# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Valenciennellus tripunctulatus is a circumglobal species inhabiting tropical to temperate waters. In the  northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from about 40°N to the Canary Islands including pats of the Mediterranean. There are no records of this species from the Gulf of Cadiz but it is common near the mid-Atlantic ridge. It is not utilized and no major threats have been identified. Therefore, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Valenciennellus tripunctulatus is a circumglobal species inhabiting tropical to temperate waters (Quéro et al. 1990, Harold 2002, Felder 2009). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Iceland to the Canary Islands, including pats of the Mediterranean (Quéro et al 1990, Dulčić 2001, Rodriguez et al. 2001). In the Mediterranean Sea it has been reported in the Adriatic Sea (Dulčić 2001) and there are two records from southern Italy (Costa 1991). The species is found at depths ranging from 100–700 m, though is most commonly found between 351–550 m (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).

population:
Average population density of Valenciennellus tripuntulatus in some areas of its distribution is five fish (104 m3)-1 (Hopkins and Baird 1981a). In a study of the fish larvae in waters surrounding Gran Canaria Island, V. tripunctulatus accounted for only 0.05% of the collected specimens (Rodriguez et al. 2001). This species is common in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). However, there are no records from the Gulf of Cadiz and MEITS bottom trawl surveys (J. Gil Herrera and L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Valenciennellus tripunctulatus is a small mesopelagic species, found in abundance at depths of 200–600 m during diel periods. Valenciennellus tripunctulatus is a zooplanktivorous fish, feeding primarily on copepods. Analyses show that V. tripunctulatus feeds primarily during the hours of 1,200–2,200. This has been shown to be due to a reduction in available energy based on the size of prey typically consumed by V. tripunctulatus. Most of the prey consumed by V. tripunctulatus is in the 1.0–5.0 mm size range (Hopkins and Baird 1981a,b,c). The maximum recorded length for this species is 3.1 cm SL (Quéro et al. 1990).

threats:
Currently, there are no major threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Valenciennellus tripunctulatus. More research is needed regarding its current population size and trends.

useAndTrade:
Valanciennellus tripunctulatus is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, it has a circumglobal distribution. In the Western Atlantic it occurs between 35°and 6°N, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and there is one record 34°S, 49°W (Gibbs 1984). In the Western Pacific it occurs north of western New Guinea. It the Eastern Central Pacific it is found around the Hawaiian Islands. It also occurs in the Indian Ocean.

habitat:
This is a marine mesopelagic and bathypelagic species which is found at depths of 25-800 m. The maximum length recorded is 18.2 cm SL male/unsexed (FishBase 2015).


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, this species has a circumglobal distribution. In the Western Atlantic. this species occurs in the USA to the Caribbean Sea, and off Brazil. In the Northwest Atlantic, it is found in Canada (Scott and Scott 1988). It also occurs in the Indian Ocean. In the Western Pacific, it occurs from the South China Sea and north of western New Guinea. In the Eastern Pacific, there is a record at 8°N 160°W and near the Hawaiian Islands.

habitat:
This is a marine mesopelagic and bathypelagic species that occurs at depths of 120-1,280 m (Scott and Scott 1988, Goodyear 1990). The maximum length recorded is 17.0 cm TL male/unsexed (Goodyear and Gibbs 1986).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Aristostomias tittmanni is known primarily from the Atlantic and southeast Pacific; within Europe it is restricted to the Azores and Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Aristostomias tittmanni is probably circumglobally distributed throughout tropical waters and warm temperate seas; it is known primarily from the Atlantic and southeastern Pacific. Within Europe, it is known from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Species of the family Malacosteidae are meso-bathypelagic fish with depths that can reach up to 4,000 meters below sea level (Harold in press).

population:
There is little to no information known about the population of Asristostomias tittmanni.

habitat:
Species of the Malacosteidae family can have a maximum size of 24 cm. Species of this family generally feed on other fishes and crustaceans (Harold in press).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats known for Aristostomias tittmanni.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation efforts known for Aristostomias tittmanni.

useAndTrade:
There are no known uses for Aristostomias tittmanni.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Aristostomias xenostoma is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Aristostomias xenostoma is a circumglobal species (Sutton and Hopkins 1996) which inhabits tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and western Pacific Oceans. Within Europe, it is known only from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). The species exhibits vertical migration patterns, with nighttime centers of abundance between 0-300 m and 700-800 m, and a daytime center of abundance between 300-700 m (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

population:
No information is available on the population within Europe.

habitat:
Aristostomias xenostoma is found in the mesopelagic regions of tropical waters (Moore et al. 2003). It feeds primarily on fishes and crustaceans (Harold 2002). The species exhibits vertical migration patterns, with nighttime centers of abundance between 0-300 m and 700-800 m, and a daytime center of abundance between 300-700 m (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). The maximum recorded total length is 15.0 cm (TL) for male/unsexed (Claro 1994).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats faced by Aristostomias xenostoma.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Aristostomias xenostoma. More research is needed regarding its population size and trends.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Aristostomias xenostoma.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs only in Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs only in Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, this species occurs in the tropical to subtropical Atlantic (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015).

habitat:
This is a marine bathypelagic species that occurs at depths of 300-1,200 m (Parin and Borodulina 1996).  The maximum length recorded is 16.3 cm SL male/unsexed (Parin and Borodulina 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Astronesthes gemmifer is a circumglobal species. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known from 30°N to the Canary Islands. There is limited information available from trawl surveys (bottom and pelagic). There are no major threats (current or projected) that are known to impact this species. Although data for this species are extremely limited, given its broad distribution and deep water habitat, A. gemmifer is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Astronesthes gemmifer is a circumglobal species (Gibbs and McKinney 1988). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Portugal south to the Canary Islands, Spain (Badcock 1970, Gibbs 1990, Bordes et al. 1999), including the waters around the Azores, Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). There are scattered records as far north as Iceland. This species occurs to at least 2,400 m depth (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).

population:
Population information is extremely limited for Astronesthes gemmifer. 

habitat:
Little is known about the habitats and ecology of Astronesthes gemmifer. It is a mesopelagic species and the maximum recorded length is 17 cm SL (Gibbs 1990). Harold (2002) notes that members of the family Astronesthidae typically feed on other fishes and crustaceans. More research is needed regarding the habitats, ecology and life history of A. gemmifer.

threats:
There are no major species-specific threats to Astronesthes gemmifer.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Astronesthes gemmifer. More research is needed regarding its population size and trend, distribution, life history, habitat, ecology, uses, and threats.

useAndTrade:
Astronesthes gemmifer is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Astronesthes indicus is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Astronesthes indicus is a circumglobal species (Sutton and Hopkins 1996) except for having few records from the eastern Pacific. Within Europe, the species is known from the Canaries (Badcock 1970, Bordes et al. 1999, Bordes Caballero et al. 2009) and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).

population:
There is a lack of information on the population of this species within the region.

habitat:
The maximum standard length is 18.0 cm (SL) (Schaefer et al. 1986).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Astronesthes indicus. More research is needed, though, to verify that there are no threats.

conservationAction:
There are currently no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Astronesthes indicus. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, life history, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Astronesthes indicus. More research is needed in order to determine if it is of any use to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Astronesthes leucopogon is widely distributed throughout the temperate Atlantic. In the Northeastern Atlantic, this species primarily occurs between 30 and 37°N to at least 500 m depth. Although data are extremely limited for this species, given its broad range and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, biology, use/trade, and threats. 

range:
Astronesthes leucopogon occurs throughout the Atlantic Ocean (Gibbs 1990). This species is found in the temperate North Atlantic (Harold 2002) and in the eastern Atlantic (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species primarily occurs south of about 35°N, but is known from off the coast of Portugal and north to the Bay of Biscay. Outside the region, this species occurs to about 10°N in the Atlantic and found in the southeastern Atlantic at 16 to 22°S (Gibbs 1984). It has also been recorded south of the Scotian Shelf between 40°N and 43°N (Moore et al. 2003). This species can occur to 500 m depth (Scott and Scott 1988). 

population:
Population information is extremely limited for Astronesthes leucopogon. There are no records from trawl surveys (bottom and pelagic) in the Gulf of Cadiz and the mid-Atlantic Ridge (J. Gil Herrera and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Little is known of the habitats and ecology of Astronesthes leucopogon, other than that it is a mesopelagic species (Moore et al. 2003) that inhabits temperate waters (Harold 2002). The family Astronesthidae is comprised of deepwater species that are moderately common in deep oceanic waters, usually deeper than 500 m during the day (Gibbs 1990). The maximum recorded size of this species is 12 cm SL (Gibbs 1990). More research is needed for this species regarding its habitats, ecology and life history.

threats:
There are no major species-specific threats faced by Astronesthes leucopogon.

conservationAction:
There are currently no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Astronesthes leucopogon. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
Astronesthes leucopogon is not utilized in Northeastern Atlantic waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Astronesthes macropogon is an Atlantic species, which within Europe is restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Astronesthes macropogon is only found in the tropical to subtropical waters of the North and South Atlantic Ocean (Harold 2003). Within Europe, it is known from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
There is a lack of information regarding the population of this species in Europe.

habitat:
It is a mesopelagic species with concentrations from 0-500 m (Moore et al. 2003).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Astronesthes macropogon. More research is needed to verify that there are no threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Astronesthes macropogon. More research is needed regarding its population size and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, uses/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding use and/or trade of Astronesthes macropogon. More research is needed, though, to verify that A. macropogon is of no commercial value to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Astronesthes micropogon is an Atlantic species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Astronesthes micropogon is a mesopelagic species that is found in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic Ocean. Within Europe, it has been recorded in the waters of the Canary Islands (Bordes et al. 1999, Lloris et al. 1991, Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014), and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).

population:
Astronesthes micropogon is only occasionally sampled in regions of its distribution (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

habitat:
A. micropogon is mesopelagic, found in waters from 0-700 m (Moore et al. 2003), with nighttime concentrations from 0-200 m and daytime concentrations from 400-700 m (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

threats:
There are currently no known species-specific threats faced by Astronesthes micropogon. More research is needed to verify that there are no threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Astronesthes micropogon. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Astronesthes micropogon. More research is needed to verify that A. micropogon is of no commercial interest to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs off mainland Portugal, the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs off mainland Portugal, the Azores, Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, it is restricted to the Atlantic. In the Eastern Atlantic, it occurs from Morocco south to Mauritania, and also between 35°N to 20°N (FishBase 2015).

population:
This species is common in deep oceanic waters (FishBase 2015). The current population trend in Europe is unknown.

habitat:
This is a marine bathypelagic species that occurs below 350 m (Bogutskaya 2007). This species is usually found deeper than 500 m during the day. At night smaller individuals migrate to near-surface or even surface waters.  This species feeds on midwater fishes and crustaceans (Gibbs 1984). The maximum length recorded is 19.2 cm SL male/unsexed (Gibbs 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Astronesthes niger is widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean as well as the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the most common astronesthid species and is not utilized in northeastern Atlantic waters. There are no major threats to this species. Although information about this species is limited, given its broad distribution and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats. 

range:
Astronesthes niger is a widespread species found in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean (Harold in press) as well as the Indian and west Pacific oceans (Gibbs 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, this species occurs in the Bay of Biscay, but mostly south of 40°N (Gibbs 1990), including the Azores, Portugal (Lloris et al. 1991, Santos et al. 1997). This species inhabits waters from 0–1,000 m (Moore et al. 2003, Harold in press).  Outside the region, A. niger is also found in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Sutton and Hopkins 1996), in the waters above the Cariaco Trench, Venezuela (Mead 1963), and in the western North Atlantic throughout the Mid-Atlantic Bight (Moore et al. 2003).

population:
Astronesthes niger is the most commonly caught astronesthid caught in the Mid-Atlantic Bight (Moore et al. 2003). Additional information on the population trends of this species is extremely limited. More research is needed to determine the population sizes and trends of A. niger.

habitat:
Astronesthes niger is a mesopelagic species that occurs to 1,000 m depth. The maximum recorded length for this species is 16 cm SL (Moore et al. 2003, Harold FAO ECA Guide in press). Little else is known about the habitats, ecology and life history of Astronesthes niger, and more research is needed regarding these aspects.

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats faced by Astronesthes niger.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Astronesthes niger. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
Astronesthes niger is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is known from off the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is known from off the Azores (52 NM SSW of the Konstantinov Ridge; Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, it is also known from the eastern Gulf of Mexico and southern Angola (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015).

habitat:
This is a marine mesopelagic and bathypelagic species that occurs between 580-600 m depth (Bogutskaya 2007).  The maximum recorded length is 11.0 cm SL (female; FishBase 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathophilus brevis is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Canary Islands, Madeira, and southwest of the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Bathophilus brevis is found in the tropical to temperate North Atlantic. Within Europe, it has been recorded from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), and from Madeira and southwest of the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014).

population:
There is a lack of information on the population of this species within Europe.

habitat:
More data is currently needed regarding the life history of this species. It is a meso- to bathypelagic species (Moore et al. 2003).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Bathophilus brevis. More research is needed to verify that there are no threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathophilus brevis. More research is needed regarding the population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, uses/trade, and threats for B. brevis.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Bathophilus brevis. More research is needed to determine its commercial value to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD)  Bathophilus digitatus is a circumglobal species, found in tropical to subtropical waters worldwide. In the northeastern Atlantic, B. digitatus has been reported from Gibraltar and Madeira. However, there is very little known on the population status of this species in the assessment zone and it has not been recorded by trawl surveys in the known sites of occurrence. Although not utilized and there are no major known threats, B. digitatus is listed as Data Deficient because of the lack of information about its population status within the assessment zone. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, biology, use/trade, and threats.

range:
Bathophilus digitatus is a circumglobal species found in tropical to subtropical waters worldwide (Moore et al. 2003, Gibbs 1986) In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs off Gibraltar (Gibbs and Barnett 1990), the Azores, Madeira (Lloris et al. 1991) and Canary Islands. The depth range for this species is 75–500 m (Mundy 2005).

population:
Population information for Bathophilus digitatus is extremely limited. The are no records of this species in trawl surveys in Europe and no indication of population status in the region (S. Kobyliansky and J. Gil Herrera pers. comm.)

habitat:
Bathophilus digitatus is a mesopelagic species with a maximum recorded length of 17 cm TL (Gibbs 1986). Other members of the Melanostomiidae family feed primarily on other mesopelagic fish and crustaceans (Moore et al. 2003, Harold FAO ECA Guide in press). Little else is known about the habitats, ecology and life history of Bathophilus digitatus.

threats:
There are no known major, widespread threats faced by Bathophilus digitatus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathophilus digitatus. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
Bathophilus digitatus is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathophilus longipinnis is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Bathophilus longipinnis is a circumglobally distributed species, occurring in subtropical waters worldwide (Sutton and Hopkins 1996; Moore et al. 2003). Within Europe, it is known from the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Provisionally, it is thought to be found at depths between 20-1646 m (Mundy 2005).

habitat:
Bathophilus longipinnis is a mesopelagic to bathypelagic species (Moore et al. 2003, Mundy 2005) that feeds primarily on other mesopelagic fish as well as crustaceans (Harold in press).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Bathophilus longipinnis. More research is needed to determine if it faces any threats.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathophilus longipinnis. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Bathophilus longipinnis. More research is needed to determine if it is of any commercial value to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Bathophilus nigerrimus is a circumglobally distributed species. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is distributed from about 45–46°N and 16–17°W, off Gibraltar and in the Mediterranean. There are not many trawl survey records in the region (e.g., three records from bottom trawl surveys in Spanish Mediterranean). Although information for this species is limited, given its broad range and deep waters habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, biology, use/trade, and threats.

range:
Bathophilus nigerrimus is a circumglobally distributed species (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is distributed from south of the British Isles to the Canary Islands, including off Gibraltar and in the Mediterranean (Gibbs 1984, Follesa et al. 2011, C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2013). The recorded depth range for this species is 553–1,001 m (Busalacchi et al. 2010, Follesa et al. 2011).  Outside the region, this species has been reported off Cape Town, South Africa and from the Mozambique Channel to off of Port Elizabeth (Gibbs 1986), Azores, Portugal (Santos et al. 1997), and the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Hopkins et al. 1996).

population:
There are three records of Bathophilis nigerrimus from bottom trawl surveys in the Spanish Mediterranean (L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013). Additional population information is not available for this species.

habitat:
Bathophilus nigerrimus is a mesopelagic species that feeds primarily on other mesopelagic fish as well as crustaceans. The maximum length for this species is about 10.5–11.0 cm TL (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013). Little else is known in regards to the habitats, ecology and life history of B. nigerrimus, and more research is needed regarding these characteristics.

threats:
There are no major species-specific threats to Bathophilus nigerrimus.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathophilus nigerrimus. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats. Bathophilus nigerrimus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathophilus pawneei is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Bathophilus pawneei is a circumglobally distributed species (Sutton and Hopkins 1996), which can be found in the tropical to subtropical waters in the northwestern Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. Within Europe, it is only known from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Bathophilus pawneei can be moderately common (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

habitat:
Bathophilus pawneei is a meso- to bathypelagic species, found at depths of 50-1,500 m (Moore et al. 2003). B. pawneei reaches 12 cm in length, and feeds on other mesopelagic fish and crustaceans (Harold in-press). B. pawneei displays nighttime centers of abundance at 0-200 m and 500-700 m, and daytime centers from 500-700 m (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

threats:
There are currently no known species-specific threats faced by Bathophilus pawneei. More research is needed to verify that there are no threats.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathophilus pawneei. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Bathophilus pawneei. More research is needed to determine if it is commercially valuable to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) In Europe, this species has only been recorded from the Azores (37 NM southwest of the Konstantinov Ridge). There is no information on the population or threats to the species. Therefore, it is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
In Europe, this species has been recorded from the Azores (37 NM southwest of the Konstantinov Ridge; Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, it is also known from off Bermuda (Harold 2002).

habitat:
The is a marine bathypelagic species and occurs below 350 m (Eschmeyer 2003). The maximum length recorded is 5.0 cm male/unsexed (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Bathophilus vaillanti is found in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is known from the Canary Islands to about 45°N in the northeastern Atlantic. It is a meso-bathy pelagic species to depths from 0–3,500 m. Although data for this species are limited, given its broad range and deep waters habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

range:
Bathophilus vaillanti occurs throughout the Atlantic and in the southwest Pacific oceans (Gibbs 1984, Scott and Scott 1988, Paulin et al. 1989). In the northeastern Atlantic, B. vaillanti is found off the Azores, Protugal (Santos et al. 1997) and the Canary Islands, Spain (Bordes et al. 1999) to about 45°N (Gibbs 1984). The depth range for this species is 0–3,500 m (Moore et al. 2003).

population:
Population information for Bathophilus vaillanti is extremely limited.

habitat:
Bathophilus vaillanti is a meso- to bathypelagic species, found at depths from 0–3,500 m (Moore et al. 2003). B. vaillanti reaches lengths of 18 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990), and feeds primarily on other mesopelagic fish as well as crustaceans (Harold in press). Little else is known about the habitats, ecology and life history of B. vaillanti.

threats:
There are currently no major, species-specific threats faced by Bathophilus vaillanti.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathophilus vaillanti. More research is needed regarding its population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
Bathophilus vaillanti is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
Borostomias abyssorum is known only from the holotype specimen collected off the coast of France. No other information is available on the population or biology of this species. Therefore, B. abyssorum listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Borostomias abyssorum is only known to occur in the northeast Atlantic, off the coast of France (Bigelow et al. 1964) at a depth of about 800 m (Eschmeyer 2013).

population:
Borostomias abyssorum is only known only from the holotype (Eschmeyer 2013).

habitat:
Information about the habitat and ecology of Borostomias abyssorum is extremely limited as this species is only known from the holotype. Other members of the family Astronesthinae primarily feed on mesopelagic fishes and crustaceans. This family consisted of meso- and bathypelagic species. However, juveniles of some species have been identified at or near the surface at night (Harold 2002). The maximum recorded size for this species is 7.5 cm TL (Bigelow et al. 1964).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for B. abyssorum. There is a need for additional information about the biology and life history of this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Borostomias antarcticus is a widely distributed, circumglobal species. This species occurs from about 40–66°N in the northeastern Atlantic. Population data are limited but it appears to be uncommon (e.g., two records from bottom trawl surveys in Spain). There are no known threats to B. antarcticus. Although data for this species are limited, given its broad range and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

range:
Borostomias antarcticus is circumgobal  that occurs from 350–2,500 m depth (Moore et al. 2003, Pakhomov et al. 2006). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from about 40°N to 66°N but not reaching the Norwegian Sea (Gibbs 1984, Moranta et al. 2004, Klimpel et al. 2006). Borostomias antarcticus also occurs in the western Mediterranean (Gibbs 1984). 

population:
Population data for Borostomias antarcticus are extremely limited. Bottom trawl surveys in the Spanish Mediterranean recorded two specimens with lengths ranging from 5.5–6 cm TL and taken from depths between 350–400 m (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Borostomias antarcticus is a meso- to bathypelagic species, occurring at depths of 350–2,500 m in temperate to polar waters (Moore et al. 2003, Pakhomov et al 2006). Borostomias antarcticus feeds almost exclusively on fish and copepods (Klimpel et al. 2006). The maximum recorded size for this spec ies is 30 cm SL (Gon 1990).

threats:
There are currently no known threats to Borostomias antarcticus.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Borostomias antarcticus. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats. Borostomia antarcticus was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Borostomias elucens is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Borostomias elucens is a distributed circumglobally in tropical waters (Harold 2003; FAO ECA in press; Sutton and Hopkins 1996) and areas of the North Atlantic. Within Europe, it is known from the waters off Madeira (Lloris et al. 1991, Carnerio et al. 2014), near the Azores in the Plato Seamount area (Carneiro et al. 2014), and the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
There is a lack of information on the population of this species in Europe.

habitat:
Borostomias elucens is a mesopelagic species that feeds on other mesopelagic fishes and crustaceans (Harold ECA FAO in-press).

threats:
There are currently no known species-specific threats to Borostomias elucens. More research is needed to verify that there are no threats.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Borostomias elucens. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Borostomias elucens. More research is needed to determine if B. elucens is of any commercial interest to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Borostomias mononema is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Borostomias mononema is a circumglobally distributed species (Sutton and Hopkins 1996), found in subtropical to temperate Atlantic, western Indian Oceans, western Pacific and western North Pacific (iobis.org). Within Europe, it has been recorded in the waters off Madeira and the Canary Islands (Lloris et al. 1991, Carneiro et al. 2014, Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
Borostomias mononema is a mesopelagic species that feeds on other mesopelagic fishes as well as crustaceans (Harold ECA FAO in press).

threats:
There are currently no known species-specific threats faced by Borostomias mononema. More research is needed to verify that there are no threats to B. mononema.

conservationAction:
There are currently no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Borostomias mononema. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Borostomias mononema. More research is needed to determine if B. mononema is commercially valuable to humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chauliodus danae is a circumgobally distributed species that inhabits deep, oceanic waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from about 60–40°N and is common in the main part of its range. However, there are no trawl survey (bottom or pelagic) records for this species in the assessment zone. It is not utilized in the region and there are no known threats. Although data for this species are limited, given its broad distributional range and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

range:
Chauliodus danae is a circumgobally distributed species (Sutton and Hopkins 1996) that inhabits tropical to temperate waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from south of the British Isles to the Canary Islands (Badcock 1970) and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997). There are scattered records north to 60oN. This species occurs to over 1,000 m depth and is most abundant from 20–40°N (Gibbs 1984). Outside the region, this species has been recorded to 3,500 m depth (Moore et al. 2003).

population:
Chauliodus danae is taken frequently in some areas of its distribution (Moore et al. 2003) and is common in its main range (Gibbs 1984); however, there are no records of this species from trawl surveys in the region (S. Kobyliansky and J. Gil Herrerra pers. comm. 2013)

habitat:
Chauliodus danae is a meso- to bathypelagic species, found in tropical to temperate waters (Harold 2002, in press). Chauliodus danae occurs to over 1,000 m in the region (Gibbs 1984) and has been recorded between 500–3,500 m during the day and 0-500 m at night outside the Northeastern Atlantic (Moore et al. 2003). This species may migrate to near-surface waters at night and feeds on other fishes and crustaceans. Chauliodus danae is an oviparous species that spawns year round, peaking in spring (Gibbs 1984).

threats:
There are currently no known species-specific threats to Chauliodus danae.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Chauliodus danae. More research is needed regarding its current population sizes and trends, habitats, ecology, life history, use/trade, and threats.

useAndTrade:
Chauliodus danae is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Grammatostomias flagellibarba is found from about 43°N to 50°N in the northeastern Atlantic. Although data for this species are limited, there are currently no major threats to this species and given its deep water habitat, future threats are unlikely. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Grammatostomias flagellibarba is distributed throughout the eastern Atlantic in temperate and tropical waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from Ireland and the United Kingdom south to the Canary Islands. The recorded depth range for this species is from 0–1,281 m (Bogutskaya 2007).

population:
Grammatostomias flagellibarba was not recorded in trawl surveys (bottom or pelagic) in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Species of the subfamily Melanostomiinae are typically mesopelagic, usually inhabiting the top 1,000 m of the water column. This species may undertake vertical migrations at night to near surface depths. Its diet consists mainly of other fishes, but it may consume crustaceans as well (Harold in press). The maximum recorded size for this species is 20 cm SL (Gibbs 1984).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Idiacanthus fasciola is a circumglobal species, and occurs to about 43°N, near the Azores, and 39°N off Portugal in the northeastern Atlantic. Although data for this species are limited, there are currently no major threats to this species and given its deep water habitat, future threats are unlikely. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Idiacanthus fasciola is a circumglobal species. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to about 43°N, near the Azores, and 39°N off Portugal (Gibbs 1984). This species inhabits waters between the depths of  500 m (Krueger 1990) and 2000 m (Mundy 2005). Outside the region, this species occurs in the waters of the north Atlantic, north of 10°N and into the south Atlantic, from the southern tip of Africa to the waters off the Patagonian region of Argentina (Nakamura et al. 1986). This species also occurs in the Indo-Pacific, across the Indian Ocean and north of about 23°S to west and central Pacific between 27°N and 23°S. This species is also found in the South China Sea and in waters near the Taiwan Province (Yang et al. 1996).

population:
In a trawl survey conducted along the mid Atlantic Ridge between the years 1975 and 1978, the relative abundance of I. fasciola that was found was relatively low at 0.3% in comparison with other fish collected in the study (Gushchin and Kukuyev 1981). Two specimens recorded from pelagic trawl surveys (one trawl) in the mid-Atlantic ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). There are no trawl records (bottom trawl) in the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Idiacanthus fasciola is a mesopelagic/bathypelagic fish (Kreuger 1990) and its diet consists mainly of other fish (Harold 1999).There is marked sexual dimorphism within this species; the males reach about 15% of the female body size (Harold 1999). Females undergo diel, vertical migrations, while the males remain in the deeper stratum of the water (Harold 1999) (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). The maximum recorded length for this species is 48.9 cm SL (Nakamura et al. 1986).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the northeastern Atlantic, Leptostomias gladiator occurs to about 50°N. This species has been recorded to 5,000 m depth. Although data for this species are limited, there are currently no major threats to this species and given its deep water habitat, future threats are unlikely. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Leptostomias gladiator is a circumglobal species. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from near Ireland south to the Canary Islands. This species is usually found at least 1,000 m deep (Harold 1999) and has been identified as deep as 5,000 m (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). Leptostomias gladiator is  found in the eastern Atlantic, from southern Ireland to Mauritania, Liberia, Angola and off South Africa. In the western Atlantic it is found off the coast of the USA south to Cuba including Gulf of Mexico, and from Brazil to Argentina. Leptostomias gladiator is also found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).  

population:
There are no records from trawl surveys (pelagic or bottom) in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013). Outside the region, studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that the estimated abundance (measured in (103km-2) of this species was 0.4 with only 7 specimens collected and examined (Hopkins et al. 1996, Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

habitat:
Leptostomias gladiator is a mesopelagic to bathypelagic species occurring waters over 1,000 m deep. It is thought that this species may migrate to shallower depths at night, presumably to feed (Harold 1999). In trawl samples taken off the canary islands in 1970, the average depth of L. gladiator captured during daylight hours was 700 m, but the average depth of the specimens caught during night trawls was 200 m (Bradcock 1970). This species is a piscivorous fish, feeding occasionally on crustaceans (Harold 1999). The maximum recorded size for this species is 37.3 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).


range:
The fish is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the Azores south to Mauritania. In the western Atlantic, it is found from about 30°N to 24°N between 70°W and 60°W (Gibbs 1984). Tentatively identified in the Indian and Pacific. Status of this species is not yet firmly established. As a mesopelagic species, the fish spends the majority of its time in the upper 1,000 m of the mesopelagic zone (Harold 1999). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (off the mainland coast, the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Gibbs 1984).

population:
No information found for the European region.

habitat:
The diet of L. haplocaulus consists mainly of other fishes and crustaceans (Harold 1999). This species may undergo vertical migrations at night. As adults, L. haplocaulus may become benthopelagic (Harold 1999).

threats:
There does not appear to be any threats towards this species.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions in place or needed.


taxonomicNotes:
Leptostomias gracilis, Leptostomias macropogon,Leptostomias longibarba, Leptostomias bermudensis, Leptostomias analis and Leptostomias leptobolus are probably synonyms of a single species. The entire complex needs a thorough study (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

range:
The fish is found in the eastern Atlantic between Ireland and the Azores, as well as from the Canary Islands to South Africa. However, it is not recorded in the Gulf of Guinea. In the western Atlantic, it is found off of Bermuda. It has also been reported from the northwest Pacific (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014), from Spain (the Canaries) and from Irish waters (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Considered rare in waters around the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
Reports of the subfamily Melanostomiinae show some species, especially females, undergo diel vertical migrations and that their diets consist mainly of other mesopelagic fishes.

threats:
There does not appear to be any threats towards this species, although further study is needed to verify.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Malacosteus niger is a widespread meso- to bathypelagic species, and occurs to about 66°N in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It is found in depths from 500–3,886 m. Currently, there are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Malacosteus niger is a circumglobal species, inhabiting tropical to subarctic waters (Harold 1999). In the Northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to about 66°N to the Greenland-Iceland Rise and between Iceland and Scotland but is not present in the Norwegian Sea (Gibbs 1984). It is not know to reside in the Mediterranean Sea (Kenaley 2007). Malacosteus niger inhabits waters between the depths of 500–3,886 m (Russian Academy of Sciences 2000). Outside the region, M. niger occurs to approximately 20°S in the southern hemisphere (Gibbs 1984). 

population:
In a study conducted around the seamounts of the Azores archipelago in 2002, 0.000097% of the total haul was M. niger (Melo and Menezes 2002). This species is relatively common compared to other bathypelagic species (S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013). Trawl surveys in the mid-Atlantic ridge caught four specimens in four trawls (Kobyliansky et al. 2010).

habitat:
Malacosteus niger is the only stomiid that does not undertake diel vertical migrations (DVM), and only occasionally moves up the water column into the lower epipelagic zone (Clarke 1974, Kenaley 2007). Copepods comprise a major component of this species' diet, with only a small amount of other micronekton. Copepods account for 83% of prey numbers and 47% of prey biomass (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). This data is singular in that Malacosteus niger represents an extreme departure in stomiid feeding. This species has the largest gape of any stomiid (Sutton, unpublished data), and lacks gill rakers as an adult, indicating that larger, micronekton would more probably be the preferred dietary choice for this species.The large gape and lack of gillrakers as an adult while feeding on copepods may indicate a secondary reversion to planktivory (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). This seeming discrepancy is explained in that the ingestion of copepods provides M. niger with the raw material needed for long-wave visual sensitivity, while at mesopelagic depths, eliminating the need to undergo DVM (Douglas et al. 1999). When the nutritional state of an individual deteriorates after prolonged "snacking'' on copepods, it may be stimulated to revert to piscivory and utilize this stealthy visual mechanism in the epipelagic zone where high densities of teleost prey aggregate on a diel cycle (Kenaley and Sutton unpublished data). The maximum recorded size for this species is 25.6 cm TL (Scott and Scott 1988).   Although out side the region, a study conducted in 1970–1971 near the island of Oahu, Hawaii, revealed that M. niger shows no seasonality in reproduction. Possibly the larvae of M. niger, which exhibit no seasonality either hatch at a larger size or live at greater depths than those of the seasonal species and thus the former's spawning is not timed to any seasonal fluctuations in food concentration or size distribution in the upper layers (Clarke 1974).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Melanostomias bartonbeani is widely distributed in the mesopelagic zones of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from about 56°N to 10°N. This species is found at depths from 25–2000 m. Although data for this species are limited, given its deep water habitat and broad distribution, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Melanostomias bartonbeani occurs in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs throughout the area from about 56°N to 10°N (Gibbs 1984). This species was recently recorded off the coast of Iceland, expanding its range northward (Byrkjedal et al. 2004). It is most often found between the depths of 25–2,000 m (Marrow	1979) Outside the region, this species is found south to Guinea Bissau and the waters from Namibia to South Africa. In the western Atlantic, it is found west of 40°W between 45–25°N, and from Brazil to Argentina. In the northwest Atlantic, it is found in the waters around Canada (Scott and Scott 1988). It is also found in the Indian and Pacific oceans (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

population:
There are no records from trawl surveys (bottom and pelagic) in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013). Outside the region, in a study conducted in the warm waters of Gulf Stream meander 82-H between Cape Hatteras and the Grand Banks in 1985, M. bartonbeani ranked 9th in total mass per cubic meter of all of the fish collected during the haul (Craddock et al. 1992).

habitat:
Species of the Melanostomiidae family, are mesopelagic, occurring in the upper 1,000 m as adults while some species become benthopelagic as adults. This species may undertake vertical migrations to near surface at night. Its diet consists mainly of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002). The maximum recorded length for this species is 26.2 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Melanostomias biseriatus occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Melanostomias biseriatus occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, Melanostomias biseriatus occurs in tropical to temperate in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans (Harold 2002). In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from Morocco south to Western Sahara and Ghana and Nigeria. In the western Atlantic, it is found along the USA south to Bahamas and from Venezuela to Brazil (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). Its depth range is from 620-760 m (Uyeno et al. 1983).

population:
There are 93 records of this species worldwide in 87 geocodes. There are four separate instances where three individuals were taken at a single collection, one was in the Sargasso Sea in 1979, another was in the Gulf of Mexico on the Mississippi Delta in 1961, a third was in the waters off the Bahamas in 1984, and the fourth was not specified (Accessed through www.fishnet2.net, 2013-02-22). It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect the population in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
Based on general information on the subfamily Melanostomiinae diet, the diet probably consists mainly of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002).

threats:
There are no known threats towards this species. However, there is little species-specific research published on this species, and more research should be done in order to know for sure if any threats exist.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species specific conservation measures in place.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the Eastern Central Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chauliodus sloani is a bathypelagic fish which occurs circumglobally in tropical and subtropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from 55°N with records as far north as Iceland, including the Mediterranean and the Azores. This species is very common and abundant. There are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Chauliodus sloani is a circumglobal species that occurs in warm and temperate waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to about 55°N with records as far north as Iceland, including the Mediterranean and all of the Hellenic Seas (Gibbs 1984, Papaconstantinou 1988) and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997). This species occurs to over 1,000 m and has been recorded outside the region from 200–4,700 m in the South China Sea (Yang et al. 1996). In the Ionian Sea, the species occurs at depths of 473–1,192 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
Chauliodus sloani is very common and abundant (C. Kobyliansky and J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Chauliodus sloani occupies deep oceanic waters but may migrate nearer to surface waters at night and mostly feeds on mid water crustaceans and fish (Gibbs 1984). This species feeds mainly on myctophids and is oviparous (Scott and Scott 1988). The diet of Chauliodus sloani consists primarily of fishes (Appelbaum 1982). Species in the genus Chauliodus are believed to eat approximately once every 12 days (Butler et al. 2001). It is a prey item of the commercially important Orange Roughy (Williams et al. 2001). While this species inhabits a large range of water types, it does not seem to tolerate areas with low oxygen concentration (Gibbs and Hurwitz 1967). The maximum recorded size for this species is 15.1 SL from Greek waters (Papaconstantinou and Tortonese 1980), 22 cm TL from the Gulf of Cadiz (ARSA surveys) (J. Gil Herrera pers comm. 2013) and 21 cm TL from the Alboran Sea (MEDITS survey) (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

threats:
In the Balaeric Islands in the western Mediterranean, C. sloani is caught as bycatch and discarded from deep sea crustacean fisheries (Moranta et al. 2000). However, this is not currently a major threat.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Chauliodus sloani was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Chauliodus sloani was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chauliodus sloani is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chirstomias pliopterus is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from the Canary Islands to about 45°N, to depths of 1,300 m. There are no major threats to this species. Although data for this species are limited, given its broad distribution and deep water habitats, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Chirostomias pliopterus is distributed throughout the North Atlantic Ocean (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from the United Kingdom south to the Azores and the Canary Islands but does not occurs in the Mediterranean (Gibbs 1984, Santos et al. 1997, Bordes et al. 1999). The depth range for this species is 0–1,300 m (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

population:
This species was not recorded in trawl (bottom and pelagic) surveys in the region (S. Kobyliansky and J. Gil Herrera pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Members of the family Stomiidae generally belong to the "non guarders" reproductive guild and commonly have photophores and a barbel (Nelson 1994). Melanostomiidae have a diet consisting of other mesopelagic fishes and small crustaceans (Harold 1998). Stomiidae remnants have been recorded in the stomachs of Orange Roughy suggesting that Chirostomias pliopterus may possibly be a prey item of the Orange Roughy (Rosecchi et al. 1988). The maximum recorded length for this species is 20.5 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no specie specific conservation measures in place for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Echiostoma barbatum is a bathypelagic species that is found circumglobally. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Portugal to about 45°N.  There are no records from trawl surveys in the region (bottom or pelagic trawls) but there are no major threats to E. barbatum. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Echiostoma barbatum is a circumglobal species occurring 30–4,200 m depth (Gibbs 1984, Mundy 2005). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, E. barbatum ranges from Portugal to about 45°N (Gibbs 1984, Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

population:
There are no records from trawl surveys in the region (bottom and pelagic) (S. Kobyliansky and J. Gil Herrera pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Echiostoma barbatum is an important second level predator in the Gulf of Mexico (Krueger and Gibbs 1966). Female individuals are generally much larger than male individuals (Fisher 1983). Echiostoma barbatum is known to be prodantric, with the male gonads developing first and later developing female reproductive organs (Fisher 1983). There is a marked difference in the number of females than males in a population, the females outnumbering the males at approximately 2:1, possibly due to a higher mortality rate in males of  the species (Krueger and Gibbs 1966a). As a member of the Melanostomiinae family, it is likely that this species of fish migrates from bathypelagic to epipelagic waters during the nocturnal hours, but there is no definitive evidence that this particular species engages in this activity (Sutton and Hopkins 1996b). This species of fish is thought to be piscivorous, as well as consume myctiphids (Hopkins et al. 1996, Sutton and Hopkins 1996) The maximum recorded size for this species is 36.8 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation efforts in place to protect this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Eustomias braueri is a widely distributed, circumglobal species inhabiting depths to 1,400 m. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is only known off of Gibraltar and Madeira. Information about the biology and population trends of this species is limited. Given the limited range in the assessment zone and lack of population information, E. braueri is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Eustomias braueri is a circumglobal species that occurs between 0–1,400 m depth (Gibbs 1984, Bogutskaya 2007). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known from scattered localities off Gibraltar (Gibbs 1984), Portugal, Madeira (Swinney 1990) and the Azores.

population:
There are no records from trawl (bottom or pelagic) surveys in the area (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Species of the Melanostomiidae are mainly mesopelagic, usually occupying the waters above 1,000 m as an adult. Some species in this family, undergo vertical migrations to near the surface as adults; however, there are no data indicating that E. braueri undergoes such a migration (Haroldin press). This species mainly consumes other fish and sometimes crustaceans (Harold in press). The maximum recorded size for this species is 13.5 cm SL (Gibbs 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need for additional information about the biology and population status of this species.


range:
The fish occurs in the subtropical waters of the North Atlantic Ocean (Harold in prep). The depth range for this species is 0–1,835 m (Hartel et al. 2008). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the area around the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
A mesopelagic species and can attain 18 cm in length (Harold in prep).

threats:
Major threats to this species are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. There is a need for additional information about the biology and population size of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is reported to occur off the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is reported to occur off the Azores (30 NM SSW of the Konstantinov Risge; Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, it also occurs in the Western Atlantic in Bermuda, the Bahamas and off St. Croix (FishBase 2015).

habitat:
This is a tropical marine pelagic-oceanic fish. The maximum length recorded is 13.1 cm SL male/unsexed (Bigelow et al. 1964).


range:
This is a mesopelagic fish, occurring between 0-800 m depth (Mundy 2005). It is found in temperate to tropical areas of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, and in the Western North Atlantic from the Caribbean to 40oN (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). In the Eastern Central Atlantic the species is poorly sampled, with one small area of occurrence off Mauritania near the Cape Verde Islands. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the area of the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
There are no direct observations of this species, but Eustomias species typically migrate vertically at night (Harold 1998). The maximum standard length is 21.0 cm (SL) (Harold in press).

threats:
There is currently no information available about possible threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are currently no efforts to protect or conserve this species.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information available about the commercial utilization of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Eustomias filifer is a circumglobal, mesopelagic species. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from off Gibraltar and Madeira. Although there is limited information on status of its population in the region, there are no major threats threats to this species. Therefore, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Eustomias filifer is a circumglobal, mesopelagic species. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known from off Gibraltar (Gibbs 1984), Madeira (Swinney 1990) and the Canary Islands. It has been collected from at least 1,000 m depth, but its complete depth distribution is uncertain.

population:
This species was not recorded in trawl (bottom or pelagic) surveys in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Eustomias filifer is a mesopelagic fish of the family Melanostomiidae, many members of which undergo a vertical migration at night to shallower waters, where they feed on midwater fish and crustaceans (Harold 1998). Eustomias filifer is probably piscivorous and occasionally crustaceans (Harold in press). The maximum recorded length for this species is 23.2 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

conservationAction:
There are currently no efforts to conserve or protect this species.


range:
Circumglobal in tropical and subtropical seas, including Hawaiian Islands (Eschmeyer 2015, Harold in press). This species is found in the Sargasso Sea, collected at greater than 1,000 m depth (Sutton et al. 2010). This species occurs in most of the Atlantic from 35oN to 27oS, in the eastern Pacific just south of the equator near Hawaii, areas in the western Pacific north of the equator, and in the southwestern Indian ocean (Clarke 2000).  Absent from the eastern boundary currents, but occurs in the subtropical and western tropical areas of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (Clarke 2000). This species occurs in the Gulf of Mexico (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). In the Eastern Central Atlantic, this species has been recorded off Liberia (Fishnet2 Portal 2013). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the region of the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
There are no direct observations of this species, but Eustomias species typically migrate vertically at night (Harold 1998). The maximum standard length is 19.0 cm (SL) (Harold in prep).

conservationAction:
There are currently no know conservation measures in place for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago and from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes et al. 2009). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, but may also occur in the western Indian Ocean (Clarke 2001), and also occurs in the Gulf of Mexico (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago and from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes et al. 2009). Reported at depths of over 1,000 m around the Canaries (Bordes et al. 2009).

habitat:
Members of the family Melanostomiidae are generally mesopelagic and occur in the upper 1,000 m but can occur as deep as 4,500 m (Harold 1998). This family also commonly migrates to shallower waters at night in order to feed on midwater fish and crustaceans (Harold 1998).

threats:
There is no information available as to possible threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation measures in place to protect this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not currently utilized commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago, Madeira and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish is a circumglobally distributed species that occurs in subtropical to tropical waters (Harold in press). This species is almost certainly located only in the Atlantic Ocean (Eschmeyer 2014). It can be found from Morocco south to St. Helena and from about 35°N to off eastern Brazil in the western Atlantic Ocean. In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Very rare and very scanty in European waters (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), has been caught in midwater trawls, between 434 and 606 m.

habitat:
The fish can attain 19 cm in length (Harold in press). This species is likely mesopelagic and vertically migrates to above 50 m at night. Maximum daytime depth is unknown but is probably around 1,000 m (Gibbs et al. 1983, Harold pers comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Additional information about the population size and biology of this species is needed.

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for this species. Occasionally taken in trawls but unlikely to be targeted.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region the fish is known from Madeira, and reported from the Canaries (Gibbs 1984), although not listed by Carneiro et al. (2014). Not listed for the Canaries. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species occurs 20-32o N in the North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, in the South Atlantic, throughout the Pacific, west of Australia, and near the equator in the Indian Ocean south of India (Clarke 2000). In the European region the fish is known from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and reported from the Canaries (Gibbs 1984), although not listed by Carneiro et al. (2014). Not listed for the Azores (Santos et al. 1997).

population:
It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the European region that will significantly affect populations in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
A mesopelagic species (Paxton et al. 1989).

threats:
There is currently no information available on possible threats to this species, however it is not a targeted species in fisheries.

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation efforts in effect for this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is currently not utilized commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region, the fish is recorded from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canaries (Bordes 2009). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Eustomias macrurus is a circumglobal species that occurs in equatorial to temperate waters (Harold in press). In the European region, the fish is recorded from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canaries (Bordes 2009).

population:
Population information is not available for this species.

habitat:
Eustomias macrurus has been recorded to 28 cm (Harold in press). This species is mesopelagic, and is likely a vertical migratory, and can be found above 100 m during the night, and from approximately 300 to 700 m during the day.


taxonomicNotes:
The species status of Eustomias monodactylus has recently been restored and it should no longer be considered a synonym of Eustomias filifer (Sutton and Hartel 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region, it is known from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population

range:
In the European region, it is known from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
A bathypelagic species, it is thought to have a depth range of 0-1,820 m. This species has for some time been considered a synonym of Eustomias filifer and its species status has only been recently resurrected (Sutton and Hartel 2004). As such, there is little information on its ecology or range. Related species undertake vertical migrations, ascending at night to shallower waters to feed.

threats:
There is no directed fishery for this species and it is not reported to be taken as by-catch within its range. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal pollution and development, and climatic threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Eustomias obscurus ranges from subtropical to temperate Atlantic waters. It is known to occur from Madeira and the Azores. It is a mesopelagic species known from depths to 1,900 m. There is limited information on status of its population in the region. There are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Eustomias obscurus occurs throughout the Atlantic Ocean from subtropical to temperate waters to depths of 20–1,900 m (Gibbs and Barnett 1990, Bogutskaya 2007). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs northeast of the Azores, Madeira and off Gibraltar (Gibbs 1984).  Outside the region, this species occurs from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Namibia. In the western Atlantic, E. obscurus is found off the coast of the USA south to Cuba, as well as off Puerto Rico and off Brazil (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

population:
Eustomias obscurus was not recorded in trawl surveys (bottom or pelagic) in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
The maximum size for this species is 23 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep).

threats:
Current threats to Eustomias obscurus are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Eustomias obscurus. 


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, this species occurs in the subtropical and temperate Atlantic (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) In Europe, this species is reported from off the Azores (108 NM SSW of the Marsala Seamount). Outside of Europe, it is known from the Western Central Atlantic. There is no information on the population or threats in Europe. Therefore, it is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
In Europe, this species is reported from off the Azores (108 NM SSW of the Marsala Seamount; Carneiro et al. 2014). Outside of Europe, it is only known from the Western Central Atlantic near Bermuda and south towards the Turks and Caicos.

habitat:
This is a marine bathypelagic species known from depths around 1,200 m (Eschmeyer 2003).

threats:
There is no information on the threats to this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago (Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish inhabits subtropical to temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and South Indian oceans (Harold in press). In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago (Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
Eustomias satterleei has been recorded to 18 cm in length (Harold in press). This species is a vertical migratory, and is found above 100 m during the night, and adults to at least 800-1,000 m during the day. It is mesopelagic, and maybe upper bathypelagic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish is a circumglobal species that ranges from subtropical to temperate (Harold in press). This species is absent or rare in central water masses at latitudes between approximately 20° - 30°N or S (Clarke 2000). Occurs in the northwest, northeast, and southwest eastern central Atlantic (Harold in press). In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
There are 100 museum records for Eustomias schmidti including a single record of 18 individuals (Fishnet2 Portal 2012). It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
The fish exhibits vertical movements, with nighttime centers of abundance between 0 to 200 m, and 500 to 700 m, and a daytime center of abundance between 500 to 700 m (Sutton and Hopkins 1996). The maximum size recorded for this species is 21 cm. The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold in press).

threats:
Current threats to Eustomias schmidti are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place. The distribution for this species overlaps with a few marine protected areas (IUCN and UNEP 2013).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)   In the European region the fish is known from the Azores  and Madeira archipelagos (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish occurs in tropical to temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean (Harold in press). Significant evidence suggests that this species is cosmopolitan (Gibbs and Barnett 1990) from between 37°N to 34°S. In the European region the fish is known from the Azores  and Madeira archipelagos (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
The fish has been recorded to 22 cm (Harold in press). This species is a vertical migratory, and can be found above 100 m during the night, and from 500-1,200 m during the day. This species is meso and upper bathypelagic.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Additional information about the population size and biology is needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)   This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish occurs in the temperate Atlantic Ocean (Harold in press) east of 45°W between 32° and 38°N as well as off eastern Brazil in the South Atlantic 18°S 29°W (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). In the European region the fish is known from the Azores and Madeira archipelagos (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Very rare and very rarely found in European waters (Bordes Caballero et al. 2014).

habitat:
A mesopelagic species that has been recorded to 15 cm (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). In European waters, captured in the great depths of the abyssal plain in a mesopelagic drag at 622-813 m during the day, and in an epipelagic drag (48-66 m) at night, indicating that the fish undertakes nocturnal vertical migration to surface waters (Bordes Caballero et al. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Flagellostomias boureei is distributed from about 58°N to Spain in the northeastern Atlantic. This species is mesopelagic and known to occur to depths of 3,000 m. Although data for this species are extremely limited, given its broad distribution and deep waters habitat, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Flagellostomias boureei is a circumglobal species and is distributed in the tropical to temperate North Atlantic (Gibbs 1990, Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Spain to about 58°N but is not recorded from the Norwegian or North seas (Gibbs 1984). This species is most commonly found to depths of 0–3,000 m (Bogutskaya 2007). Outside the region, F. boureei occurs to South Africa. In the western Atlantic, it is found off the coast of USA to the Gulf of Mexico (no records between 10°N to 20°S), and from southern Brazil to Argentina. It is also found throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

population:
Flagellostomias boureei was not recorded in trawl surveys (bottom or pelagic) in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
The maximum size for this species is 32 cm SL. The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustacean. Some species of the subfamily Melanostomiinae, undertake vertical migrations at night to near surface depths (Harold FAO ECA Guide in press).

threats:
Current threats to Flagellostomias boureei are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Flagellostomias boureei; however, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized on the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is only known from north of Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is only known from north of Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, this species is mainly found in the Western Atlantic.

habitat:
This is a marine pelagic-oceanic species that is found in tropical waters between depths of zero to 412 m (Bogutskaya 2007). The maximum recorded length is 13.6 cm SL male/unsexed (Gibbs 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures under way for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In the European region the fish is known from the Portuguese mainland, from the Azores and Madeira, and from Spain (the Canaries). This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish is distributed from the subtropical to temperate Atlantic Ocean and equatorial East Indian Ocean, NW34 and SW34 FAO fishing areas (Harold in press).  In the European region the fish is known from the Portuguese mainland, from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
There are 20 museum records for the fish from the Eastern Central Atlantic, all of which consist of single specimens (Fishnet2 Portal 2012). It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
The maximum recorded standard length for this species is 15.9 cm (SL) (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold in press). Known from 2,577 m depth, the upper depth level is not known.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place or needed for this fish, however the distribution for this species overlaps with a number of marine protected areas (IUCN and UNEP 2013).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for this species; presumed to not be targeted in fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Melanostomias macrophotus is known from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, M. macrophotus occurs off Portugal, Spain and the Azores. There is limited information available for this in the region. In a study conducted along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in 2004, only one individual of this species was collected and no additional trawl surveys in the region. However, given its broad distribution and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Melanostomias macrophotus occurs throughout the Atlantic Ocean and also occurs in the Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Portugal, Spain and off of the Azores (Gibbs 1984). It is most often found at depths between 530–945 m (Uyeno et al. 1983). Outside the region, this species occurs south to the Western Sahara. In the western Central Atlantic, it can be found in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. It is also found in the Indo-West Pacific, in the waters Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984).

population:
In a study conducted along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in 2004, only one individual of this species was collected (Sutton et al. 2008). There are no additional trawl surveys in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Species of the melanostomiid family, are mainly mesopelagic, occurring in the upper 1,000 m of the water column as adults. It most probably undertakes vertical migration to near surface at night, and may become benthopelagic as an adult. Its diet consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002). Although recorded outside the region, the maximum recorded length for this species is 23 cm SL (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, this is a tropical to temperate species that is circumglobally distributed (Harold in press). In the eastern Atlantic, M. tentaculatus is found from Madeira to Angola, but has not been reported in the waters between Mauritania and Guinea. In the western Atlantic, it is found along the coast of USA to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. It is also known to inhabit the waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). Melanostomias tentaculatus is most often associated with water depths of between 30 and 950 m (Marrow 1979).

population:
There are 111 records of M. tentaculatus worldwide in 109 geocodes. Individual counts of specimens collected in one haul consist mostly of single individuals, however, there was one collection event in 1961 that occurred off the coast of Alabama in the Gulf of Mexico which yielded seven individuals (fishnet2). It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect the Eureopean population.

habitat:
The maximum recorded standard length (SL) is 24.0 cm (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). The diet of M. tentaculatus consists mainly of mixed crustaceans, of which 40% are euphausiids (Hopkins et al. 1996).

threats:
There are no known threats towards this species. However, there is very little known about the habitats and ecology of this species, and to determine for sure if there are any threats towards this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place for this species in Europe.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Melanostomias valdiviae is a circumglobal species. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from Portugal south to Madeira and the Canary Islands. There are no records of M. valdiviae from trawl surveys in the region. It is a widespread mesopelagic species found to 1,600 m depth. There are no known widespread threats. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Melanostomias valdiviae is a circumglobal species. This species is found in the northeastern Atlantic from off Ireland and south to Madeira and the Canary Islands. Melanostomias valdiviae is most often found between the depths of 40–1,600 m (Marrow 1979). Outside the region, it is also found west of South Africa. In the western Atlantic, it is found between 41°N and 28°N, in the Gulf of Mexico, and south to 8°N and then then between 10°S and 18°S. In the northwest Atlantic, it is found off the coast of Canada (Scott and Scott 1988). It is also found throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

population:
There are no records from trawl surveys (bottom and pelagic) in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Species of the melanostomiid family, are mainly mesopelagic, occurring in the upper 1,000 m of the water column as adults. It most probably undertakes vertical migration to near surface at night, and may become benthopelagic as an adult. Its diet consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002). Although recorded outside the region, the maximum recorded length for this species is 24.1 cm TL (Scott and Scott 1988).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Neonesthes capensis is known from the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. It occurs in the Bay of Biscay in the northeastern Atlantic. Although data for this species are limited, there are no major threats to this species and given its deep waters habitat, threats in the near future are unlikely. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Neonesthes capensis occurs throughout the Atlantic as well as the Indian and Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known from the Iceland and the British Isles south to the Canary Islands. This species occurs at depths from 70–1,650 m (Mundy 2005).  Outside of the region N. capensis was recorded off the coast of Greenland, further to the north previously reported in the Atlantic. This northward shift is purportedly due to the warming of the Atlantic waters (Pedchenko and Dolgov 2007). This species is also found from Mauritania and Namibia to South Africa. In the western Atlantic, it is found in the waters off the USA southward to the Gulf of Mexico, including the western Caribbean, and from Brazil to Argentina. In the Indian Ocean, it is mostly found around 25°S, It has also been reported in the Arabian Sea. In the Pacific Ocean, it is mostly found south of 25°S. Neonesthes capensis is in the waters near Hawaii, as well as off the western USA (Gibbs 1990).

population:
There are no additional trawl surveys in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Neonesthes capensis is mainly mesopelagic as an adult. However, some adults are associated with benthic environments, as well. Juveniles have been caught at the surface at night. Its diet consists mainly of other mesopelagic fishes and crustaceans (Harold 2002). The maximum recorded length for this species is 17 cm SL (Gibbs 1990).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the Northeaster Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Pachystomias microdon is a widely distributed species, known from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from about 50°N and 20°W and off northwestern Portugal. No trawl surveys recorded this species in the region. It is a widespread mesopelagic species found to 4,000 m depth. There are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Pachystomias microdon occurs in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species ranges from about 50°N and 20°W and off northwestern Portugal. The depth range for this species is 660–4,000 m (Yang et al. 1996).  Outside of the region, this species occurs between 16°N–18°S and from 28°S–37°S, but it is not taken close to the continent south of the equator. It is also found in sporadic localities in the western Atlantic, with scattered records between 40°N–13°N. This species is also known from the Indian and Pacific oceans, as well as the South China Sea (Yang et al. 1996).

population:
This species has sporadic records in the Northern Hemisphere (Yang et al. 1996) and is relatively rare in some European waters. There are no additional trawl surveys in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
This species may undertake diel migrations as adults, as other species in the family do. Its diet consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA Guide in press). The maximum recorded size for this species is 22.1 cm SL (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Photonectes braueri is found in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Photonectes braueri is found in the Azores, Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).  Globally, Photonectes braueri is found in the eastern Atlantic, from Azores southward to Mauritania. It is also from Angola to South Africa. In the western Atlantic, it is found in the waters off the USA southward to the Bahamas, and then from Brazil to Argentina (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). In the western Pacific, it is found in the waters off Australia (Paxton et al. 1989) and New Zealand (Paulin et al. 1989). Photonectes braueri is also found in the western Indian Ocean.

population:
There are 52 records of P. braueri worldwide (FishNet2 Portal).

habitat:
Based on general information on the subfamily Melanostomiinae diet, this species diet probably consists mainly of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002). The maximum standard length (SL) is 28.2 cm (Gibbs and Barnett 1990).

threats:
There are no specific threats known towards this species. However, more species-specific research needs to be conducted.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Photonectes dinema occurs in the North Atlantic. In the European region it is recorded from the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. This   species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in   Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of   the global population.

range:
Photonectes dinema occurs in the North Atlantic. In the European region it is recorded from the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands.

population:
Photonectes dinema is relatively common in parts of its wide distributional range (www.fishnet2.org, Accessed on 2/03/2015). 

habitat:
The family, Stomiidae, is characterized by occurring mainly in the mesopelagic, occurring in the upper 1,000 m as adults, some species undergoing vertical migration to near surface at night. Some species apparently benthopelagic as adults. Diet consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002). Photonectes dinema is recorded to occur from 0 -- 2,000 m  (www.fishnet2.org, Accessed on 2/03/2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Photonectes margarita occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Photonectes margarita occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, Photonectes margarita is distributed in tropical to temperate North Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans.

population:
There are 182 museum records in place for Photonectes margarita, all of which consist of three or less individuals (FishNet2 Portal). This species has been described as rare (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

habitat:
The maximum standard length for this species is 39.6 cm (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). Based on general information on the subfamily Melanostomiinae diet, this species diet probably consists mainly of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002). This species exhibits vertical migrations (Sutton and Hopkins 1996).

threats:
Current threats to Photonectes margarita are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are not any species-specific conservation efforts in place for Photonectes margarita.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Photonectes mirabilis occurs in the Azores and Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Photonectes mirabilis occurs in the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Photonectes mirabilis ranges from subtropical to temperate Atlantic and Indo-west Pacific.

population:
There are 45 museum records for Photonectes mirabilis, all of which consist of three or less individuals (FishNet2 Portal).

habitat:
The maximum size for this species is 16.4 cm (SL) (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). Based on general information on the subfamily Melanostomiinae diet, this species diet probably consists mainly of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold 2002).

threats:
Current threats to Photonectes mirabilis are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Photonectes mirabilis.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Photonectes parvimanus occurs off mainland Portugal, in the Azores, Madeira and in the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Photonectes parvimanus occurs off mainland Portugal, in the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, Photonectes parvimanus occurs in the subtropical to temperate waters of the Atlantic and Indo-west-central Pacific Oceans and is known northward to Madeira and 33°N, off Zaire and South Africa and across the North Atlantic between about 23°–33°N (Gibbs and Barnett 1990). MCZ records of this species are from as far north as 40°N in the western Atlantic. The depth range for this species is zero to 1,463 m (Mundy 2005).

habitat:
Photonectes parvimanus is a meso- to bathypelagic species that has been recorded to 25 cm (Mundy 2005). This species is a vertical migratory, and is found above 70 m at night and to at least 800 m during the day.

threats:
Threats to this species are unknown; however, given its deep water habitat, it is unlikely that threats impact this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species.


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Species of the genus Photostomias are meso-bathypelagic fishes that are circumglobally distributed in tropical, and warm temperate waters (Kenaley and Hartel 2005).

population:
There is little to no information about the population.

habitat:
Species of the Malacosteidae family consume a diet of crustaceans and other meso-bathpelagic fishes (Harold in press). This species is mesopelagic and is found from 300-1,000 m. It may be a vertical migrator. The maximum size for males is known to be 17.5cm in length.  Females are generally smaller than males and become sexually mature when they reach 12.8 cm in length (Kenaley and Hartel 2005).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats known for Photostomias goodyeari.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts for Photostomias goodyeari.

useAndTrade:
There are no known uses of Photostomias goodyeari.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Photostomias guernei is widely distributed in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from Madeira and the Canary Islands northward to 45°N, 18°W. No trawl surveys recorded for this species in the region. It is a widespread mesopelagic species found in depths to over 4,000 m. Currently, there are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Photostomias guernei is widely distributed throughout the Atlantic Ocean as well as the Indian and Pacific oceans (Masuda 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is found from off the coast of Ireland south to the Canary Islands. This species has been reported from depths of 0–3,100 m (Moore et al. 2003).  Outside the region, this species occurs to Mauritania. In the northwest Atlantic, it is found off Canada (Scott and Scott 1988). It occurs in temperate and subtropical waters of the North Atlantic, including the Gulf of Mexico to south of the Grand Banks, 03°58`N in the eastern Atlantic and also occurs in subarctic waters (Kenaley and Hartel 2005, Harold 2002, Scott and Scott 1988). This species is found in the western Atlantic, from along the coast of the USA to the Gulf of Mexico (Stehmann 1990). It has also been reported from the Antilles (Claro 1994). This species of fish is found throughout the tropical and temperate regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Masuda 1984). In the southeast Pacific, P. guernei is found off Chile (Pequeno 1989).

population:
One specimen with a maximum size of 10 cm (TL) recorded from bottom trawl surveys over a period of 20 years in the Gulf of Cadiz (ARSA) (J. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep). Photostomias guernei exhibits an asynchronous diel vertical migration pattern characterized by a residence in the lower mesopelagic zone (greater than 500 m) during the day and a segregated distribution at night (Kenaley 2008). The maximum size for this species is 16 cm TL (Claro 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Rhadinesthes decimus is known from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, R. decimus typically occurs from the Bay of Biscay southward to Madeira and the Canary Islands, but has also been reported as far north as Iceland. There are no trawl surveys records for this species in the region. There are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Rhadinesthes decimus occurs in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Iceland (Jonsson 1992), throughout the Bay of Biscay (about 37°N), and southward (Gibbs 1990). This species occurs from 0–4,900 m depth (Bogutskaya 2007).  Outside the region, this species occurs to Mauritania and off Namibia. Also, R. decimus is found in the tropical Indian Ocean, eastern and western South Pacific, and central North Pacific (Gibbs 1990).

population:
There are no additional trawl survey records of this species in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep). Members of the subfamily Astronesthinae, are mainly mesopelagic as an adult, while juveniles are sometimes observed near the surface at night. The maximum length for this species is 41 cm SL (Gibbs 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Rhadinesthes decimus. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Stomias boa is widespread in the southern hemisphere and throughout much of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is very common species in trawl surveys and occurs to depths of 1,500 m. There are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Stomias boa is circumglobal in the southern hemisphere and is widespread in the Atlantic Ocean in subtropical to temperate waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs in the western Mediterranean to the Sea of Marmara, including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), and from southern Iceland south to South Africa. The depth range for this species is 200–1,500 m (Gon 1990).

population:
This species is very common in trawl (bottom and pelagic) surveys (e.g., 20-30 gm/km2 in the Spanish Mediterranean) (J. Gil Herrera, L. Gil del Sola, and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
In the Spanish Mediterranean, bottom trawl surveys maximum sizes range from 21-26 cm TL with a typical trend of bigger-deeper (fishes in deeper waters) (L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013). The maximum recorded size for this species is 32 cm SL. The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep). This species is a prey item for dolphin in the Bay of Biscay and other locations where both dolphin and S. boa coexist (Spitz et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Stomias boa. Stomias boa was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Stomias brevibarbatus is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from Portugal south to Madeira and the Canary Islands, but not the Azores. Although data for this species are limited, given is broad range and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Stomias brevibarbatus is widespread throughout the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from about 25-45°N, including the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. Outside the region, this species has been recorded from Gulf of Mexico (Sutton and Hopkins 1996), off New England (Moore et al. 2003), and Canada (Scott and Scott 1988). This species inhabits waters to 1,000 m depth (Gibbs 1984).

habitat:
Stomias brevibarbatus is an oceanic and mesopelagic species (Gibbs 1984, Gibbs 1990). It my migrate to near-surface waters at night. This species feeds on midwater fishes and crustaceans (Gibbs 1984). The maximum recorded length for this species is 20.4 SL (Gibbs 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Stomias brevibarbatus. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Stomias longibarbatus is circumglobally distributed in equatorial to subtropical waters. It occurs to about 35°N in the Northeastern Atlantic. Although data for this species are limited, given its broad distribution and deep water habitat, S. longibarbatus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Stomias longibarbatus is a circumglobal species that occurs from equatorial to subtropical zones (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to about 35°N in the Atlantic, including Madeira and Portugal (Gibbs 1984). The depth range for this species is 400–1,463 m (Mundy 2005). Outside the region, it inhabits the waters to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as from Namibia to South Africa. In the western Atlantic, it is found off the coast of the USA to the Gulf of Mexico and from Brazil to Argentina. In the western Pacific, off Japan (Masuda et al. 1984), Australia (Paxton et al. 1989) and New Zealand (Paulin et al. 1989). In the southeast Pacific, off Chile (Pequeno 1989). It is also found in the Indian Ocean (Gibbs 1990).

population:
There are no additional records from trawl surveys in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
The maximum size for this species is 43 cm SL. The diet of members of this family primarily consists of other mesopelagic fishes and some crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Stomias longibarbatus. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Trigonolampa miriceps is widespread in the Atlantic and circumglobal in the southern hemisphere. In the northeastern Atlantic, Trigonolampa miriceps occurs north of about 44° N to about 57° N west of the Hebrides and 65° N between Greenland and Iceland. This species occurs to over 1,000 m depth. Although data about the population and biology of this species are limited, given its broad range and deep water habitat, it is listed as Least Concern. Further research is required to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.

range:
Trigonolampa miriceps occurs throughout the Atlantic Ocean and is circumtropical in the subtropical convergence south of 35°S (Gibbs 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species ranges from about 44°N to 57°N west of the Hebrides and 65°N between Greenland and Iceland (Gibbs 1984). This species generally inhabits deeper, bathypelagic waters, reaching depths of up to 1,860 m (Gon 1990). Outside the region, this species also occurs in the western Atlantic, it is found between 42oN and 37oN. In the northwest Atlantic, it is found off the coast off Canada (Scott and Scott 1988).

population:
There are no additional trawl surveys in the region (C. Papaconstantinou and S. Kobyliansky pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Species of the family are mainly mesopelagic, usually occupying the waters above 1,000 m as an adult. This fish may undergo vertical migrations to near the surface as an adult; however, there are no data indicating that E. braueri undergoes such a migration. This species mainly consumes other fish and sometimes crustaceans (Harold FAO ECA in press). The maximum recorded length for this species is 32 cm SL (Gibbs 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Stomias longibarbatus. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Aulostomus strigosus is assessed as Least Concern in Europe. It has only been recorded in the Macaronesian Islands in the region. The species is relatively rare, however no direct threats have been identified. Indirect threats include coral habitat loss due to ocean acidification and trawling, however the species is known to utilise rocky reefs that are not susceptible to such threats. Further research into the species' ontogenetic habitat use and population biology would be informative, and habitat monitoring should be implemented.

range:
Aulostomus strigosus occurs in the East Atlantic from Madeira to at least the Gulf of Guinea (Bowen et al. 2001), and has been documented in the Canaries (Dooley et al. 1985) and Cape Verde. It has also been observed in the West Atlantic at St. Paul's Rocks and Espirito Santo, Brazil (Bowen et al. 2001, Vaske et al. 2005). Further research is needed to better delineate the species' range in the West Atlantic. Aulostomus strigosus is most often associated with depths between 5-25 m (Fritzsche 1990).

population:
There is very little information regarding the population dynamics of A. strigosus. There are five specimens on record worldwide in two geocodes (FishNet2 2012). However, this fish is considered to be relatively uncommon (Dooley et al. 1985). Aulostomus strigosus has a very strong population structure, contrary to other trumpetfish (Bowen et al. 2001). No dedicated population surveys of this species have been undertaken over its entire range, nor within the Macaronesian Islands.

habitat:
Aulostomus strigosus is a demersal, coastal species (Reiner 1996) that occurs over rocky or coral bottoms of inshore waters (Fritzsche 1990). It is mainly a piscivore (Fritzsche 1990) but is also thought to be a zoobenthivore (Sazima et al. 2006). This species of fish is also considered a "follower" fish in that it will swim with schools of other species of fish (especially large, herbivorous fishes) for both protection as well as for foraging opportunities (Sazima et al. 2006).  Aulostomus strigosus feeds on smaller fish such as wrasses and cardinal fish (Maul 1959). For smaller prey, trumpetfish will hang in the water column vertically, head pointed downwards, and await an opportunity to strike (Sazima et al. 2006).  Like many fish, trumpetfishes have an elaborate courtship ritual or "dance". Their colour-changing abilities, so often used for camouflage, are also employed here. As in their relatives, the seahorses, trumpetfishes place much of their reproductive burden on the males. After the dance, the female trumpetfish transfers her eggs to the male, who fertilizes and carries them in a pouch until they are born (Sazima et al. 2006). Aulostomus strigosus is nearly genetically identical to, and sometimes hybridises, with the Brazilian trumpetfish (A. maculatus). It is thought the species traversed the Atlantic to meet its congener at St. Paul's Rocks, Brazil (Bowen et al. 2001). The maximum length of this fish was measured at 75 cm (Fritzsche 1990).

threats:
As with all reef associated fishes, A. strigosus may be affected by the increasing acidification of the world's oceans, the subsequent bleaching and dying of coral (Wilkinson and Souter 2008) and the loss of coral habitat as a result of non-target trawl fisheries. However, they are of no direct interest to commercial fisheries, and there are no indicators that this species of fish is being otherwise threatened. They utilize habitats other than coral reefs, such as rocky reefs and slopes (Bowen et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Further research into the species' ontogenetic habitat use and population biology would be informative, and habitat monitoring should be implemented to determine any declines in the species or its habitat.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized nor traded commercially.


taxonomicNotes:
This species also seems to be sympatric with Macroramphosus gracilis around the world (Dyer and Westneat 2010). However, there is still some debate about the taxonomic separation of the two species (Granadeiro and Silva 2000). The latest research suggests that M. gracilis represents a different ontological stage of M. scolopax rather than a separate species (Robalo et al. 2009), and this approach is followed here.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Macroramphosus scolopax is listed as Least Concern as its life history and extrinsic traits confer to a lower risk of extinction. It is widespread in the assessment region, it has a wide depth range in comparison to other species within the family and the loss and degradation of its habitat is thought to be minimal.

range:
Macroramphosus scolopax is distributed globally in tropical and temperate coastal waters.  Macroramphosus scolopax occurs from the North Sea southwards to Morocco, and throughout the Mediterranean Basin. In the Mediterranean Sea basin, Macroamphosus scolopax occurs throughout the area where suitable habitat is present (with the exception of the Marmara Sea: Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). Some specific records include the Spanish coast (Coll et al. 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004), the Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000), the Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004) and the Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). The presence of this species has been cited in the west of Algeria by Marinaro et al. (1979). In the western Atlantic, M. scolopax inhabits waters off the east coast of the USA and the Greater Antilles, northern South America and Argentina. It also occurs in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Indo-West Pacific.   Macroramphosus scolopax is found at depths of between 25-600 m (May and Maxwell 1986), but it is most often associated with depths of between 50-350 m (Figueiredo et al. 2002).

population:
The population estimates for Macroramphosusscolopax are restricted to the Atlantic coast off the Iberian Peninsula. The species is described as usually being very abundant off the coast of Portugal, on the outer continental shelf (Marques et al. 2005, Lopes et al. 2006). Surveys from the 1970s indicated a high abundance of this species, in the region of 360,000 t. During the 1980s, there was a decline in this abundance, followed by an increase again between 1990 and 2003.  More recent acoustic surveys from 1998 to 2003 indicate a decline in abundance from 500,000 t to 175,000 t (Marques et al. 2005). Although this decline represents a 65% decrease at this locality for the species, it is noted that patchy distributions can make acoustic estimates challenging.  In addition, the species is known to exhibit high levels of natural variation (Borges 1998). Further studies are needed to quantify natural population fluctuations for this species, and to determine whether anthropogenic pressures are also contributing to declines. One acoustic survey off the coast of Morocco in 1976 estimated a biomass of 1,300,000 t (Brêthes 1979). It is suspected that populations adjacent to Europe could have a rescue effect if European populations exhibit a decline.

habitat:
Macroramphosus scolopax is a benthopelagic, subtropical species which is found mainly on the seabed and sometimes midway up in the water column on the lower portions of the continental shelf over sandy substrate. Juveniles are epipelagic (Schneider 1990). It is a gregarious species, often congregating in schools. Juveniles feed mainly on pelagic invertebrates, especially copepods. Adults feed on benthic invertebrates (Ehrich 1986). When searching for prey, these fish have been observed moving slowly through the water column in a head down position (Oliveira et al. 1993). While normally found at a depth range of 50–350 m, it has also been taken from depths of 600 m. This species also seems to be sympatric with Macroramphosus gracilis around the world (Dyer and Westneat 2010). There is still some debate about the taxonomic separation of the two species (Granadeiro and Silva 2000), but the most recent genetic evidence suggests that they are in fact two ontological morphotypes of the same species (Robalo et al. 2009). Macroramphosus scolopax generally spawns about two hours before dark, and sexual dimorphism is apparent, with some individuals changing colours just before courtship and intercourse. Individuals that do not change colours do not participate in the spawning occurrence (Oliveira et al. 1993). Most spawning occurs in May and June (Karaiskou et al. 2004). Macroramphosus scolopax is preyed upon by species such as Hake (Merluccius merluccius), Mackerel (Scombre scombrus), John Dory (Zeus faber), Conger Eel (Conger conger), Monkfish (Lophius piscatorius and L. budegassa), Catshark (Galeus melastomus), and Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis) (Lopes et al. 2006). Seabirds and sharks are also common predators of this species.

threats:
Macroramphosus scolopax is a benthopelagic species that tends to congregate over sandy substrates. Habitat loss and degradation are therefore thought to be minimal for this species relative to other species that depend on a more structured habitat. This species is often caught as bycatch in fisheries but they are discarded at sea. Studies to determine bycatch levels and subsequent bycatch-associated mortality are needed to determine whether either is a threat to wild populations.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Macroramphosus scolopax, however there are several protected areas within its European range.  Changes in net gear size used by the commercial fishing industry is not thought to be viable for avoiding bycatch, as it could potentially be accompanied by a significant loss in the catch of target species. The best solution as proposed by Fonseca et al. (2005) is to avoid dense schools of Macroramphosus scolopax. Further research is required to consolidate the outstanding taxonomic issues and to determine the population trends of the species across Europe. 

useAndTrade:
Macroramphosus scolopax is not utilized, and is usually only caught as by-catch and discarded at sea (Benmessaoud et al. 2013). It is not known whether bycatch mortality for M. scolopax is leading to conservation concerns.


taxonomicNotes:
Fistularia petimbahas often wrongly been cited as the more common Fistularia commersonii (Randall et al. 1990).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Fistularia petimba is listed as Not Applicable as it is only known from three specimens in Europe and the population in this region is expected to be much less than 1% of its global population. Therefore it is not applicable for assessment in the European Red List.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, it has been found in Cadiz, Spain near the Strait of Gibraltar (Cardenas et al. 1997), and also more recently in Galicia, northwestern Spain (Banon and Sande 2008). It is suspected that this species is undergoing a northward range expansion due to oceanic warming. Fistularia petimba is widespread throughout the tropical Atlantic, in the Indo-West Pacific, and in the waters of Australia and Hawaii along coastal areas (Fritzsche 1976). The species has also been recorded in the Azores (Azevedo et al. 2004).  It occurs between 10-200 m depth (May and Maxwell 1986), but most often between 18-57 m (Figueiredo et al. 2002). Adults from this species are usually found at depths of 30 m or deeper. While they are mainly sub-tropical, this species is only found deep when there are cold upwellings in tropical regions (Kuiter 2009). This species is commonly found at depths over 10 m along coastal areas with soft bottoms (Fritzsche and Vincent 2002).

population:
Fistularia petimba has only been recorded in the European portion of the eastern Atlantic three times (in Galicia, Cadiz and the Azores). Although it is thought that the species is expanding its range into the area, other occurrences have not been noted since these. Very little is known about the population sizes or trends in Europe, however it appears the species is rare at this point.

habitat:
Fistularia petimba is a continental, benthopelagic species that is found over soft bottoms in the sublittoral zone and feeds mainly on small fishes and shrimps (Fritzsche 1984, Sommer et al. 1996, Yamada et al. 1995, Fritzsche and Vincent 2002). Juveniles enter estuaries. It is almost always found at depths of below 10 m (Fritzsche 2002). Fistularia petimba is a crepuscular species (Robblee and Zieman 1984). There is little else known about the ecology, fecundity or reproductive strategies of this fish. This species is a coastal marine fish found at depths greater than 10 m. It feeds on small fish and crustaceans using its tubular mouth for suction. Typically it is one metre in length and the maximum reported size is two metres (Fritzsche and Thiesfield 1999, Carpenter et al. 1997).

threats:
There are no major threats known at the present time for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however, much of the Spanish and Portuguese coasts are designated as marine protected areas (WDPA 2014). Further research should be conducted to determine if the species is spreading further into European waters and if the population is stable or not.

useAndTrade:
Fistularia petimba has been noted as a component of artisanal fisheries caught in seine lines and traps elsewhere within its range (Cardenas et al. 1997). There are no commercial fisheries that actively pursue Fistularia petimba. However, it is often caught in seine lines and traps. It sometimes appears in small fish markets, dried, salted or smoked, as well as reduced to fish meal (Frizsche 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
Entelurus aequoreus is assessed as Least Concern due to it being widespread and relatively common throughout its range with no evidence of significant declines.

range:
Entelurus aequoreus is distributed in the northeastern Atlantic, from Iceland and Norway to the Azores, Portugal and also into the Baltic Sea (Dawson 1986). More recently, this species has been found as far north as the western coast of Spitsbergen and the Barents Sea (Fleischer et al. 2007, Harris et al. 2007). It is found at depths between five and 100 m.

population:
There are indications of an increase in abundance of the species in the northeast Atlantic. Trawl surveys, plankton surveys and bird diet surveys indicate the population size increased to exceptionally high abundance until 2003 (e.g., Harris et al. 2007), after which it decreased again to normal levels in 2008 (Kloppmann et al. in prep.). The direct causes of this population explosion are unknown. During the outbreak it has been suggested that surface sea temperatures may be contributing to an increase in reproductive success (van Damme and Couperus 2008, Fleischer et al. 2007) and an increase in available habitat due the invasive sea grass Sargassum muiticum which would have replaced disappearing eelgrass beds (Polte and Buschbaum 2008). These hypotheses, however, do not explain the following decrease of the population. Recently, Kloppmann et al. (in prep.) suggested that this event is probably related to unusually stable meteorological/hydrological conditions in waters west of the British isles, most likely in concurrence with a local increase of coastal populations off the Irish coast. 

habitat:
This species generally inhabits coastal marine or brackish waters in temperate latitudes. It is usually found at depths of five to 10 m on the sea floor, but it can be found as deep as 100 m, and occasionally in pelagic waters (Dawson 1986). It has a generation length of 2.5 years. Entelurus aequoreus is generally associated with vegetation such as sea grass beds (Zostera marina) or brown algae (Chorda filum, Fucus spp.). In addition, beds of the invasive sea grass Sargassum muticum may provide additional habitat (Polte and Buschbaum 2008). This species consumes small crustaceans and larval fish. During the 2003-2008 mass occurrence, they were preyed upon by sea birds and mammals (Harris et al. 2007). Spawning takes place in June and July in areas with dense vegetation. The females lay more than 1,000 eggs at a time (Dawson 1986). The males keep the eggs attached on the ventral side of their body. 

threats:
This species is most often found in sea grass beds and is therefore probably negatively affected by the loss and fragmentation of this habitat in Sweden and other parts of the northeast Atlantic (Pihl et al. 2006, Borum et al. 2004). The main causes for this loss and fragmentation are due to nutrient loading, siltation as well as physical/mechanical removal of sea grasses (Pihl et al. 2006, Borum et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no direct conservation measures for this species, although there are efforts to conserve sea grass beds. It is unknown if this species occurs in any protected areas. Due to the recent boom and bust cycle of this species, it is important to closely monitor populations to help discover the cause of such cycles, if they were to happen again. Research should also be conducted to monitor the habitat trends and threats to the species habitat as seagrass beds are threatened and in decline.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Hippocampus erectus is listed as Not Applicable as only one specimen has been documented from the Azores so the European population represent less than 1% of the global population. However it is not clear whether that individual was a vagrant or a member of a recently established population (Woodall et al. 2009). The species is native to the eastern American coastline from Nova Scotia to Brazil and some authors have suggested a process of 'tropicalisation' of the fish fauna in the Azores which may include a newly established presence of this species (Afonso et al. 2013). No further records of presence have been documented to date.

range:
The species is native to the eastern American coastline from Nova Scotia to Brazil. One occurrence has been documented in the Azores, however it's not clear whether that individual was a vagrant or a member of a recently established population (Woodall et al. 2009). Although some authors have suggested a process of 'tropicalisation' of the fish fauna in the area which may include a newly established presence of this species (Afonso et al. 2013).

population:
There has only been one specimen recorded in the Azores, although it is not certain if this species is vagrant or established in the region.

habitat:
Hippocampus erectus occurs in waters up to 73 m deep, and is associated with aquatic vegetation such as mangroves (mostly Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia sp.), Caulerpa spp., Carijoa sp., seagrass (Thalassia testudinum, Halophila sp.), floating Sargassum, and sponges usually relying on these substrates as holdfasts (Dias et al. 2002, Lieske and Myers 1994, McAllister 1990 in Lourie et al. 1999, Fish and Mowbray 1970). Hippocampus erectus can be found at the surface and bottom of both shallow water and deeper areas of channels in bays, along beaches, in or near salt marshes, and over oyster beds and weed-covered banks (Hardy 1978). In Brazil it has been found in salinity of 45% (Dias et al. 2002). Seahorses are not usually found in such a great variety of habitats, geographical range, and depth, making this a very unique species (Kuiter 2009).  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Lourie et al. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante et al. 2002, Foster and Vincent 2004), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie et al. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings et al. 1998).  The maximum size for Hippocampus erectus is 18.5 cm; the maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity is 5.6 cm and males can brood up to 400 eggs. The average brood size for this species is 250 to 300 eggs (Fritzsche 2002, Baum et al. 2003). Hippocampus erectus matures during the rst reproductive season after birth, six to twelve months of age and has a gestation period of 20–21 days, varying with water temperature (Lourie et al. 1999). The egg diameter is 0.15 cm and the young approximately 0.9 cm long at birth (Vincent 1990). The reproductive period for this species is apparently from May to October. The number of eggs/embryos inside the brood pouch of males with a total length ranging from 8-12.6 cm, from 97 to 1,552; number of prehydrated oocytes in females with a total length ranging from 6-12.3 cm, from 90 to 1,313. Newborns are released by ejection from the brood pouch by body contortions and pumping action of the pouch (Teixeira and Musick 2001). This species is a resident of Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary, where its eggs occur in a non-pelagic region, larvae are found in both coastal and inner-shelf and in pelagic regions, juveniles are found in the inner-shelf, mid-shelf, outer-shelf, and on the slope, are found among benthic vegetation as well as pelagic vegetation and submerged sediment, and adults are located in the estuarine, coastal, inner-shelf, mid-shelf, and outer-shelf regions and are also found among pelagic vegetation and submerged vegetation as well as coral, rocky and oyster reef habitats (Hare et al. 2006). This species is known to develop elaborate skin fronds and males have proportionally longer tails than do females (Baum et al. 2003, Lourie et al. 2004).

threats:
As Hippocampus erectus has only been found once in Europe, no threats to the species are known.

conservationAction:
The entire genus Hippocampus was listed in Appendix II of CITES in November 2002; implementation of this listing began in May 2004.  As the species has only been found once in Europe, further research should be conducted to determine if it will become more present in the future.

useAndTrade:
Hippocampus erectus is an important species in aquarium and medicinal trades (Zhang et al. 2010) although as the species has only been found once, it is not traded nor exploited commercially in Europe. It is one of more than ten seahorse species to have been successfully reared in captivity and is recognized as a good candidate for commercial aquaculture (Zhang et al. 2010, Lin et al. 2008).


taxonomicNotes:
All Black Sea specimens examined thus far have been genetically identified as Hippocampus guttulatus, with no evidence of a separate species (Woodall 2009). This supersedes previous suggestions that a new and different species or subspecies inhabits the Black Sea.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) There is some evidence for a large (94%) decrease in population census size from one locality (Ria Formosa, South Portugal) (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Caldwell and Vincent 2012), but no consistent trends have been observed and trends throughout the species' range are unknown; this is partly due to a scarcity of information. Thus, based on a lack of data, this species cannot be reliably categorised on a European or global level. Urgent population assessments and long term monitoring programs across its geographic range are required to assess the European and global extinction risk of this species.

range:
Hippocampus guttulatus is present along the Atlantic coast from the UK, Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands to the Mediterranean Sea. Its distribution continues into the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea (Lourie et al. 2004). The exact locations of populations are unknown, but it is expected that seahorses occur at low densities all along the coastline (L. Woodall pers. obs. 2012). The species is also found in west Africa. It is found at depths between 0.5 m and 30 m.

population:
Generally, seahorse density is patchy (Foster and Vincent 2004) and at most locations they are rare, but they can be abundant locally (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Woodall 2009). Wherever data are available, seahorse populations appear to be declining (Foster and Vincent 2004, Vincent et al. 2011).  There is no global estimate of H. guttulatus population size and no global assessment of population trends. However there are two localities where long-term datasets are available and another where population dynamics have been assessed through interviews. In the Ria Formosa (southern Portugal), the H. guttulatus population decreased by 94% from 2002 to 2007 (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Caldwell and Vincent 2012). More recent surveys at this location revealed that the population size is possibly increasing again (M. Correia pers. comm. 2012). No cause for the population change has been confirmed, but benthic macrofauna habitat changes recorded in the area have been shown to result from anthropogenic stressors (Gamito 2008) and this may be related to the declines in seahorse numbers.  In the Thau Lagoon (southern France), H. guttulatus populations have fluctuated each year, however no long term trend has been observed (2005–2009) (Louisy 2011). In the Arcachon Basin (western France), interviews suggest that the population distribution is very patchy, but to date no trend has been established due to lack of consistent data collection (2005–2011) (Grima 2011). Anecdotal evidence is available in other localities, but without exhaustive surveys and systematic data collection. In the Mar Menor (southern Spain), Voiotias (Greece) and Varna (Bulgaria), the population size of H. guttulatus fluctuates greatly each year (2005–2011) (anecdotal evidence, L. Woodall pers. comm. 2012). In other coastal sites, populations have both decreased (Badalona, Spain- J. Ortiz, SASBA,  in. litt.; Malaga, Spain- P. Cabrera, in. litt.; Galicia, Spain- S. Valladares, in. litt) and increased (La Herradura, Spain- P. Cabrera, in. litt.). It is therefore difficult to generalize on population trends for this species throughout its range.

habitat:
Hippocampus guttulatus is mostly found inhabiting small home ranges in shallow coastal waters, lagoon systems and estuaries (0.5–15 m; Curtis and Vincent 2005, Curtis and Vincent 2006, Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004, Woodall 2009) but there may be seasonal migration to deeper waters (30 m+) (Boisseau 1967, Garrick-Maidment 2007, Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004). Adult H. guttulatus use varied habitats, of all sediment types, macroalgae and seagrass and in addition are often observed on artificial structures using them as holdfasts (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Franco et al. 2006, Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004, Louisy 2011, Woodall 2009).  In the Ria Formosa adult H. guttulatus are associated with complex habitats, including Zostera marina, Ulva spp., Codium spp. and artificial structures (Curtis and Vincent 2005). However this species is seen in different habitats such as rocky areas, sand/silt ripples, sessile invertebrates and sponges in other locations such as the UK, Bulgaria, Spain, France and Greece (Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004, Louisy 2010, Woodall 2009). As an ambush predator, H. guttulatus has a wide dietary range that mainly comprises Amphipoda, Anmura, Decopoda and Mysidacae (Kitsos et al. 2008, Gurkan et al. 2011) and thus is associated with highly productive habitats. Hippocampus guttulatus are seasonal breeders (approx. March to October) with a temperature limited mating and gestation period of around 21 days (Boisseau 1967, Curtis 2007). Predicted annual fecundity is about 900 young and is correlated with fish size, but the size of the male brood pouch is inferred to be a limiting factor for both sexes (Curtis 2007). In the Ria Formosa, newborn H. guttulatus are about 12 mm and are seen in adult habitat at 96 mm. Males are mature at 109 mm, reproduce at 125 mm and live for approximately five years (Curtis and Vincent 2006). Juvenile H. guttulatus (<96 mm) are rarely observed during surveys (Curtis and Vincent 2006, Louisy 2010, Woodall 2009). They spend the first weeks of life as plankton, but nothing more is known about them until recruitment at 96 mm (Boisseau 1967). Juvenile development ex situ is determined by water temperature, food availability and condition at birth (J. Palma pers. comm. 2012). Hippocampus guttulatus adults have low dispersal and limited migration (Caldwell and Vincent 2012). This reduces their ability to colonize new areas, recolonize old ones and in addition reduces their ability to move when habitat becomes unfavourable. Hippocampus guttulatus, consistent with other seahorses, has a genetically monogamous mating system, at least within a breeding season (Woodall et al. 2011), and this may reduce their reproductive potential if their partner is removed from the population (e.g. is caught). However, H. guttulatus matures at an early age, has rapid growth rates and a short generation time. These traits suggest that it may recover rapidly when direct (e.g. exploitation) and indirect (e.g. by-catch and habitat damage) effects of disturbance cease, but it may be vulnerable to extended periods of poor recruitment (Curtis and Vincent 2006).

threats:
The major continuing threat to H. guttulatus is habitat degradation and disturbance through direct anthropogenic activities such as coastal developments and the effect of fishing gear (e.g., trawls and dredges) (Caldwell and Vincent 2012). As it is a shallow coastal species it is extremely susceptible to anthropogenic activities. Habitat degradation through climate change continues across H. guttulatus geographic range and H. guttulatus, like other small coastal fish, is also threatened by pollution from shore side run-off and ships (Islam and Tanaka 2004). Seahorses are caught both intentionally and incidentally in Portugal, and sold for curiosities or into the live aquarium fish trade (J. Curtis, in litt. to P. LaFrance). They are also caught incidentally in Italy, France, Spain and Croatia (J. Curtis pers. comm. to P. LaFrance 2012). The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species.

conservationAction:
The entire genus Hippocampus was listed in Appendix II of CITES in November 2002 with implementation of the listing in 2004. Hippocampus guttulatus has been listed under OSPAR, European CITES, (Curd 2009) the Bern Convention and Barcelona Convention (Abdul Malak et al. 2011). Regionally, it is listed as Near Threatened in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011) and Endangered in Croatia (Jardas et al. 2007). In the Black Sea region, it is listed as Endangered in Turkey, Vulnerable in Georgia and the Ukraine, and Least Concern in Romania (Yankova 2012). The species is listed in National Red Data Books in Bulgaria, France, Portugal and Slovenia (Yankova 2012). Hippocampus guttulatus is protected by the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act of 2008 (DEFRA 2008) and is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species (JNCC 2010). Habitat protection and management actions geared towards conservation goals are needed to ensure the survival of wild Hippocampus guttulatus populations in the region. Further research on the biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution of the species is needed. Long-term monitoring is required for this species across its geographic range focusing on population trends, harvest level trends and habitat trends.

useAndTrade:
No specific targeted fisheries are known in Europe for H. guttulatus. There may be exploited populations in Africa but the extent of the species' range in this region is unconfirmed. International trade is required to be documented as sustainable, as H. guttulatus is listed on CITES Appendix II. There were just four records of international trade in H. guttulatus reported to CITES between 2004–2010 for the purpose of conservation research (UNEP-WCMC 2012a). Seahorse species are, however, often misidentified (L. Woodall pers. obs. 2012).  Hippocampus guttulatus are sold as curiosities and good-luck charms when obtained as by-catch, (France and Portugal; L. Woodall, pers. obs.) and are collected occasionally under permits for display in local public aquariums (Portugal and France; L. Woodall pers. obs.). It is unlikely that these activities threaten the species globally.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Hippocampus hippocampus is assessed as Data Deficient. Although surveys in some localities have indicated substantial declines, population trends are not known elsewhere. There is some evidence for a large (73%) decrease in population census size from one locality (Ria Formosa, Portugal) (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Caldwell and Vincent 2012), but a lack of reliable survey data in many parts of this species' range means that no consistent trends have been observed across the species' range. Urgent population assessments and long term monitoring programs across its geographic range are required to better assess the extinction risk of this species.

range:
Hippocampus hippocampus is present in shallow coastal waters from the North Sea, down the European coast and throughout the Mediterranean Sea. The geographic range extends down the Atlantic African coast as far as Senegal, including the Atlantic Ocean islands of the Azores, Madeira and the Canaries (Lourie et al. 2004). The exact locations of the populations are unknown, but it is expected that seahorses occur at low densities along the coastline (L. Woodall pers. obs. 2012). It is found at depths between 0.5 - 60 m.

population:
Generally seahorse density is patchy (Foster and Vincent 2004) and at most locations they are rare, but can be abundant locally (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Woodall 2009). Where data are available, seahorse populations appear to be declining globally (Foster and Vincent 2004, Vincent et al. 2011).  There is no global estimate of Hippocampus hippocampus population size and no global assessment of population trends. However there are two localities where long-term datasets are available. In the Ria Formosa, Portugal, H. hippocampus exhibited a 73% decrease (I. Caldwell, Project Seahorse, pers. comm. 2012) between 2002 and 2008. More recent surveys at this locality reveal that the population size is possibly increasing again (M. Correia pers. comm. 2012). No cause for the population change has been confirmed, but benthic macrofauna changes recorded in the area have been shown as a result of anthropogenic stressors (Gamito 2008) and this could be related to the declines in seahorses.   In the Arcachon Basin (France), interviews suggest that the population distribution is very patchy, but to date no trend has been established due to lack of consistent data collection (Grima 2011). Anecdotal evidence is available in other localities, however exhaustive surveys and systematic data collection did not occur at these sites. In Mar Menor (Spain), Voiotias (Greece) and the Canary Islands, the population size of H. hippocampus has fluctuated greatly each year (anecdotal evidence compiled by L. Woodall. Project Seahorse 2012). In other coastal sites populations have both decreased (Badalona, Spain- J. Ortiz, in. litt. 2012; Malaga, Spain- P. Cabrera, in. litt. 2012) and increased (La Herradura, Spain- P. Cabrera in. litt. 2012).

habitat:
Hippocampus hippocampus is mostly found inhabiting small home ranges in shallow coastal waters, lagoon systems and estuaries at depths of one to 55 m (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004, Woodall 2009), but there may be seasonal migration to deeper waters (Boisseau 1967, Garrick-Maidment 2007, Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004). Adult H. hippocampus use varied habitats of all sediment types, and in addition are often observed on artificial structures using them as holdfasts (Curtis and Vincent 2005, Franco et al. 2006, Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004, Woodall 2009).  In the Ria Formosa, adult H. hippocampus are associated with habitats of low complexity, including sand and shell fragments (Curtis and Vincent 2005). However this species is seen in different habitats in other localities (Garrick-Maidment and Jones 2004, Woodall 2009). As an ambush predator H. hippocampus has a wide dietary range, which mainly comprises Amphipoda, Anmura, and Mysidacae and (Kitsos et al. 2008) and thus is associated with highly productive habitats. Hippocampus hippocampus is a seasonal breeder, breeding from April to October (Foster and Vincent 2004). Mating is temperature limited and gestation period is around a month (Boisseau 1967). Juvenile H. hippocampus (<87 mm) are rarely observed during surveys (Curtis and Vincent 2006, Woodall 2009). They spend the first weeks of life as plankton, but nothing more is known about them until recruitment at 62 mm (Curtis and Vincent 2005).  Hippocampus hippocampus adults have low dispersal and limited migration. This reduces their ability to colonize new areas, recolonize old ones, and in addition reduces their ability to move when habitats become unfavourable (J. Curtis pers. comm. 2012). Most seahorses are monogamous, at least within a breeding season (Foster and Vincent 2004). This may reduce their reproductive potential if their partner was removed from the population (e.g., is caught). However H. hippocampus matures at an early age, has rapid growth rates, and a short generation time, which suggests that it has reasonable potential to recover rapidly after direct (e.g., exploitation) and indirect (e.g., by-catch and habitat damage) effects of disturbance cease, but may be vulnerable to extended periods of poor recruitment (J. Curtis pers. comm. 2012).

threats:
The major continuing threat to Hippocampus hippocampus is assumed to be similar to that for Hippocampus guttulatus, which is habitat degradation and disturbance through direct anthropogenic activities such as coastal developments and the effect of fishing gear (e.g., trawls and dredges) (Caldwell and Vincent 2012). As it is a shallow coastal species it is extremely susceptible to anthropogenic activities. Habitat degradation through climate change continues across the geographic range of H. hippocampus, and like other small coastal fish, it is also threatened by pollution from shore side run-off and ships (Islam and Tanaka 2004). In addition, H. hippocampus is taken in parts of its range as accidental bycatch from fisheries and sold as curiosities or into the live aquarium fish trade (see 'Use and trade').

conservationAction:
The entire genus Hippocampus was listed in Appendix II of CITES in November 2002 with implementation of the listing in 2004. This means that countries who are signatories to CITES are subject to regulations on the export of seahorses. Countries are required to provide permits for all exports of seahorses and are meant to provide evidence that these exports are not detrimental to wild populations. However a lack of basic information on distribution, habitat and abundance means many CITES Authorities cannot assess sustainability of their seahorse exploitation and meet their obligations to the Convention. This species is also listed under OSPAR, European CITES (Curd 2009), the Bern Convention and the Barcelona Convention (Abdul Malak et al. 2011). Regionally, it is listed as Near Threatened in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011) and Data Deficient in Croatia (Jardas et al. 2007). Hippocampus hippocampus is protected by the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act of 2008 (DEFRA 2008) and is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species (JNCC 2010). Further research on the biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution of this species is needed. Long-term monitoring is required for this species across its geographic range focusing on population trends, harvest level trend and habitat trends.

useAndTrade:
No specific targeted fishery is known in Europe for H. hippocampus. There are exploited populations in Africa but the intensity is unknown (Senegal; J. Lam pers. comm. 2012). In fishing, the whole animal is removed and all trade is in wild populations. The trend of exploitation is unknown. International trade should be recorded, as H. hippocampus is listed on CITES Appendix II, however this species is often misidentified and has been recorded as other species in at least one shipment (L. Woodall pers. obs. 2012). There are very few records of trade exports from the species native range in the CITES Trade Database (UNEP-WCMC 2012a). Other records are exports from the indo-pacific region and are thus either misidentifications or re-exports for which no initial export certificate was granted (UNEP-WCMC 2012a). Seahorses of other species are used for traditional medicines, aquarium display and curiosities. In Europe H. hippocampus are sold as curiosities and good-luck charms when caught as by-catch, (France, Portugal and Spain; L. Woodall, pers. obs. 2012) and are collected occasionally under permits for display in local public aquariums (Portugal and France; L. Woodall pers. obs. 2012). It is unlikely that these activities threaten the species in European waters.

redListContributors:
Woodall, L., Wiswedel, S., Foster, S. & Correia, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Minyichthys sentus is assessed as Data Deficient. The species is only known from four specimens, and therefore no reliable assessment of the species can be made. Further research is needed to properly assess the status of the species, including a concerted search effort to confirm it is not extinct.

range:
This species is known from three specimen collections from 1930: one from the western Mediterranean near Gibraltar and the others from the eastern Atlantic off of northern Morocco/southern Spain and the Canary Islands. The only record since then is an occurrence off the Canary Islands in 1970. No further records of this species exist. It has been found at depths down to 170 m.

population:
This species is known from three specimens collected in 1930 and an observation from 1970. No other records of the species exist, and therefore no population estimates can be made.

habitat:
This species is known from depths to 170 m. It has also been recorded from trawls at depths of 740 - 3,460 m, but it is suspected that these specimens were caught at shallower depths as the net was brought to the surface.

threats:
The threats are unknown for this species.

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation efforts in place for Minyichthys sentus, nor is there any information about what efforts may be needed. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. Further research into the species' distribution, population size and trends, habitat, ecology and threats is required.

useAndTrade:
The species is not known to be traded or exploited commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
Nerophis lumbriciformes is listed as Least Concern. Although no population estimates have been attempted in any part of its range, the species is thought to be common, widespread and the rocky coastal habitat is one of the least threatened habitats in the region. Research would be needed to determine population sizes throughout this species' range.

range:
Nerophis lumbriciformis inhabits the eastern Atlantic and the North Sea from the southern coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula to the British Isles, the northern coast of France, the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco. It can be found down to depths of 30 m.

population:
Nerophis lumbriciformis is a common species and it is often the most abundant syngnathid in the region (Lyons and Dunne 2005, Monteiro et al. 2002). No population estimates have been made for this species and therefore, further research is needed to determine population trends.

habitat:
Nerophis lumbriciformis inhabits rocky inter- and subtidal areas among macrophytes, such as Kelp, or under loose stones (Monteiro et al. 2003, 2005). It can also be found in estuaries, and ranges in depth from zero to 30 m. Extreme site fidelity and homing behaviour have been documented in this species (Monteiro et al. 2005, 2006).  The species feeds on harpacticoid  and cyclopoid copepods as well as other epiphytic crustacean meiofauna, with increased feeding in reproductively active individuals. They prey on these organisms near the substrate, often under macrophyte canopy (Lyons and Dunne 2004). This species is sexually dimorphic, with females being larger, more active and more colourful than males. The mating system for N. lumbriciformis is polygynandric, with both males and females mating with multiple partners. Females may be able to breed with more than one male per clutch of oocytes (Lyons and Dunne 2005). Breeding is correlated with seawater temperatures below 15.5°C. Gestation lasts from 25-30 days depending on water temperature. Males release free-swimming juveniles that swim up into the water column and drift where they feed on zooplankton near the surface. Juveniles settle at three to four months and four centimetres in size (Monteiro et al. 2003). Nerophis lumbriciformis often displays a female-biased sex ratio and thus male abundance is the reproductively-limiting factor (Lyons and Dunne 2005).

threats:
The threats to Nerophis lumbriciformis include habitat destruction and degradation. In its range, rocky inter- and sub-tidal areas are under threat directly from coastal development and indirectly through changes in water clarity that are detrimental to kelp and other canopy-forming macroalgae that this species depends upon (Airoldi and Beck 2007). This species is likely to be especially susceptible to anthropogenically-induced climatic warming, as migration and breeding are correlated with cooler water temperatures (<15.5°C). Subsequent oceanographic changes associated with upwelling could potentially reduce larval dispersal and recruitment (Monteiro et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
There are no direct conservation actions in place for this species. Its range overlaps within many protected areas, with varying levels of efficacy. Further research should be conducted into the species' population size, trends and threats while monitoring should also be utilized to understand the population and habitat trends.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is listed as Data Deficient as there are little data on the population size and trends of the species. The sea grass meadows of Posidonia oceanica that the species inhabits are threatened by coastal development, trawling and other anthropogenic impacts. Further research should be conducted to determine the status of this species as it may require listing in a threatened category due to its fragile and threatened coastal habitat. It is also endemic to the European region.

range:
The Spotted Pipefish is found in the northeast Atlantic, and is most commonly found in the Adriatic Sea and western Mediterranean (Froese and Pauly 2011). Although there are few records for this species, it has been reported on the coasts of Italy (Franzoi et al. 2010), Israel (Golani et al. 2006), Spain (Lloris et al. 1984, Valle et al. 2001), Portugal and the Azores. It is also found in the Marmara Sea and the Balearic Islands. Further work is needed in order to determine whether these are disjunct populations. 

population:
There are little to no data on the population or abundance trends of this species. As Nerophis maculatus is under-studied, the abundance of the species may be larger than is represented by the limited number of observations.

habitat:
Nerophis maculatus is a demersal species down to 30 m and inhabits rocky coastal waters and sea grass meadows (Posidonia oceanica; Moranta et al. 2006). It is ovoviviparous and the males carry eggs in a brood pouch, which is located beneath the tail (Froese and Pauly 2011).

threats:
The Spotted Pipefish is likely to be threatened by habitat loss and degradation since sea grass meadows, containing species like Posidonia oceanica, are in decline throughout the Mediterranean. Posidonia oceanica is threatened by coastal development, trawling and other anthropogenic impacts. As a coastal species, the Spotted Pipefish may also be susceptible to marine pollution from waste water, nutrient inputs and chemical spills. 

conservationAction:
This species is considered to be Near Threatened in the Balearic Islands (Mayol et al. 2000). Further research should be conducted on the population size and trends, while monitoring of the population and habitat trends will help in determining the conservation status of the species. Its range overlaps with many protected areas, with varying levels of efficacy.


redListCategoryRationale:
Nerophis ophidion is listed as Least Concern as it is widespread, common throughout its range and the threats are not yet significant enough to cause rapid declines in the populations of the species. The species is dependent, although not exclusively, upon a seagrass habitat which is undergoing a continuing decline in the region. Although this seagrass decline in Europe was estimated to be 29% measured over 127 years from 1879 until 2006, the decline should be measured over the last 10 years to be considered as relevant for the Red List assessment. The species also resides in algal habitats. It is expected that further declines in the remaining seagrass habitats in Europe could result in the species becoming threatened and ongoing monitoring of populations and habitat trends is recommended.

range:
Nerophis ophidion is widespread from the Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea (Haahtela 1974) and the North Sea, the British Isles, along the Iberian Peninsula, and in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It is not found outside of pan-Europe. It is found at depths down to 15 m.

population:
Although much is known about the reproductive biology of Nerophis ophidion, no studies have yet focused directly on population sizes in the wild. The species is common throughout its range, however abundance estimates are rare. Repecka et al. (2003) determined that the species was present in only three percent of beach seines between 1989 and 2001 on Lithuanian shores.

habitat:
Nerophis ophidion inhabits marine neritic areas with seagrasses to depths of about 15 metres. It preys on crustacean zooplankton from seagrass canopy leaves, including ostracods, amphipods, gastropods and decapods, as well as benthic cnidairians and copepods (Franzoi et al. 2004, Gurkan et al. 2011). It has a generation length of one year. A cryptic species, N. ophidion has a semi-prehensile tail that assists it in seagrass mimicry. The species is associated with the eelgrass Zostera marina and algae such as Fucus spp. and Laminaria spp. (Goncalves et al. 2011). One study also found that N. ophidion is associated specifically with the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa (Malavasi et al. 2007). The species exhibits strong sexual dimorphism with the females being substantially larger than males (Malavasi et al. 2007). Males have been shown to limit the reproductive rate of females and, as a result, the behavioural sex roles are reversed in that females compete for male mates (Berglund and Rosenqvist 1993). Unlike many of the pipefishes, males brood their young externally without the presence of a brood pouch (McCoy et al. 2001) and instead have the eggs attached via mucous (Carcupino et al. 2002). An extended courtship ritual occurs prior to egg transfer (Vincent et al. 1995) and males have been documented carrying eggs from April to October (Riccato et al. 2003).

threats:
The threats to Nerophis ophidion include habitat loss and degradation. Seagrasses have declined substantially across Europe (Airoldi and Beck 2007) and increases in filamentous algae that often accompany coastal degradation from development and pollution are detrimental to the species (Sundin et al. 2011). The species is dependent, although not exclusively, upon a seagrass habitat which is undergoing a continuing decline in the region. Although this decline was estimated to be 29% measured over 127 years from 1879 until 2006, the decline should be measured over 10 years to be considered as relevant for the Red List assessment (Waycott et al. 2009). Close monitoring of seagrass habitat is needed to determine regional-scale declines over shorter time frames. Nerophis ophidion is not an exploited species.

conservationAction:
Further research should be conducted to determine the species' population size, trends and threats. Monitoring of the species' preferred seagrass habitat should be conducted to determine the extent of its decline. Its range overlaps with many protected areas, with varying levels of efficacy. The species is considered Least Concern in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
Syngnathus acusis listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread, possibly relatively common across Europe and the threats are not significant enough to cause rapid declines in the populations of the species. Little is known about wild population sizes and trends. The species is dependent upon a seagrass habitat which is undergoing a continuing decline in the region. Although this decline was estimated to be 29% measured over 127 years from 1879 until 2006, the decline should be measured over 10 years to be considered as relevant for the Red List assessment. It is expected that further decline in the remaining seagrass habitats in Europe could result in the species becoming threatened, and ongoing monitoring of populations and habitat trends is recommended. In particular, closer monitoring of seagrass habitat is needed to determine regional-scale declines over shorter time frames.

range:
Syngnathus acus is extant in waters along the eastern Atlantic from the southern Baltic Sea, the Faroe Islands, Norway and down through the British Isles to the Mediterranean and Black seas. Populations have also been found along the southern coast of South Africa. This species occurs at depths from 10-110 m (Dawson 1986).

population:
To date there have been no direct population estimates of Syngnathus acus. However, there are over 3,400 records on the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2014), mostly from pan Europe, indicating that this species may be relatively common. Of these museum records for Syngnathus acus, 201 have quite a few records of 15 or more individuals, which may suggest local abundance in some areas (Fishnet2 2014).   Although direct surveys on S. acus populations have not been carried out, it is inferred that the population is declining as a result of seagrass habitat loss (Airoldi and Beck 2007, Waycott et al. 2009).

habitat:
This demersal species inhabits seagrass beds in coastal and estuarine areas with species such as Zostera spp. They use seagrass beds as their breeding and feeding grounds, and as shelter from prey. They feed mostly on small invertebrates and fish larvae (Taçkavak et al. 2010). Gurkan et al. (2009) speculate that the large distribution of average body sizes at maturity could be due to varying water temperatures. The populations inhabiting colder seas tend to reach sexual maturity later, and thus reach a longer length in comparison to species found in warmer temperatures. Syngnathus acus is polygamous, so males are able to accept eggs from multiple females, and carry them for the incubation period in their brood pouches (Gurkan et al. 2009). After several weeks, the males give birth to fully formed juveniles measuring an average of 2.6 cm. This species displays filial cannibalism, as newborns are often preyed upon by adult pipefish, their own parents included (Silva et al. 2006).Silva et al. (2006) observed that newborn juveniles immediately adopted a benthic strategy, and kept a close and continual contact with the strata. This behaviour was thought to limit the species' ability to disperse and colonize new areas in comparison to species with a pelagic early life stage.

threats:
Habitat degradation and disturbance through direct anthropogenic activities such as coastal developments and the effect of fishing gear (e.g., trawls and dredges) may pose a threat to Syngnathus acus (Airoldi and Beck 2007, Waycott et al. 2009, Caldwell and Vincent 2012). As it is a shallow coastal species it is extremely susceptible to anthropogenic activities. Habitat degradation through climate change continues across this species' geographic range and, like other small coastal fish, it is also threatened by pollution from shore side run-off (Islam and Tanaka 2004). Seagrasses have declined substantially across Europe (Airoldi and Beck 2007) and increases in filamentous algae that often accompany coastal degradation from development and pollution are detrimental to the species (Sundin et al. 2011). Closer monitoring of seagrass habitat is needed to determine regional-scale declines over shorter time frames.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Syngnathus acus. However, its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (World Database of Protected Areas 2010). The species is not listed in any international agreements or treaties. Research into the population trends, use and trade of the species should be conducted, as well as monitoring the trends in the species' preferred habitat.

useAndTrade:
The utilization of this species in pan Europe is poorly known (W. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2013). Some pipefish species are used as a substitute for Hippocampus spp. in traditional Chinese medicine. These species are considered to be less effective and are cheaper in price. Historically, Syngnathus acus tonics have been known to treat various diseases such as tumours and impotency (Wang et al. 2012). However, it is not known if this species is captive-bred or commercially harvested for medicinal trade.

redListReviewers:
Nieto, A., Kemp, J.R., Ralph, G. & Allen, D.J.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is uncommon throughout its relatively large range and it is not found outside of pan-Europe. Very little is known about the abundance, ecology or threats to this species and it is therefore listed as Data Deficient. Unlike many other species in the family Syngnathidae, this pipefish is pelagic but it does share other life history traits such as male parental care.

range:
This species is widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean and surrounding Atlantic waters. Syngnathus phlegon larvae have also been reported as one of three dominant species present in the ichthyoplankton of the western Black Sea (Klimova et al. 2010) but it is unclear if the species resides there. 

population:
There are no data is available on the population trends for this species. Syngnathus phlegon is both uncommon and distributed over a wide area with limited data on its abundance.

habitat:
Syngnathus phlegon is primarily an offshore species and inhabits marine pelagic to marine coastal waters, often in small conspecific groups. It is an ovoviviparous species and the males carry eggs in a brood pouch located under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).

threats:
No threats have been identified for this species to date. It is not of major commercial importance and, as it inhabits pelagic waters, it is presumed to be less impacted by threats facing many other pipefish, which are usually coastal and associated with highly impacted habitats like seagrasses. Further studies are needed to determine whether coastal or benthic habitats are utilized by the species as nursery grounds.

conservationAction:
There are no known specific conservation actions in place or needed for this species. It is unclear whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine whether coastal or benthic habitats are utilized by the species as nursery grounds.

useAndTrade:
This species may be used in the live aquarium trade (Froese and Pauly 2011), but the extent of use is unknown.


redListCategoryRationale:
Syngnathus rostellatus is relatively widespread and although little is known about this species, indications from throughout its range indicate that it is relatively common and that populations are not undergoing any declines. There are no known current threats to this species, although future temperature changes could impact spawning in estuaries to an unknown extent. This species is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Syngnathus rostellatus can be found in the northeast Atlantic from Bergen, Norway in the north down around the Iberian Peninsular to Malaga, southern Spain (Hablutzel and Wilson 2011). This species can also be found throughout the British Isles. The species has erroneously been reported from the eastern Mediterranean due to the misidentification of specimens (Hablutzel and Wilson 2011). The species can be found down to depths of 15 m.

population:
The data on the global population trends for this species are not available. It is not of commercial importance so is not often monitored. Various sites throughout its range however report that the species is relatively common although the occurrence is seasonably variable. Most surveys reported were from power station cooling water inlets (van den Broek 1979, Ryland 1969, Araujo et al. 1998, Power and Attrill 2003, Maes et al. 2005). In Sweden, there was no significant change in the abundance or biomass of S. rostellatus with loss of Zosteraemarina beds (Pihl et al. 2006). Even though there are limited data, it can be assumed that populations are likely to be stable throughout its range.

habitat:
The species has been found along sandy shores among seaweeds and seagrasses to 15 m depths (Dawson 1986). It migrates in and out of estuaries seasonally (Maes et al. 1998) and this migration may facilitate reproduction and larval dispersal and provide a refuge from predators (Power and Attrill 2003). The temperature niche of S. rostellatus is 14.0-14.2˚C and abundance declines at temperatures above or below this value. Abundance is also affected by salinity and is greatest at 15-20 ppt (Power and Attrill 2003).   The male pipefish carries the eggs in a fully enclosed brood pouch located below the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). Spawning often occurs in summer but some sites have shown two spawning events per year; one in May and the other in October (Power and Attrill 2003).

threats:
There are currently no known threats for this species. However, a link between temperature, salinity and abundance of Syngnathus rostellatus in estuaries where it comes to spawn has been demonstrated, with fish being closely associated with an optimal temperature and salinity range (e.g., Maes et al. 1998, Power and Attrill 2003). This may lead to a cause for concern for this species in the face of human induced climate change but the specific effects that these changes might have on this fish have not yet been investigated.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions for this species, although many coastal marine protected areas occur within its range.

useAndTrade:
There are no known commercial uses or trades for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as there are little or no data on the population size, trends and threats. Research should be conducted in order to determine the status of this species.

range:
Syngnathus schmidti is endemic to the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara (Keskin 2010).

population:
Little is known about the population size, structure and trends of this species.

habitat:
Syngnathus schmidtiis mostly pelagic, but is occasionally found on shell substrate bottoms or on muddy substrate associated with Mytillus species or Modiola phasiolina (Popov 1931). It is usually found at depths of zero to 10 m, and occasionally down to 100 m (Gordina et al. 1991). This species can also be found in fresh or brackish water. This species feeds mostly on copepods (Froese and Pauly 2011). The Black Sea Dolphin Delphinusdelphis ponticus is thought to rely on S. schmidti for a portion of its food source (Kleiber et al. 2011). This species is ovoviviparous and the males carry the eggs in a brood pouch under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). 

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation actions for S. schmidti and it is unclear whether this species occurs within any protected areas. Further research and monitoring on the habitat, ecology, population size, distribution and trends is needed.

useAndTrade:
There are no known uses or trades for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Syngnathus taenionotus is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Bombace 1993), where it is has been recorded in the Adriatic Sea (Franzoi et al. 1993) and in the Greek seas (Ondrias 1971, Papaconstantinou 1988). This species occupies near-shore and estuarine habitats that are under severe pressure from pollution and coastal development (see reviews in Lotze et al. 2011, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2011). There is limited knowledge about Syngnathus taenionotus'  population and distribution within its range in order to assess this species' level of extinction risk. It is therefore listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Syngnathus taenionotus is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Bombace 1993), where it is present in the Adriatic Sea (Franzoi et al. 1993), and the Greek seas (Ondrias 1971, Papaconstantinou 1988). Further range studies need to be carried out to determine whether these are disjunct populations or if the species occurs throughout the northern Mediterranean. This species has previously been noted on the coast of France (Louisy 2002), however this appears to have been a misidentification (Hablutzel and Wilson 2011, P. Louisy pers. comm. 2014).

population:
There is a documented population along the Italian coast, where individuals are found in high abundance (Franzoi et al. 1993), and this species was found at mean annual abundances (number of individuals per beach seine haul) of between 0.14–0.59 in the Venice Lagoon in 2002 (Franco et al. 2006). Individuals have also been found in the Greek seas (Ondrias 1971, Papaconstantinou 1988), but population sizes are unknown.

habitat:
Syngnathus taenionotus is a demersal species which is found in brackish coastal lagoons, mostly amongst detritus or vegetation over shallow muddy substrata (Dawson 1986), in areas with macroalgae (Franzoi et al. 1993), seagrass beds, sparsely vegetated habitats, bare sand habitats, mudflats or salt marshes (Franco et al. 2006). It is an estuarine resident (Franco et al. 2006).  It is ovoviviparous i.e., the male broods the embryos in a pouch found under his tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).

threats:
Syngnathus taenionotus is threatened by the degradation of shallow-water habitats. Habitat loss is caused by land reclamation and coastal development, and habitat quality has decreased as a result of sedimentation, pollution and eutrophication (see reviews in Lotze et al. 2011, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, although its range overlaps with several marine protected areas. Further research and monitoring should be conducted to determine the wider distribution, population size, trends and threats to the species while the habitat trends need to be monitored for further declines.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in the Adriatic Sea (Matic-Skoko et al. 2007), Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea (Economidis and Bauchot 1976, Gürkan 2008), Tyrrhenian Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), the Sea of Azov (Movchan Yu 1988), Black Sea, Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002), and perhaps extending past the Marmara to Lake Sapanca (Rahe and Worthmann 1986 in Özuluğ et al. 2007). This species may be threatened by habitat degradation from land reclamation, coastal development, sedimentation, pollution and eutrophication (see reviews in Lotze et al. 2011, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2011). There is limited knowledge of the population and distribution within its range in order to assess the species' level of extinction risk; it is therefore listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Syngnathus tenuirostris is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in the Adriatic Sea (Matic-Skoko et al. 2007), Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea (Economidis and Bauchot 1976, Gürkan 2008), Tyrrhenian Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), the Sea of Azov (Movchan Yu 1988), Black Sea, Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002), and perhaps extends past the Marmara to Lake Sapanca (Rahe and Worthmann 1986 in Özuluğ et al. 2007). Further distribution studies are needed to determine whether these populations are disjunct or connected.

population:
There is limited information regarding population estimates for this species. It was found at mean annual abundances of 0.02 to 0.09 individuals per beach seine haul in the Venice Lagoon in 2002 (Franco et al. 2006), and was rare in waters around Zmiinyi Island from 2003-2011 (Snigirov et al. 2012).

habitat:
This is a demersal species that inhabits estuaries with rocky, sandy and muddy substrates, and associated with Zostera seagrass beds and sparsely vegetated habitats (Malavasi et al. 2004, Franco et al. 2006, Matic-Skoko et al. 2007).  It is ovoviviparous i.e., the male broods the embryos in a pouch found under his tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).

threats:
This species may be threatened by the degradation of shallow-water habitats. Habitat loss is caused by land reclamation and coastal development, and habitat quality has decreased as a result of sedimentation, pollution and eutrophication (see reviews in Lotze et al. 2011, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2011). It may also be caught as bycatch in small scale coastal fishing.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species although it is recommended in future to emphasize resource and habitat protection, site/area management, habitat and natural process restoration, policies and regulations, private sector standards and codes. The species is found within coastal protected areas. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
This species has no commercial value (Gürkan 2008).

redListAssessors:
Papakonstantinou, C., Golani, D., Palmeri, A., Tunesi, L., Keskin, Ç. & Czembor, C.A.


redListCategoryRationale:
Syngnathus typhle is considered to be endemic to the European marine region, with a record from Ghana (Dawson 1990) requiring confirmation. The species is listed as Least Concern as it is widespread although not common, and the threats are not significant enough to cause rapid declines in the populations of the species. It occupies near-shore and estuarine habitats that are under severe pressure throughout the pan-Europe region and it has a slow reproductive rate. The species is dependent, although not exclusively, upon seagrass habitats which are undergoing a continuing decline in the European region. Although this decline was estimated at 29% measured over 127 years from 1879 until 2006, the decline should be measured over 10 years to be considered as relevant for the Red List assessment. The species also resides on soft bottoms, shallow vegetated rocky areas and in algal habitats. It is expected that further declines in the remaining seagrass habitats in Europe could result in the species becoming threatened, and ongoing monitoring of populations and habitat trends is recommended.

range:
Syngnathus typhle is present in the eastern Atlantic from Vardø in Norway to southern Spain, including the Baltic Sea and the British Isles. A record from Ghana is still questionable (Dawson 1990) and therefore it can be considered as endemic to pan-Europe. In the Mediterranean Sea, it has been recorded from the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands (western Mediterranean Sea), southern French lagoons (Gulf of Lion), the Ligurian Sea, the Venice lagoon (north Adriatic Sea), western Sicily (south Tyrrhenian Sea) and the Croatian estuarine systems (Adriatic Sea). It is also present in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.

population:
This species is uncommon and is generally less abundant than other syngnathid species in the Mediterranean, but it may be locally abundant in some areas (e.g., the Sea of Marmara) (Keskin et al. 2002). No formal field population estimates have been undertaken, and little is known about trends or seasonal variability in densities of the species.

habitat:
This is a demersal, non-migratory species usually found along the coasts and in deep coastal lagoons at a temperature range between 8° and 24° C (Moreira et al. 1992). It is often associated with Zostera spp. seagrass or other vegetation (Dawson 1986). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species lives in coastal lagoons (Dumay et al. 2004, Malavasi et al. 2004, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2006, Vizzini and Mazzola 2006, Mouillot et al. 2007) and estuarine systems (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), associated with seagrass meadows such as Posidonia oceanica (Valle et al. 2003, Moranta et al. 2006, Deudero et al. 2008). It is also found on soft bottoms (Letourneur et al. 2001) or in shallow vegetated rocky habitat (Molinari 2005). Their diet consists mainly of small crustaceans (especially copepods), fishes and occasionally other invertebrates (Oliveira et al. 2007). In the Gulf of Gdansk, Syngnathus typhle populates areas covered with green algae (Cladophora sp. and Enteromorpha sp.) and brown algae (Pilayella sp.) (Tarnowska et al. 2007).Syngnathus typhle females distribute their eggs into several males and males bear eggs from several females (Jones et al. 1999). Males then rear their offspring in a brood pouch and give birth to live, free-swimming juveniles (Berglund et al. 1986). They spawn in summer (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It has a low fecundity (k-selected) and consequently may be slow to recover from overexploitation and other threats, which is similar to other Syngnathids.The generation time is suspected to be approximately four years based on life history traits of Syngnathus acus and other pipefishes with similar life history traits.

threats:
This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation of seagrass meadows and other shallow-water habitats. This is caused by coastal development and trawling (Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2006). The pollution from oil spills, eutrophication and sewage for example may also be a problem. The estuarine habitats occupied by this species are also subject to many pressures in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that at least 29% of seagrass habitat worldwide has declined (Waycott et al. 2009) and that at least one in three species of seagrass in the Mediterranean Sea are in decline. The species is dependent, although not exclusively, upon seagrass habitats which is undergoing a continuing decline in the region. Although the 29% decline was measured over 127 years from 1879 until 2006, whereas the decline should be measured over 10 years to be considered as relevant for the Red List assessment.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any international agreements or treaties. Many protected areas of various size and scope exist within this species’ range. It is considered as Least Concern in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013).Research into the population trends should be conducted, as well as monitoring the habitat and population trends of the species.

redListContributors:
Ouyang, L., Keskin, Ç., Palmeri, A., Papakonstantinou, C., Golani, D. & Tunesi, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
Syngnathus variegatus is listed as Data Deficient as very little is known about population sizes or trends. This species is however listed as Vulnerable in the Ukraine Red Data Book and there is evidence of a decline in this area of its habitat due to pollution, but the rates of decline are unclear. This gives possible cause for concern regarding this species and more research is needed to identify threats and population trends throughout its range.

range:
Syngnathus variegatus is found throughout the Black Sea as well as the Sea of Azov, the Adriatic Sea, the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara (Akimov 2009, Fish of the Azov Sea 2013).

population:
The only region where population information for this species is available is the Ukraine. Syngnathus variegatus has always been found at low densities and in low abundance in the Black Sea of the Ukraine. However, population numbers appear to have been declining and in some areas, where this species used to be found, there are almost none left (Akimov 2009).

habitat:
Little is known about the habitat and ecology of Syngnathus variegatus outside of the Ukraine. It is known to be ovoviviparous with the male carrying the eggs in a brood pouch under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). In the Ukraine, it is found in the shallow coastal zone. It is usually solitary but can be found in small groups of two or three fish. This species is often associated with underwater vegetation such as seagrass and algae. This pipefish matures and begins to breed at between two and three years of age and they spawn in the summer months, between April and August (Akimov 2009).

threats:
This species is not of commercial importance but it is sometimes caught for souvenirs or curios. It also appears to be threatened by desalination and water pollution, both of which are believed to also be causing a decline in this species' habitat (Akimov 2009). Fishing (presumably as bycatch) and habitat loss due to destructive fishing methods in the Black Sea may also be of concern. The extent and impact of these threats is currently unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions for this species. Several small community-based protected areas are present in the coastal waters of the species' range. Syngnathus variegatus is listed as Vulnerable in the Ukraine Red Data Book (Akimov 2009). Further research is needed on the habitat and ecology outside of Ukraine as well as the distribution, population size, trends, harvest and use of the species. Monitoring of the harvest, trade and habitat trends is required, as any increase may threaten the species further.

useAndTrade:
This species is not of commercial importance but it is sometimes caught for souvenirs or curios (Akimov 2009). The impacts of this harvest on wild populations have not been investigated.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Balistes capriscus is widespread in the Atlantic Ocean. In the Eastern Atlantic, it occurs from Ireland southward, throughout the Mediterranean Sea, to the Azores, Canary Islands, and northwest coast of Africa. as well as the Black and Marmara Seas. It inhabits hard bottoms, reefs, and ledges. It is also associated with artificial reef structures. This species has a very wide bathymetric distribution (usually 15 – 55 m depth in coastal waters). Capture production for Gray Triggerfish in the Eastern Atlantic rose steadily throughout the 1990s until 2010, whereby a precipitous drop in landings of over 30% occurred between the years 2010 through 2012. Additionally, it has shown sharp declines in abundance in other areas of its range. This evidence suggests that the stock in the assessment zone is overfished and that catches should at least be held constant if not reduced to bring the population back to sustainable levels. Its importance to commercial fisheries puts it at risk for potential mismanagement; however, it is currently managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. It is suggested that fishing effort and landings be monitored closely in the region, as a 30% decline in landings has been reported in the region between 2010 and 2011, and continued harvesting of this species at current levels may put B. capriscus in an elevated risk of extinction in the region. Pending further research into the harvesting and population status of this species in the region, it is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Balistes capriscus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is widely distributed from the United Kingdom south to Angola. In the northeastern Atlantic, B. capriscus is known from Ireland south to the Azores and Canary Islands. It is also found in the Mediterranean Sea, including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstatninou 1988), Black Sea and Sea of Marmara (Yankova et al. 2014). Eastern Atlantic: Mediterranean to Moçamedes, Angola. In the western Atlantic, it is known from Nova Scotia (Canada), Bermuda, and northern Gulf of Mexico to Argentina (Robins and Ray 1986). This species is associated with depths of up to 100 m (Harmelin-Vivien and Quero 1990).

population:
Northeastern Atlantic and Adjacent Regional Waters In Ireland, there was an increase in triggerfish abundance between 1989 through 1991, with at least 184 specimens recorded, representing 53.6% of the total number of specimens documented (343) since the first record in 1845. Large numbers of specimens were reportedly sighted by SCUBA divers and captured on rod and line by anglers. It is unknown if the increase in triggerfish numbers represent a real change in the species' overall abundance in Irish waters or an increase in recording effort (Quigley et al.1993). FAO capture production (2010) list annual landings of this species in Atlantic and Mediterranean waters by European countries, including the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, France, Albania, Libya, Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia.  The highest recorded catch in any one year by any one country is 420 tonnes by Libya in 2010. There appears to be a roughly upward trend in catch numbers by European countries starting in 1999 (FAO 2010). By 2005, the total landings of Gray Triggerfish by the above mentioned countries totaled 158 metric tonnes (mt). By 2010, the total landings combined by the same said countries tallied 1,072 mt, with Libya landing 420 mt, Portugal 332 mt and Tunisia 246 mt. Spain reported a mere 50 mt in 2010, and all other countries reported landings of 11 mt or less. Between 2010 and 2012, the total landings of these countries fell by over 30% (a net reduction of 321 mt in two years). Libya landed 290 mt in 2012 and Tunisia 239 mt. Portugal landed 182 mt and all other countries reported landings of 13 mt or less (FAO 2014, FishstatJ Accessed 2014 May). Although there is no quantitative analysis of effort, it may be inferred that catch effort did not and has not lessened over the past five years, nor is it expected to, mainly because commercial exploitation of this species increased as a direct result of the stock collapse of other highly desired and commercially exploited reef-fish, such as Red Snappers and Groupers (Valle et al. 2001).      According to DOCAPESCA, the Portuguese Governmental Agency dedicated to fisheries, nearly 154 tons of B. capriscus were captured during 2011 off the coast of Portugal (Simoes et al. 2013).  Population Data from Nearby Regions This species has a wide distribution, and population numbers have declined in other parts of its range.  In the Gulf of Guinea, data show population declines of 90% or more (see below). Tunisia has the highest catches from 1993 through 2009, with an average of 66 tonnes (1999 through 2009). Libya has the highest catch recorded in 2009 at 432 tonnes (FAO 2011, FishstatJ Accessed 2013 June).  Furthermore, declines in catches were also recorded for the Soviet Union from 1970 through 1989 in the divisions: Cape Verde, Sahara and Sherbro (FAO 2011, FishstatJ Accessed 2013 June).

habitat:
Habitat Balistes capriscus inhabits hard bottoms, reefs, and ledges. It is also associated with artificial reef structures (Frazer and Lindberg 1994, Vose and Nelson 1994,Wilson et al. 1995, Kurz 1995, Simmons 2008). This species has a very wide bathymetric distribution (Ofori-Adu and Koranteng 1993). The species occurs near the bottom as well as near the surface of the sea (usually 15 – 55 m depth in coastal waters). The adults drift along the bottom either alone or in small groups, while the juveniles drift at the surface with sargassum (Casazza and Ross 2008).  Balistes capriscus is an eurybathic species and is an important component of the group of coastal species that exist within its distribution, mainly in the thermocline at an average depth of 47 m, with temperature and oxygen values below the values found in shallow waters in clay and silt substrate (Bianchi 1992a). The maximum total length of this species is recorded at 60 cm total length (TL) (Harmelin-Vivien and Quero 1990). Diet Balistes capriscus feed on algae, seagrass, hydrozoans, gorgonians, colonial anemones, and tunicates (Frazer and Linberg 1994). It has been identified as a keystone predator of sea urchins in the Canary Islands (Clemente et al. 2011). Reproduction Nesting During the months of May through July (Ismen et al. 2004), Balistidae have atypical spawning behavior compared to most marine fishes, such as forming harem groups, building demersal nests, and showing parental care of eggs (Fricke 1980, Blumer 1982, Gladstone 1994, Ishihara and Kuwamura 1996, Kuwamura 1997). Gray triggerfish collected along coastal Alabama were sexually dimorphic, with males being significantly larger than females (Simmon 2008, Ingram 2001); similar results were shown in the Atlantic (Moore 2001). Gray Triggerfish were observed to build smaller nests, both in diameter and depth than other species of Balistidae, including the yellowmargin triggerfish. Male and female were also observed circling in the nest and rapidly changing colors, this behavior has not been described for any other species of Balistidae. (Simmons 2008). Maturity and Fecundity The length at first maturity is 13 cm total length (TL), which is attained at age 1 (Ismen et al. 2004). Fecundity is estimated at 103,833 eggs per female individual at 12 to 13.3 cm total length (TL) (Ismen et al. 2004). Growth and Age Generation Length = 13 years (average maximum age of 11-16) - 1 (age at first maturity) / 2 = 6 years (see sources below).   A study conducted by Mendes et al. (2004) in Studies in Portugal found B. Capriscus to have a length range of 22.5 - 43.5 cm for mature adults, and a weight range of 250 - 1300 grams.  ---- Early Life History Eggs of Gulf gray trigger incubate in demersal nests between within 12 to 58 hours, after which they enter the plankton (Thresher 1984). It is associated with Sargassum from 10 to 80 mm (SL). Ingram (2001) reports that gray trigger settle between 40 and 160 mm (FL), based on settlement marks in the first dorsal spine of trawl-caught gray trigger. In the Gulf of Mexico, the Gray Trigger inhabit reef areas (natural and artificial reefs, low or high-relief reefs) in waters from 10 m (Smith 1976, Johnson and Saloman 1984, Ingram, 2001) to 106 m (Kevin Rademacher, pers. comm.) in depth as adults.

threats:
 Balistes capriscus is a commercially valued fish throughout its range; although not as much so in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters. However, B. capriscus is landed in Portugal (over 150 tonnes in 2011) and in regions near Europe and there have been declines in abundance in other areas of its distribution (FAO 2011, FishstatJ Accessed 2013; Bernardes and Dias 2000; Bernardes 2001). FAO capture production (2010) list annual landings of this species in Atlantic and Mediterranean waters by European countries, including the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, France, Albania, Libya, Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia.  The highest recorded catch in any one year by any one country is 420 tonnes by Libya in 2010.There appears to be a roughly upward trend in catch numbers by European countries starting in 1999 (FAO 2010). By 2005, the total landings of Gray Triggerfish by the above mentioned countries totaled 158 metric tonnes (mt). By 2010, the total landings combined by the same said countries tallied 1,072 mt, with Libya landing 420 mt, Portugal 332 mt and Tunisia 246 mt. Spain reported a mere 50 mt in 2010, and all other countries reported landings of 11 mt or less. Between 2010 and 2012, the total landings of these countries fell by over 30% (a net reduction of 321 mt in two years). Libya landed 290 mt in 2012 and Tunisia 239 mt. Portugal landed 182 mt and all other countries reported landings of 13 mt or less (FAO 2014, FishstatJ Accessed 2014 May). Although there is no quantitative analysis of effort, it may be inferred that catch effort did not and has not lessened over the past five years, nor is it expected to, mainly because commercial exploitation of this species increased as a direct result of the stock collapse of other highly desired and commercially exploited reef-fish, such as Red Snappers and Groupers (Valle et al. 2001).      There have been declines in abundance of this species in the Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Mexico and Brazil (Aggrey-Fynn 2009, Ataliba et al. 2009). In Brazil, the fork length (FL) of 6,396 fish landed by the commercial fleet ranged from 111 mm to 410 mm.The catch was composed mainly of fish between 160 to 230 mm FL. About 46% of the catches were composed by immature fishes, a fork length at first maturity being 169 mm for females and 200 mm for males (Bernardes and Dias 2000, Bernardes 2002).

conservationAction:
Balistes capriscus is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Balistes capriscus is found in marine reserves throughout most of its range in the northeastern and central Atlantic. There is a direct correlation between fish density in marine protected areas and unprotected areas in regards to B. capriscus in the Canary Islands. Fish density and abundance for Balistes capriscus are nearly 41% lower in unprotected regions as opposed to marine protected areas (Clemente et al. 2011). Balistes capriscus is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council and under the Gulf of Mexico 1981 Reef Fish Fishery Management Plan (FMP) and subsequent amendments, regulations include size limits (12" TL), permits, catch limits (5 fish/person bag limit, 20 fish snapper-grouper aggregate), and gear restrictions. Due to stock assessment results, a rebuilding plan was created by the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council and implemented by the National Marine Fisheries Service in August 2008 (Simmons and Szedlmayer 2011). It is suggested that regulations on the fisheries that target B. capriscus be set in place in the northeastern Atlantic in order to put in place a management plan that will maintain a sustainable harvest of this fish in the region and reverse the population declines that this species is experiencing in the region. Research is also suggested into the population size and trends, ecology, early life history and harvest level trends for this species.

useAndTrade:
Balistes capriscus is important to both commercial and recreational fisheries. Until recently, Gray Triggerfish were not considered a desirable catch by most fishers; however, the decline in other reef fish stocks (e.g., red snapper and groupers) has probably caused an increased targeting of this and other "under-utilized" species (Valle et al. 2001). FAO landing statistics: FAO capture production (2010) list annual Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic landings for this species from 1992 through 2009 as ranging from 1 tonne to 432 tonnes. Tunisia and Portugal have the highest catches from 1993 through 2009, with an average of 77 tonnes (1993 through 2009) and 66 tonnes (1999 through 2009), respectively. Libya has the highest catch recorded in 2009 at 432 tonnes. Capture production for trigger fishes in the eastern central Atlantic show pronounced declines in catch in Ghana and Togo. Furthermore, declines in catches were also recorded for the Soviet Union from 1970-1989 in the divisions: Cape Verde, Sahara and Sherbro. (FAO 2010, FishstatJ Accessed 2013 June). In a recreational spearfishery in Spain, B. capriscus has never had a catch probability over 0.3 in any single year since 1970 (Pita and Freire 2010). Balistes capriscus is scarcely known by European consumers and, therefore, this fish is often discarded and its economic value is rather low. According to DOCAPESCA, the Portuguese Governmental Agency dedicated to fisheries, nearly 154 tons of B. capriscus were captured during 2011 and sold with an average price of 1.25 €/kg (Simoes et al. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)  Listed as Data Deficient as the only known record of the species in Europe was collected in the Azores in 1919 and it has not been recorded since. Further research is needed on the population size, trends and threats to the species, as its status in Europe needs further investigation.

range:
Balistes vetula is widely distributed in the Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic it is known from Ascension Island, the Cape Verde Islands, the Azores, and along West Africa from Morocco to southern Angola. In the western Atlantic it is known from Newfoundland (Canada) south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along South America to Cabo Frio, Brazil, including Trinidade Island (Simon et al. 2013). Its depth range is two to 275 m.  In European waters, Balistes vetula has been recorded only from the Azores. 

population:
The presence of this species in Europe (Azores) is based on a single specimen observed by Fowler (1919). According to Santos et al. (1997) there have been no new records since then.

habitat:
The species inhabits reefs, sandy and grassy areas, down to 275 m. It appears solitary or in schools, and feeds on sea-urchins and other invertebrates. There are no data available on reproduction. Its longevity is estimated in seven years and its maximum size (TL) is 60 cm (Tortonese 1986).

conservationAction:
The species is not included in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservations actions and it is not present in any protected areas throughout its range. Further research is needed on the population size, trends and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Balistes vetula is not traded in European waters.

redListContributors:
Jing, L., Zapfe, G., Shao, K., Leis, J.L., Matsuura, K., Hardy, G., Liu, M., Cox, N.A., Carpenter, K.E., Comeros-Raynal, M., Harwell, H. & Sanciangco, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Canthidermis maculata is a circumtropical species that is abundant in its pelagic environment. It is associated with floating object and drifting FADs, under and around which the species aggregates. This species is ranked as the 4th most important bycatch for tuna purse seine fishery. It very rarely occurs north of the 45th parallel. Canthidermis maculata is commercially fished in relatively small numbers, but species-specific landings reported by the FAO are not available. It is also reported to be sold on the commercial aquarium market, but the harvesting of this fish by the fisheries or the aquarium market does not seem to be causing population declines at the current levels. As it is frequently common in most parts of its range and does not seem to be experiencing population declines, it has been assessed as Least Concern.  

range:
Canthidermis maculata has a circumtropical distribution, but is not present in the Mediterranean  (Lieske and Myers 1994).  In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs in shallow coastal and shallow open waters around the Azores and Canary Islands. Its range is roughly from 46°N to 18°S (Lieske and Myers 1994). The species has been reported as far north as off the Swedish coast, but it is not known whether there are stable populations there (Kullander 2012).  It is associated with depths ranging from 1 to 110 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).

population:
Canthidermis maculata is common in parts of its range of distribution (Atlas of Living Australia Accessed 24 May 2011). Canthidermis maculatus is a widely distributed species and a main bycatch species of tuna purse seiner fisheries. It is abundant in the pelagic environment where it is known to aggregate under floating objects (Romanov 2002, Taquet et al. 2007, Gaertner et al. 2008). Only one museum lot exists that contains a specimen pulled from European waters (Accessed through FishNet 2 Portal 2013 July). Globally, it is one of the most abundant and ubiquitous species in drifting FADs. In Seychelles and Reunion Island, it was observed to form massive schools of many thousands of individuals around the drifting FADs (Taquet et al. 2007).

habitat:
Canthidermis maculata is epipelagic throughout nearly its entire life. It is a pelagic species as juveniles/young reaching shallow waters during spawning season as adults (Shao pers comm. 2011). The maximum recorded length of this species is 50 cm  (Bussing 1995). Adults as well as juveniles are most often associated with drifting objects. It may occasionally occur off current-swept points. Juveniles are occasionally found off piers (Myers 1989). This species forms schools and inhabits steep outer reef slopes from 15 to 55 m; it is often associated with large floating objects in open sea (Allen et al. 2003). There is limited information regarding the diet, spawning period, fecundity or early life history traits of this species.

threats:
The affinity of this species to form schools around aggregating devices and its importance as a by-catch species in the tuna purse seine fishery may be a potential threat. However, at this time is not considered a major threat to the species. Also, it may be threatened by the aquarium trade, although no population declines have been observed.

useAndTrade:
Canthidermis maculata is a component of the aquarium trade. Online prices range from $49.99 (thatpetplace.com accessed 3 May 2011) to $599.00 (reefhotspot.com accessed 3 May 2011). It is also harvested for food and taken by longlines (Matsuura 2001).  This species is targeted in the Coral Triangle and is sporadically observed in fish markets in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers comm. 2011) and in southern China (Liu and Liu pers comm. 2011). There have been reports of ciguatera poisoning if this species is consumed (Dammann 1969). There are no FAO landing reports for this species, specifically. However, triggerfish, in general, are harvested globally, with decreasing reported tonnage over the last ten years from almost every country and area. In Europe and surrounding waters, Spain is the only country reporting landings of triggerfish in 2011 at 56 tonnes (FAO 2011 FishstatJ Accessed 2014 January).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Canthidermis sufflamen is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Canthidermis sufflamen is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, where it has a wide distribution. Within Europe it is known from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and has also been reported from the Canaries (Brito 1995). Its depth range is 5-60 m.

population:
It is common in parts of the eastern Atlantic (NMNH Fish collections accessed 12 May 2011). It was recorded with 2% frequency at Bonaire Marine Park (Pattengill-Semmens 2002). It forms mass spawning aggregations seasonally in Alacranes Reef, off the northern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Aguilar-Perera et al. 2007).

habitat:
Canthidermis sufflamen is epipelagic throughout nearly its entire life. Adults and juveniles are most often associated with drifting objects, including Sargassum (Casazza and Ross 2008). It may occasionally occur off current-swept points. It forms loose groups of about 6 to 50 individuals (Aiken 1975). It preys on the sea urchin, Diadema aff. antillarum, in the Canary Islands, which has been deemed extremely useful for ecosystem management since a recent sea urchin population outbreak has altered benthic communities (Hernández et al. 2008, Clemente et al. 2010). Ripe fishes were taken in January, May, August, September and December with a maximum in September in Jamaica (Aiken 1975). It forms spawning aggregations during August-September off the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Aguilar-Perera et al. 2008),

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. It appears to be taken in small-scale and/or recreational fisheries in parts of its range. It has been recorded in the diet of the invasive lionfish (Bejarano et al. 2014).

useAndTrade:
In the Caribbean, this species is commonly taken by hook-and-line in mid-water and just below the surface near drop-offs and over deep water (Randall 1967). In Madeira, it has regularly appeared in Funchal fish market since 2003 (if not earlier), and fishermen have stated that it has been caught in Madeira waters (Wirtz et al. 2008). It is not targeted by fisheries in the western Atlantic (Kellison et al. 2012).

redListContributors:
Leis, J.L., Matsuura, K., Shao, K., Hardy, G., Zapfe, G., Liu, M. & Jing, L.


taxonomicNotes:
Tyler (1980) tentatively recognized four species in this complex that have, based on his material examined and text, different distributions: C. atringa (western Atlantic); C. reticulatus (eastern Atlantic and Indo-Pacific); C. tigrinus (western Indian Ocean); and C. affinis (Eastern Pacific). However, Tyler (1980) said that C. tigrinus may be the young of C. reticulatus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chilomycterus reticulatus is present in the waters of the southeastern North Atlantic, and it is also a frequent visitor to the western Mediterranean and occasionally in the eastern Mediterranean. It is found around coral or rocky reefs, but some frequent sea grass beds and sand. There are no known threats to this species. Moreover, its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range. Although, it has previously been listed as one of three "vulnerable" species in the Canary Islands, but it has since been restored to acceptable levels. This species may be susceptible to overfishing in parts of its range; however, there is no evidence of significant population declines. It is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Chilomycterus reticulatus has a circumglobal distribution in warm to temperate seas (Leis 2001). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, C. reticulatus is distributed from Portugal to the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean (Leis 2006). In the Mediterranean Sea, C. reticulatus has been reported in the south Sardinian Sea (Follesa et al. 2009) and occasionally in the eastern Mediterranean, on the south Turkish and Israeli coast (Erguden et al. 2012). It is associated with depths of between 20 and 100 m (Leis 2001).

population:
Chilomycterus reticulatus has a naturally patchy distribution, based on pelagic juveniles (Leis 2006). It was said to be one of the main marine species in La Restringa, Canary Island (Planes et al. 2006); however, a more recent study asserted that it was rare at the Canarian Archipelago (Clemente et al. 2010). In other parts of its range, this species is considered rare (Heemstra et al. 2006).

habitat:
Pelagic juveniles are frequently found poleward of the distribution of adults in areas of strong, poleward currents (Leis 2006). Adult specimens are generally associated with reefs or soft bottoms at depths between 20 and 100 m (including sea grass beds) and feed on hard-shelled invertebrates (Follesa et al. 2009). They may occur deeper in tropics (Sommer et al. 1996). The largest individual on record measures 70 cm standard length (SL). This species is a relevant predator of large sea urchins (Brito and Falcón 1990, Clemente et al. 2010). Young are pelagic to about 20 cm standard length (SL); adults are most often found on reefs and soft bottoms to depths of 100 m; may occur deeper in tropics. This is a solitary fish, feeding on hard-shelled invertebrates (Leis 2002). Although few predators are able to swallow adult diodontids, small juveniles of this species are known prey for coelacanth (Heemstra et al. 2006). There is limited information regarding the spawning season, fecundity and early life history of this species.

threats:
This species may be susceptible to overfishing as it was assessed as Vulnerable in the Spanish National Red List (Calado 2006).

conservationAction:
The distribution of C. reticulatus overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range. In the Canary Islands, this species has been previously listed as in danger of extinction in 2001 but has recovered through rehabilitation (Marine Environment Protection Committee 2003, Canary Island Catalogue of Protected Species [2001] 1107 - DECRETO 151/2001, de 23 de julio, por el que se crea el Catálogo de Especies Amenazadas de Canarias).   .  In Spain, this species (listed as C. atringa) is listed as Vulnerable in the National Catalogue of Threatened Species, and protected according to Law 4/1989 (Calado 2006). Further research into this species' taxonomy, population size and structure, and early life history traits is needed.

useAndTrade:
This species is a valuable ornamental species (Calado 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
Chilomycterus spinosus subsp. mauretanicus from the eastern Atlantic, from central Angola to Canary Islands, and Portugal, and the western Mediterranean Sea.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Chilomycterus spinosus is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the waters of the Canary Islands, mainland Portugal, and one record from the Mediterranean Sea. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is widely distributed in the Atlantic ocean. It comprises two subspecies: Chilomycterus spinosus spinosus is known only from the western Atlantic, whilst Chilomycterus spinosus mauretanicus is known from the eastern Atlantic. Within Europe, it is known from the waters of the Canaries (Leis 2006) and mainland Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014), along with one recent record from the Mediterranean Sea off the Andalusian coast (Spain) (Garrido et al. 2014).

habitat:
This species a marine demersal species which occurs mostly over sand and mud bottoms, and feeds on hard-shelled invertebrates such as molluscs (Leis 1981).

useAndTrade:
Sale of this species is banned in some countries due to belief that this species is poisonous, although documented proof is lacking (Fishbase 2014).


taxonomicNotes:
This species has been confused with Diodon hystrix (Brito et al. 2002). This latter species is littoral, with a generally brown colouration and rounded anal and dorsal fins; D. eydouxii is, in contrast, a pelagic species, with back and sides blue and belly white, and pointed anal and dorsal fins (Leis 1978). Given its extremely wide distribution, genetic studies are warranted.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)Diodon eydouxii is an extremely widespread species, which within Europe is known only from the waters of mainland Spain and the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is circumglobally distributed in tropical and subtropical waters except for the eastern Pacific (Leis 2006). In the eastern Atlantic it is known from 20 degrees North to the Equator; within Europe it is reported from the Azores (Azevedo et al. 2004, Carneiro et al. 2014) and Spain (Crespo et al. 1987).

population:
This species appears to be common but not abundant in parts of its range, based on museum collections (NMNH). This species has low catch rate value (%), based on the assessment of fishes caught by gillnet in Vietnamese waters (Vinh 2001). Diodon eydouxii is relatively well represented in collections around the world, with 50 occurrences on record (FishNet2 retrieved 26 March 2014).

habitat:
An epi-pelagic, oceanic, surface, schooling species. The maximum length of this species is 30 cm (Leis 2002). Their diet includes pelagic crustacea, zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae, bony fishes (Leis 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
This species has a very wide distribution and a genetic analysis is warranted.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Diodon hystrix occurs circumglobally in tropical and subtropical regions, but it only rarely visits the Mediterranean from the eastern Atlantic. It is associated with coral and rocky reef, though it has also been pulled from open water. Very little is known about its population in European waters. It is part of the aquarium trade. More understanding is needed about its population trends and stability in European waters, as well as how much (if at all) the subsistence fishing and aquarium fish trade impact the population stability of this species. It is, therefore, assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Diodon hystrix is circumglobal in tropical and subtropical seas, including the Mediterranean. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, D. hystrix is found from approximately 30o N to 23o S (Duron and Quéro 1990), but it is has been reported as far north as the Iberian Peninsula (Ellis 2006). It was first recorded in the Mediterranean in the Gulf of Taranto (Torchio 1963, CIESM ATLAS). Diodon hystrix is associated with depths of between 2 and 50 m (Leis 2001).

population:
Diodon hystrix is absent from museum collections containing specimens collected from European waters (FishNet 2 Portal Accessed July 2013). Very little information is available about its population in European waters, although it is thought to be rare in the Mediterranean.  Globally, this species appears to be common but not necessarily abundant in parts of its range, based on museum collections (Hulley 1984). In most parts of its range, D. hystrix is considered common (Lieske and Myers 1994).

habitat:
Juveniles are pelagic to about 20 cm; larger fish on reefs to at least 50 m. This species is found in rocky and coral reefs (Tyler 1978) as well as lagoons and seaward reefs. It is commonly seen in caves and shallow reef-holes (Smith 1997). Juveniles up to about 20 cm are pelagic while adults are benthic (Sommer et al. 1996). The maximum length of this species is 91 cm total length (TL) (Eschmeyer et al. 1983) Usually solitary, Diodon hystrix is a nocturnal fish feeding on hard-shelled invertebrates (Leis 2002).  Very little is understood about the reproductive habits, spawning period, length at maturity, fecundity or early life history traits for this species.

threats:
There are no major threats for this species, though it could be susceptible to loss of habitat from reef degradation. It is utilized in small/subsistence fisheries, but it is not thought that this level of harvesting is adversely affecting the population. Diodon hystrix is also available for sale on the international aquarium trade, although no measurable decreases in population have occurred as a result.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range. Research into the taxonomy, population size and structure, as well as early life history traits is suggested.

useAndTrade:
Limited European-specific use-and-trade information is available for D. hystrix; however, this species is utilized as a food source in other parts of its range (see below). It is also part of the aquarium trade and was found on www.saltwaterfishshop.com for $32.00.  Diodon hystrix is dried and sold as curios in parts of its range. There are reports that this species is toxic to humans (Halstead et al. 1990); however, this needs to be substantiated. This species is eaten in Hawaii and Tahiti. It seems to be of minor commercial/subsistence importance in many parts of its range (Tyler 1978).   This species is traded at Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. From January 1995 to November 2000, this species has recorded 896 individuals traded, which constitutes about 0.45% of all the marine ornamental fish trade (Monteiro-Neto et al. 2003). A total of 2,050 individuals of this species has been caught in Hawaii from 1967 through 2003. The total estimated value for this catch is $5,794 in the aquarium fish trade (Friedlander 2004).  This species is regularly observed in fish markets in Samporna, Malaysia (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2011).


range:
This species is circumglobally distributed in all tropical through temperate seas. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (Portugal mainland, the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
This species is rarely encountered, and so the biological data have been difficult to obtain for this species (Seitz et al. 2002). Schwartz and Lindquist (1987) surmised that the sharptail mola's basking behaviour is found only in sick and dying fish brought on by heavy parasite loads. The age estimates ranged between >2 and >23 years for females and >1 and >16 years for males (Liu et al. 2009).

threats:
The fish is found in fisheries in parts of its range, however there is no information for use in the European region.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range, however the efficacy of the marine protected areas for conservation of pelagic species remains unknown.

useAndTrade:
The fish is found in fisheries in parts of its range, however there is no information for use in the European region.


taxonomicNotes:
Recent investigations of M. mola mitochondrial sequences showed evidence that the genus Mola contains two species: M. mola and the southern sunfish, M. ramsayi (Bass et al. 2005). Report from Yoshita et al. (2009) concluded that the genus Mola contained three species.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Mola mola is widely distributed throughout European waters from the English channel south to the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean. it is associated with depths of at least 400 m and is most often found on the slopes adjacent to deep water. Mola mola is a relatively long-lived species and is slow to mature. In the English Channel, Ireland and Portugal, M. mola have undergone drastic reduction in abundance. In Ireland, there has been a decline in catch landings of about 100% (13 to 0 metric tonnes) in 2 years (2000 through 2002). There is also a decline in Portugal from 12 metric tonnes in 1999 to about 0 in 2009. In the Mediterranean, Mola mola comprises a significant fraction of the by-catch (upwards of 70+%) of Spanish drift gillnet fisheries, as well as long-lines, mid-water trawls and even harpoons. Currently, there are no specific regulations in place for the Giant Sunfish in the northeastern Atlantic, but Morocco has recently passed a law to phase out driftnet use in the areas where Mola mola are most likely to be taken. The numerical data suggest that there is, indeed, a steep decrease in the Giant Sunfish population in the northeastern Atlatic, but it has yet to be determined how responsible bycatch is for the decrease in population, as well as what stages of maturation the bycatch is and what the mean length of the landed Sunfish is. Therefore, for the European Regional Assessment, Mola mola is assessed as Data Deficient because of the lack of specific bycatch information and how it is affection the population of Giant Sunfish in the region. 

range:
Mola mola is distributed in warm and temperate zones of all oceans, including the eastern Pacific, the western Pacific, the western Atlantic and the eastern Atlantic (Tortonese 1990). In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from Scandinavia to South Africa, as well as the western Baltic Sea, North Sea and Mediterranean Sea, including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988, C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2013). It is associated with depths of up to 400 m (Cartamil and Lowe 2004).

population:
Mola mola comprised between 70 and 93% of the total fish catch in Spanish drift gillnet fisheries within the Mediterranean between 1992 and 1994 (Silvani et al. 1999). In Irish and Celtic Seas, a total of 68 Mola mola were spotted from 2003 through 2005, or an overall density of 0.98 sunfish per 100 km2 (Houghton et al. 2006). Over the course of a six year period that consisted of 1,651 hours of observation, 15 individuals were observed in the Western English Channel (Sims and Southall 2002). In Ireland, there has been a decline in catch landings of about 100% (13 to 0 metric tonnes) in 2 years (2000 through 2002). There is also a decline in Portugal from 12 metric tonnes in 1999 to about 0 in 2009 (FAO 2011). In Morocco, a recent study suggests an annual by-catch of 36,450 ocean sunfish, however most are returned alive (Tudela et al. 2005). There are a very small number of discards in the Greek tuna fisheries (Peristeraki et al. 2008 ICCAT paper). Six ARSA surveys showed 49 specimens, with 39 from one survey.

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Habitat Adult Mola mola are found on slopes adjacent to deep water where they come in for shelter and for seeking cleaner fishes. They are usually shy. However, they may become familiar with divers in some locations (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Individuals often drift at the surface while lying on its side but can swim actively and are capable of directional movements otherwise (Pope et al. 2010).  Ecology Mola mola is a relatively long-lived species. The lifespan or reproductive age of M. mola under natural conditions is unknown, although captive animals have been maintained for more than 8 years (Nakatsubo et al. 2007).  Using these measurements Mola mola longevity has been estimated at 22 years (based on the average of 20 and 23 years old). A growth curve derived from repeated measurements of captive specimens estimated an individual with a total length of 3 m would be about 20 years old (Nakatsubo 2008). Recent work used growth band pairs in vertebrae to age the closely related Sharptail Mola, M. lanceolatus, caught in the eastern Taiwan fishery (Liu et al. 2009). The age estimates ranged between >2 and >23 years for females and >1 and >16 years for males (Liu et al. 2009). Females are larger than males, with all animals larger than 250 cm TL being female (Nakatsubo 2008). Known to have parasites (Pope et al. 2010). Vertical Migrations Mola mola is an active swimmer, capable of highly directional movements and the horizontal movements were independent of the current (Cartamil and Lowe 2004). They swim upright and close to the surface. Mola mola uses its anal and dorsal fins as a pair of wings (Pope et al. 2010). Ocean sunfish stroke their dorsal and anal fins synchronously to generate a lift-based thrust that was likened to the symmetrical beats of penguins (Watanabe and Sato 2008). Cartamil and Lowe (2004) observed a diel pattern in depth utilization, with fish residing in the warmer mixed layer above or within the thermocline at night and repeatedly diving beneath the thermocline into cooler water during the day. Hays et al. (2009) also noted that although individual sunfish showed a range of preferred depth that altered over time, they were still moving up and down the water column and regularly returning to close to the surface. Although its exact function has yet to be resolved, Cartamil and Lowe (2004) proposed that periodic returns to the surface in M. mola may imply some form of behavioral thermo-regulation i.e. prolonged time in cold waters necessitates time spent at the surface to re-warm. This may explain the frequent observations of ocean sunfish observed swimming on their sides at the surface during the day (Cartamil and Lowe 2004). Conversely, Sims et al. (2009) argued that extensive vertical movements may simply reflect a crepuscular searching strategy when prey are descending or ascending, with sunfish attempting to locate maximum prey abundances at this time. It has been also been suggested, more generally, that large amplitude dives or ascents of large pelagic fish and other vertebrates during prey tracking may represent prey searching behaviour (Shepard et al. 2006) characterized by extensive movements to new locations (Sims et al. 2008). Diet Ocean sunfish are obligate or primary feeders on gelatinous zooplankton (Fraser-Brunner 1951, MacGinitie and MacGinitie 1968, Hooper et al. 1973, Bass et al. 2005).  Reproduction Very few studies have been conducted on the reproductive biology of ocean sunfish (Pope et al. 2010). In Japan, the spawning period of M. mola is estimated between August and October and the same study also identified asynchronous egg development, suggesting they are multiple spawners (Nakatsubo et al.2007). A more atypical captive growth rates have been found to be between 0.02 and 0.49 kg/day in weight (M. Howard and T. Nakatsubo pers. comm. in Pope et al. 2010) and on average 0.1 cm/day TL (Nakatsubo and Hirose 2007). Age at first maturity is unknown, but inferred to be between 5 and 7 years. Generation length = 22-6 = 18/2 = 9 years. 9 years *3 = 27 years 3 generation lengths.

threats:
Ocean sunfish populations may be vulnerable to fishing activity because of the high levels of bycatch observed in many fisheries (Silvani et al. 1999, Cartamil and Lowe 2004, Fulling et al. 2007, Petersen and McDonell 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation efforts in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters for M. mola. The Moroccan government passed a law in 2007 to phase out the use of driftnets wherein Mola mola are often caught as bycatch. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range; however, the efficacy of the MPAs for conservation of pelagic species remains unknown (Game et al. 2009). Research into all aspects of this species' population, biology, harvest levels and potential threats is needed for this species.  This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Mola mola is not targeted by European fisheries, but is captured in large numbers as by-catch, mainly in tuna fisheries, in fisheries using long lines, drift gillnets, midwater trawls, and harpoons (in Sicily) in a number of widely distributed fisheries, including those of the Mediterranean (Pope et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
This species has a very wide distribution and genetic analysis is warranted.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Ranzania laevis is distributed along the entirety of the European coast, as well as around the Azores, Canary Islands, and Madeira. Little information is available about its reproductive traits or trends, and it is scarcely present in museum collections from European waters. Species-specific threats for R. laevis are unknown. There are virtually no data concerning the population size or trends of this species in European waters; therefore, Ranzania laevis is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Ranzania laevis is circumglobal in tropical through warm temperate seas (including Mediterranean Sea, Madagascar, Mascarenes, Hawaiian Islands, the Canarys, Azores and Madeira) (Tortonese 1990). In the eastern Atlantic, Ranzania laevis occurs from Scandinavia to Madeira (Whitehead et al. 1986). It is widespread in the Mediterranean, including Libya (Elbaraasi and Elsalini 2010) and Greece (Papaconstantinou 1988). Ranzania laevis is associated with depths of between 1 and 140 m (Mundy 2005).

population:
In Adratic Sea, 35 records of Slender Sunfish were found from 1781 through 2006 (Dulcic et al. 2007).  The species can be found in three museum lots that contain specimen pulled from European waters (Accessed through FishNet 2 Portal 2013 July).

habitat:
It lives either solitarily or in small groups and feeds upon planktonic crustaceans, jellyfish and small fishes (Elbaraasi and Elsalini 2010). The maximum recorded length of this species is 100 cm total length (TL) (Claro 1994). The fecundity, spawning periodicity, stages of maturation and early life history traits are poorly understood with this species.

threats:
There are no known threats for this species as the species is rarely encountered in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation efforts for R. laevis. Its distribution overlaps with a number of marine reserves in parts of its range, however the effectiveness of the MPAs for the conservation of pelagic species remains unknown (Norse et al. 2005). Research into all aspects of this species' population size and trends, biology, ecology and potential threats is suggested.

useAndTrade:
There is no use-and-trade information available for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Aluterus monoceros is not present in large numbers in the northeast Atlantic region and has probably not established a reproducing population yet throughout most of the region. It occurs from Portugal to the northwest coast of Africa, and has been sparsely reported in the Mediterranean. More research is required on its population size and trends. The species is not known to be commercially utilized in Europe, though it is in other parts of its range. There are no known species-specific threats or conservation measures in place for A. monoceros, although there are numerous marine protected areas throughout the region. Due to the lack of regional population information and of reproductive and early life-history elements, Aluterus monoceros is assessed as Data Deficient. However, it is suspected that, given the widespread distribution of A. monoceros, if more population information becomes available, A. monoceros would become Least Concern.

range:
Aluterus monoceros occurs circumtropically, from 45∘N to 35∘S. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Portugal to the northwest coast of Africa (Harmelin-Vivien and Quero 1990). This species is associated with depths ranging from 1 to 50 meters (Harmelin-Vivien and Quero 1990).  Aluterus monoceros was unknown in waters off the coast of northern Portugal and northward before 1950 (Quero et al. 1997). This circumtropical species seems to be extending its geographical range in recent years, as indicated by occasional observations in the north-east Atlantic Ocean, including the Bay of Biscay (Quero et al. 1997), Iberian Peninsula (Galeote et al. 1996), Madeira Island (Freitas and Biscoito 2003), the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002) and the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea (Souissi et al. 2011). In 2000, Guallart and Vincent (2009) recorded an adult male specimen in Morocco, western Mediterranean, suggesting a possible expansion of the fish's range into Mediterranean waters.  It has also been found in Tunisian waters (Souissi et al. 2011).  Only a single, verifiable record of this species has been observed in the Mediterranean as of 2010, thus being given the acclimatization status of "casual", in this sense meaning "those having been recorded only once (no more than twice for fish) in the scientific and grey literature and are presumed to be non-established in the area. In this sense ‘casual’ is used in the same sense as ‘alien’ in the Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Méditerranée (CIESM) Atlas series" (Zenetos et al. 2010).

population:
Limited population information is available as the northeastern Atlantic Ocean is the southern margin of Aluterus monoceros' range. Aluterus monoceros is a "casual" visitor to the Mediterranean, with only two confirmed sightings in the area. This makes it highly unlikely that is any established, reproducing populations of this species in the Mediterranean (Zenetos et al. 2010). Sightings around the Bay of Biscay and the Iberian Peninsula are infrequent (Zenetos et al. 2010), but sightings of A. monoceros around Madeira Island, and the Canary Islands have been increasing in frequency since 2002 (Afonso et al. 2013, Freitas and Biscoito 2002).

habitat:
Aluterus monoceros is a reef-associated fish (Harmelin-Vivien and Quero 1990). Adult individuals of A. monoceros are benthopelagic (Mundy 2005). As juveniles, the species is pelagic and ,often found under floating objects (Bussing and Lavenberg 1995). Juveniles have large jellies attached to them which may help them recruit to corals (Bussing and Lavenberg 1995). Eggs are layed on the benthos (Harmelin-Vivian and Quero 1990). An average adult male is around 40 cm in length, with a recorded upper length limit of 76 cm (Claro 1994). Though adults of  the species are usually seen in solitary or in couples, they sometimes form aggregates of a few individuals, but no greater than five or six individuals. Adults are sometimes known to form large schools under weed-rafts or other large floating masses (Bussing and Lavenberg 1995). Adult individuals are reef-associated and are thought to nest on sand flats in deeper water than the adjacent reefs that the species is associated with (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The diet of A. monoceros consists of benthic microalgae, sponges/seasquirts/bryozoa and soft corals/hydroids (Harmelin-Vivian and Quervo 1990). The spawning season, fecundity, stages of maturation and early life history information for this species is limited.

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to A. monoceros. Aluterus monoceros is a reef-associated fish. Although no documented declined in population have been recorded, it may be experiencing population decline due to loss of habitat. As of 2008, fifteen percent of the world’s coral reefs were considered under imminent threat of being “Effectively Lost” (with 90% of the corals lost and unlikely to recover soon), with regions in East Africa, South and South-east Asia, and the wider Caribbean being the most highly threatened (Wilkinson 2008) 

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation methods in place for A. monoceros. There are numerous marine protected areas in the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madiera and the Mediterranean, although there are no documented cases where A. monoceros has been observed in any of the protected areas (Protectedplanet.net 2010 retrieved 27 March 2014). Research is needed into the population size and trends of this species in the region, as well as the life history, ecology and potential threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Aluterus monoceros is commercially targeted and utilized as a food source in certain areas of its global distribution (specifically southeast Asia); however, because this species is essentially a visitor to the Mediterranean and sparsely identified in European waters, there is no commercial targeting of A. monoceros for use in the northeast Atlantic. Australia is the country with the largest reported landings of leatherjacket filefishes (note: not species-specific) at 667 tonnes in 2012 (FAO 2011, FishStatJ Accessed 2013 June). Research is being done on creating an eco-friendly packaging film using collagen extracted from the skin of A. monoceros which is becoming increasingly desirable to manufacturing companies in Europe (Ahmad et al. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Aluterus scriptus is predominantly a tropical species, occurring as far west as Madeira and as far north as the southernmost coast of Portugal. It is associated with reefs and coastal slopes. Almost no information is available about population size or trends for this species in the region. There are no known threats for A. scriptus and no specific conservation measures in place for this species; although there are numerous marine protected areas throughout its range. Because regional population information is non-definitive, A. scriptus is assessed as Data Deficient. However, it is suspected that, given the widespread distribution of A. scriptus, if more population information becomes available, A. scriptus would become Least Concern.

range:
Aluterus scriptus is distributed circumtropically and subtropically in all oceans, including the eastern and western Pacific and both sides of the Atlantic (Hutchins 1986). In the eastern Atlantic, A. scriptus is known primarily from Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008) and the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985, Brito et al. 2002). It has been found as far north as Portugal (Gasparini and Floeter 2001) and may be present occasionally in the southern Bay of Biscay. It was very recently observed, captured and identified in the Azores, specifically from around Faial (Afonso et al. 2013). It is found at depths ranging from 3 to 120 m, though most commonly from 3 to 20 m (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).

population:
More information is needed on population size and trends for A. scriptus in the northeastern Atlantic. The species is present in two museum lots containing specimens pulled from the European eastern Atlantic (Accessed through FishNet 2 Portal 2013 July). This circumtropical species is rare in the subtropical and temperate northeast Atlantic Ocean but more common in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. It is occasionally recorded from Madeira (Freitas and Biscoito 2003, Wirtz et al. 2008) but is frequent in the westernmost and warmer islands of the Canaries archipelago (Brito et al. 2002). It appears that this species is relatively new to the area (probably due to a range extension north due to climate change) and has probably not substantially established a reproducing population in Madeira.

habitat:
The species is associated with lagoons and seaward reefs (Lieske and Meyers 2004) and seagrass beds (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006). Adults can be seen floating near deep coastal slopes and outer reef drop-offs around 20 meters deep. Juveniles can be found under floating objects, such as weed rafts, in the open ocean. This is true of adults as well, though is less common (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The maximum recorded size of A. scriptus is 110 cm total length (TL) (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is sometimes as shallow as 3 m in depth but can also be found in waters up to 120 m deep (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). Aluterus Scriptus feeds on algae, seagrass, hydrozoans, gorgonians, colonial anemones, and tunicates (Weitkamp and Sullivan 2003).  Length at maturity seems to be poorly understood with A. scriptus. According to Bouhlel (1988) the common length of this species is 55.0 cm TL. In a journal article published in 2010, a female individual was captured at 55.5 cm (TL) and was determined to be a juvenile female (Izzo et al. 2010). Aluterus scriptus produces benthic eggs and pelagic larvae (Breder and Rosen 1966). Fecundity, spawning season, stages of maturation and early life history traits are almost completely unknown for this species.

threats:
There are no know species-specific threats to A. scriptus. Aluterus scriptus is a reef-associated and seagrass-associated species. Although no documented declines in the population have been observed, it may be undergoing population reduction due to habitat loss. As of 2008, fifteen percent of the world’s coral reefs were considered under imminent threat of being “Effectively Lost” (with 90% of the corals lost and unlikely to recover soon), with regions in East Africa, South and South-east Asia, and the wider Caribbean being the most highly threatened (Wilkinson et al. 2008). Of 704 zooxanthellate reef-building coral species which were assessed by using the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List Criteria, 32.8% are in categories with elevated risk of extinction (Carpenter et al. 2008). One-third of global seagrass species are currently experiencing population declines, and 21% of globally assessed seagrass species are in threatened or near-threatened categories primarily due to coastal development and pollution (Short et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. There are a number of marine protected areas (MPAs) near and around the Canary Islands, Azores and Madiera (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). There do not seem to be any documented cases of A. scriptus being observed inside of the MPAs, but it is highly likey that at least some individuals are. Research is needed in the areas of population size and trends, life history and ecology, the harvest and use and potential threats to this species in the region.

useAndTrade:
Aluterus scriptus is not targeted by the commercial fishing industry in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters. The species has been reported to cause ciguatera poisoning when ingested by humans (Halstead et al. 1990). This fish is utilized in the aquarium trade. In Brazil, 458 individuals were sold between 1995 and 2000, comprising 0.23% of the total fishes traded in that market (Monteiro-Neto et al. 2003). Limited information is available for the sale of A. scriptus in the aquarium trade in the Northeast Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as this temperate tropical Atlantic is abundant and fairly common, and well studied. Overfishing could pose a serious threat to the species, and the potential effects of the fishtrap fishery on the species have to be investigated.

range:
This species is distributed in the temperate and tropical Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, it is known from Nova Scotia, Canada south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along South America to Uruguay. In the eastern Atlantic, it is known from the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002), the Azores (Santos et al. 1997) and Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008), along West Africa to Angola including the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome and Principe Islands (Harmelin-Vivien and Quéro 1990, Wirtz et al. 2007, Wirtz et al. 2013). It is present at depths ranging from zero to 293 m, although in the Canary Islands it has been found between three and 180 m depth.

population:
This species is considered common and populations are abundant. However, its population trend is unknown.

habitat:
The species is found on sandy or muddy bottoms, associated with Sargassum. In the Canary Islands, it inhabits shallow-water bottoms, including seagrass meadows and reefs. Although it can be found down to 293 m, it is more commonly found in shallower waters.  Adults feed on benthic invertebrates, and studies on the sexuality, reproduction and age-and-growth in the Canaries have been done. Its maximum size is 27.5 cm TL and it attains 240 g. Besides, the size at maturity in the Canary Islands have been identified at 14.9 cm TL for females and at 13.9 cm TL for males. Its spawning season is from May to October, with a peak in September-October and a sex-ratio of 1:1 in the Canary Islands (González et al. 2012). The species is usually observed single or in groups of four to five fish swimming near the bottom in the Canary Islands (González et al. 2004).

threats:
This is a target species of the Canaries small-scale fisheries with hook-and-line, fish-traps and trammel nets around all islands of the archipelago, mainly in the easternmost ones (Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote). Overfishing mainly due to bottom fish-traps could be a serious threat in the Canary Islands (González et al. 2004, González et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, and it is unknown whether it is found in protected areas. Also, no minimum legal size has been established by the regulatory bodies (González et al. 2012). Further research is needed on the trend and the impacts of fishtrap fisheries on the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is much appreciated by consumers in the Canary Islands.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Within Europe, Acanthostracion notacanthus is known only from the Azores, and from a probable vagrant record from the western Mediterranean Sea. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Acanthostracion notacanthus occurs in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014, Santos et al. 1997), the St. Helena and Ascension islands, Ghana, Angola, and Sao Tome Island (Afonso et al. 1999) and the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). Within Europe, it is restricted to the Azores and a single record from the western Mediterranean Sea.

population:
Acanthostracion notacanthus is uncommon in museum records (Fishbase 2011).

habitat:
Acanthostracion notacanthus is found over rocks, rubble and sand (Edwards 1990), mainly around islands (Duron and Quero 1990). It has also been recorded on shallow reef substrate (Santos et al. 1999).

threats:
Acanthostracion notacanthus is taken in Portuguese waters and considered to have high commercial value for the ornamental fish trade (Calado 2006), but the level of threat from this use in not known.

conservationAction:
There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for Acanthostracion notacanthus, but its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
The commercial value of Acanthostracion notacanthus specimens extracted from Portuguese waters has been estimated at 15-30 euros per individual for the marine ornamental fish trade (Calado 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
The genus Canthigaster is hypothesized to undergo fast morphological/colour differentiation and slow mtDNA evolution (Randall et al. 2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment:  Least Concern (LC) Canthigaster capistrata is distributed in the eastern central Atlantic, where it is know from oceanic islands including the Canarian Archipelago, Madeira, and in the Straight of Gibraltar. The species can be locally abundant in some areas of its range and fairly common at these islands. It is associated with rocky reef habitats, as well as artificial structures, at depths ranging from 0 to 20 meters. Canthigaster capistrata has been noted as a possible species of exploitation for the aquarium trade, though no significant decline in population from such harvesting has been noted. There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species; however, there are also no known species-specific threats. Therefore, C. capistrata is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Canthigaster capistrata is found in the waters of the eastern central Atlantic, specifically from the oceanic islands including the Canarian Archipelago in Macaronesia (Clemente et al. 2010), Cape Verde (Brito et al. 2007), and Madiera (Ribeiro 2008). This species has been reported in the Straight of Gibraltar (Galeote 2001). Canthigaster capistrata may be extending its range northward due to warming ocean temperature (Wirtz 2005). It is associated with depths ranging from 0 to 20 m.

population:
Canthigaster capistrata is an abundant echinoderm predator studied in the macroalgal beds of the subtropical Canarian Archipelago, as well as in other areas of Macaronesia (Clemente et al. 2010). In the waters off Madeira Island, this species was among the 10 most abundant species sampled over rocky reefs. It was recorded common and abundant in the locations studied along the south coast of Madeira Island (both protected and non-protected) and did not show significant differences in any size categories within locations in all types of bottom studied (Ribeiro 2008). In trawls of the Canarian Archipelago, C. capistrata was found to have a frequency of occurrence of 2.38% (Espino et al. 2011). 

habitat:
Canthigaster capistrata is a bentho-demersal meso-carnivore, usually found as solitary individuals. It is associated with rocky reefs consisting of boulders, vertical walls, platform and outcroppings which are often colonized by various algae, and can also be found associated with artificial reefs. Canthigaster capistrata has been known to colonize sea-cage fish farms after the cessation of fish farming (Tuya et al. 2006). The largest individual on record measures 10 cm in total length (TL) (Moura and Castro 2002).  This species frequently preys on Diadema aff. antillarum and other echinoderms and is important in regulating the populations of herbivorous urchins in sublittoral rocky reefs (Clemente et al. 2010). There is limited information on the spawning or social structure of C. capistrata available. However, spawning, sexual dimorphism, and social structure have been observed in the field in other species of Canthigaster. In all species for which spawning has been described, males are larger than females and defend territories that include multiple females. Spawning occurs during the day and involves the preparation of an algal nest on the substratum by the females into which eggs are deposited and fertilized by the male, and spawning occurs in multiple bouts, with no parental care after the last bout. This is consistent with field observations of spawning, social organization, and sexual dimorphism in other Canthigaster species (Gladstone 1987, Sikkel 1990, Sikkel and Sikkel 2012).Canthigaster spp. are known for their general lack of characters, and are generally differentiated on the basis of color differences. Tetraodontids are characterized by a tough, scaleless skin often covered with small spicules, beak-like dental place divided by a median suture, a slit-like gill opening anterior to the base of the pectoral fin, no pelvic fins, no fin spines, a single short dorsal fin, a single shore anal fin, and no ribs. They are capable of inflating their abdomens with water when frightened or injured, are and are capable of producing and accumulating toxins in the skin, gonads, or liver. The degree of toxicity varies by species, and also according to geographic area and season (Allen and Randall 1977, Allen and Erdmann 2012).

threats:
There are no major threats known for C. capistrata.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for C. capistrata; however, its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas. Research into the population size and trends, as well as the ecology and early life history of this species is needed. 

useAndTrade:
This species has been identified as a potential aquarium species from Portuguese waters (Calado 2006), but it is not thought to greatly contribute to the aquarium trade in European waters, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is not otherwise utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Ephippion guttifer is known from the eastern Atlantic, along the western fringes of the Mediterranean, southward along the coast of Africa, at depths ranging from 10 to 100 meters. Ephippion guttifer is a marine-estuarine species that inhabits a variety of habitats, including both hard and muddy bottoms, as well as estuaries, lagoons and coral reefs. Ephippion guttifer has been reported as being common in shallow coastal waters and estuaries in many parts of its range, but there is no available information on population size and trends in the assessment zone. It is taken coincidentally in hook-and-line fisheries, but there have been no confirmed population declines in E. guttifer to date. However, given the limited records from the assessment zone, E. guttifer is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Ephippion guttifer is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is known from the most western portion of the Mediterranean, in Gibraltar (Shipp 1990) and southward along the western coast of Africa to near Benguela (Shipp 1990). There is one record from the Bay of Biscay (Tortonese 1986). This species is associated with depths of between 10 and 100 m (Tortonese 1986).

population:
Limited information is available on the population size and trends of E. guttifer in the northeastern Atlantic, as it is known from only limited records. Schneider (1990) lists this species as common throughout most of its range, especially in shallow, coastal waters and in estuaries.

habitat:
Ephippion guttifer is a demersal, marine-estuarine species that is common in shallow coastal waters, also in estuaries (Schneider 1990), bays and lagoons, as well as in offshore trawling stations. It is associated with a variety of habitats including hard substrates (Maigret and Ly 1986). The largest individual measures at 80 cm total length (TL) (Cousseau 1993). Ephippion guttifer feeds on crabs, echinoids and mollusks (Tortonese 1986).  Ephippion guttifer is characterized by two periods of spawning: the first and most important one takes place during the hot and rainy season (July to October) while the second period occurs during the dry and cold season (December to January) after a slight recovery of maturation in November. Testicular activity also presents 2 periods of activities coinciding exactly with those 2 periods of female egg-laying. The sex ratio is favorable to males. First sexual maturity is reached at 24.5 cm for males and at 27.5 cm for the female (Fall et al. 2013).  Tetraodontids are capable of inflating their abdomens with water when frightened or injured, and are capable of producing toxins in the skin, gonads, or liver (Allen and Randall 1977). Fishes in the family Tetraodontidae have the smallest vertebrate genomes known to date (Neafsey and Palumbi 2003).

threats:
Ephippion guttifer is taken coincidentally by hook-and-line. There have not been any documented declines in the population of E. guttifer as a result of fishing pressure; however, given the limited records of E. guttifer in the assessment zone, the impact is unknown. There are no other known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for E. guttifer; however, its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas. Ephippion guttifer was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Adbul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Further research is needed in the population size and trends, as well as the early life history of this species.Ephippion guttifer was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Ephippion guttifer is sometimes incidentally caught on hook-and-line, however it is generally not consumed, due to its toxicity.


taxonomicNotes:
The western Pacific/Indo-Pacific populations of this species were previously considered a subspecies Lagocephalus lagocephalus oceanicus, while those in the Atlantic were previously considered the subspecies Lagocephalus lagocephalus lagocephalus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Lagocephalus lagocephalus is circumglobally distributed in tropical to subtropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is distributed from the the coast of Ireland south to the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea and the Azores. Almost no information is available regarding its population size and trends; however, it is known to be rare but widespread in the whole Mediterranean and common in some parts of its northeastern Atlantic range. There are no known species-specific threats to L. lagocephalus, but this species is of commercial importance to the fisheries industry as a gamefish. However, it is not to be consumed by humans due to its toxicity.  It is not known to face any major threats at this time and there are several marine protected areas within its distribution. Therefore, Lagocephalus lagocephalusis listed as Least Concern

range:
Lagocephalus lagocephalus has a circumglobal distribution in tropical and subtropical waters in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans (Schneider 1990). It is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Canada (Newfoundland) to Brazil (Figueiredo and Menezes 2000). In the eastern Atlantic it is found from Scotland to the northwestern coast of Africa, including off the coast of northwestern Spain (Banon et al. 2010), the Azores and the Canary Islands. It also occurs from Mariana (Myers and Donaldson 2003),  Orkney Island and the Azores (Wirtz et al. 2013) to South Africa, but it is rare in northern Africa. Lagocephalus lagocephalus is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (Tortonese 1986), though rarer in the eastern region, with only one record from the Adriatic Sea and absent from Israel and Maramara and Black seas. . It has a wide range in the Mediterranean Sea, but it is rare in the east part of the basin. It has never been collected in Israel (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007). It is not present in the Marmara Sea. And there is only one report from the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Pallaoro 2006). Increased reports of the presence of Lagocephalus lagocephalus along the coast of Calabria from 2007 to 2012 shows it is expanding its known distribution to the Central Mediterranean Sea (Nicolaidou et al. 2012). It is associated with depths of 10 to 1,000 m (Shipp 2002). There is no information on the depth range at which this species is found in the Mediterranean Sea, but all current reported catches are from surface waters (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).

population:
The species is not abundant but present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, though there is no information on population trends throughout the Mediterranean and its greater European distribution (Dulcic and Pallaoro 2006). Lagocephalus lagocephalus is well represented in collections worldwide, having 133 occurrences (Accessed through the Fishnet2 portal 2014 March). In the Mediterranean, L. lagocephalus is relatively uncommon, but becomes more common towards the western portion of the Sea (Nicolaidou et al. 2012). Off the coast of southern Spain, mid-water scavenging of trawl discards revealed that L. lagocephalus is not uncommon in that portion of the northeastern Atlantic, but that it is not common or abundant, either (Erzini et al. 2003).

habitat:
Lagocephalus lagocephalus is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous species that occurs in subtropical waters between depths of 10 and 476 m, but is usually found between 10 and 100 m (Palomares et al. 1989, Riede 2004).  It is primarily oceanic, but may occasionally enter estuaries (Eschmeyer et al. 1983, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Schneider 1990). The maximum total length for this species is 61.0 cm or 610 mm male/unsexed (Eschmeyer et al. 1983); the maximum published weight is 3.2 kg (IGFA 2001). Lagocephalus lagocephalus species feeds on crustaceans and squids (Tortonese 1986). The point of maturation, spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species. 

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats for this species. Lagocephalus lagocephalus is of commercial importance to the fisheries industry as a gamefish (Froese and Pauly 2011).  It is also often taken as bycatch in the shrimping industry. There is limited population information available for L. lagocephalus. However, the fishing efforts and gamefishing landings of this species do not seem to be adversely affecting the status of the population at this time.

conservationAction:
There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for Lagocephalus lagocephalus.  There are several marine protected areas within its wide distribution.Lagocephalus lagocephalus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for this species in European waters. Lagocephalus lagocephalus is of commercial importance, as well as in the sporting and gamefish industry (Froese and Pauly 2011). Interestingly, there is an account for the Oceanic Puffer in the FAO 2011 FishstatJ landing reports, but there are no entries or data in the account. This species is suspected of numerous, fatal poisonings from ingestion (Smith and Heemstra 1986) and is encouraged to not be eaten. No information is available for landings of L. lagocephalus in the gamefishing industry, either.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Sphoeroides marmoratus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is widely distributed from Portugal south to Angola. Its range also includes the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira. Over the last thirty years, this range has expanded to include parts of the western Mediterranean. It is known to be locally abundant in parts of its range, and is caught frequently in the Azores. Sphoeroides marmoratus is utilized in some local subsistence fisheries, but not to the the extent of posing a threat to the population stability of the species. There are no other known widespread threats for S. marmoratus. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but there are numerous marine protected areas that intersect with its range. Therefore, Sphoeroides marmoratus as Least Concern.

range:
Sphoeroides marmoratus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from off Portugal southwards to Angola, including Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands (Shipp 1990). It has colonized the Mediterranean Sea within the last 30 years along the Spanish coast (Galeote et al. 1996, Reina-Hervàs et al. 2004, Mendiola 2005) and expanded it presence to the Gulf of Tarano (Vacchi et al. 2007). This species is associated with depths up to 100 m (Reiner 1996).

population:
Sphoeroides marmoratus was found to be common and abundant on rocky inshore reefs of the Azores (Ribeiro 2008). In one study of two islands in the Azores, this species had a mean density of 0.036 individuals/m2 (Bertoncini et al. 2010). Another study performed in the Azores collected its specimens in three hour intervals over the course of two days, and this was repeated once a month for three months. In August, 11 specimens of S. marmoratus were caught, in September one specimen was caught, and in October 17 specimens were caught (Nash et al. 1994).  The species is present in nine museum lots, containing specimens collected from European waters (Accessed through FishNet 2 Portal July 2013). It is rare in on the Portuguese coast and in the Mediterranean (Vacchi et al. 2007).

habitat:
Sphoeroides marmoratus is associated with rocky reefs at depths of up to 100 meters (Schneider 1990, Reiner 1996) and found in estuarine areas of Portugal. The maximum length of the species is 20 cm total length (TL) (Shipp 1990). The ecology of this species is not well understood, specifically in diet, spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history traits.

threats:
There are no major threats known to this species. It is sometimes taken and used in small, subsistence fisheries (Shipp 1990), but it is not thought that this utilization is adversely affecting the population structure or stability at this time.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for S. marmoratus.  This species wide range overlaps several marine protected areas. Research into all areas of the population size and trends, ecology, biology and potential threats of this species is suggested.

useAndTrade:
It is sometimes taken and used in small, subsistence fisheries (Shipp 1990), but it is not thought that this utilization is adversely affecting the population structure or stability at this time.


taxonomicNotes:
The genus Sphoeroides was found to be paraphyletic, and is in need of revision (Amaral et al. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Sphoeroides pachygaster is circumglobal in tropical to subtropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from Irish waters south along the European coast to the waters of Morocco, as well in the Mediterranean. It can be found at depths up to nearly 500 meters. It has been noted as abundant in the eastern Atlantic, and it is associated with a variety of habitats. The species is occasionally taken as by-catch in long-line and mid-water trawl fishing industries; however, its range has expanded over the last decade to include more of the Mediterranean and there have been no reported population declines. There are no specific  conservation measures in place for this species, but its range intersects with numerous marine protected areas. Therefore,  Sphoeroides pachygaster is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Sphoeroides pachygaster is circumglobal in tropical and temperate seas, and is the most wide-ranging species in the genus Sphoeroides.  In the western Atlantic, S. pachygaster has been reported from New England to southern Brazil (Golani et al. 2002). It has also been reported south of the Strait of Gibraltar, from off Morocco, Senegal (Séret and Opic 1981) to the Gulf of Guinea (Shipp 1990), and southward probably to South Africa (Smith and Heemstra 1986). The species is also reported from the Indian Ocean (Golani et al. 2002) and the Pacific (Hardy 1981), including the East China Sea and Taiwan (Su and Li 2002). In the eastern Atlantic, the species was recorded from Irish waters (Wheeler and Van Oijen 1985), the Bay of Biscay (Quéro et al. 2003) as well as off Portugal (Albuquerque 1954–1956). It has also been reported south of the Strait of Gibraltar, in Moroccan waters (Séret and Opic 1981). Sphoeroides pachygaster was first reported from the Mediterranean in the mid 1980s and has since become established (Turkey; Eryilmaz et al. 2003, Greece; Corsini-Foka and Economidis 2007, Cherif et al. 2010). It is in all of the Hellenic Seas besides the Ionian Sea. This species is associated with depths of between 50 and 480 m (Matsuura and Tyler 1997).

population:
Sphoeroides pachygaster is common in the eastern Atlantic (Séret and Opic 1991, Shipp 1990). It has recently increased in abundance in the Aegean Sea (Corsini-Foka and Economidis 2007), possibly due to the increase in sea temperature (C. Papacontantinou pers. comm. 2013).  Although this species is widely distributed, analysis of the CO1 DNA barcoding genes of individuals from the North Atlantic and Australasia reveal a population that is genetically homogeneous (Ward et al. 2008).

habitat:
Sphoeroides pachygaster is a relatively deepwater species which can be found in a variety of habitats, including over the continental shelf and in submarine canyons (Vetter et al. 2010). Sphoeroides pachygaster was first reported in the Mediterranean in the mid 1990s, where it has since become established (Cherif et al. 2010). This species spends most of its juvenile life in the pelagic water column, but, as an adult is known to settle over sandy, muddy, and rocky bottoms. The maximum recorded length for this specie is 40.5 cm standard length (SL) (Ragonese et al. 1997). It feeds primarily on squid (Schneider 1990).   Sphoeroides pachygaster is an oviparous species with wide spawning period (CIESM Atlas). There is very little additional information concerning reproduction and life-history of this species.  Tetraodontids are capable of inflating their abdomens with water when frightened or injured, and are capable of producing toxins in the skin, gonads, or liver (Allen and Randall 1977).  Fishes in the family Tetraodontidae have the smallest vertebrate genomes known to date (Neafsey and Palumbi 2003).

threats:
There are no major threats known to this species, although it is occasionally taken as by-catch in long-line and trap fisheries (Moffitt et al. 2006), as well as in mid water trawls (Hardy pers. comm. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. pachygaster. There are numerous marine protected areas that intersect with its range. This species appears on a list of the 100 worst Mediterranean invasive species for its effects on biodiversity, fisheries and aquaculture, and human heath (Streftaris and Zenetos 2006). Research into all aspects of the population, ecology, biology and potential threats to this species is suggested.

useAndTrade:
This species is occasionally taken as by-catch in mid water trawls (Hardy pers. comm. 2011). It is not economically important in the Mediterranean, and is discarded when caught (Golani et al. 2002). Sphoeroides pachygaster is also occasionally taken as by-catch in long-line and trap fisheries (Moffitt et al. 2006).  Sphoeroides pachygaster contains high concentrations of TTX in its flesh and its consumption causes many cases of deadly poisoning in in Egypt and Israel (IUCN Invasive Species Report 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information available on the population size, trends, habitats and threats to the species. Only a few specimens are known to be present at northeast Atlantic waters, and some of them have been captured by fishing gears. Captures are uncommon and the species is rare, so there is lack on information. Further research is needed in order to establish the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
In European waters, the species has been observed or captured from Iceland, off Ireland (only from one recently unpublished record) and Scotland, north and southwest Bay of Biscay, southern Portugal, Azores Islands, Gorringe Bank, Great Meteor Tablemount, Canary Islands and Sahara Seamounts (Astthorsson and Palsson 2006, Aguilar et al. 2010, Barreiros et al. 2011, Fishbase 2011, Carvalho-Filho et al. 2012, Oceana 2014). Being a tropical species, the finding of specimens in the northeastern Atlantic waters suggests that the species is expanding its distribution range in the context of climate change (Barreiros et al. 2011). The species' depth lower limit is 1,027 metres, and its depth upper limit is 205 metres below sea level. It is found through all of the world's oceans.

population:
Grammicolepis brachiusculus can be considered a rare species (Karrer and Heemstra 1986). The trend of the species is unknown.

habitat:
Grammicolepis brachiusculus is a bathypelagic species, and it has been recorded or captured at depths between 205 to 1,026 metres, although it is usually found between 500 and 700 metres (Fishbase 2011). In the Canary Islands, the species has been recorded both in rocky bottoms (with more or less sedimentation) and soft bottoms (Aguilar et al. 2010). As the species has been mostly caught by fishing gears (commercial or experimental), there is a lack of information on the habitat preferences for this species. The expansion of its distribution to northeast Atlantic waters indicates that the species is more pelagic than it was previously believed and, in consequence, it is a good indicator of climate change (Barreiros et al. 2011)

threats:
Only a few specimens are known to be present at northeast Atlantic waters, and some of them have been captured by fishing gears. Captures are uncommon, but the species is uncommon too in northeast Atlantic waters, so there is not enough information to evaluate the status of the species. It is likely that the species can be threatened outside of the northeast Atlantic through by-catch, but no data are available.The species is caught by commercial and experimental fisheries.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species and, while its distribution does not overlap with any protected areas throughout its range, it is present into a projected Portuguese marine protected area, the Gorringe Bank. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, habitats and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
The species has been reported to be captured by different gears in northeast Atlantic waters, mainly by bottom trawl (Bay of Biscay, Great Meteor and West Scotland), but also through bottom line (Canary Islands) and drift gillnet (Southern Portugal) (Barreiros et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Neocyttus helgae is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, and can be common throughout parts of its range. Little is known about its habitats and ecology. There are no known major threats. Therefore, N. helgae is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Neocyttus helgae is distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean, from off of Ireland to Madeira (Karrer 1986), including Spain (Bañon et al. 2010). It has also been reported in Iceland (Jonsson 1992), and in the western North Atlantic Ocean (Moore et al. 2008). It is considered a benthopelagic species that occurs from 900 to 1700 m depth along the outer continental shelf and insular slope (Biscoito and Saldanha 1997, Moore et al. 2008).

population:
Neocyttus helgae is relatively common around seamounts off Ireland (Soffker et al. 2011).

habitat:
The maximum reported size of this species is 30.5 cm total length (Glukhov and Kuzmichev 1984). Neocyttus helgae were observed to use both Paragorgia sp. coral and depressions in the basalt pavements as shelter (Auster et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation actions in place.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information available on the population size, trends and threats and very few records are known for European waters. Research should be conducted in order to determine the status of this species, as it inhabits bottoms which may be affected by trawling activities in the northwest Atlantic Ocean.

range:
The species is widely distributed throughout the tropical waters of the world. In the eastern Atlantic, the species is present from the Ireland to the South African coast (Quigley and Flannery 1995). Prior to 1968, when the species was recorded for the first time off northwest Spain (Quéro 1970), the species was unknown from northwest European waters. However, since then the species appears to have been gradually extending its range northwards via northwest Spain (1968–76), into northwest French, southwest Irish and southwest UK waters (1987–95) (Quigley and Flannery 1995, Quéro et al. 1996, Quigley 2004). It is also known from seamounts and knolls (Stocks 2009), such as the Great Meteor Tablemount and Plateau Seamount (Fishbase 2011), Echo Seamount (Aguilar et al. 2010) and Gorringe Seamount (unpublished data, Oceana pers. comm. 2014). The species is present in some locations in the Canary Islands bottoms, at depths between 300 and 600 metres (Aguilar et al. 2010). One individual has been recorded in the Portuguese shelf at -361 m (unpublished data, Oceana pers. comm. 2014), and the species has also been recorded in Galician waters since 1968, including five individuals captured in the Galician shelf at a depth between 635 and 962 metres (Bañón et al. 1997) and one specimen in the Bay of Biscay (Quéro et al. 2005). Overall, the species can be found between 150 and 730 metres depth (Fishbase 2011).  ICES records the species at South Portuguese shelf, Bay of Biscay and SW British Islands shelf.

population:
There is no information available for the population size and trend of this species, and while it is widespread throughout tropical waters, there is a lack of knowledge about its status in European waters.

habitat:
This is a bathypelagic species which occurs on the continental slope, whose depth range is from 150 to 730 metres, although it is usually found between 330 and 690 metres depth (Fishbase 2011) and a few specimens were captured in Portuguese waters in a range of 635 to 962 m depth (Bañón et al. 1997). It forms schools and it feeds on other fishes and swimming decapod crustaceans (Fishbase 2011). Cyttopsis rosea is considered a tropical character species (Bañón et al. 1997).

threats:
Cyttopsis rosea may potentially be caught by trawlers. The species is being affected by climate change, as a shift to northern waters has been demonstrated and is consistent (ICES 2008).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. However, it is very likely that its distribution overlaps with protected areas throughout its range. Besides, the species is present in Gorringe Seamount, an area to be protected by the Portuguese Government under the OSPAR Convention. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends and threats to the species, since it could be present in trawling areas. There is a need to determine if the species is being caught by trawlers, and if this activity is affecting its population.

useAndTrade:
In European waters, the species may be caught by trawlers, but there are no data are available to support this.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size and trends of the species. The species could be affected by trawl fisheries, as there are some fishing records in Europe for the specie; it is not uncommon at some Portuguese markets and it is known that the species is discarded by trawling activities in the south coast of Portugal. Research is needed to establish the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
The species has a continuous distribution in the eastern Atlantic, being present from the west coast of Ireland, where it is uncommon, to South Africa. Maurin and Quero (1982) state that it is most abundant at 20°N (northwest Africa). A similar pattern of abundance occurs in the western Atlantic, where it is uncommon in Nova Scotia, Canada, becoming more frequent south to North Carolina. It has been recorded from the Indian Ocean, but not from the Pacific (Swaby and Potts 1999).There are records in the Mediterranean Sea from the Gulf of Valencia. Despite these records and the fact that the species could find environmentally favorable conditions for reproduction in the western Mediterranean, according to CIESM criteria (Golani et al. 2002) there is no evidence of a self–sustaining population, so this species should remain considered as alien in the Mediterranean (Fernandez et al. 2012).   The origin of European specimens of the Sailfin Dory is unknown, but as this fish is neither migratory nor a good swimmer, its movements are most likely to correspond with prevailing currents. Quigley and Flannery (1995) suggested that they probably originate from southeastern Atlantic stocks, rather than from across the Atlantic. It has been recently recorded in northwestern European waters (Quigley and Flannery 1995, Quigley and Flannery 1997, Quigley et al. 2004, Quigley 2005, Wheeler et al. 2004), but there is no evidence of resident or established self-sustaining populations there. It is noted the northern extension of tropical fish's distribution  as this species to the Bay of  Biscay as a result of a sea water temperature rise (Quero 1998).A depth range from 100 to 500 m deep has been specified for the species in Quero (1998), and its lower limit is 600 m, while its upper limit is 50 metres.

habitat:
The species is known from seamounts. At the Great Meteor seamount, the species forms part of the bentho-pelagic fish community, where selection of pray was revealed to occur to its plateau margins (Fock et al. 2002)As for its feeding preferences, it switches between nocturnal predation on pelagic and mesopelagic fishes (48.3% RI), and diurnal predation on Macroramphosus species (38.4% RI) (Fock et al. 2002). Several Myctophid genera were found in stomachs of Zenopsisconchifer, such as Lampanyctus, Lepidophanes, Diaphus and Ceratoscopelus (Fock et al. 2002).    Even to some degree for Zenopsisconchifer, a crustacean diet was found (Haimovici et al. 1994). The species is apparently able to substitute crustacean prey by cephalopods and by fish diet. This accentuates the capability of the fish species to adapt to the prevailing conditions with regard to presumed prey availability (Fock et al. 2002).

threats:
Significant discard of Z. conchifer, representing 5% of total discards at a coastal trawl fishery, is described from the southern coast of Portugal (Anonymous 1997).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population trends and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
There are fishing records in Europe for this species. It is not uncommon in the fish market at Ponta Delgada (Azores). Over the last two decades, there has been a significant increase in landings from Portuguese waters. However, it is likely that at least some of these landings may have occurred in the Azores in addition to those reported from the southern Atlantic coast of mainland Portugal. It is not commercially targeted in Ireland, and only small numbers are landed as by-catch which are generally not distinguished from the more common John Dory (Zeus faber).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Zeus faber has a worldwide distribution and is abundant in some areas of its range. In the Northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Norway to Madeira, including the Mediterranean and Black seas. Zeus faber feeds on a variety of prey items and occurs near bottom and midwater habitats. This species is important commercially and recreationally. It is used in commercial fisheries for human consumption, fish meal, and oil and as gamefish also has value in the aquarium trade. However, there are no species specific conservation efforts in place. Although this species is relatively common and has large geographic range, fishing regulations should be implemented for this species in the regions where this species is commercially important. It is unknown if there is immigration and emigration from outside the eastern North Atlantic that might affect the population. However, there are no known threats to those populations either. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Zeus faber occurs throughout the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Norway to Madeira, including the Mediterranean and Black seas (Quero 1986).  The depth range for this species is 5–400 m depth (May and Maxwell 1986).  Outside the region, this species occurs in the Indo-West Pacific region from South Africa to Kenya, Australia, New Zealand and Japan (Heemstra FAO ECA in prep) and to South Africa in the eastern Atlantic (Quero 1986).

population:
The area of high abundance of Z. faber are to the south and west of the British Isles (Dunn 2001). It has become increasingly abundant from the Bay of Biscay to around the British Isles from 2005–2011 (P. Fernandes pers. comm. 2014), reflected in surveys from Northern Spain (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014). This species has also been reported to be relatively abundant off Madeira (Fisheries and Aquaculture Department 2012). A study conducted in the North Aegean Sea, revealed a female to male sex ratio of 1.6:1 (Ismen et al. 2013).

habitat:
Zeus faber is a solitary species and occurs mainly close to the bottom from shallow waters down to 400 m depth. It feeds primarily on schooling fish but also cephalopods and crustaceans. It reaches maturity at an age of four years and length of 29–35 cm. Maximum reported length is 90 cm, maximum reported age 12 years (Maigret and Ly 1986, Karrer and Post 1990). In the Mediterranean, Z. faber abundance decreased with depth and increased with increasing temperature; abundance was greatest in shallow warmer waters (Maravelias et al. 2007). In the English Channel, the mean length of first maturity was estimated at 26 cm in males and 34.5 cm in females (Dunn 2001). Females in the North Aegean Sea ranged from 13.8–52.8 cm while males ranged from 12.2–42.9 cm. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 53.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 31.1 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). The maximum age recorded was 18 years and the length at first maturity for both males and females was 25.4 cm (Ismen et al. 2013). Zeus faber appears to spawn during the summer months and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Russell 1976).

threats:
Zeus faber is used in commercial fisheries as food, oil, and fish meal. Zeus faber is a recreational species and also has value in the aquarium trade. However, major threats to this species are unknown. 

conservationAction:
Zeus faber has undergone IUCN Red List Assessment in the Baltic Sea region. It was assessed as N/A in the region, because it does not occur regularly, and there is no known reproduction. This species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Zeus faber was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Regional workshop in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Zeus faber is a commercially important species (Ismen et al. 2013). The landings of Zeus faber in the England and Wales fishery have shown a general increase since 1980, although landings in the years 1985–1986, 1991 and 1997 were particularly low, and in 1994–1995 were particularly high with majority of them landed from the western English Channel. Landings from the Western Approaches and Celtic Sea have increased since 1993 and there have been relatively few landings of Z. faber from the eastern Channel, North Sea, Irish Sea, and areas to the west and north of Ireland. The unit value and importance of Z. faber have increased significantly since the 1980s. Landings from 1994 to 1995 were approximately 125 t yr-1 with the largest landings made between May and November. Zeus faber were usually considered a valuable bycatch by some vessels, although some seasonal targeting has also been observed (Dunn 2001). In the Mediterranean this species is caught by bottom trawl, trammel nets and long lines, although, the catch contribution in number if very small (Ismen et al. 2013)


taxonomicNotes:
The characters thought to differentiate Zenion longipinnis from Z. hololepis are erroneous. The course of the lateral line is the same for both species. The isthmus of Z. hololepis is completely scaly, but scales were missing on the holotype from abrasion in the trawl. The membrane joining the pelvic-fin spine to the rays is fragile and easily torn in trawl-caught specimens (FAO ECA Guide Heemstra in prep.).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is only known from a single recent record in Portuguese continental waters. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is only known from a single recent record in Portuguese continental waters (Martins et al. 2012, Carneiro et al. 2014). This is the northernmost occurrence in the Eastern Atlantic. Globally, this species has also been reported from the Indo-West Pacific region including the South China Sea. It also occurs from Tanzania and off Delagoa Bay, Mozambique, western central Pacific and Nazca and Sala-y-Gomez in the southeast Pacific (Heemstra 1999, Claro 1994, Yang et al. 1996).  It has a depth range of 300-600 m.

population:
There are 784 occurrence records and 346 museum records for this species (Froese and Pauly 2012, Fishnet 2 Portal 2012).

habitat:
The maximum size reported for Zenion hololepis is 16 cm. It occurs from 300-600 m over a variety of habitats including mud or sandy mud bottoms (Sanches 1991). Information about the biology of this species is limited. This species likely forms aggregations (Iwamoto pers. comm. 2013).

threats:
There are no known threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for Zenion hololepis.

useAndTrade:
Zenion hololepis are usually caught near the bottom with trawls but because of their small size, they are of no commercial interest.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Bignose Shark (Carcharhinus altimus) is a deepwater, diurnally migrating (12–430 m) whaler shark, which likely has a circumglobal distribution on the continental shelf edge in tropical and warm seas, although records are patchy. There are no target fisheries for this species, although it is taken as bycatch in deep set pelagic longlines including tuna longline fisheries, and occasionally in bottom trawls. Reported catches are small, but shark bycatch in longline fisheries is not reported fully throughout the range of this species and therefore cannot be used to assess fishing mortality or population trends. Bignose Shark is assessed as Data Deficient in European waters due to a lack of data on distribution and population trends. However, given that this shark may have sensitive life history characteristics, and that there is evidence for declines in some regions and high fishing pressure in large parts of its range, its status is of concern and understanding its population and harvest trends should be a priority. 

range:
This species is circumglobal and highly migratory, but is patchily recorded in tropical and warm seas (Kohler et al. 1998, Ebert and Stehmann 2013). It has been reported in the Eastern Central Atlantic off the coast of Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Ghana (Serena 2005, Ebert and Stehmann 2013). It is also found in the Mediterranean Sea off the Moroccan coast in the Alboran Sea (Moreno and Hoyos 1983), and in Algerian, Libyan (Hemida and Labidi 2001, Hemida et al. 2002) and Levantine waters (Golani 1996, Moftah et al. 2011). Its presence in the Mediterranean Sea may be relatively recent as Hemida et al. (2002) and Bradai et al. (2012) consider it to be a recent immigrant or a Leassepsian migrant species. However, this is questionable given its wide geographic range. Its depth range is 12-430 m.

population:
Little information is available on population size, trend or structure. This is partially because carcharhinids are usually lumped or misidentified in landings and catch data. In the Mediterranean Sea this species has been reported as rare (Serena 2005), however Hemida et al. (2002) found that it was relatively common in Algerian waters. They found it to be the most common carcharhinid recorded in catches, representing 39% of the specimens examined. This suggests that it is unlikely that this shark is a recent immigrant to the Mediterranean Sea.

habitat:
This species occurs mainly on the edge of continental shelves in deepwater ranging from 12–430 m, but is more common between 80 and 220 m, with very occasional captures in shallow water (Tester 1969). It is thought to undertake diurnal vertical migrations (Anderson and Stevens 1996).This live bearing with yolk sac placenta shark produces between three and 15 pups per litter (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Size at birth is probably between 60 and 90 cm total length (TL; Compagno 1984, Kohler et al. 1995). Males reach maturity at about 190 cm TL with a maximum size of at least 267 cm, while females mature at 225 cm TL with a maximum length of at least 282 cm (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). 

threats:
This shark is occasionally taken as bycatch in bottom trawl nets, but more often it is retained in deepwater pelagic longline fisheries (Anderson and Stevens 1996). This includes tuna longline fisheries that are widespread across multiple management jurisdictions. In European waters this species is reportedly taken as bycatch in deepwater longline fisheries (Coelho et al. 2012), although no data on catch rates or landings are available. In the Mediterranean Sea it is taken as bycatch in the pelagic longline fishery operating from eastern Algerian ports (Hemida et al. 2002, Fowler et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
Collection of data and assessment of catches is needed throughout the range of this species, together with its population size and trend. It is taken on the high seas, outside waters managed by coastal states. This species is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 United Nations (UN) Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement requires coastal states and fishing states to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. There has been little progress in this regard. Additionally, the Food and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO) International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for this species, whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. However, no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ‘Shark Plan’ as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines.The 2004 ICCAT shark stock assessment workshop (ICCAT 2005) reported that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals. What data are available are very limited with respect to the size, age and sex composition of the catch. Improvements to the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment in monitoring catch composition. Increased monitoring and research investment directed at sharks in particular, and other bycatch species in general, need to be made by the ICCAT Parties.In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned the removal of shark fins on board vessels (CEC 2013), in line with advice from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (CEC 2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection. Collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries are needed.

redListAssessors:
Mancini, P.L., Pillans, R.D., Amorim, A.F., Gonzalez, M. & Anderson, C.


taxonomicNotes:
Synonyms = Galeolamna greyi [synonymy uncertain] Owen, 1853; Carcharias lamiella Jordan & Gilbert, 1882; Carcharias lamia: Lahille (1928), Marini (1929), Pozzi & Bordalé (1935); Eulamia ahenea Stead, 1938; Galeolamna brachyurus: Whitley (1940); Galeolamna ahenea: Whitley (1940); Galeolamna (Galeolamnoides) eblis: Whitley (1944); Carcharhinus improvisus Smith, 1952; Carcharhinus remotus: López (1963, 1965), López & Castello (1972), Menni et al. (1984), Menni (1986); Carcharhinus rochensis Abella, 1972; Carcharhinus greyi: Scott, Glover & Southcott (1974); Carcharhinus remotoides Deng, Xiong & Zhan, 1981; Carcharhinus acarenatus, Morenos & Hoyos, 1983. References: Whitley (1940), Garrick (1982), Compagno (1984), Cappo (1992), and Chiaramonte (1998).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Copper Shark (Carcharhinus brachyurus) is a large coastal shark with a slow life history and low natural abundance. Although its distribution is widespread, regional subpopulations appear to be discrete, and movement of individuals between them is thought to be infrequent or absent. This shark occurs in the southern Northeast Atlantic and western and central Mediterranean Sea. It is both targeted and retained as bycatch in commercial, artisanal and recreational fisheries throughout its range, but landings of this species are often grouped together with other carcharhinids or potentially misidentified, meaning population declines are likely to go unnoticed. In addition to fishing pressure, the coastal nursery areas used by this species are sensitive to anthropogenic pressures such as coastal development. While these threats should raise concern, the information currently available is only enough to justify an assessment of Data Deficient for the European region.

range:
This species has a widespread range but is low in abundance throughout (Garrick 1982). In the Northeast Atlantic, it ranges from the Gulf of Cadiz to the Canary Islands (Moreno and Hoyos 1983, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Morey and Massutí 2003). It is also found in both the western and central Mediterranean Sea (Moreno and Hoyos 1983, Hemida et al. 2002, Morey and Massutí 2003, Zava et al. 2006, Storai et al. 2007, Psomadakis et al. 2009). It appears to be more abundant in the western Mediterranean Sea, and has been reported along the northern coastline of Algeria and in the Alboran Sea. This species is sometimes confused with other large Carcharhinus species, particularly Dusky Shark (C. obscurus) (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno et al. 1989), which can make records unreliable in some regions.

population:
No information is currently available on population size or structure for any subpopulation of this species throughout its wide range. Despite being a widespread species with long distance movements, there is little genetic connectivity between subpopulations inhabiting distinct continental shelves (Benavides et al. 2011). In particular, Garrick (1982) used differences in vertebral numbers to show that the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea subpopulations are isolated from other Atlantic subpopulations. This was the least abundant of five pelagic shark species sampled in the Northeast Atlantic and western Mediterranean Sea, with only 20 specimens reported from Algerian waters between 1996 and 2002 compared to 41 Bignose Sharks (C. altimus; Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Hemida et al. 2002). However, it might be more abundant in the Mediterranean Sea than records indicate due to confusion with other Carcharhinus species. 

habitat:
This warm temperate and subtropical species (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b) has a maximum reported depth of 100 m, but is likely to range deeper (Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). It is widespread but patchily distributed in coastal and shelf areas, and is occasionally reported in oceanic areas that are near to the continental shelf (Amorim et al. 1998, Marín et al. 1998, Bagley et al. 2000). It also occurs in brackish and freshwater in the lower reaches of large rivers and estuarine bays (Last 2002). It readily enters shallow water, and individuals and aggregations are often sighted in shallow bays, the surf zone and in harbour channels during summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994).These sharks segregate by size and sex with juveniles occurring year-round at depths < 30 m, and adults occurring around offshore islands, banks and shelf waters throughout the year and moving inshore during spring and summer (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Adult females move inshore in spring to breed, and although the movements of this species have not been studied in the Mediterranean Sea and Northeast Atlantic, it is thought that pregnant females migrate to breeding grounds off northern Morocco (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984). Nursery areas tend to be large and poorly defined but include shallow banks, large shallow bays, inlets and harbours as well as the open coast (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b, Fergusson and Compagno 1995). Neonates and small juveniles have been recorded from: Rhodes, Nice and the banks off Al Hoceima (West Alboran Basin) in the Mediterranean Sea (Garrick 1982, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Fergusson and Compagno 1995). This is a live bearing with yolk sac placental species that produces seven to 24 pups per litter (Garrick 1982, Smale 199, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). A female off Larache, Morocco was reported to have a litter of 13 embryos (Moreno and Hoyos 1983). Gestation period is estimated to be between 1215 months (Cliff and Dudley 1992). Reproductive periodicity is probably biennial like most other large Carcharhinids (Castro et al. 1999). Size at birth is about 60 cm total length (TL), with a range of 5567 cm TL (Garrick 1982, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Size at maturity is between 206 and 235 cm TL and 227 and 244 cm TL for male and females, respectively. Based on biological data from South Africa, age at maturity is estimated to be 1319 years for males and 1920 years for females (Walter and Ebert 1991). Maximum size is at least 295 cm TL and it is reported to reach 350 cm TL (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Productivity is estimated to be low, with a minimum population doubling time of > 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2002).

threats:
The life history characteristics of this large carcharhinid make it sensitive to exploitation. This is concerning as this species is currently taken by directed fisheries and as bycatch in trawl, set net and longline fisheries (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Compagno et al. 1989, Cappo 1992, Rose 1996, Parry-Jones 1996, Amorim et al. 1998, Chiaramonte 1998a, b, Marín et al. 1998, Walker 1998, Castro et al. 1999, Bagley et al. 2000, Hemida et al. 2002, Vidthayanon 2002, Morey and Massutí 2003). The small volumes of this species that are landed may be consumed domestically and not reported, as this species was reportedly absent in trade sourced from the Mediterranean region (Rose 1996). If landed volumes are reported, they may be done so under a generic name or lumped with other carcharhinids such as Sandbar Shark (C. plumbeus; Fergusson and Compagno 1995, Hemida et al. 2002). In addition, coastal nursery areas used by this species are sensitive to anthropogenic pressures such as coastal development.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific management or conservation measures known to be in place. In 2003, the European Commission (EC) prohibited EC vessels and non-EC vessels in EC water from removing shark fins and subsequent discarding of the body, and landed sharks needed to have a fin-to-carcass ratio of 5% of the shark’s whole (theoretical) weight. Member States could issue Special Fishing Permits allowing the removal of shark fins on board, which lead to difficulties enforcing the fin-to-carcass ratio and potentially allowed finning to go undetected. In 2013, the EU banned removal of shark fins on board vessels (CEC 2013), in line with advice from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (CEC 2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection.

useAndTrade:
There is no information on the use and trade of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Silky Shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) has a circumglobal oceanic and coastal-pelagic distribution in tropical waters, where it dominates as a target species or bycatch in certain pelagic fisheries, particularly purse seines on drifting FADs. It is taken in large numbers but there are no population estimates and most catches are unreported. It is highly associated with seamounts. This shark is one of the three most important in the global shark fin trade, with between half a million and one and a half million individuals traded annually. Estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices for Carcharhinus species combined in the Northwest Atlantic range from non-significant trends, to a decline of 85% over 19 years. Species-specific trends for Silky Sharks are difficult to estimate because of difficulties distinguishing it from other carcharhinid sharks. There are insufficient data to estimate a population trend in European waters, hence this species is assessed as Data Deficient for this region.

range:
Silky Shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) has a circumglobal distribution in tropical waters (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). In the Northeast Atlantic, it is found from Madeira and the Iberian Peninsula southwards across the coast of West Africa, though it may occasionally occur further north (Ebert and Stehmann 2013, ICES 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea, it was first recorded in the Alboran Sea (Moreno 1987), and has subsequently been caught in eastern Algerian waters (Hemida and Labidi 2001) and Tunisia (Bradaï et al. 2002, 2004). Its depth range is 18-500 m.

population:
This shark dominates as a target species or bycatch in certain pelagic fisheries, particularly purse seines on drifting fish aggregating devices (FADs). Population dynamics and structure are poorly known, although life history parameters seem to vary geographically, perhaps reflecting the existence of distinct stocks for different ocean basins. The population trend of this species is unknown.

habitat:
This shark is essentially pelagic and is most often found near the edge of continental and insular shelves at depths of 200 m or more in the epipelagic zone, although it occurs to at least 500 m depth offshore (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). It is often associated with islands, near insular slopes and over deepwater reefs. It has also been recorded inshore to as shallow as 18 m depth (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). It is an active species, preferring warmer waters (about 23°C). Smaller sharks are often found in coastal nurseries and adults further offshore over deeper water. The species is live bearing, usually having around two to 15 pups every one or two years (Last and Stevens 1994). The gestation period is 12 months (Bonfil et al. 1993). Life history parameters seem to vary geographically, perhaps reflecting the existence of distinct stocks for different ocean basins. In the Gulf of Mexico, it grows at a moderate rate and first attains maturity at about 215-225 cm total length (TL) for males and 232-246 cm TL for females, or around six to 10 years and seven to 12+ years respectively (Branstetter 1987, Bonfil et al. 1993). It can live to at least 22+ years (Bonfil 1990) and attain a length of up to 330 cm TL. In Mexico, young are born at about 76 cm TL during the summer, whereas in other oceans the species seems to have no seasonality in reproduction (Bonfil et al. 1993). Hoyos-Padilla (2003) provides information on the life-history parameters from Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific and Ruíz-Alvarado and Ixquiac-Cabrera (2000), Morales-Lechuga (2002) and Villatoro-Vaquiz and Rivera-González (1994) from Guatemala and El Salvador. Both males and females reportedly mature at 180-182 cm TL off Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific, with females reaching a maximum size of 316 TL and producing two to nine pups per litter (Hoyos-Padilla 2003). Oshitani et al. (2003) reported on the age and growth of silky sharks in the Pacific Ocean (using samples collected from Japanese tuna longline and purse seine fisheries). They found that males mature at >186 cm TL and at five to six years of age, and females at 193-200 cm TL and six to seven years of age. Size at birth ranged from 65-81 cm TL. In contrast to earlier studies in the Pacific Ocean, Oshitani et al. (2003) noted that their results were similar to those of studies in the Atlantic Ocean. This species has a moderate to low intrinsic rate of increase, estimated at 0.043-0.10 year-1 (Smith et al. 1998, Cortés 2002).Silky Sharks generally leave their coastal nursery grounds and move offshore to open oceans as sub-adults, frequently joining tuna schools on which they seem to feed (Branstetter 1987).

threats:
The species is oceanic and likely to have either north Atlantic or Atlantic stocks, although data are lacking (ICES 2013). In the Atlantic, this pelagic species is taken as bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries; mainly by longliners, but also by purse-seiners. It is a significant component of the bycatch of high seas fisheries. It constitutes 90% of the elasmobranch bycatch of tuna purse-seine fisheries using Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) in the Indian Ocean (Gilman 2011, Filmalter et al. 2013). The popularity of FADs in tuna purse-seine fisheries creates global concerns over the increased capture of under-sized tuna and bycatch such as this shark. The International Council for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) reported Spanish (84 tonnes), Chinese (four tonnes) and Portuguese (30 tonnes) nominal catch in the Northeast Atlantic between 1999 and 2011, from which no particular trend can be deduced.Whether they are an incidental catch or not, Silky Sharks are often retained for their meat and fins. Catch statistics for this species are under-reported. Total catch reported to FAO has decreased steadily since 2000; 11,680 t were reported in 2000, 9,330 in 2001, 8,384 in 2002, 5,305 in 2003, to 4,358 in 2004 (Maguire et al. 2006). The number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto et al. 2006)

conservationAction:
Silky Shark is a member of the family Carcharhinidae, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned removal of shark fins on board vessels through Regulation No. 605/2013, in line with advice from the IUCN SSG and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (Regulation No. 1185/2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection. Research is needed on the population size and trend of the species at the European level.

useAndTrade:
The meat of this species is utilised for human consumption, the fins are taken for the shark fin trade to make soup, the skin has been processed for leather and the liver has been used for liver oil (for its high vitamin A content in this species) (Compagno in prep).

redListAssessors:
Bonfil, R., Amorim, A., Anderson, C., Arauz, R., Baum, J., Clarke, S.C., Graham, R.T., Gonzalez, M., Jolón, M., Kyne, P.M., Mancini, P., Márquez, F., Ruíz, C. & Smith, W.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Blacktip Shark (Carcharhinus limbatus) is a medium-sized species that is frequently captured in commercial and recreational fisheries. Its meat is used for human consumption and its fins are highly marketable. This species is widespread in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical waters throughout the world. It frequents inshore waters as adults and has inshore nursery areas, making it susceptible to exploitation and anthropogenic habitat modification. There is insufficient information to assess Blacktip Shark beyond Data Deficient within the European region. Further research is needed on the population size and trend of the species.

range:
This shark is widespread in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical waters. It is primarily a continental species, although it is found around some oceanic islands. It occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, south to the Madeira Islands, Canary Islands, and in the Eastern Central Atlantic from Senegal to Zaire (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). This species is absent from the northern Mediterranean Sea with most records coming from the southern Mediterranean in Tunisian waters, although it is reportedly rare. There is evidence to support that specimens captured in Algerian waters likely migrated from the Eastern Central Atlantic (Hemida et al. 2002). This species appears to be mostly absent from the Northeast Atlantic, but has been reported in the waters around Portugal (ICES 2013). 

population:
Nothing is known of the population size and trend of the species in European waters.

habitat:
This species occurs in nearshore waters off beaches, in bays and estuaries, over coral reefs and off river mouths (Castro 1996). It is present in loose aggregations and in some areas of its range males and females generally remain in sexually segregated schools outside of the mating season (Dudley and Cliff 1993).This shark is a placental live bearing species that produces an average of four to six pups per litter, but can range up to 11 pups per litter, following a 1112 month gestation period (Killam 1987, Dudley and Cliff 1993, Castro 1996). Females have a one-year resting stage between pregnancies, thereby reproducing only every two years. Implantation usually occurs between the 10 and 11th week of gestation when embryos measure 17.819.4 cm total length (TL). Size at birth is reported to be 5365 cm TL, and the number and size of pups produced increases with female body size. Pups are born between late May and early June in shallow coastal nursery areas away from the adult population, which may reduce predatory mortality on the cohorts. The neonate stage lasts about a month and the juveniles continue to occupy nearshore nursery areas. Neonates increase in size by 2530 cm over the first six months following birth and have an annual growth of 20 cm during the second year of life. This is a very fast growing species compared to its congeners. After reaching maturity, growth slows to < 5 cm annually. The oldest fish aged have been nine to ten years of age. There are regional differences in many biological parameters of this species, but little is known about the biology of this species in the European waters. 

threats:
The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Working Group on Elasmobranch Fishes report (ICES 2013) acknowledges the presence of this species in the ICES region, but does not mention it in any catch or landings analyses, indicating an extremely rare encounter rate. It is occasionally caught in the Mediterranean Sea driftnet fishery (Walker et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific management or conservation measures known to be in place. In 2003, the European Commission (EC) prohibited EC vessels and non-EC vessels in EC water from removing shark fins and subsequent discarding of the body, and landed sharks needed to have a fin-to-carcass ratio of 5% of the shark’s whole (theoretical) weight. Member States could issue Special Fishing Permits allowing the removal of shark fins on board, which lead to difficulties enforcing the fin-to-carcass ratio and potentially allowed finning to go undetected.In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned the removal of shark fins on board vessels (CEC 2013), in line with advice from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (CEC 2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection.Further research is needed on the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
The meat of this species is used for human consumption and its fins are highly marketable.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN) This formerly widespread and abundant, large oceanic shark is subject to fishing pressure throughout its range. It is caught in large numbers as a bycatch in pelagic fisheries, with pelagic longlines, probably pelagic gillnets, handlines and occasionally pelagic and even bottom trawls. Catches, particularly in international waters, are inadequately monitored. Its large fins are highly prized in international trade although the carcass is often discarded. Declines of 90% according to observer data from the Pacific are probably the most reliable available data on this species today, and with the same types of fishery in operation throughout its habitat worldwide, it is realistic to assume that it might be faring similarly in the Atlantic Ocean.  Estimates from the Northwest Atlantic are available and indicate a decline of 80-85% from 1950s-2000, but these are contended and may not reflect the status of the European subpopulations. Therefore, it is estimated that the species has declined by at least 50% for the three generation period (46 years) in European waters, therefore qualifying as Endangered under criterion A2b. It should be noted that this region only represents a portion of the Atlantic-wide subpopulation, which likely spans the entire Atlantic Ocean. For this reason, this information should be updated following further analyses of relevant Atlantic fisheries data.

range:
This is one of the most widespread shark species, ranging across entire oceans in tropical and subtropical waters, usually found far offshore between about 30°N and 35°S in all oceans. In the Northeast Atlantic it occurs from southern Portugal to Madeira. There are several unconfirmed records of this species from the Mediterranean Sea but all have been considered as invalid (Serena 2005, Bradaï et al. 2012). Its depth range is zero to 152 m.

population:
Oceanic Whitetip Shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), together with Silky Shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) and Blue Shark (Prionace glauca), was once described as one of the three most abundant species of oceanic sharks and large marine animals (Compagno 1984, Taniuchi 1990, Bonfil 1994, Castro et al. 1999); it was formerly nearly ubiquitous in water deeper than 180 m and above 20°C (Castro et al. 1999). Recent observations however indicate that this species is now only occasionally recorded (e.g., Baum and Myers 2004, Domingo 2004).In the Gulf of Mexico, this pelagic shark allegedly declined by > 99% between the 1950s and 1990s (Baum and Myers 2004). This study however excluded a number of key considerations from the analysis, including the shift in average gear depth from 72 m in the 1950s to 110 m in the 1990s, which could have significantly affected the exploitation of this species given that it primarily inhabits waters < 100 m depth (Burgess et al. 2005). The large decline in Oceanic Whitetip Shark globally is undeniable, but it is as yet unclear what the extent really is, so an inference of the Northeast Atlantic subpopulation status from the Northwest Atlantic status in this case may not be entirely reliable.Clarke et al. (2006) calculated a simple ocean basin area proportion for the Atlantic relative to the world ocean (0.2506); this was considered a proxy for habitat area, and hence for the potential area of catch of pelagic sharks. Clarke (2008) then tried to estimate historical total removals of pelagic sharks from the Atlantic using this calculation and global shark fin trade data. The peak year for the area- and effort-proportioned series was 2003, during which an estimated 80-210,000 individuals, or 5-12,000 tonnes of the species were removed from the Atlantic Ocean solely for the finning trade. It should however be noted that the suitability of this basin area proportion calculation to this particular species is not certain; alternative measures of Oceanic Whitetip Shark habitat in the Atlantic (and globally) therefore need to be considered.In the western and central Pacific, annual longline catch rates decreased by 90% from 1996 to 2009; uncertainty in the estimates was low as this information comes from observers onboard commercial fishing vessels. This represents a significant 17% decline per year during this time. Declines in purse seine fisheries in this region resembled those in the longline fishery (Clarke et al. 2013). Other data sets from Japan and Hawaii over the same time period showed declines consistent with these (Clarke et al. 2011, Walsh and Clarke 2011) and the observed declining sizes of individuals also served to confirm the depleted state of the species’ stock in this region (Clarke et al. 2011, Clarke et al. 2013).It is highly likely that in the Northeast Atlantic region this nomadic species represents only a fraction of an Atlantic-wide stock, though population size and trends are unknown in European waters owing to a lack of reliable data from high seas fisheries. It can however be inferred that the Northeast and Eastern central Atlantic portion of the wider subpopulation is in decline, based on the global Vulnerable status of the species, the declines shown in observer data from the Pacific, the declines in the western Atlantic, and the unsustainable level of fishing that has occurred historically and still occurs in European waters relative to other parts of the world. When trends in abundance from the former analyses (1992-2000; Baum et al. 2003) are extrapolated back to the mid-1950s, they match the latter analysis (Baum and Myers 2004) of abundance declines (Baum et al. 2006). It is likely that the population of this low-productivity species is at least 15-20% of baseline (1950s) in the northwest Atlantic Ocean (CITES 2013). Considering a decline of 80-85% from the mid-1950s-2000 (~45-50 years), there has been an annual rate of decline of 0.96, and the species is estimated to have declined by 85% over the three generation period (46 years). However, these estimated declines in the Northwest Atlantic are contended (see Baum and Blanchard 2010) and may not reflect the status of the European populations. Therefore, it is estimated that the species has declined by at least 50% for the three generation period in European waters.

habitat:
This is one of the most widespread oceanic-epipelagic sharks, ranging across entire oceans in tropical and subtropical waters. It is normally found in surface waters, although it has been recorded to 152 m. It has occasionally been recorded inshore, but is more typically found offshore or around oceanic islands and areas with narrow continental shelves (Fourmanoir 1961, Last and Stevens 1994). It regularly occurs in waters of 18 to 28°C, usually > 20°C. Development is viviparous and embryos have a yolk sac placenta that attaches to the uterine wall of the mother (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). The average litter size is five to six (Ebert and Stehmann 2013), although 15 foetuses were recorded from a female of 245 cm total length (TL) from the Red Sea (Gohar and Mazhar 1964); larger females appear to carry more young, although there may be regional variation (Bass et al. 1975). Pups are born at ~ 55 to 77 cm TL after a gestation period of about nine to 12 months (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Males mature at about 168 to 198 cm TL and females at 170 to 200 cm TL (Seki et al. 1998, Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Oceanic Whitetip Shark usually grows to < 3 m TL, with some individuals reaching 350-395 cm TL (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Maturity occurs between four and seven years for both males and females, and the maximum age on record is 11 to 13 years with a maximum estimated age of 22 years (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Rapid growth and early maturation give this shark a moderate rebound potential (Smith et al. 1998). Camhi et al. (2009) reported an intrinsic rate of increase as 0.081 and population growth rate as 1.117 for this species. Its generation length is estimated to be 15.3 years (unpublished data, M.J. Juan Jorda pers. comm. 2015).

threats:
Oceanic Whitetip Shark is primarily taken as bycatch in large pelagic longline and purse seine fisheries targeting tuna and swordfish. It is also caught in pelagic gillnets, hand-lines and occasionally pelagic and even bottom trawls (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). The lack of reliably reported national landings of this species leads to significant underestimations of catches. Oceanic Whitetip Shark is more likely to be retained by longline fisheries than finned, which implies that recent finning regulations requiring the entire carcass to be landed with fins attached may not even benefit this species (Clarke et al. 2011). Tagging studies have determined that this species has a high chance of surviving capture on pelagic longline fishing gear if carefully released (CITES 2013), so retention bans could potentially benefit the species more than finning bans.Cortés et al. (2010) carried out an ecological risk assessment of pelagic sharks caught in Atlantic pelagic longline fisheries, concluding that Oceanic Whitetip Shark is among the species most sensitive to overexploitation. Calculations were based on the species’ productivity (intrinsic rate of increase) and ‘susceptibility’; ‘susceptibility’ was calculated based on availability of the species to the fleet, encounterability of the gear given the species vertical range, gear selectivity and post-capture mortality.

conservationAction:
Fishing pressure on this species must be considerably decreased through reduction in fishing effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture and possibly also through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the recent 2014 listing on Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species could help drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks. Oceanic Whitetip Shark is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 United Nations (UN) Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. Also of relevance is the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organisation’s (FAO) International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. Oceanic Whitetip Shark is currently the only shark species subject to protections under all the world’s tuna-focused Regional Fishery Management Organisations (RFMOs). Pursuant to these agreements, European Union (EU) fishermen are not allowed to retain, transship or land any part or whole carcass of the species taken in any fishery.Oceanic Whitetip Shark was listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species in 2013. This requires international trade (among Parties not taking a Reservation) to be monitored and derived from sustainably managed fisheries, beginning in September 2014.In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned removal of shark fins on board vessels through Regulation No. 605/2013, in line with advice from the International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (Regulation No. 1185/2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection. 

useAndTrade:
This shark is used fresh, smoked and dried salted for human consumption, for hides, for fins (processed into the ingredients for shark-fin soup), and for liver oil (extracted for vitamins) and fishmeal (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Along with Blue Shark (Prionace glauca), thresher sharks (Alopias spp.) and hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna spp.), Oceanic Whitetip Shark makes up the bulk of fins sold in the global shark fin trade (Clarke et al. 2006).

redListContributors:
Fordham, S., Baum, J.K., Medina, E., Musick, J. & Smale, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Dusky Shark (Carcharhinus obscurus) is a large wide-ranging coastal and pelagic warm water species, which is among the slowest growing, latest maturing of known sharks, bearing small litters after a long gestation period. Its very low intrinsic rate of increase renders this species among the most vulnerable of vertebrates (including the great whales and sea turtles) to depletion by fisheries. Unfortunately it is difficult to manage or protect because it is taken with other more productive sharks in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch. Its fins are highly valued. In the European region it is reported sporadically but its distribution and abundance is possibly under-represented because of misidentification with similar species. It is caught sporadically in a variety of fishing gears and retained, principally off North Africa and in the Sicilian Channel. Significant population declines have been estimated in other large shark species in the Mediterranean Sea as a result of intensive coastal and pelagic fishing pressure reference. However, there is currently insufficient information on occurrences of this species in the Mediterranean Sea to make an assessment beyond Data Deficient in this region.

range:
Dusky Shark has a global but patchy range in tropical and warm temperate seas (Last and Stevens 1994).Eastern AtlanticThe range is uncertain in the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic. It has been recorded from Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Senegal and Sierra Leone. Uncertain records exist from elsewhere, including Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Madeira (Last and Stevens 1994, Ebert and Compagno 2013).  Mediterranean Sea Most records are from the western and central-southern regions, along the north African coasts and Sicily Straits. It is likely that this species ranges further east in the Ionian Sea and Levantine Basin (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Around 20 specimens have been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea to date: after Lozano Rey’s (1928) first record for the Mediterranean Sea, Moreno (1987) cites three specimens from the Alboran Sea and Hemida and Labidi (2002) reported another three from eastern Algeria. A single Tunisian report is from Capapé et al. (1979) and similarly, one from Malta (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). At Mazara del Vallo, Sicily, a further three specimens were recorded (Fergusson and Compagno 2000) and Vacchi and Serena (1997) reported one. A single specimen was caught at Capo Testa, Sardinia (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Recent records include specimens from the Gulf of Gabès (Saïdi 2008), Syria (Saad et al. 2004) and Palestine (Golani 2005). Its depth range is zero to 400 m. 

population:
There is no information available on the population size or trend of the species in European waters.

habitat:
This shark has a coastal and pelagic range, where it occurs from the surf zone to well offshore, and from the surface to depths of 400 m (Compagno 1984). It is not commonly found in estuaries (Compagno 1984, Musick et al. 1993). A study off Brazil by Motta et al. (1997) recorded the species at depths of 8-15 m off southern Sao Paulo State. Tagging studies show it is a highly migratory species (Davies and Joubert 1967, Bass et al. 1973, Kohler 1996). Major nursery areas have been identified off the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa (Bass et al. 1973), the New Jersey to South Carolina coast of the United States (Musick and Colvocoresses 1988, Castro 1993), and the southwest coast of Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Simpfendorfer 1999). The neonates occur in nearshore waters in all of these nursery areas, but do not enter lower salinity areas.It reaches over 360 cm in length (Castro 1983). Off KwaZulu-Natal a female of 383 cm precaudal length (PL) and 450 kg has been captured (Dudley et al. 2005). Maximum sizes recorded in the Mediterranean Sea were a male of 311 cm and a female of 349 cm (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Size and age data are available from several areas. In the Northwest Atlantic, males mature at 231 cm fork length (FL) and at 19 years of age, and females at 235 cm FL and at 21 years of age (Natanson et al. 1995). In the southwest Indian Ocean, off South Africa, Dudley et al. (2005) report that males mature at 210 cm PL and 19.2 years of age and females at 214 cm PL and 20 years of age. The oldest individual reported from vertebral ageing studies is 37 years, although it is believed to live to a maximum of 40-50 years (Natanson et al. 1995, Sminkey 1996). This shark is live bearing with placenta, with litters normally ranging in size from three to 16 pups, of 70-100 cm in length at birth (Last and Stevens 1994, Dudley et al. 2005). Recent work has suggested that gestation may be as long as 22 months (Branstetter and Burgess 1996, Dudley et al. 2005, Romine 2004). The lack of large yolky ova in the ovary of late-term pregnant individual indicates that there is one year resting period between birth and mating, making the reproductive cycle at least three years long (Musick 1995, Branstetter and Burgess 1996, Romine 2004). Recent demographic analyses of the species in the western Atlantic have generated estimates of the annual rate of population increase of 2.8% (Cortés 1998) and 5.57% (Sminkey 1996). Both of these estimates are for the population without fishing mortality and assume a two-year reproductive cycle. Given that it is now thought that the reproductive cycle lasts three years these population increase rates are probably lower. Romine (2004) estimated the annual rate of population increase only to be around 1.9% and the population doubling time was estimated to be 36 years. Simpfendorfer (1999), using a three year reproductive cycle, estimated the annual rate of population increase for the Australian population was 4.3%. The low rates of population increase highlight the need for conservative management of fisheries that capture this shark (Cortés 1998).

threats:
The species is taken as both bycatch and target in commercial shark fisheries using, set nets, longlines, hook and line and trawls in many areas of its range (Cramer 1995, Ebert and Compagno 2013). The species has among the most sought after fins for shark fin soup because of their large size and high fin needle content (Rose 1996). Because of its high-value fin, they are caught incidentally in tuna and swordfish fisheries are now regularly landed rather than released. This shark was found to represent at least 1.2-1.7% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world’s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke et al. 2006a). It is estimated that between 144,000 and 767,000 individuals are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 6,000 to 30,000 mt (Clarke et al. 2006b). The very low intrinsic rate of increase renders this species among the most vulnerable of all vertebrates (including great whales and sea turtles) to man-induced mortality (Compagno et al. 2005). Furthermore, Compagno et al. (2005) report that the species is difficult to manage or protect because it is taken in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch. Commercial fisheries are likely to be the main threat in the Mediterranean Sea. This species is caught sporadically in longline, setline, gillnet and sometimes by tuna trap (“Tonnara”, “Tonnarella”) fisheries, principally off north African and rather less frequently by surface longlines, artisanal setlines and possibly trawlers in the Sicilian Channel. Carcharhinid sharks have been caught as target or bycatch in historical fisheries in this region, where fishing pressure is high. However, there are few species-specific records from which to elucidate population trends. Rarely observed in fish markets in the Mediterranean Sea, but is easily mistaken for other “grey” requiem shark carcasses, such as Sandbar Shark (C. plumbeus), further obscuring abundance estimates.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific management or conservation measures known to be in place within the European Union (EU). In 2003, the European Commission (EC) prohibited EC vessels and non-EC vessels in EC water from removing shark fins and subsequent discarding of the body, and landed sharks needed to have a fin-to-carcass ratio of 5% of the shark’s whole (theoretical) weight. Member States could issue Special Fishing Permits allowing the removal of shark fins on board, which lead to difficulties enforcing the fin-to-carcass ratio and potentially allowed finning to go undetected. In 2013, the EU banned removal of shark fins on board vessels (CEC 2013), in line with advice from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (CEC 2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection. Management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this biologically sensitive shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. The Family Carcharhinidae is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To date, there has been little progress (see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) that recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFOs) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as Dusky Shark whose stocks are exploited by many States on the high seas. Steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states.

useAndTrade:
This species is utilised for human consumption in several areas of the Mediterranean Sea, including Sicily, Malta and Libya, although the meat is considered of low commercial value. Both the fins and meat are considered among the most valued in their respective categories. The flesh is utilized fresh, dried salted, frozen and smoked; hides are used for leather; fins for shark-fin soup base; and liver oil extracted for vitamins (Compagno in prep.).

redListAssessors:
Musick, J., Grubbs, D., Baum, J.K. & Cortés, E.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)Sandbar Shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus) is long-lived, with low fecundity and is consequently highly sensitive to overfishing. This species is an important component of shark fisheries in most areas where it occurs and has been intensively overexploited in both coastal and pelagic waters of the Mediterranean Sea for centuries. Catches have declined significantly along the Levantine coasts. Historically, Sandbar Shark was regularly seen in fish markets of southern Sicily and was recorded in most coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. However, it has not been observed in these markets in recent years. While the Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia, and the Gulf of Gokova in Turkey appear to be important nursery grounds for this species, recent records in the Mediterranean Sea outside these areas are sporadic and there are none of gravid females. Past and future declines are estimated and projected to be of >70% over the three-generation period (69 years). Therefore, the species is assessed as Endangered under Criterion A4d in European waters, as this shark continues to be intensively fished and it is highly sensitive to overexploitation.

range:
Sandbar Shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus) occurs worldwide in tropical and warm temperate waters. In the Eastern Central Atlantic, it occurs off Portugal, possibly Canary Islands and Madeira, Spain and Morocco (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs off Algeria, Corsica, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Italy, France, Croatia, Cyprus, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey (Dieuzeide et al. 1953, Capapé et al. 2000, Hadjichristophorou 2005). Its depth range is zero to 280 m.

population:
A bottom longline survey carried out south of Dubrovnik (Croatia) in 1950 in the Adriatic Sea caught only one specimen of this shark, and it was considered to be quite rare in the Adriatic (Kirini and Lepeti 1955). It was common along all the Levantine coasts until the 1980s (Saad et al. 2004), where it was the most dominant species in shark catches (> 85%) (Baranes and Ben Tuvia 1978). Scientific surveys were carried out in the southeast Mediterranean Sea in 1998–2001 and 2003–2005, consisting of 62 Greek and Cypriot commercial longlining boats targeting Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) and Albacore Tuna (Thunnus alalunga), with overall effort of almost a million set hooks; of 249 sharks caught in these surveys, 11 were identified as Sandbar Shark (Damalas and Megalofounou 2012). This survey highlighted a moderate but signicant decline in species richness during the five years between the two study periods, as well as the relatively low catch rates compared with those reported for each species in other areas.This shark is regularly landed and observed in fish markets in the Gulf of Gabès (Bradaï et al. 2006). Catch rate of this species in the Swordfish pelagic longline fishery of the Gulf of Gabès was 15.32 (+- 3.587 standard deviation) per 1,000 hooks. This species accounted for 94.14% of the elasmobranch catch in number, and the majority of the catches were juveniles (Bradaï et al. 2006). It is estimated that about 8,244.07 (+- 3775.84 sd) individuals were caught in the years 2007 and 2008 (Echwikhi et al. 2014). Sandbar Shark accounts for 4.5% of the elasmobranch catch in the gill net fishery of the Gulf of Gabès where an average of 0.4 individual per km2 of net per day are taken (Echwikhi et al. 2013). Here the estimated number of individuals caught per year is 332.7 and the portion of mature individuals is greater. Commercial landings in Tunisia increased between 1995 and 2004 from about 325 tonnes (t) per year in 1995 to about 450 t per year in 2004 (Bradaï et al. 2006).The species is a known bycatch of pelagic fisheries operating within Mediterranean waters (STECF 2003), but recent records appear to be very rare. In a study of incidental catch of pelagic sharks from the Swordfish and tuna fisheries operating throughout the Mediterranean Sea from 1998-2000, only two specimens were recorded in one area (the Straits of Sicily; Megalofonou et al. 2005). There is no information available for this species from the southern Northeast Atlantic or Eastern Central Atlantic regions.In the Mediterranean region, the species is estimated to have undergone a decline of 62.82% over seven years (1998-2005), inferred to have experienced a decline of 90.95% over 10 years (2005-2015) and projected to have a decline of 99.99% over 51 years (2015-2066), therefore experiencing a >70% decline over three generations (69 years) in European waters overall.

habitat:
A coastal shark, also categorized as “coastal-pelagic”, which is common on the continental shelf and at depths up to 280 m (Compagno 1984). It is often found in shallow waters associated with sandy or muddy flats, bays, estuaries and harbours, commonly down to salinities of 20 ppt in some populations (Grubbs et al. 2007). Also found further offshore, particularly on banks, near islands, flat reefs and other topographic features in open waters. This species occurs from the surfline down to 280 m (Ebert and Stehmann 2013), but typically in waters less than 100 m where it frequently forages near the seabed. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is caught down to 200 m by trawlers close to the bottom in Sicilian waters. Juveniles tend to occur in offshore temperate waters, while larger sharks mainly occur in tropical waters (McAuley et al. 2005).Within the Mediterranean Sea, the smallest recorded mature females were 144 cm TL (Bauchot 1987), 147 cm total length (TL; Lipej et al. 2000) and 166 cm TL (Saïdi et al. 2005). Size at maturity for males was 154.5-160 cm TL, and for females 166-172 cm TL (Saïdi et al. 2005).This species is live bearing with a yolk sac placenta. In the Gulf of Gabès, Saïdi et al. (2005) observed pupping season in spring and early summer, with parturition in July. Gestation was estimated at twelve months, with females reproducing every two years. Observed litter sizes ranged between four and ten pups, although an exceptional case was reported from the Tunisian coast, where a 192 cm TL female was carrying 16 embryos (Saïdi et al. 2006). Reported size at birth is much smaller in the Mediterranean Sea than other regions, ranging from 45–65 cm TL (Saïdi et al. 2005).Neonates of 57 cm TL were captured at depths of 15-20 m off Yumurtalk coasts (Bausta and Erdem 2000). The Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia, and the Gokova Gulf in Turkey appear to be important nursery grounds for this species (Capapé 1984, Saïdi et al. 2005, Bradaï et al. 2006, STECF 2003). Constantini and Affronte (2003) reported that the northern Adriatic Sea might also be an important nursery area. The last record of a pregnant female of sandbar shark from this area was recorded in 1982 (Travaglini 1982, Constantini and Affronte 2003). Boncuk Bay is probably the best known nursery area for this shark in the Mediterranean  Sea (Öztürk 2006).The annual population increase rate of this shark is low, varying from 2.5% to 11.9% between regions (Sminkey 1994, Sminkey and Musick 1996). The estimated generation length is approximately 23 years (McAuley et al. 2005), so this species grows slowly and also matures late. Longevity is 35-41 years (Musick 1995).

threats:
Caught with trawls, surface and bottom longlines, gillnets, drift nets and tuna traps (“Tonnara”) in the Mediterranean Sea (Tudela et al. 2005, Bradaï et al. 2006, Echiwikhi et al. 2013, 2014). It is primarily threatened by bottom trawl fisheries and other artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout the Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Central Atlantic.Sandbar Shark is the most important shark species captured in the Gulf of Gabès (Bradaï et al. 2006). In this area, juveniles are caught with longlines and trawls and adult (and often gravid) females are targeted using specially-designed gillnets (locally known as “kallabia” from “kalb bhar”) during spring and early summer, when they move inshore to give birth (Saidi et al. 2005, Bradaï et al. 2006, Echwikhi et al. 2013).This is a long-lived species with low fecundity and is very vulnerable to overfishing (Springer 1960, Casey et al. 1985, Sminkey and Musick 1995, 1996; McAuley et al. 2005); it has been severely overfished in the Mediterranean Sea. Habitat degradation of this species’ coastal nursery areas through coastal development and pollution also pose an important threat.

conservationAction:
Management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Family Carcharhinidae is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 United Nations Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To date, there has been little progress (see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seafor further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks), which recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFOs) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as Sandbar Shark whose stocks are exploited by many States on the high seas. Steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks. In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned the removal of shark fins on board vessels (Regulation No. 605/2013; CEC 2013), in line with advice from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (Regulation No. 1185/2003; CEC 2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection.According to the fishery bulletin published by General Directorate of Protection and Control, Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (bulletin no. 2/1 and 2/2, valid through 01.09.2008 to 31.08.2012), Sandbar Shark fisheries are currently prohibited in Turkey. Moreover, in the easternmost part of Gökova Gulf, all kinds of trawl fishing and purse seining are forbidden. This fishing restriction are aimed at the conservation of sandbar sharks (Bilecenoglu 2008).Further research should be conducted on the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
Sandbar Shark represented at least 2-3% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world’s largest shark fin trading centre at that time (Clarke et al. 2006).

redListAssessors:
Ferretti, F., Walls, R., Musick, J., Stevens, J.D., Baum, J.K., Bradai, M.N., Fergusson, I., Grubbs, D., Soldo, A., Vacchi, M. & Vooren, C.M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)This large (up to more than 550 cm total length), omnivorous shark is common worldwide in tropical and warm-temperate coastal waters, though rarely encountered in the Northeast Atlantic or Mediterranean Sea. The widespread range of this species increases the likelihood of survival in the face of locally increased levels of exploitation. Its growth and reproductive rates are high compared with other sharks, suggesting higher resilience to overfishing. Despite the available information on Tiger Shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), there is very little information available specific to the European region and hence it can be assessed no further than Data Deficient. Further research should be conducted on the distribution, population size and trend of the species, together with harvest management.

range:
In the Northeast Atlantic, this shark normally occurs in the south, including the Azores, Morocco and the Canary Islands. A vagrant from Iceland and an unconfirmed sighting from the English Channel have also been reported (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). The species’ occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea is doubtful, as only two records have been reported: the first off Malaga, Spain (Pinto de la Rosa 1994), and the second in Messina, Italy (Celona 2000), but both were based on the description of jaws. Its depth range is zero to 350 m.

population:
No information is available from the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic, nor the Mediterranean Sea for this shark; and it is unclear whether these areas of occurrence can be considered one continuous subpopulation. The only significant catch of this species reported to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) from the Northeast Atlantic in recent years was 37 tonnes (t) by Dutch trawlers in 2007. The same fleet reported a 30 t catch of the species in the Eastern Central Atlantic in 2008 (ICCAT Task-I). No trend can be deduced from this information, nor can it be considered a reliable representation of the catch.

habitat:
A Tiger Shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) with a precaudal length of 200 cm is about five years old and one of 300 cm is about 15 years old (De Crosta et al. 1984). For very large animals, the initial growth is very fast, and then the rate of growth is 5-10 cm per year; thus, individuals of 400-450 cm total length (TL) would be 20-25 years of age (Branstetter et al. 1987). The estimated maximum age is 45-50 years (Branstetter et al. 1987). Smith et al. (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase of a Tiger Shark population at maximum sustainable yield to be 0.043 per year. Size at maturity of males is 226-290 cm TL and in females 250-350 cm TL (Randall 1992).Tiger Shark is the only species of the family Carcharhinidae that is live bearing with yolk sac-only nutrition. Litter sizes are large, with between 10 and 82 embryos reported from a single female, and an estimated mean of 30-35 pups (Tester 1969, Bass et al. 1975, Simpfendorfer 1992). The size at birth is 51-90 cm TL (Randall 1992, Simpfendorfer 1992). The estimated gestation period is 13-16 months (Clark and von Schmidt 1965). 

threats:
Tiger Shark is taken as bycatch in a variety of fisheries including tuna and swordfish longline fisheries (Anderson 1985, Berkeley and Campos 1988), particularly those operating on, or close to, the continental and insular shelves. It is also taken in trawl fisheries (e.g., squid, fish, and crustacean trawl fisheries), although normally in small numbers. There are few records of Tiger Shark catches for any of these fisheries. Tiger Sharks are undoubtedly caught in tropical and subtropical artisanal fisheries, though gear limitations in these fisheries probably preclude the capture of large numbers, especially of larger individuals. There are few published data on artisanal fishery captures and it is not possible to quantify catches or the effect that these may have on Tiger Shark populations. The species is fished recreationally and has International Game Fish Association (IGFA) status, the current record being 596 kg. More recently recreational catches have declined, and tagging and release has become more common. Recreational fishing is likely to account for significant mortality in Tiger Shark populations in coastal waters of some countries.

conservationAction:
In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned the removal of shark fins on board vessels through Regulation No. 605/2013, in line with advice from the International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (Regulation No. 1185/2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection. There are no species-specific conservation or management measures in place for Tiger Shark in European waters. Further research should be conducted on the distribution, population size and trend of the species, and harvest management should also be undertaken.

useAndTrade:
Parts of this shark are retained and used, including the flesh, fins, skin, liver oil and cartilage. The fins, skin and liver oil from Tiger Shark are all considered to be of high quality and can fetch good prices. The high value of products has increased commercial fishing pressure on this species worldwide, especially since demand for high quality shark fins has increased.

redListAssessors:
Simpfendorfer, C., Walls, R. & Soldo, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Blue Shark (Prionace glauca) is found throughout the world’s oceans in temperate and tropical waters. It has been considered the most widespread and abundant chondrichthyan fish and is the most frequently caught shark species. It is relatively fast-growing and fecund, maturing in four to six years and producing average litters of 35 pups, one of the highest maximum annual rates of population increase of all commercially-fished oceanic pelagic shark species (at 29% per year, more than three times greater than the other species). Blue Shark is taken in large numbers by commercial fisheries (estimated at >10 million individuals annually; ca. 1.6 million in the North Atlantic), mainly as bycatch, but in more recent years in the Northeast Atlantic it is now targeted. Many catches are unreported and fishing effort is not declining; Blue Shark catch remains unregulated in the Northeast Atlantic. Declining catch rates over time in some northern regions of the Northeast Atlantic suggest a suspected range contraction. Although large data sets are available for this species, there are considerable difficulties reconciling the different spatial scales and relevance of the wide range of ecological and fisheries information to produce a coherent picture of fisheries or threat status. Most catch rates are available for the Northwest Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea, but few are available for the Atlantic European waters. In particular, standardisation of catch rates for this shark is a major problem, with the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) stock assessment being driven by the longer but less informative time series. There is strong evidence for increased landings, particularly by Spain, in the past decade and a recent decline of Blue Shark catch rates from the Northwest Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. Declines ranged from 53% (over 13 years, more than one generation) to 88% (over 19 years, about two generations) in the Northwest Atlantic and >78-90% in the Mediterranean Sea over three generations. Given that North Atlantic Blue Sharks comprise a single subpopulation, we suspect that declines in the Northwest Atlantic may be representative of the whole North Atlantic subpopulation. Further analysis and reconciliation of Northeast Atlantic data is required, to be able to confirm the full scale of declines across its European range. Its current regional assessment is Near Threatened, based on a decline of close to 30% over the last three generations (30 years). This status is assigned pending a more extensive, Atlantic-wide stock assessment, preferably in the near future. It is suspected that this status will be increased to Endangered based on the masking of greater declines than currently estimated. We consider the Mediterranean Sea to be a distinct subpopulation and on the basis of steep declines this subpopulation is inferred to have declined sufficiently to qualify as Critically Endangered in the Mediterranean Sea.

range:
Blue Shark is one of the most wide-ranging of all sharks, found throughout tropical and temperate seas from latitudes of about 60°N, 50°S. It is found throughout the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Northeast Atlantic, adult females, many of which are pregnant, are found around the Canary Islands and North African coast in winter (Stevens 1990). Adult males are found further north, mainly off Portugal, along with juveniles and sub-adult females, the latter group undertaking a summer migration into the western English Channel and Irish waters (Stevens 1976, Fitzmaurice et al. 2005). Adult males and juveniles are also found in offshore regions, particularly off the Azores (Litvinov 2006). Blue Shark occurring in the North Atlantic is widely considered a distinct stock from Southern Atlantic Blue Shark. Blue Shark occurring in the Mediterranean Sea is inferred to be a distinct subpopulation from the North Atlantic subpopulation on the basis of very limited exchange historically using ordinary tags and zero exchange based on recent satellite tracking. Data from tag-recapture programs and satellite tags suggest there was very little exchange of individuals between the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Kohler and Turner (2008) analysed 39 years of tag-recapture data from 1962 to 2000. Of 90,752 individuals tagged in the North Atlantic, only two were recaptured in the Mediterranean Sea: one coming from the Northwest, and one from the Northeast Atlantic. Additionally, of the 698 sharks tagged in the Mediterranean Sea, 25 were recaptured there and only one was recovered in the Northeast Atlantic. Hence, there was, on average, less than one migrant per generation, with only two individuals crossing into the Mediterranean Sea and one leaving in four generation spans. A similar synthesis of tag-recapture data was conducted by Fitzmaurice et al. (2005). Of 16,719 specimens tagged and released by the Irish rod and reel fishery between 1970 and 2001, only two individuals were recaptured in the Mediterranean Sea (Fitzmaurice et al. 2005). Again this is less than the one individual per generation threshold. Similarly, Stevens (1990) reported tag-recapture locations of 2,585 Blue Sharks tagged between 1970 and 1981. All sharks were tagged off the United Kingdom in cooperation with the Shark Angling group of Great Britain. None of the tagged sharks were recaptured in the Mediterranean Sea. Tag and recapture data need to be interpreted with caution because relocations depend on the range of fishing fleets and they do not provide information on the actual movements of the tagged sharks. Recent analyses of telemetry data obtained from satellite pop-off tags on Blue Sharks tagged off Portugal (47 individuals), and southeast England (six individuals) show larger clockwise movements throughout the Eastern Atlantic adjacent to the Gibraltar Straits, but no incursions into the Mediterranean Sea (Queroz et al. 2012, Vandeperre et al. 2014). Its depth range is zero to 1,160 m.

population:
Northeast Atlantic Blue Sharks occurring in European waters are part of the wider North Atlantic stock that is exploited by fisheries from over 20 nations. Official Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) statistics underestimate the true magnitude of catches: landings estimated from Blue Shark fin exports from the Atlantic Ocean alone are known to greatly exceed the reported catches from this area (Campana et al. 2006, ICCAT 2009). In the past decade since 2003, there has been a rise in catch landings reported to the FAO, particularly taken by Spain in the Northeast Atlantic. Catches of this shark increased by 62,000 tonnes globally with a large fraction of this taken from the Eastern Central Atlantic by Spain (Davidson et al. in press). This rise is likely to reflect increasing fishing pressure over and above increased reporting. Demographic models, catch-rate analysis, age-structured models, food web and ecosystem models have been applied (or attempted) for this species, mainly in the North Atlantic and North and Central Pacific, and these yield a conflicting picture of Blue Shark status (West et al. 2004, ICCAT 2009). Increasing fin prices, further depletion of less productive sharks and lack of management (particularly on the high seas) will lead to greater pressure on Blue Shark stocks (Clarke et al. 2007) and for those population components occurring in European waters. In the North Atlantic, different catch rate analyses of this species consistently show that it is declining but there is uncertainty as to the most likely decline rate. Analysis of logbook data from the U.S. pelagic longline fishery indicated that Blue Sharks declined by 60% between 1986 and 2000 (1.5 generation spans) (Baum et al. 2003), and Canadian standardised catch rate indices suggest a 5-6% decline per year since 1995 in the North Atlantic (Campana et al. 2006). Similarly, fishery-independent survey data indicate an 80% decline in males from the mid-1980s to early 1990s (Hueter and Simpfendorfer 2008). Cortes (2007) reports an 88% decline since 1986. Blue Shark standardized catch rates have decreased by 53% (CI: 38–64%) between 1992 and 2005 (Baum and Blanchard 2010). An analysis over a longer observation window (1950–2000) using multiple sources of data suggested that CPUE of Blue Shark declined by 30% (Aires-da-Silva et al. 2008). This overall 30% of decline comprised of two periods: an initial stage of stable abundance or even increase at the end of the 70s, and a second period of rapid decline. From recent catch patterns and these Western Atlantic surveys that these most recent declines have been the steepest. Note that these trend estimates end in the early 2000s prior to the recent increase in catches of Blue Sharks, particularly in the Eastern Central Atlantic (Davidson et al. in press). In contrast, fisheries agency analyses for international waters of the North Atlantic suggest little change (ICCAT 2009), although it is acknowledged that catches vary considerably across fleets and that reported catches over time are known to represent only a portion of total removals of the species (ICCAT 2009). The ICCAT standardised catch per unit effort (CPUE) series showed that the relative catch rate of Blue Shark increased from 1994 to 1998, but declined from 1998 to 2006. The ICCAT assessments suggest the Blue Shark is neither overfished nor is overfishing occurring, however, these assessments are deeply at odds with independent population trajectory data, catch levels, and trade demand patterns.  In the Northeast Atlantic, there are no population trends specifically for Blue Shark in European waters that are inferred from effort-corrected catch rates of commercial fisheries. Blue Shark occurring in Irish and United Kingdom (UK) waters are near the northern extent of their range in the Northeast Atlantic and are summer migrants from core population areas further south, such as the Azores and Atlantic Iberian waters (Queiroz et al. 2012). Although not considered a population trend, the catch per unit effort index from the Irish recreational fishery based on data from >16,000 individual sharks caught shows a current decreasing trend. CPUE (Blue Shark per boat per day) varies annually, but generally increased between 1980 and 1997 with a steady decline in catches between 1998 and 2006 to about 50% of mean catch made prior to 1997 (Green et al. 2009). Declining trends in recreational fisheries that catch northerly migrating Blue Sharks in summer may signify range contractions. Mediterranean Sea In the Mediterranean Sea, the population trends have been inferred from an index appropriate for the species. Since the mid-20th century Blue Shark has declined in abundance by three to four orders of magnitude. It was regularly caught in the tuna trap of Camogli in small numbers, but none have been caught in the past six decades (Ferretti et al. 2008). Recent observations from the same gear confirm that no individuals were taken from 2006 to the present day (Cattaneo-Vietti et al. 2014). It was the most abundant of the large predatory sharks taken in pelagic fisheries, but catch rates in the Mediterranean Sea have declined considerably. In the northern Ionian Sea, there were significant declines in abundance and biomass over 21 years (1978–1999). In Spanish waters, catch rates in biomass declined steeply in 25 years (1979–2004) as well. Pelagic fishing pressure remains high and catches unregulated. Taking into consideration other local trend estimates in abundance and biomass, a meta-analytical estimate of these trend analyses suggested that the abundance of Blue Shark has declined around 78–90% over the last 30 years (i.e. three generation period).

habitat:
Blue Shark is oceanic and pelagic, found from the surface to at least 1,160 m depth (Queiroz et al. 2012). Occasionally, it occurs inshore where the continental shelf is narrow. It prefers temperatures of 12-20°C and is found at greater depths in tropical waters (Last and Stevens 1994). The species reaches a maximum size of about 380 cm total length (TL). About 50% of males in the Atlantic are sexually mature at 218 cm TL, although some may reach maturity as small as 182 cm TL. Females are sub-adult from 173-221 cm TL and fully mature from 221 cm TL (Pratt 1979). This placental live-bearing shark produces litters averaging ~ 35 pups (maximum recorded 135 pups) after a gestation period of nine to 12 months. At birth, the pups are 35-50 cm TL. Reproduction has been reported as seasonal in most areas, with the young often born in spring or summer (Pratt 1979, Stevens 1984, Nakano 1994) although the periods of ovulation and parturition may be extended (Strasburg 1958, Hazin et al. 1994). Females can store sperm in their nidamental glands for extended periods, for later fertilisation (Pratt 1979). Ageing studies estimate longevity to be ~20 years, with males maturing at four to six and females at five to seven years (Stevens 1975, Cailliet et al. 1983, Nakano 1994). Smith et al. (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of population increase at maximum sustainable yield (MSY) to be 0.061. The generation period (average age of mature females in an unfished population) is estimated as 10 years (Dulvy et al. 2008). Blue Sharks are highly migratory with complex movement patterns and spatial structure related to reproduction and the distribution of prey. There tends to be a seasonal shift in population abundance to higher latitudes associated with oceanic convergence or boundary zones, as these are areas of higher productivity. In the North Atlantic, mark-recapture studies indicate that different segments of the population (i.e., juveniles and adults, males and females) exhibit disparate movement patterns (Stevens 1976, 1990; Casey 1985). In the western Atlantic, the population mainly comprises juveniles of both sexes and adult males. As adults of both sexes are found in the Northeast Atlantic during spring and summer, it is thought that mating occurs at this time (Stevens 1990). Adult females, many of which are pregnant, are found around the Canary Islands and North Africa in winter, while mature males are found further north off Portugal, along with juveniles and sub-adult females. The presence of young-of-the-year Blue Shark indicates that parturition occurs in nurseries off the Iberian Peninsula, particularly off Portugal but also in the Bay of Biscay (Stevens 1990, Litvinov 2006). As juveniles are not known from the western Atlantic, it seems likely that the eastern Atlantic is an important breeding area for the North Atlantic Blue Shark population (Stevens 1990, Kohler et al. 2002). Some individuals have shown trans-Atlantic movements of up to 7,176 km (Casey 1985, Stevens 1990). In addition, seasonal north-south movements, such as the summer migration into the western English Channel and Irish waters (Stevens 1976, Fitzmaurice et al. 2005) from the Iberian Peninsula and Gulf of Cadiz (Queiroz et al. 2012), and the existence of trans-equatorial movements linking the northern and southern hemispheres of the Atlantic Ocean, have also been observed (Stevens 1990). Satellite tagging studies in the Northeast Atlantic confirm wide-ranging southward movements away from summer tagging areas (English Channel, southern Portugal and the Azores Islands) as waters cool seasonally, with sharks covering minimum distances of 268-2,789 km in 13-70 days (Queiroz et al. 2010). Vertical movements ranged from the surface to a maximum depth of 1,160 m, and water temperatures varied from 10.6 to 24.6°C. Tracked sharks exhibited pronounced site fidelity correlated with localised productive frontal areas, including tidal and upwelling fronts (Queiroz et al. 2012). Fishing-induced mortality of tagged sharks was approximately 10% up to 70 days post-tagging (Queiroz et al. 2010).

threats:
Northeast Atlantic Blue Shark is a commonly used bycatch of longline (and formerly driftnet) fisheries, particularly from nations with high-seas fleets, and in the North Atlantic longline fisheries. They are now regarded as targeted bycatch. Much of this bycatch is often unrecorded or under-reported (Camhi et al. 2008). In the North Atlantic, an estimated 61,845 tonnes (t) of Blue Shark were taken for the shark fin trade in 2006 (ICCAT 2009, Table 8b). Assuming a mean individual biomass of 38 kg, it is estimated that ~1.63 million individuals are taken from the North Atlantic every year. Fishing effort is not declining and so these trends are likely to continue. This species is taken in relatively small numbers by sport fishermen, particularly in the United States, Europe and Australia. The limited fishery assessments carried out to date have shown no evidence of a declining population trend in catch rates of Blue Shark in the Atlantic Ocean. However, the stock assessment results could not be evaluated for their sensitivity to a range of assumptions in the latest assessment. Nevertheless, ICCAT states that the weight of evidence does not indicate depletion (ICCAT 2009).  Mediterranean Sea Blue Shark is the bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries throughout the Mediterranean. This species was the target of big game tournaments in the Adriatic Sea and is an incidental catch of tuna traps.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific catch limits or other protections in place in international waters for this species. Furthermore, the trade in their meat and fins is not monitored, despite their prominence in international trade (Rose 1996, Clarke et al. 2006a, 2006b). The species’ trans-oceanic migrations strongly support arguments for regional and international management (Camhi et al. 2009). In 2013, the European Union (EU) banned removal of shark fins on board vessels (Regulation No. 605/2013), in line with advice from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Shark Specialist Group and other shark fishery experts, in order to enhance enforcement of the 2003 EU ban on shark finning (Regulation No. 1185/2003) and facilitate improved shark fishery data collection. Since this species has been subject to high rates of finning in the past, well-enforced shark finning bans could help to reduce mortality. With evidence of declines in the Mediterranean and in the Northwest Atlantic, but very limited information on the status of the population in the Northeast Atlantic, there is an urgent need for resources to compile, fully analyse and discuss available data from the Northeast Atlantic in order to confirm the full scale of decline of this species across the European par of its range.

useAndTrade:
Blue Shark fins are the most prevalent on the Hong Kong shark fin market (Clarke et al. 2006a) and comprise at least 17% of the overall market, and an estimated 10.7 million individuals (0.36 million tonnes) are killed for the global fin trade each year (Clarke et al. 2006a, 2006b).

redListAssessors:
Sims, D., Fowler, S.L., Ferretti, F. & Stevens, J.D.


taxonomicNotes:
Yano and Musick (1992) showed that morphometric characters used to separate Pacific Pseudotriakis acrales Jordan & Snyder, 1904 from Atlantic P. microdon de Brito Capello, 1868 did not differ significantly, and these authors confirmed P. acrales as a junior synonym of P. microdon. Pseudotriakis is thus a mono-specific genus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)There is no information pertaining to population size or trends, and no information available from fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic region that could help to infer such. It can be inferred from other geographic regions that Atlantic False Catshark in the European region occur at depths of 200–1,890 m and occasionally on the continental shelf. The species has a low reproductive output of possibly two to four pups per litter every one (or perhaps more than one) year, though there is a lack of knowledge on life history traits in general. This slow reproductive rate makes the species vulnerable to rapid local depletion if fisheries expand deeper into its habitat. Deepwater fisheries in European waters have been expanding for several decades, so this along with the capture of this species and others with similar distributional ranges should be monitored continuously. However, the information currently available is only enough to justify an assessment of Data Deficient for the European region.

range:
The species is found globally in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic, this species has been reported along the Atlantic slope off Iceland, Ireland, and west of Scotland in the Rockall Trough area, France, Portugal, Madeira, Azores, and the Canary Islands (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). However, records of this species are sporadic so the full extent of its occurrence is uncertain. The depth range is 100–1,890 m.

population:
This species is seemingly uncommon or rare wherever it occurs in its deepwater habitat.

habitat:
This large deepwater benthic shark has been recorded at depths of 100–1,890 m on the continental and insular slopes, including around seamounts, troughs and deepwater reefs (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Adults can reach 296 cm in total length (Ebert and Stehmann 2013) and females may produce as many as two to four pups annually (Yano 1992).

threats:
The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Working Group on Elasmobranch Fishes report (ICES 2013) acknowledges the presence of this species in the ICES region, but does not mention it in any catch or landings analyses, indicating an extremely rare encounter rate. This species is taken occasionally as incidental bycatch on deep-set longlines and deepwater bottom trawls that operate at depths below 600 m (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). If capture rates increase, localised subpopulations could become rapidly depleted. However, this species is of little interest to fisheries and its depth range offers some refuge from even the deepest fisheries (Ebert and Compagno 2013). 

conservationAction:
No species-specific management or conservation measures are known to be in place. Further research should be conducted on the population size, trends and threats while the catch rates should be monitored.

useAndTrade:
The species is not exploited nor traded commercially.

redListContributors:
Walls, R., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Buscher, E.


taxonomicNotes:
The genus Apristurus contains at least 32 described species and a relatively large number of potentially undescribed ones. Morphological conservatism and, until recently, a lack of objectively defined characters makes this one of the most taxonomically confused shark genera (Compagno 1984, Nakaya and Sato 1999).  Nakaya and Sato (1999) defined three species-groups within Apristurus: the longicephalus-group (two species), brunneus-group (20 species), and spongiceps-group (10 species). A. aphyodes belongs to the spongiceps-group, characterized by: a short, wide snout (prenarial length < 6% total length(TL)); 7 to 12 valves in the spiral intestine; upper labial furrows subequal to, or shorter than the lower furrows; a continuous supraorbital sensory canal.

redListCategoryRationale:
White Ghost Catshark (Apristurus aphyodes)is a deepwater catshark known only from a limited number of specimens taken from upper to mid continental and insular slopes in the Northeast Atlantic at depths of 1,0141,800 m. Most of this species’ range is outside the reach of deepwater fisheries. Its limited interaction with deepwater fisheries suggests that overexploitation risk is low; therefore it is assessed as Least Concern in European waters.

range:
In the Northeast Atlantic, this species occurs from northern Bay of Biscay and Porcupine Seabight to Lousy Bank (49° 31.9’N to 60° 49.7’N). The depth range is 1,0141,800 m.

population:
The population trend is unknown for this species. The zero Total Allowable Catch (TAC) and zero bycatch measures in place for certain deepwater sharks in European Commission (EC) waters may impede the collection of catch and landings data because of potential increased discarding (ICES 2013).

habitat:
This species is known from 30 specimens taken from the Northeast Atlantic slope at depths of 1,0141,800 m. It occurs on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes where the bottom temperature is 3.79.6°C and salinity is 35.134.9 ppm.This catshark is relatively small and sluggish. The maximum reported size for the species is 54 cm total length (TL). Males and females are adolescent at 40 cm and 46 cm TL, and mature at 47 cm and 50 cm TL, respectively. It is an egg-laying species, but nothing else is known about reproduction (Nakaya and Stehmann 1998, Ebert and Stehmann 2013).

threats:
Apristurusspecies are sometimes caught in large numbers since deepwater trawl fishing began along the Northeast Atlantic continental slopes in the 1990s (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). If these deepwater fisheries expand into this species’ depth range, bycatch should be monitored. At present there are no signs of deepwater fishery expansion in European waters.

conservationAction:
Based on advice from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea to end fishing for deepwater sharks, the European Union Fisheries Council established a TAC (total annual catch) covering this species in 2007 (CEC 2012). This TAC was gradually reduced until 2010 when it was set at zero. Since 2012, there has also been a zero bycatch limit (ICES 2007). The harvesting trends of the species should be monitored. 

useAndTrade:
The species is not utilised nor traded commercially.


taxonomicNotes:
The genus Apristurus contains at least 32 described species and a relatively large number of potentially undescribed ones. Morphological conservatism and, until recently, a lack of objectively defined characters makes this one of the most taxonomically confused shark genera (Compagno 1984, Nakaya and Sato 1999).  Nakaya and Sato (1999) defined three species groups within Apristurus: the longicephalus-group (two species), brunneus-group (20 species), and spongiceps-group (10 species). Apristurus laurussonii belongs to the brunneus-group, characterized by: a short, wide snout (prenarial length <6% TL); 13 to 22 valves in the spiral intestine; upper labial furrows obviously longer than the lower furrows; and a discontinuous supraorbital sensory canal. Apristurus atlanticus was previously distinguished from A. laurussonii (Nakaya and Sato 1998), however Iglésias and Nakaya (2004) could not find any significant differences between the holotype of A. atlanticus and A. laurussonii, and therefore consider A. atlanticus to be a junior synonym of A. laurussonii. Note: the illustration of A. atlanticus in Compagno (1984) is actually A. aphyodes (Nakaya and Sato 1998).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Icelandic Catshark (Apristurus laurussonii) is a common deepwater species found on the continental slope in parts of the North Atlantic at depths of 5602,060 m. Although it is reported to be a relatively common bycatch in several deepwater trawl fisheries, these fisheries do not overlap with the majority of its habitat so it can be inferred that the risk of overexploitation is low. For this reason, it is assessed as Least Concern in European waters.

range:
In the Northeast Atlantic, this species occurs off southeast Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, west of Scotland and Ireland. In the Eastern Central Atlantic, it occurs off the Canary Islands and Madeira (Nakaya and Sato 1998, Compagno et al.2005, Ebert and Stehmann 2013) and possibly further south to equatorial Africa (Compagno et al.2005). It is also found in the North and Central Western Atlantic. Its depth range is 5602,060 m.

population:
The population trend is unknown for this species. The lack of records may be partly due to the zero Total Allowable Catch (TAC) and zero bycatch allowance measures in place for certain deepwater sharks in European Commission (EC) waters if discarding has increased in line with these measures (ICES 2013).

habitat:
This species is apparently common on upper continental slopes at depths of 5602,060 m. It is a relatively small, sluggish shark that lives on or near the bottom (Compagno et al.2005, Ebert and Stehmann 2013).Little is known about this species’ reproduction and biology. It is an egg-laying species that produces one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are thick, and measure ~6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. The smallest mature female reported was 59.2 cm total length (TL; Nakaya and Sato 1998, 1999). The maximum size recorded for this species is ~72 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1998, 1999). 

threats:
This species is a relatively common bycatch of deepwater bottom trawl fisheries, but it is often discarded as it has little commercial value (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Its deep depth range may offer some refuge from commercial fishing operations.

conservationAction:
Based on advice from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea to end fishing for deepwater sharks, the European Union Fisheries Council established a TAC for this species in 2007 (CEC 2012). This TAC was gradually reduced and in 2010, set at zero. In 2011, the bycatch limit was reduced from 10% to 3% of the 2009 TAC and in 2012 it was further reduced to zero (ICES 2013). The harvest trends of the species require monitoring.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilised nor traded commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least ConcernLittle is known about the Ghost Catshark (Apristurus manis). This deepwater shark is occasionally taken by research vessels surveying the north Atlantic continental slope at depths of 1,000–2,000 m. Much of its current range is below the depth of current fishing activities (> 1,500 m). Although future expansion of deepwater fisheries could pose a threat to this poorly known species, the low risk of overexploitation by fisheries justifies an assessment of Least Concern in the European region.

range:
This species is found in the northeastern Atlantic. It has been reported at the Rockall Trough west of Scotland and Porcupine Bank west of Ireland. There are nominal reports of the Deepwater Catshark (Apristurus profundorum) off of Mauritania that are possibly of the same species instead (Golovan 1976, Ebert and Stehmann 2013). The species is also found off Cape Town, South Africa and Massachusetts, U.S.A. The depth range is 600-1,900 m. 

population:
The population trend is unknown for this species. The European Union’s zero Total Allowable Catch (TAC) and zero bycatch allowance measures for certain deepwater sharks in the European Economic Zone may be contributing to the scarcity of reports for this species as discarding may have increased in line with these measures (ICES 2013).

habitat:
This catshark inhabits the north Atlantic continental slopes at depths between 600 –1,900 m, although it is most common at depths greater than 1,500 m (Ebert and Stehmann 2013).Very little is known of the species’ biology. The maximum length is at least 88 cm total length (TL). The size at maturity is 76 cm TL for females and 85 cm TL for males. The size at birth is unknown, but the smallest free-swimming individual was recorded at 20 cm TL.

threats:
It is possible that this species is taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries and discarded, but much of its known range is below that of current fishing activities (Ebert and Stehmann 2013). The expansion of deepwater fisheries may pose a threat in the future.

conservationAction:
In 2007, the European Union (EU) Fisheries Council established TAC restrictions for deepwater sharks, including this species, based on advice from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea to end fishing for deepwater sharks. In 2010, the EU Fisheries Council set the deepwater shark TAC at zero, effective in 2012. In 2011, the bycatch allowance was reduced by 10% from 2009 TACs to 3%. In 2012, the bycatch allowance was further reduced to zero (ICES 2013). The harvest trends of the species require monitoring. 

useAndTrade:
The species is not utilised or traded commercially in Europe.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is most similar to A. laurussonii (Iglésias et al. 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Black Roughscale Catshark (Apristurus melanoasper) is a widespread deepwater species found on upper continental slopes and seamounts at depths of 5121,520 m, but generally greater than 1,000 m. It is an uncommon bycatch of commercial deepwater trawlers, indicating that the majority of its habitat is outside the reach of fisheries. Given the little overlap between the species’ range and fisheries, it can be inferred that the risk of fisheries exploitation affecting the population is low, therefore the species is assessed as Least Concern in the European region.

range:
In the Northeast Atlantic, this catshark occurs off France, Ireland, the British Isles and the Faeroe Islands (Iglésias et al. 2004, Ebert and Stehmann 2013). It is also found in the Northwest Atlantic. Its depth range is 512–1,520 m.

population:
Population trends are unknown. The lack of catch data may, in part, be due to the zero Total Allowable Catch (TAC) and zero bycatch allowance measures in place for certain deepwater sharks in European Commission waters, if discarding has increased in line with these measures (ICES 2013).

habitat:
This species occurs on continental mid-slopes and seamounts at depths of 512–1,520 m, but generally greater than 1,000 m (Iglésias et al. 2004, Nakaya et al. 2008).There is little known about the biology of this species. The maximum recorded size is 76.1 cm total length (TL; Iglésias et al.2004). Males and females smaller than 47.3 cm TL are immature. Adolescent males are 54.857.7 cm TL and females are 57.659.9 cm TL. Mature males are > 61.5 cm TL and females are > 59.6 cm TL (Nakaya et al. 2008). This catshark lays egg capsules that are 58.8 mm long and 22.3 mm wide with two very long, coiled tendrils set closely together at the base (Nakaya et al. 2008).

threats:
This species is an uncommon bycatch of commercial deepwater trawlers. Areas of the Northeast Atlantic (e.g., Rockall Trough) were subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities in the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since then the deepwater fishery effort in European waters has decreased and the potential for expansion into deeper waters is unlikely for now. This catshark is generally recorded deeper than 1,000 m and the depth range may extend deeper than currently known, offering some refuge from fishing pressure. It is still a poorly known species and may share the limiting life history characteristics of other deepwater sharks that make them vulnerable to depletion. Therefore any future expansion in deepwater fishing effort could negatively affect this species. Further information is required on deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic, including catch and bycatch levels, effort and trend monitoring. The threat status of this shark should be reassessed when such information is available.

conservationAction:
Based on advice from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea to end fishing for deepwater sharks, the European Union Fisheries Council established a TAC for this species in 2007 (CEC 2012). This TAC was gradually reduced and in 2010 it was set at zero. In 2011, the allowable bycatch was reduced from 10% to 3% of the 2009 TAC and in 2012 it was further reduced to zero (ICES 2013). The harvest trends of the species should be monitored.


