as well as afforestation, are the main threats.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. P. arion is one of the best investigated butterfly species in Europe. Ecological demands are relatively well known especially in Western Europe, but special attention for the species in habitat management is only given in a few, mainly Western European countries (e.g. United Kingdom). Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Belgium, Denmark and in the United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. The species and its habitat are legally protected in many countries. P. arion has been reintroduced in the United Kingdom. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. It requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
Both at the European and EU27 member states level, a decline of more than 25% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in Western Europe have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This species occurs especially in Central Europe: some populations in the north of Spain, east of France, north of Switzerland, south and central Germany, south of Poland, the north of the Balkans. 0-1,600 m. It is furthermore present east to central and southern Urals and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Dusky Large Blue occurs on damp, moderately nutrient-rich grassland and rough vegetation. The butterflies are usually found on or near the foodplant Great Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis). Having lived on the flowerheads of this plant for a few weeks, the small caterpillars go down to the ground, in order to be carried away usually by workers of the ant Myrmica rubra to an ant nest. There, they remain feeding on ant grubs, hibernating and pupating in the early summer. The newly-emerged butterflies leave the nest. The Dusky Large Blue is one of the most specialized of the “ant blues” being most adapted to one species of host ant. Populations adapted Myrmica scbrinodis as main host ant are very rare. It has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (36%), water-fringe vegetation (15%), blanket bogs (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).

threats:
The main threats on a European scale come from agricultural improvements (like drainage) and abandonment. As the species also occurs a lot along roadverges, changes to the roads and the management of the verges can have a negative impact as well.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Ukraine and Romania, the species only occurs in protected areas. In France and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. The species has been re-introduced in the Netherlands in 1990. Like for other Phengaris (former Maculinea)-species, the ecological demands of this species are relatively well known.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe, a population decline of more than 30% is reported in the last ten years. In the EU27 countries, a population decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Vulnerable both at the European and the EU27 level.

range:
This species occurs in widely scattered populations in Central Europe: in France, north of Switzerland, north of Italy, south and central Germany, south of Poland, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary and further eastwards to Mongolia, Korea and Japan. 0-1,600 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Scarce Large Blue can be found in moderately nutrient-rich meadows whit Great Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis). In northern Europe, it occurs in open, short vegetation, but in the warm, southern regions, it is also found in rough vegetation. The butterflies tend to keep near the foodplants. The small caterpillars only feed on the flowerheads for two or three weeks. They then go down to the ground where they wait to be picked up by worker ants of the genus Myrmica and carried off to the ants' nest. There they feed on ant grubs. The caterpillars also hibernate and pupate in the ants' nest. The species of host ant varies in different parts of its range. The Scarce Large Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (38%), mesophile grasslands (16%), blanket bogs (12%), water-fringe vegetation (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in agricultural management, like drainage, improvement or abandonment.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. As the species in not mobile, it needs areas with large and well connected patches of habitat. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In France and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. The species has been re-introduced in the Netherlands in 1990. The habitats of P. teleius are legally protected in many countries, but since many populations are not in nature reserves no special attention is given to the habitat demands. Like for other Phengaris (former Maculinea)-species, the ecological demands of this species are relatively well known.


range:
This nordic species is found in Norway from 66° N to the North Cape, in the north of Sweden, northwest of Finland and north of Russia. 50-900 m. It is also found in arctic Asia and America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
In Scandinavia, the Glandon Blue occurs on slate and shale rocks with patches of grassy vegetation and Crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), especially in areas sheltered from the northwestern wind. The females deposit the eggs on Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (Saxifraga aizoides) and Purple Saxifrage (S. oppositifolia). The small caterpillars first feed on the flowerbuds and hibernate. Later, they also feed on the leaves. The Arctic Blue is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2. In Sweden, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. More research on the distribution and ecology is needed.


range:
This species is widespread and locally common in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the south of Portugal, parts of south and central Spain, Ireland, Scotland, the north of Scandinavia, Sardinia and Sicily. 0-2,000 m. It is furthermore present in Turkey and throught temperate Asia to the north of China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Silver-studded Blue can be found in warm places on short vegetation, ranging from dry to quite damp, such as heath and nutrient-poor grassland. Especially impressive are the roosting places with enormous groups, sometimes of hundreds of butterflies, asleep in a very small area. The eggs are laid on Cross-leaved Heath (Erica tetralix) and on a wide range of leguminous plants. Usually, the eggs are deposited low down on the foodplant or on its woody parts. The egg hibernates. The caterpillars live on the leaves of the foodplants. They are often attended by Lasius ants that lick them and perhaps even defend them. Pupation often takes place in the outer passages of the ant nests. The ants also attend the pupa. Depending on the geographical position and altitude of occurrence, the Silver-studded Blue has one or two generations a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (13%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mesophile grasslands (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (5%), coniferous woodland (5%).


range:
This species occurs in southern Norway, southern Sweden, eastern Latvia, the Balkans, northern Greece, parts of Italy, northwestern Switzerland, south of Germany, south of Belgium, Poland and France (limited to Dordogne, Charente, Vienne, Isère, Haute Savoie up to Paris). 200-1,500 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey and east through the temperate and subtropical parts of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Norway and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Reverdin’s Blue can be found on nutrient-poor grassland in places ranging from dry to moist at the edges of woodland or scrub. Eggs are laid on Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia) and Milk-vetch (Astragalus glycyphyllos). The female mostly chooses a woody part of the plant, where the egg hibernates. The small caterpillars feed on the young leaves. They are attended by Lasius and Myrmica as well as Formica and Camponotus ants and pupate deep down in the vegetation. Except in Scandinavia where it has one generation a year, the Reverdin's Blue has two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), mesophile grasslands (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).


range:
This species is endemic to Sardinia and Corsica, found from sea level to 1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This beautiful blue butterfly only occurs on grassy vegetation close to shrubs and woodland edges on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The caterpillars probably feed on greenweed (Genista spp.), but this needs further confirmation. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
More research to distribution and ecology is needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe, this species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km² and an AOO is less than 100 km². Furthermore, it occurs in less than ten locations and is fragmented at the European level. There is not good data available on the population trend. At the EU27 countries level, this species only occurrs in Bulgaria (three localities, two of them not confirmed last years) and in Greece (two sites), but population trends are not known. It is therefore considered as Near Threatened both at the European and EU27 level.

range:
The mountains of Bosnia, S Bulgaria and N Greece, and a few lowland populations in the north of Ukrain. 1,500-2,500 m. It is also found in Caucasus Major and Minor, Armenian Highlands, Asia Minor, and Iran. 1,500-3500 m (Tuzov, 2,000; Gordunov, 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a very local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Southeastern Europe. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is only known from two localities, in Bulgaria from three localities, two of them not confirmed in the last years, and in Greece from two sites on Mt. Orvilos. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This butterfly occurs on mountain meadows on bare, rocky slopes on calcareous ground where the foodplants grow. The most important foodplant is Androsace villosa, the caterpillars feeding on both its leaves and flowers. In Asia, it has been found feeding on Androsace kosopoljanskii (Tuzov, 2,000). This butterfly passes the winter as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The species had a restricted and fragmented range in Europe and is sensible for overgrazing. Due to its limited distribution it might get threatened on the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species only occurs in protected areas.


range:
This species occurs in the south of Greece (Taijetos Mts. 1,400-2,200 m) and on Samos (1,000-1450 m). It is furthermore found in Turkey, the Middle East, Iran and the south of Russia to Afghanistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The Eastern Brown Argus occurs in dry, rocky places with low-growing bushes. Usually, it flies above the tree-line, but it can also be seen on open patches near the tree-line. The caterpillars feed on Astracantha rumelica, partly boring themselves in the stem of the foodplant. They are attended by Camponotus ants. The Eastern Brown Argus has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).


range:
This species is restricted to the Alps and Pyrenees. Found at altitudes from 1,500-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In Central Europe, Glandon Blues are found up to the snow-line on grassy vegetation, where the foodplants grow on open patches, such as on scree slopes and beside streams. On calcareous soils, Androsace chamaejasme is used and on non-calcareous soils, the caterpillars feed on A. obtusifolia and Vitaliana primuliflora. The caterpillars feed on the leaves and sometimes the flowers of the foodplants. The Glandon Blue hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: Alpine and subalpine grasslands (61%), screes (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), heath and scrub (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs in isolated populations in several mountainous areas in south and central Spain: near Granada (Sierra Nevada, S. de Alfacar), near Teruel (S. de Albarracin), near Madrid and Toledo. Found at altitudes from 400-1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This Blue mostly occurs on dry grassland, waste ground and scrub. The caterpillars feed on the milk-vetches Astragalus alopecurioides and A. turolensis and possibly other Astragalus species. The milk-vetches only occur very locally which explains the local occurrence of this butterfly. The female deposits the eggs on the leaves of the foodplant where the caterpillars feed. Hibernation takes place in the early larval instars. It has one generation a year and both the caterpillars and pupae are attended by ants of species from several genera, such as Formica, Plagiolepis, Camponotus and Crematogaster. When the caterpillars are ready for pupation, they often search for a safe place in the entrance of an ant nest. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).


range:
This species is widespread in large parts of Europe. It is absent from Portugal and large parts of Spain except the north and Sierra Nevada and Montes Universales. It is also absent from Britain, south of Greece, south of Italy and the Mediterranean islands except Corsica and Sardinia. 200-2,100 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, Middle East, Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Idas Blue can be found on nutrient-poor grassland and heath rich in herbaceous plants, both in open places and woodland. Eggs are laid on many different species of leguminous plants, such as Broom (Cytisus scoparius), Hairy Greenweed (Genista pilosa), Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (Coronilla varia), White Melilot (Melilotus alba) and the Ericaceae, Ling or Heather (Calluna vulgaris) and Bog Whortleberry (Vaccinium uliginosum) and the Yellow Rockrose (Helianthemum oelandicum). The female deposits the egg onto a woody part of the foodplant where the egg then hibernates. The caterpillars are attended a lot by ants, especially those of the genera Formica and Lasius. When fully grown, the caterpillar crawls into the passages of the ant nest to pupate. Depending on the geographical location and the altitude of their habitat, the Idas Blue produces one or two generations a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (14%), mesophile grasslands (12%), mixed woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).


range:
This species occurs in Europe only on Greek islands Kos, Patmos, Kalimnos, Tilos and Rhodes. 0-800 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Loew’s Blue occurs in dry, rocky places both with low bushes and grassy vegetation. In Greece, a leguminous plant is probably used as foodplant, although exactly which species is not known. In Saudi Arabia, the caterpillars have been found on various types of milk-vetch (Astragalus spp.). The Loew’s Blue is probably single-brooded in Europe, but it produces more generations further to the East. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).


range:
This species occurs in the north of Europe or at higher altitudes further south: the Alps of southeast France, Switzerland, Austria and Italy, south and east Germany, Slovenia, Serbia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, via the Baltic States to Finland, Scandinavia and Denmark. In northern Europe from sea-level up to 1,400 m, in southern Europe 1,500-2,800 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Latvia, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Cranberry Blue occurs on raised bogs, heath and also in woodland clearings, where dwarf shrubs are growing. Although populations are at times extremely small, they can also have considerable numbers of butterflies. Eggs are laid on Marsh Andromeda (Andromeda palustris), Heath (Erica tetralix) and a small number of Vaccinium species, including Cranberry (V. oxycoccos). The caterpillars eat both the flowers and leaves of the foodplants, moving from one plant to another. When they are half-grown, they move into the litter layer and hibernate. However, they pupate on the plant, spinning a silken girdle in which the pupa hangs. The Cranberry Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (30%), coniferous woodland (20%), heath and scrub (10%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), mixed woodland (5%), blanket bogs (5%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. Along the southern edge of its range, it is threatened by drainage of the bogs it lives in.

conservationAction:
In the Netherlands, Slovenia, Serbia and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the Alps (from France to Slovenia and Austria) and in the mountains of Norway and the bordering part of Sweden and the Urals. 1,000-2,700 m in the Alps, 800-1,200 m in Scandinavia. It is also found in the mountains of Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In the Alps, the Alpine Blue is mostly found on sunny, rocky slopes, scree slopes with patches of flower-rich vegetation and often on the rough vegetation growing beside streams. These butterflies usually fly to lower-lying areas in search of nectar. The foodplants are Alpine Milk-vetch (Astragalus alpinus), Alpine Sainfoin (Hedysarum hedysaroides) and probably Mountain Beaked Milk-vetch (Oxytropis jacquinii). In Scandinavia, this blue occurs in the mountains on open, damp slate slopes where its foodplant Alpine Milk-vetch grows. The Alpine Blue hibernates in the pupal stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (77%), screes (22%).


range:
Occurs only in central and east Crete. Found at altitudes from 1,300-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Cretan Argus occurs on rocky ground where there are bushes and a plentiful supply of milk-vetch (Astragalus spp.), the caterpillars’ foodplant. Although it only occurs locally, sometimes large numbers can be seen flying around. The butterflies fly rapidly, often staying close to the foodplants. When they settle on the ground, with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. The Cretan Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is classified as Near Threatened. This species is absent from the EU27 member states.

range:
This species occurs from the southern European part of Russia to the Altai, Tian Shan, Northwest China, Mongolia. Up to 2,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Eastern Zephyr Blue can be found on steppes or on slopes with a steppe-like vegetation. The larval foodplants are several Astragalus species, for example in Northwet Kazakhstan, females deposit the eggs on Astragalus rupifragus. The species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
Occurs very locally in Southern Europe: Spain (Picos de Europa in Cantabrian Mountains.) and France (central Pyrenees, Gavarnie, Tourmalet and Cauterets). Found at altitudes from 1,500-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Gavarine Blue occurs on open alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and on bare, rocky slopes where the foodplants grow on narrow ledges or in crevices. Often, the soil is calcareous and the rocks are limestone. The most important foodplant is Androsace villosa, the caterpillars feeding on both its leaves and flowers. This butterfly passes the winter as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (36%), mesophile grasslands (27%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (18%), screes (18%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs locally in Southeast Europe: from Hungary and west and southeast Romania southwards to the Peloponnesos in Greece. Sea level to 1,600 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Zephyr Blue can be found on open, flower-rich grassland, on rocky slopes and sometimes on scrub or at the edges of woods. The butterflies fly close to the ground and only visit flowers occasionally. The males can be seen in large groups on damp ground. The females lay their eggs on different species of milk-vetch (Astragalus), such as A. excapus, A. dasyanthus, A. parnassi, A. angustifolius and A. rumelica. The caterpillars eat the leaves of the foodplant and are attended by ants, belonging to a broad number of species. Also, they often pupate at the entrance of an ant nest. The Zephyr Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter as a small caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (41%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mesophile grasslands (8%), phrygana (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a local species restricted to Italy and Switzerland. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) less than 20,000 km² and it has an area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 2,000 km². The species is reported to be declining in Switzerland and stable in Italy. Therefore it is listed as Near Threatened in Europe and Least Concern in the EU-27 countries.

range:
Occurs very locally: only in Switzerland (Berner Alps and Walliser Alps) and in the north of Italy (Piedmont -Val di Cogne and Val d'Ossola- and Val Venosta), between 800-2,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This is a butterfly of warm, dry grassland and dry, coniferous forests on calcareous soils. In Switzerland, it is only found where its foodplant Astragalus exscapus grows. In Italy, it also lays its eggs on A. centralpinus, a milk-vetch that does not occur in Switzerland. The caterpillars hibernate when they are half-grown and resume feeding in spring, choosing young shoots near to the ground. They are also attended by Formica ants. This blue has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The most severe threats comes from agricultural improvements, especially irrigation of xerothermophilous steppes and the intensification of grazing by sheep. Habitats abandonment is also a threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a European endemic restricted to the Sierra Nevada (Spain), where it occurs at 25 locations, has an area of occupancy (AOO) of 12 km² and an extent of occurence (EOO) of less than 5,000 km². The species is showing a population decline plus strong fluctuations. Therefore it is listed as Endangered.

range:
This species is restricted to the Sierra Nevada in Southern Spain, between 2,500-3,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the Sierra Nevada, Spain. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The species is showing large populations fluctuations (M. Munguira, pers. comm.)

habitat:
In the Sierra Nevada, these butterflies are found in sheltered depressions in an otherwise open landscape, where the foodplant Androsace vitaliana grows abundantly. The female lays its eggs among fresh leaves inside the rosettes of the foodplant and the young larvae feed on the parenchyma of the leaves, then overwinter as third instar larvae and use the flowers and developing seeds as food in the next spring. Habitat: plant communities growing on screes with Festuca grasses. It lives in dry and exposed areas such as hilltops where the vegetation is scarce and the foodplant grows close to the ground in the crevices or rocky areas.

threats:
The main threat comes from the construction of infrastructure for ski-tourism. Regarding its limited distribution, it might become threatened in the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.

conservationAction:
Protected areas have been identified and established. The species now occurs only in protected areas. In the future, these areas must be well managed. Future research on the distribution and population trend will be needed. The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, targeted ecological research must determine what conservation actions should be untertaken to safeguard the species.


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe: in Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, western Bosnia, Serbia, Albania, western FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southern Romania and Greece. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Anomalous Blue occurs in woodland clearings, open scrub, on sheltered slopes and in agricultural areas. All the places are warm and have a flower-rich grassy vegetation. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and Cockscomb Sainfoin (O. caput-galli). The caterpillars are attended by different species of ants, for example from the genera Crematogaster, Camponotus or Tapinoma. The Anomalous Blue has one generation a year and hibernation takes place on the ground, the small caterpillars hiding under stones. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (46%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (30%), mesophile grasslands (15%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Spain. However, it is absent from the northwestern and western coasts and from areas bordering Portugal. 400-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Spanish Chalkhill Blue can be seen in dry, calcareous rocky places with grassy vegetation and in dry, open scrub. The only foodplant recorded in Spain is Hippocrepis commutata. The female lays its eggs on the leaves. The caterpillars are often found accompanied by Tapinoma ants. This butterfly species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


range:
This species occurs from Spain (Sierra Nevada, Cantabrian Mts., S. de la Demanda and Montes Universales and the Pyrenees), south of France, western Italy and further eastwards. It is also found from central Switzerland via East Germany to the south of Scandinavia. 100-2,000 m. It is furthermore found in Morocco and east to Turkey, West Asia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The German name for this butterfly, Prächtiger Blauling, Magnificent Blue, is well chosen, if only for the colour of the males. They are a bright sky-blue and they also attract attention by their territorial behaviour. The females’ modest brown has a greenish-blue sheen. Amanda's Blue occurs on flower-rich grassland with damp patches, that has some shelter from bushes or a nearby woodland edge. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of various leguminous plants. The caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer and are attended by ants of the genera Lasius, Myrmica, Formica and Tapinoma. They also pupate in the litter layer. Amanda's Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (24%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%).


range:
Occurs in the mountains of the north, west and south of Greece. It is also found in the south of Bulgaria (where it is rare). Found at altitudes from 400-2,000 m, mostly below 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Grecian Anomalous Blue occurs on dry grassland, in dry scrub, on rocky slopes and also sometimes on woodland rides or in clearings in the woods. The female lays its eggs on the flowers of the sainfoin Onobrychis arenaria. The caterpillars feed on the flower heads and are attended by various ant species, amongst others Camponotus gestroi and Crematogaster sordidula. The Grecian Anomalous Blue has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (33%).

conservationAction:
It is important to keep open dry clearings at montane-subalpine levels (Lafranchis et al., 2007). In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Central and Southern Europe. It is absent from the south of Italy, the south of the Peloponnese, the Mediterranean islands except Majorca, Ireland, Scotland, the north of Germany, Scandinavia, Estonia and Latvia. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg and Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Adonis Blue is found on calcareous soil on moderately to very sparsely vegetated grassland, that is often sheltered by neighbouring woods or shrub. Its foodplants are Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) and Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia) and the eggs are laid on the leaves. It pupates in the litter layer. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera Myrmica, Lasius, Plagiolepis, Tetramorium, Formica and Tapinoma. The Adonis Blue usually has two generations a year and the caterpillars of the second generation hibernate. There are also some single-brooded populations in the south of Greece. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (37%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).

conservationAction:
In Belgium, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Only occurs in central Spain in the vicinity of Teruel, Cuenca and Guadalajara, particularly in the Montes Universales. Found at altitudes from 900-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Central Spain.

habitat:
This Chalkhill Blue is always found on calcareous soil and occurs on short vegetation in sheltered hollows in clearings in coniferous forests. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa). This butterfly species is single-brooded. It hibernates as an egg or as a very young caterpillar of the first larval instar. Feeding starts only in spring after hibernation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
Although a rare endemic, this species is not believed to face major threats.

conservationAction:
Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Research is needed on its ecology.


range:
This species occurs in the mountains of the south of Greece, the Peloponnese. 700-1,800 m. It is furthermore found in eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. It is also found in Asia Minor, Iran and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Pontic Blue can be found in woodland clearings and sheltered places above the tree-line with flower-rich, grassy vegetation. The butterflies have also been seen in dense scrub. The caterpillars feed on Tufted-Vetch (Vicia cracca) and possibly other Vicia species. It has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (75%), mesophile grasslands (25%).


range:
Occurs in Central Europe. It is absent from Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, the Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces), the Mediterranean islands (except Corsica and Sardinia) and most of the south of Italy. Found at altitudes from 100-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Ukraine, United Kingdom. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Lithuania, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Chalkhill Blue occurs on calcareous soil in dry and flower-rich places with a short vegetation. They seem to prefer sheltered places. Sometimes, populations can be extremely large which is especially obvious in the late afternoon when the butterflies come together to roost. Hundreds of butterflies can be seen, their heads pointing downwards into the vegetation, wings upright, the light-coloured underwings gleaming in the evening sun. Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) is its only foodplant, the female laying her eggs on the leaves. The eggs hibernate. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera Myrmica, Lasius, Formica, Plagiolepis, Tetramorium, Aphaenogaster and Tapinoma. The Chalkhill Blue pupates in the litter layer. It usually only has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (35%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), mesophile grasslands (13%), heath and scrub (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat.This species is absent from the EU27 member states.

range:
This species occurs in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, northeast of Turkey and northwest of Iran. 2,000-3200 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This butterfly species is mainly found on open stony places but it also occurs in glades of mountain forests. In Turkey, the hostplant is probably Hippocrepis comosa (Hesselbarth, van Oirschot & Wagener 1995, Baytas 2007), outside Turkey other species of the genus Hippocrepis might be used as well. The species has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs in the Volga region, southern Urals, Siberia, southern Altai, Kazakhstan, Transbaikalia, northwestern China and Mongolia. Up to 3,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This blue butterfly can be found in places with semi-desert to steppe habitat with grassy vegetation in the mountains. Larval foodplants are Limonium gmelinii, L. leptolobum, Goniolimon cuspidatum and G. speciosum. The species has one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gorbunov, 2001). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The present status of this species is not known, therefore it is listed as Data Deficient. This species is absent from the EU27 member states.

range:
This species occurs from Crimea and the southern European part of Russia and the Don river basin to the the south of Urals in the east (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
This blue butterfly occurs on stony steppes, gullies and limestone outcrops. Larval foodplants are Hedysarum spp,. The females deposit the eggs on dry plant parts. The hibernation takes place in the second larval instar. It has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).

threats:
No information is available on threats for this species.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the ecology, population size and trends, distribution and threats of this species. It is not known if conservation actions are needed for this species.


