# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 12,800-48,400 males, which equates to 25,600-96,700 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,800-8,400 males, which equates to 7,600-16,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on flat open uplands, on mountain ridges and plateaux with sparse vegetation, and on coastal and inland Arctic tundra of moss, short grass or lichen and bare patches of rock (Hayman et al. 1986, Wiersma and Kirwan 2013). On passage the species stages in exposed areas with short vegetation, such as heathlands and fallow or ploughed fields, and during the winter its habitats include stony and shrubby steppe, semi-desert, ploughed farmland and the margins of cultivation. Its wintering grounds are less well known, but include stony steppe, ploughed farmlands, semi-desert, including marginal cultivation and shrubby steppe (Wiersma and Kirwan 2013). The species breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary well-dispersed pairs (Hayman et al. 1986, Wiersma and Kirwan 2013).

The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground or in short vegetation. The species is a solitary nester but where suitable habitat is restricted it may also breed in loose groups of two to five. Its diet consists of insects (e.g. beetles, adult and larval Diptera, larval Lepidoptera, grasshoppers, crickets, earwigs and ants), spiders, snails and earthworms, as well as plant matter such as leaves, seeds, berries and flowers. This species is fully migratory and travels non-stop on a broad front across Europe, staging first at a number of traditional sites (Wiersma and Kirwan 2013).

threats:
Predicted climate change now presents a potentially catastrophic threat to the species, as this and many other boreal land birds are wholly dependent on the ecological conditions currently prevailing in northern Eurasia. Cause for recent declines in Europe might be heavy persecution in North Africa; amelioration of climate in breeding area may also be significant factor.  Species has appeared incapable of truly colonizing northern England as a breeding bird, despite availability of seemingly suitable habitat, presumably due to number of sheep, degree of recreational use and increasing acidification of soils. Wintering populations poorly known. Numbers declined in Britain in late 19th century due to hunting and egg-collecting (Wiersma and Kirwan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research into the species's ecology, biology and habitat requirements should be undertaken and monitoring of species's trends to inform conservation measures. Identify important areas and ensure protection from habitat destruction and degradation as well as disturbance. Legislation to protect the species from persecution should be developed and enforced.


population:
The European population is estimated at 630,000-860,000 pairs, which equates to 1,260,000-1,720,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 245,000-354,000 pairs, which equates to 490,000-708,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory but may only move short distances in some regions (Wiersma et al. 2013). It breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary pairs (Hayman et al. 1986, Wiersma et al. 2013), adults leaving the breeding grounds before the juveniles between July and August. The return migration in the spring peaks between April and early-May (Hayman et al. 1986). The species breeds on humid moss, lichen and hummock tundra (Wiersma et al. 2013), low-lying marshes in moss tundra (Johnsgard 1981), shrub tundra, open bogs in forest, peatlands, alpine tundra (Wiersma et al. 2013), highland bogs, moors (Johnsgard 1981), and swampy highland heaths with high abundances of sphagnum moss and heather (Johnsgard 1981, Wiersma et al. 2013). It shows a preference for nesting on short vegetation less than 15 cm tall (Ratcliffe 1977). When on passage and in its winter quarters (Wiersma et al. 2013) the species frequents freshwater wetlands, moist grasslands (Urban et al. 1986), pastures (Wiersma et al. 2013), agricultural land (e.g. stubble, ploughed or fallow fields) (Urban et al. 1986, Wiersma et al. 2013) and highland steppe (Urban et al. 1986), also foraging on tidal shores, coastal rocky outcrops (Johnsgard 1981), intertidal flats (Wiersma et al. 2013) and saltmarshes (Urban et al. 1986, Wiersma et al. 2013) in shallow bays and estuaries (Wiersma et al. 2013). Its diet consists predominantly of insects (especially the adults, pupae and larvae of beetles (Wiersma et al. 2013), larval Lepidoptera, locusts and grasshoppers (Urban et al. 1986)), as well as earthworms, spiders, millipedes, snails, polycheate worms (Wiersma et al. 2013), crustaceans (Johnsgard 1981) and some plant material (e.g. berries, seeds and grass).

The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground in flat, sparse areas with short vegetation (less than 15 cm). The species is a solitary nester, although in optimal habitats neighbouring pairs may nest only a few hundred metres apart (Wiersma et al. 2013).

threats:
The species has suffered minor range contractions due to the cultivation and afforestation of heathlands (Ratcliffe 1977, Wiersma et al. 2013), and is susceptible to very cold winter temperatures and severe weather conditions (Ratcliffe 1977). The species is frequently taken by hunters on its wintering grounds (e.g. France) (Wiersma et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I, II (B), III (B) of the EU Birds Directive and Annex III of the Bern Convention. The EU commisioned a Management plan for this huntable bird species considered to be in unfavourable status (Technical Report - 2009 - 034) (Béchet 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Extensive grazing of wetland grasslands (e.g. c.0.5 cows per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005), and in the U.K. the species shows a preference for nesting on heathlands and moors managed by rotational burning (a management strategy used to encourage grouse) as this keeps the vegetation short and prevents grasses from being displaced by heathers (Ratcliffe 1977, Johnsgard 1981). Cultivation, drainage and afforestation of heathlands has to be stopped and habitat restored.


population:
The European population is estimated at 5,000-10,000 pairs, which equates to 10,000-20,000 mature individuals. The species occurs in the EU27 only in winter and the minimum population is estimated at 121,000-149,000 individuals, which equates to 80,700-99,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory (Wiersma and Boesman 2013). It departs its breeding grounds from late July to September (southward movements continuing into November) (Hayman et al. 1986, Wiersma and Boesman 2013) and returns from late May to June (Wiersma and Boesman 2013). It breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary well-dispersed pairs (Wiersma and Boesman 2013) and forages alone or in small loose flocks (Johnsgard 1981) of up to 30 individuals. It is gregarious during the winter however, often roosting in large flocks containing up to several thousand individuals. The species nests in the high Arctic in both upland and valley locations (Wiersma and Boesman 2013) between the treeline and the coast (Snow and Perrins 1998), utilising dry stony tundra with sedge, moss, lichen (Wiersma and Boesman 2013), grass (Johnsgard 1981) or dwarf birch (Snow and Perrins 1998), peat ridges in tundra marshes, dry exposed ridges, riverbanks, raised sand or gravel beaches, and rocky slopes (Johnsgard 1981). Outside of the breeding season the species frequents intertidal mudflats, saltmarshes (Wiersma and Boesman 2013), sandflats (Johnsgard 1981, Wiersma and Boesman 2013) and beaches (Wiersma and Boesman 2013) of oceanic coastlines, bays and estuaries (Johnsgard 1981). During migration it may also be found inland on lakes, pools or grasslands. During the breeding season the diet of this species consists largely of adult and larval insects such as beetles and Diptera as well as some plant matter (e.g. grass seeds and stems). When on the coast in its wintering range the species takes marine polychaete worms, molluscs and crustaceans (Wiersma and Boesman 2013) (e.g. crabs, sand shrimps) (Johnsgard 1981), occasionally also taking insects (e.g. grasshoppers and beetles) or earthworms when in inland habitats on passage (Wiersma and Boesman 2013). The nest is a shallow scrape (Wiersma and Boesman 2013) on dry ground in exposed, stony sites (Snow and Perrins 1998), neighbouring nests not less than 400 m apart (Wiersma and Boesman 2013).

threats:
Populations fluctuate from year year to year with poor weather and predator pressure in years of low lemming numbers (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Warmer temperatures brought about by climate change are thought to affect this species (Maclean et al. 2008). It is also threatened by disturbance from recreational activities (Cutts et al. 2009), intertidal oyster culture (Gittings and O'Donoghue 2012) and urban and industrial development.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive. In the U.K. there is evidence that the removal of Spartina anglica from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species (Evans 1986).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Infrastructure development, human disturbance and marine aquaculture at breeding sites needs to be stopped.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has undergone an extremely rapid population decline in Europe and the remaining population is extremely small. It therefore qualifies as Critically Endangered (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd; C1+2a(i,ii); D). It does not breed in the EU27.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
The species breeds south-central Russia, dispersing through Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey, to key wintering sites in Africa, the Middle East and Asia (Wiersma et al. 2015). Russia and Turkey hold key stop-over sites such as the Manych lowlands (Russia), Muş Plain (Turkey) and Ceylanpınar Important Bird Area (Turkey) (Sheldon et al. 2012).

population:
The European population is estimated at 0-10 pairs, which equates to 0-20 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds mainly in the transition zones of Stipa and Artemisia grassland steppes and on dry wasteland, cultivated, ploughed and stubble fields. During migration, it is found mainly on sandy plains with short grass, dry meadows, fallow land and cultivated fields. Breeding begins from mid-April until July in semi-colonial groups of 3–20 pairs. The nest consists of a scrape that can be unlined or lined with plant material, pebbles and debris in which a clutch of two to five eggs are laid (Wiersma et al. 2015). It feeds mainly on insects and moth larvae as well as arachnids and frequently small amounts of plant matter including grains, leaves and flowers (Wiersma et al. 2015). Migration begins August to September usually in small flocks of 15–20 birds. It disperses south through Asia and Africa with a small number wintering in south-west Iberia (Wiersma et al. 2015).

threats:
Key factors explaining the magnitude of declines remain poorly understood, despite much recent research. On the breeding grounds it was probably formerly threatened by the conversion of steppe to arable cultivation, plus, perhaps less likely, the reduction in grazing by large herds of native ungulates and latterly by the loss of the enormous herds of domestic grazing animals from state-sponsored collective farms (Eichhorn and Khrokov 2002, Watson et al. 2006). However, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, large areas of arable cultivation have been abandoned and are reverting to natural steppe habitat, herds of domestic livestock have become concentrated around villages (where their permanent presence leads to shorter swards than were created by the vast herds that grazed semi-nomadically under the Soviet system), while an increase in fires (owing to reduced control of fires) may also have contributed to an increase in suitable habitat. In parts of Kazakhstan, these factors are thought to be behind the possible increase in numbers in recent years and this may be the case elsewhere too (Watson et al. 2006, M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon in litt. 2007). Concentration of nests in heavily grazed areas in the vicinity of villages may have increased threats from human disturbance and trampling by sheep, goats and possibly other livestock (Watson et al. 2006, M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon in litt. 2007). Low egg survival due to nesting in areas of high grazer density has been suggested as one of the causes for the species's decline (Watson et al. 2006). The species may be affected by the increasingly dry climate in its breeding and wintering range, but it is not clear if this benefits or threatens this semi-desert species (Watson et al. 2006). Illegal hunting during migration and on the wintering grounds may now be the primary threat (M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon in litt. 2007, Biricik et al. 2008). Data from 2005–2012 suggest that low adult survival, perhaps resulting from known hunting pressure along the migration routes, appears to be the most critical demographic rate (Sheldon et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I and II. An International Species Action Plan was published in 2004. It is legally protected in Armenia, Russia and Ukraine, but this is generally not enforced (Belik 2005). In Turkey the species is protected from hunting through national legislation by the Central Hunting Committee (MAK) who have put the species on the protected list (Sheldon et al. 2012). A survey of historical breeding sites in the South Urals was conducted in 2005 (Morozov and Kornev 2005) and another at passage sites in south-west Russia was carried out in 2006 (Field et al. 2006). Coordinated counts were undertaken at key passage/wintering sites in Syria and Turkey in March 2007 (Anon. 2007). A project was initiated in Turkey in 2008 to gain a better understanding of stopover sites used by the species in Turkey during migration (Biricik et al. 2008). The inaugural meeting of the International Sociable Lapwing Working Group was held in Palmyra, Syria in March 2011. The group agreed on conservation measures required by each country, and planned cross-border actions to protect the species across its extensive range.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue research in Kazakhstan (and initiate in Russia) on breeding biology, habitat requirements and migration, including colour-ringing and satellite tracking to determine movements. Continue to monitor trends on breeding grounds and at key passage/winter sites. Identify and evaluate key threats on breeding, passage and wintering grounds. Investigate the importance of hunting on passage/wintering grounds. Review International Species Action Plan in the light of recent research on the breeding grounds and identification of key passage/wintering sites. Develop national species action plans, at least for Kazakhstan and key passage/wintering countries. At breeding colonies sensitive to trampling by sheep during nesting period, work with local shepherds to minimise disturbance. Control hunting on wintering/passage sites.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large global range which only barely extends into southeasternmost Europe in Turkey. The population size within the region is very small and the population trend is stable. The species therefore meets the thresholds for classification as Endangered, but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted to Vulnerable (VU° D).

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 and is considered Not Applicable for the region.

range:
The species has a mainly Asian distribution, which just extends into Europe in to south-eastern Turkey. It is thought to be expanding up the valley of the River Tigris (Wiersma and de Juana 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 50-100 pairs, which equates to 100-200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found from lowlands up to c. 1,800 m in open areas near fresh or brackish water: rivers, mudbanks, wet grassland, pools, particularly on cultivated land, such as corn fields, grass fields and large gardens. It also uses open forests, waste, fallow and ploughed land and occasionally grass along highways (Wiersma & de Juana 2014). Birds from the Turkish population have been recorded using dam lakes, farmland and riverine gravel islands. No data on breeding period in Turkey but adults have been observed with chicks in May and June (Kirwan et al. 2008). The nest is a shallow scrape, unlined or lined with small stones and debris, usually situated near water. Clutch size three to four eggs. The species feeds on beetles and other insects as well as molluscs, worms and crustaceans. No information for the Turkish population but within its global range it is resident, dispersive and in places migratory and in winter, generally moves down from high altitudes (Wiersma & de Juana 2014).

threats:
The species is not known to be facing any major threats however the European population is on the edge of the species global range and thus is particularly vulnerable to any threats.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures in place for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research studies in to the species's ecology and population dynamics as well as into potential threats to the European population. The development of monitoring schemes should also be undertaken.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

population:
The European population is estimated at 560-5,100 pairs, which equates to 1,100-10,200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory (Wiersma 1996). Migratory populations breed in Russia between mid-April to May and depart on a broad front for winter quarters in north-east Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan and northern India (Hayman et al. 1986) between mid-July and September (Wiersma 1996), although individuals occasionally winter in Russia, returning to breeding grounds during March and April (Hayman, et al. 1986). This species often breeds in loose colonies of between 4 and 24 pairs (Hayman et al. 1986, Wiersma 1996). Outside of the breeding season this species occurs singly, in pairs or small groups (Urban et al. 1986), with small migratory flocks of between 1-6 individuals and wintering flocks of 6-25 individuals (del Hoyo, et al. 1996). This species is diurnal (Wiersma 1996). The species shows a preference for habitats in the vicinity of shallow standing or slow-flowing water with suitable smooth beds permitting unhampered walking and wading (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Wiersma 1996). In Russia this species breeds in damp, vegetated areas near salt or fresh water, and on small vegetated islets or swampy shores of brackish lakes (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Wiersma 1996). During the winter this species prefers rivers, drainage ditches, ponds, coastal lagoons, marshes (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban, et al. 1986) and flooded or recently dried out grassland (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It also occurs on salt-shrub terrain with low, sparse vegetation, on shallow seepage pools by canals and reservoirs, and on irrigated rice fields (Cramp and Simmons 1983). During this season the species also occurs on dry ground near water such as river banks and lake shores (Urban et al. 1986, Wiersma 1996), but avoids dry, open country (Urban et al. 1986). The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting mainly of insects (especially beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, fly larvae (Wiersma 1996) and locusts (Johnsgard 1981)), but also worms, molluscs and crustaceans (including freshwater shrimps). The nests of this species are shallow scrapes in the open, usually near water (Wiersma 1996). Few observations of nesting sites are available, but one was found on an irrigated but uncultivated field covered with grass, another was observed on a dry ridge near a marsh (Johnsgard 1981).

threats:
The size of the European population could render it susceptible to the risks affecting small populations; however it is adjacent to a much larger non-European population (Birdlife International 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is not listed on priority lists of the Conventions.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are thought to be currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU°)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the small population size qualifies as Endangered, but as population size is increasing and the wider European population is stable, the final category is adjusted down one category to Vulnerable (VU° D).

range:
The species has a predominately African distribution, however its breeding range extends into the east Mediterranean (Wiersma and Kirwan 2012), where it is found in Cyprus and Turkey, as well as Greece and Macedonia although its range has retracted in this area and it no longer breeds in Macedonia (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,100-1,600 pairs, which equates to 2,100-3,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 70-120 pairs, which equates to 140-240 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species frequents dry ground (Wiersma and Kirwan 2012) close to fresh or saline (Hayman et al. 1986) pools, lakes, rivers, lagoons (Wiersma and Kirwan 2012) or marshes, as well as burnt grassland, cultivated, flooded or irrigated fields (Hayman et al. 1986, Wiersma and Kirwan 2012), saltflats by alkaline lakes (Urban et al. 1986), mudflats, sandflats, beaches, dunes (Wiersma and Kirwan 2012) and coastal saltpans (Hayman et al. 1986). The species nests from March to September in the eastern Mediterranean region (Hayman et al. 1986), in solitary pairs or loose colonies. The nest is placed in a shallow natural depression in rock lined with pebbles or is a shallow scrape on dry bare ground, either unlined or lined with grass or other plant material and debris, or with a rim of earth, small shells or stones. Also nests on mud. Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, Diptera, midges, termites and ants) as well as spiders and occasionally crustaceans, molluscs, small lizards, tadpoles, adult frogs, fish and seeds. Breeders in the eastern Mediterranean region are fully migratory and disperse south to Africa for the winter (Wiersma and Kirwan 2012).

threats:
The species has suffered from past declines as a result of the loss of natural and semi-natural saltmarsh habitats. The species is locally exposed to hunting pressures (Wiersma and Kirwan 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Ensure adequate protection and expansion of its steppe habitat. Legislation on hunting should be developed and enforced. Studies to develop understanding of its ecology, threats and their impact should be undertaken.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This plover is classified as Vulnerable in both Europe and the EU27 because it is estimated to have undergone rapid declines during the past three generations (27 years).​

range:
The species breeds in most of Europe, including Iceland and it winters from western Europe and eastern Atlantic Islands east through the Mediterranean (Wiersma 1996). The range expanded northward in north-west Europe (Fennoscandia and Russia) from the late 19th century, and included the colonization of the Faroe Islands (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,590,000-2,580,000 pairs, which equates to 3,190,000-5,170,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 906,000-1,410,000 pairs, which equates to 1,810,000-2,810,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species shows a preference for breeding on wet natural grasslands (Trolliet 2003), meadows and hay meadows (Wiersma 1996) at low altitudes, with short swards (Hayman et al. 1986) and patches of bare soil (Johnsgard 1981). It will also breed on grassy moors, swampy heaths, bogs (Johnsgard 1981) and arable fields. During the winter the species utilises large open pastures and arable fields for roosting and forages on stubble, ploughed fields (Wiersma 1996). The species breeds from April to July (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary pairs (Wiersma 1996) although pairs may also nest close together in optimal habitat (Johnsgard 1981). Males perform a dazzling aerial song flight display, during which the wingtips produce a droning sound. The nest is a shallow scrape lined with some plant material in short grassy vegetation. Clutch size is typically four eggs but may be only two or three. Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, ants, Diptera, crickets (Wiersma 1996), grasshoppers, dragonflies, mayflies, cicadas and Lepidoptera) (Urban et al. 1986), spiders, snails and earthworms (Wiersma 1996). Most populations of this species are fully migratory (Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and travel on a broad front out of Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998) although some breeding populations in more temperate regions are sedentary (Wiersma 1996).

threats:
This species suffered past declines as a result of land-use intensification and this is still a problem. Wetland drainage and egg collecting have previously threatened the species too (Wiersma 1996). Today it is threatened by reduced breeding productivity as a result of intensifying and changing agricultural practices (Schekkerman et al. 2009), especially the improvement of grasslands (e.g. by drainage, inorganic fertilising and reseeding) (Baldi et al. 2005) and loss of field margins and semi-natural habitat. Important migratory stop-over habitats for this species on the Baltic Sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, land abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). Clutch destruction may also occur during spring cultivation (using machinery) on arable fields (Wiersma 1996). The species is susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Hubalek et al. 2005), and suffers from nest predation from corvids and mammalian predators including introduced mammals on some islands (Jackson 2001) and an increasing number of predators in formerly open and predator-hostile agricultural landscapes (Schekkerman et al. 2009). The species is hunted in France, Greece, Italy and Spain (Trolliet 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II. Bern Convention Annex III. Management of habitat for this species occurs in several European countries and agro-environment schemes are in place in France, the Netherlands and the U.K. (Petersen 2009) although they have been shown to not always be effective (Breeuwer et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Ensure incentives are in place for landowners to restore and manage suitable habitat as well as reduce pesticide use. Reduce hunting pressure, record reliable bag statistics and create awareness campaigns, targeted at hunters, about the decline of this species. Develop management schemes to reduce predation as well as monitoring and research programmes to inform conservation measures (Petersen 2009).


taxonomicNotes:
Cursorius cursor (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into C. cursor and C. somalensis (including ssp. littoralis) following Pearson and Ash (1996) owing to morphological differences.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

Within Europe this species is primarily restricted to the eastern Canary Islands (Spain), with small numbers also in Turkey. The total population at both European and EU27 scales is moderately small and approaches the thresholds for classification as Vulnerable. There is not considered to be any potential rescue effect from neighbouring populations, therefore the final category is unchanged and the species is classified as Near Threatened (D1) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species has a predominantly African and Asian distribution, which just extends into south-eastern Europe, in southern Turkey. It is also found in the Canary Islands, Spain (Maclean 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 450-2,800 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 200-2,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species lives in semi-desert, sandy-rocky plains and sand-dunes, preferring areas with a sparse cover of herbaceous vegetation or low shrubs (Tucker and Heath 1994). Typically these habitats are dominated by Frankenia spp., Salsola vermiculata, Launaea arborescens and Lycium intricatum, together with Atriplex glauca, Aizoon canariense and annual grasses (Tucker and Heath 1994). On Tenerife during the winter it occurs on sandy plains with a sparse vegetation cover of Frankenia laevis, Polycarpaea nivea, Heliotropium ramossisimum and Launaea arborescens; occasionally it has also been observed in fields of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum and M. nodiflorum (Tucker and Heath 1994). First eggs laid early February but mostly March to early April in the Canary Islands (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a shallow unlined scrape on bare ground (MacLean 1996). Clutch size usually two eggs (MacLean 1996). It feeds mostly on adult and larval insects but also takes molluscs, isopods, arachnids and seeds (MacLean 1996). Its movements in the Canary Islands are poorly known (Martín and Lorenzo 2001 in Madroño et al. 2004). There may be two populations on Lanzarote, one resident the other migratory (Concepción 2000b in Madroño et al. 2004). The nominate race (Canary Islands population part of this race) makes extensive movements with much of the northern population crossing the Sahara for winter (MacLean 1996). However birds are present on Tenerife during the winter (Tucker and Heath 1994). Birds from the bogulubovi race (including Turkish population) are mainly winter visitors to Pakistan and north-west India (MacLean 1996).

threats:
In the past, heavy egg-collecting pressure contributed to the species' rarity on the Canary Islands. Now the main threats are the destruction and alteration of habitat through development of tourist resorts and the building of new roads (Maclean 1996). In addition overgrazing may cause a problem through soil loss and desertification. Disturbance has increased as a result of an increase in off-road tourist vehicles and military manoeuvres (Gonzalez 1999). There is a need for site protection and this would also benefit the endemic race of Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae) (Maclean 1996). Other potential threats include collision with powerlines, introduced mammals and illegal hunting (Gonzalez 1999).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is categorised as Endangered on the Spanish Red List. It is also listed in the National Catalogue of Threatened Species in the category Sensitive to Habitat Alteration. Annex I of the Birds Directive. Annex II of the Bern Convention. This species has benefited from conservation measures taken for the Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae), such as the designation of two SPAs (Jandía and Dunas de Corralejo e Isla de Lobos) in 1986. The Canary Island Countryside Act passed in 1986 and 1994 declared two areas, Corralejo and Jandía, as national parks to protect the species (Gonzalez 1999).

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the designation of SPAs that cover the best habitat areas and the creation of new protected areas to enlarge the network, as well as the implementation of management plans for the species in these areas. Areas in the eastern islands important to the species should be defined. In critical areas, avoid holding military manoeuvres and restrict and control vehicle movement. An awareness campaign of the restrictions should be implemented. In addition in these areas powerlines should be laid underground, grazing should be controlled and habitat alteration prevented. Regular monitoring and censuses of the population should take place and research programmes on the species should be set up (Gonzalez 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

This species has undergone a rapid population decline in Europe that is estimated to be in the range 30-49%, and therefore qualifies as Vulnerable (A2abce+3bce+4abce). Within the EU27 the population is extremely small and decreasing, and it is classified as Critically Endangered (C2a(i); D).

range:
The species has a very large range, breeding in Russia and Ukraine and sporadically in Belarus, Hungary and Azerbaijan. It migrates to southern Africa. Passage birds are regularly recorded in Cyprus and Turkey and non-breeding birds are also recorded in Georgia (Maclean 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,000-7,100 pairs, which equates to 12,000-14,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 0-6 pairs, which equates to 0-12 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on grazed short-grass steppe, fallow and ploughed fields as well as on alkaline flats, sandpits, shell ridges and sparsely vegetated Solonchaks (saltpans) in lake depressions and river valleys (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Hayman et al. 1986, Belik and Lebedeva 2004, Hockey et al. 2005). Large colonies always occur near water and damp meadows, or marshes overgrown with dense grass (Cramp and Simmons 1983). Non-breeding birds frequent open, high-altitude glassland and mudflats. It nests in small to large colonies (5 to 500 pairs, occasionally thousands) from May to July (Maclean 1996). This species nests on open ground, usually near water. The nest consists of a shallow depression of about 10 cm diameter lined with small pieces of vegetation (Cramp and Simmons 1983). Clutches are three to four eggs which are incubated by both sexes (Maclean 1996). It feeds on epigeic and airborne insects, particularly swarming species (Hockey et al. 2005). It takes locusts, orthopterans and coleopterans as well as wasps, bees, dragonflies, ants, termites, flies, ichneumons and cockroaches (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Maclean 1996, Hockey et al. 2005). It forages on the wing and responds quickly to insect emergence after storms (Maclean 1996, Hockey et al. 2005). Migration is overland at high altitude and occurs September to October and April to May (Maclean 1996).

threats:
Threats are poorly understood. Where declines are occurring the key factors probably relate to changing land-use practices such as conversion of steppe to arable agriculture in some areas, shifts in arable land versus livestock grazing on semi-natural steppe in others, and agricultural operations, such as harrowing. Declines occurring from the end of the 19th century in Ukraine and European Russia have been associated with the increase in ploughed areas and the loss of grazed steppe (Kamp et al. 2009). In some areas, predation by corvids may affect breeding success. Whether regional climate change, affects the species negatively or positively, is largely unknown (A. O Solomatin pers. comm.) but it is likely to influence distribution and abundance.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. An International Single Species Action Plan has been published for this species (Belik and Lebedeva 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct further surveys to clarify its population status and trends in Russia. Research population development on breeding and wintering grounds by means of a literature review. Research breeding success and adult mortality. Target promotion of low-disturbance agriculture around nesting colonies, and manage grazing and other disturbance. Ensure development and implementation of appropriate regulations on pesticides and hunting in key range states (Belik and Lebedeva 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 7,800-14,900 pairs, which equates to 15,700-29,900 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,500-5,800 pairs, which equates to 9,000-11,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Northern populations of this species are fully migratory (Hayman et al. 1986, Maclean and Kirwan 2013). The species nests colonially in small groups of 10–20 or up to 100 pairs (Maclean and Kirwan 2013) and is highly gregarious throughout the year. The species breeds on flat open areas (Maclean and Kirwan 2013) with short or patchy vegetation (Hayman et al. 1986) such as fields, steppe plains near water (Maclean and Kirwan 2013) the margins of alkaline lakes and dried mudflats (Hayman et al. 1986) in Eurasia (Maclean and Kirwan 2013). Its diet consists of large insects (e.g. Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera and Isoptera), spiders and molluscs (Maclean and Kirwan 2013). The nest is a shallow scrape or depression on the ground on dry mudflats and sandflats (Maclean and Kirwan 2013).

threats:
The species is threatened by the use of herbicides and insecticides, and by changes to its preferred habitats (e.g., changes in water levels, ploughing of grasslands, artificial irrigation and fertilisation, changes in traditional grazing regimes, increasing urban encroachment and human disturbance) (Maclean and Kirwan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention, Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Sustainably manage river valleys and wet grasslands. Abandonment of pastoral grassland, afforestation of farmland and drainage of wet meadows and inland wetlands in key breeding areas should be stopped.


taxonomicNotes:
Hockey (1982) showed that this taxon was distinct from African Black Oystercatcher H. moquini.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Extinct (EX)
EU27 regional assessment: Extinct (EX)

This species was found in the eastern Canary Islands, but is now Extinct due to overharvesting of its invertebrate prey. It was last collected in 1913, and locally reported to be absent by the 1940s.

range:
The species was endemic to Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and their offshore islets in the Canary Islands, Spain (Collar et al. 1994). It was last collected in 1913 and locally reported to have become extinct by the 1940s (Collar and Stuart 1985). It is now considered extinct because extensive surveys in the mid-1980s failed to find any evidence of the species's survival, despite four convincing reports (two from Tenerife and two from Senegal) between 1968 and 1981 (Collar et al. 1994).

habitat:
It inhabited the coastal zone and most likely favoured rocky and sandy shores. Very little is known of its breeding habits. A female "soon to lay" was collected in southern Fuerteventura in early April 1888, and a pair in breeding condition collected on Graciosa in early April 1890. The nest and eggs are undescribed. It diet is unknown but likely was predominantly mussels and limpets. The species is thought to have been resident (Hockey 1996).

threats:
Its decline was probably a result of overharvesting of intertidal invertebrates and disturbance by people (Hockey 1987), although predation by rats and cats has also been implicated (Collar and Stuart 1985).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
None

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are needed.


taxonomicNotes:
Haematopus ostralegus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously split as H. ostralegus and H. finschi following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This widespread shorebird is undergoing rapid population declines across the European part of its extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abc+3bc+4abc) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The nominate race of this species breeds from Iceland and Scandinavia east to the River Pechora, south through British Isles to northwest France, with isolated populations in Mediterranean from northeast Spain and southern France to Turkey. Race longipes breeds from the Black  and Caspian Sea (Hockey et al. 2013), inland, in countries such as Ukraine and Russia (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 284,000-354,000 pairs, which equates to 568,000-708,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 226,000-267,000 pairs, which equates to 453,000-533,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most populations of this species are fully migratory, inland breeders moving to the coast for the winter (Hockey et al. 2013). The species breeds from April to July (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary pairs or small groups (Flint et al. 1984), during the winter foraging singly or in small groups of up to 10 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998) and with larger flocks often forming in major bays and estuaries and at roosting sites (Hayman et al. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998, Hockey et al. 2013). The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, sand and shingle beaches (Hockey et al. 2013), dunes, cliff-tops with short grass (Hayman et al. 1986) and occasionally rocky shores (Hockey et al. 2013), as well as inland along the shores of lakes, reservoirs and rivers (Hayman et al. 1986) or on agricultural (Hockey et al. 2013) grass and cereal fields, often some distance from water (Hayman et al. 1986). Outside of the breeding season the species is chiefly coastal, frequenting estuarine mudflats, saltmarshes and sandy and rocky shores (Hockey et al. 2013). When foraging on soft intertidal substrates bivalves and gastropods are the most important food items for this species (Hockey et al. 2013). Polychaetes and crustaceans are more important in estuaries however, and molluscs (e.g. mussels, limpets and whelks) are most important on rocky shores. When inland, prey such as earthworms and insect larvae (e.g. caterpillars and cranefly larvae) are also taken. The nest is a shallow scrape on the ground (Hockey et al. 2013) often on raised surfaces (e.g. earth banks) (Hayman et al. 1986) in the open or in short vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) on cultivated or uncultivated land, cliff-tops, rocky outcrops or clearings in taller vegetation including woods and moorland (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The main threat to the species is the over-fishing of benthic shellfish and the resulting disappearance of intertidal mussel and cockle beds (Atkinson et al. 2003, Verhulst et al. 2004, Ens 2006). The species is also threatened by habitat degradation on its wintering grounds due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance (Kelin and Qiang 2006) (e.g. from construction work) (Burton et al. 2002), coastal barrage construction (Burton 2006) and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The breeding numbers of this species may decline if cattle grazing regimes are implemented on coastal grassland, possibly as a result of changes in food availability and increased predation risks (Olsen and Schmidt 2004). Removing large numbers of gulls (e.g. Larus argentatus and Larus fuscus) from islands may attract higher breeding numbers of the species but may not improve the overall breeding conditions (Harris and Wanless 1997). There is also evidence that the creation of large marine protected areas (MPAs) to protect this species from the threat of anthropogenic shellfish over-fishing may not be an effective management or conservation technique on a global scale, especially if over-fishing continues to occur in adjacent areas (Verhulst et al. 2004). Shellfish fishing at wintering and stop-over habitats needs to be sustainably managed.


taxonomicNotes:
Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002a).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 66,300-108,000 pairs, which equates to 133,000-215,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 29,500-41,500 pairs, which equates to 59,100-82,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species utilises a variety of wetland habitats but shows a preference for freshwater marshlands with scattered pools, particularly where the surrounding vegetation is grazed by cattle or horses (Richards 1990). It frequents inland lakes, rivers, marshes, artificial fish-ponds and drainage-ponds covered with water-lilies (e.g. in Italy) (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), swamps, river pools, reservoirs, large dams, sewage-ponds, flooded saltmarshes (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Higgins and Davies 1996) and rice-fields. The species breeds from May to early-June (Richards 1990) in monospecific colonies of 10–100 pairs.

The nest is a heap of aquatic vegetation or dry grass, placed either on floating and emergent vegetation over water 60–80 cm deep or resting on the bottom of very shallow water. Clutches are two or three eggs. Its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects (e.g. Dytiscidae, adult and larval Odonata, Orthoptera, flying ants (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) and mosquitoes (Richards 1990)), spiders, frogs, tadpoles, small crabs (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), shrimps (Richards 1990) and small fish. Northern breeding populations of this species are fully migratory (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). After breeding it departs for the wintering grounds from late-July to September, returning again between April and May (Richards 1990). The species sometimes forages singly, but is more common in small groups or larger mixed-species flocks on passage and in the winter (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
This species suffers from the loss of natural wetlands to land reclamation, dry seasons and an increase in drainage schemes (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), as well as the canalization of rivers (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species suffers nest destruction from the invasive rodent species Myocastor coypus in Italy (Arduin 1997). Increasing tourism and water sports near breeding colonies result in disturbance and the loss of nesting sites (Tucker and Heath 1994) and many nests are lost to adverse weather. Fishermen collect eggs in Ukraine (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). It is affected by water quality and so pollution from insecticides and eutrophication are a threat (Martí and Moral 2004). In addition the intensification of fisheries and bycatch in fishing nets are issues (Golemansky 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species has been included as a target species in three EU LIFE Projects.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species requires the maintenance of a network of water-bodies with well-developed emergent and floating vegetation to provide sufficient breeding habitat. These areas should be protected from disturbance by the establishment of buffer zones around them. Artificial, anchored rafts may be useful in providing nesting sites on intensively managed water-bodies (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 66,600-173,000 pairs, which equates to 133,000-347,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 550-18,200 pairs, which equates to 1,100-36,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds inland on freshwater lakes (Snow and Perrins 1998, Gochfeld et al. 2013), swampy standing water, rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998) and shallow naturally flooded grassland (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998) with areas of open water bordered by stands of reeds, sedge and other aquatic vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998). It generally avoids fish-ponds, rice-fields and ornamental waters (Richards 1990) but may feed over wet fields, dry farmland and steppe grassland. It breeds from April to August in small colonies of between 3 and 100 pairs (mostly 20–40 pairs) that may contain other species.

The nest is a shallow cup in a mound of aquatic vegetation usually placed over water 30–120 cm deep on floating mats of vegetation, or on dry shores or resting on the bottom in shallow water. Clutches are two or three eggs. The species nests in single- or mixed-species colonies, neighbouring nests usually widely spaced (10–30 m apart) but may be as close as 2.5 m. Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic insects (especially Diptera, Odonata and Coleoptera) as well as adult and larval terrestrial insects, small fish and tadpoles. This species is strongly migratory (Gochfeld et al. 2013). Throughout the year the species feeds in flocks (Snow and Perrins 1998) and migrates and overwinters in large flocks (Gochfeld et al. 2013) of up to tens of thousands of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The main threats to this species are habitat destruction and water regulation in wetlands.  In the west of its range the reclamation of wetlands is causing declines and in Russia and the Ukraine dry breeding seasons and an increasing number of drainage schemes pose a threat (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). In Poland it is threatened by recreational activities causing disturbance (Górski 2004). It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would likely benefit from the protection and conservation of its preferred wetland habitats. Restrictions on access and exclusion zones would help prevent disturbance at key sites.


population:
The European population is estimated at 74,400-154,000 pairs, which equates to 149,000-308,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 11,100-20,500 pairs, which equates to 22,300-41,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on fresh or brackish wetlands (Richards 1990) such as small pools, lakes, marshes (Richards 1990, Gochfeld and Burger 1996), ditches, overgrown canals, quiet reaches of rivers, swampy meadows (Richards 1990), peat bogs and rice-fields, showing a preference for well-vegetated areas with sparse, open emergent vegetation (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) (e.g. Typha spp., sedge or reeds) (Flint et al. 1984) and floating water-lilies. It generally avoids small marshland areas less than 4 ha in area. It breeds between May and June in colonies, usually of less than 20 pairs (rarely more than 100 pairs) (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) and often close to other species (Flint et al. 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest may be a low compressed mound of plant matter (Flint et al. 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998) placed in very shallow water (Snow and Perrins 1998) or on a floating mat of aquatic vegetation (Flint et al. 1984) over water more than 50 cm deep (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). The nest may also be a shallow scrape (Snow and Perrins 1998) on the ground amongst marsh vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds in small colonies and may forage up to two to five kilometres from breeding sites. Clutches are two or three eggs. During the breeding season, the diet consists predominantly of insects (e.g. chironomids, Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Coleoptera) as well as small fish (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) and amphibians (Snow and Perrins 1998) (e.g. tadpoles and frogs). This species is strongly migratory (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) and travels both over land and over sea (Snow and Perrins 1998). After breeding, it departs for its wintering grounds from July onwards (Richards 1990), returning north again from late-March (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998), foraging in small groups during the breeding season and congregating in large flocks offshore on passage and in the winter over shoals of predatory fish (Richards 1990, Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
On its breeding grounds the species is threatened by reductions in food availability due to the eutrophication of surface waters (which reduces the diversity of large insects), the acidification of lakes (which leads to the death of fish) (Beintema 1997) and pesticide pollution (which may also lead to direct mortality from poisoning) (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). 

When breeding the species is also threatened by fluctuating water levels (Snow and Perrins 1998), the loss and deterioration of freshwater nesting habitats (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, van der Winden 2005), e.g. through drainage for agriculture (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and overgrowth ofTypha spp. beds (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Linz and Blixt 1997), and human disturbance (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, van der Winden 2005), especially where this forces breeding pairs to leave the nest before the young are fully fledged (van der Winden 2002).

Nests may be lost through storms and wave action (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). The intensification of fish farming has resulted on encroachment on water bodies, which has reduced the extent of floating vegetation and it suffers competition from other species (e.g. gulls, ducks or swans) which may be exacerbated by other threats (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. The species has been included as a target species in two EU LIFE Projects. In the Netherlands the provision of anchored artificial nesting rafts has been partly successful as a conservation measure (van der Winden et al. 2004, 2005), especially in habitats where unstable nest substrates (such as floating water-lilies) result in poor breeding successes (van der Winden et al. 2004). In the Netherlands there have also been successful programmes to reduce disturbance and improve habitat quality in agricultural areas, which has benefited the species (van der Winden 2005).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The application of glyphosphate-based herbicides to combat and prevent the overgrowth of Typha spp. in wetlands may also benefit the species (Linz and Blixt 1997).


taxonomicNotes:
Gelochelidon nilotica and G. macrotarsa (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously placed in the genus Sterna and lumped as S. nilotica following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 16,600-21,200 pairs, which equates to 33,200-42,400 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,000-9,200 pairs, which equates to 16,100-18,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
It breeds in a variety of locations with bare or sparsely vegetated islands, banks, flats, or spits of dry mud and sand (Higgins and Davies 1996) including barrier beaches (shoals), dunes, saltmarshes, saltpans, freshwater lagoons (Gochfield and Burger 1996), estuaries, deltas, inland lakes, rivers and marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). During this season it may also feed on emerging insects over lakes, agricultural fields, grasslands and even over semi-desert regions (Gochfield and Burger 1996). On passage the species typically forages over saltpans, coastal lagoons, mudflats, marshes and wet fields, overwintering on estuaries, saltpans (Gochfield and Burger 1996), lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998) and saltmarshes (Higgins and Davies 1996) or in more inland sites such as large rivers, lakes (Snow and Perrins 1998), sewage ponds, reservoirs, saltpans and irrigation canals (Higgins and Davies 1996). The species is loosely colonial; usually 5–50 pairs found together. It will often nest in the colonies of other terns or Larus ridibundus. Egg-laying occurs in May and June. The nest is a scrape in dry mud, sand or gravel (Richards 1990) on beaches, dry mudflats, dykes, sea-wrack on the tideline or on floating vegetation (Gochfield and Burger 1996). It is an opportunistic feeder and is largely insectivorous taking adult and larval terrestrial and aquatic insects (Richards 1990, Gochfield and Burger 1996) as well as spiders, earthworms, small reptiles, frogs, small fish (6–9 cm long), aquatic invertebrates and rarely voles and small birds. Northern breeding populations of this species are migratory and European birds disperse in all directions after breeding, then migrate across to Spain, Italy and northern Africa to western Africa, the Rift Valley and coastal eastern Africa; others travel east to India, and occasionally Indonesia (Gochfield and Burger 1996).

threats:
The species is threatened by the deterioration and loss of habitat, e.g. through wetland drainage, agricultural intensification, pesticide pollution, fluctuating water levels (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), beach erosion and the development or modification of foraging sites (Molina and Erwin 2006). It also suffers from reduced reproductive success as a result of human disturbance at breeding colonies (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Molina and Erwin 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identify important breeding areas for the species and ensure site protection from disturbance, development and modification. Develop and implement suitable site management plans. Studies should be conducted to investigate the species's population ecology and potential threats and impacts, in order to inform conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Hydrocoloeus minutus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Larus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This gull began undergoing rapid declines in its European breeding range during the 2000s. Extrapolated over a three generation period (32 years) these declines result in its classification as Near Threatened in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within the EU27.

range:
The species can be found breeding in northern Scandinavia, the Baltic republics and western Russia. Its distribution expands in winter to include most of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea coastlines, as well as the Atlantic coast of Europe (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 23,700-45,200 pairs, which equates to 47,400-90,500 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,800-18,300 pairs, which equates to 25,600-36,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Its habitat includes coastal areas, lagoons, sandy beaches, mouths of streams and rivers. It breeds mainly inland, from subarctic to temperate forest, at freshwater lakes, river valleys, marshes and bogs with abundant vegetation; locally at coastal lagoons; nests on sandbanks, in reedbeds and in marsh vegetation. Its diet is varied and includes mostly invertebrates. It is mainly insectivorous when breeding and during migration. During winter it may also prey on fish. Feeds by walking, and swimming; hovers in air and foot-patters on surface. Also feeds tern-like by surface-dipping, flying into wind and dropping to seize insects from surface of water. Occasionally plunge-dives (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

threats:
The species is threatened by habitat degradation, including changes in hydrographic conditions from damming and irrigation works (Rašomavičius 2007, Ellermaa and Linden 2011). It is vulnerable to oil spills (Mendel et al. 2008) and other types of marine pollution, including agricultural run-off (pesticides, biocides) (Ellermaa and Linden 2011). It is vulnerable to being caught as bycatch in fishing gear, including in gillnets (Zydelis et al. 2013). It is considered moderately vulnerable to collision with offshore wind farms (Bradbury et al. 2014) and can be disturbed at sea by shipping traffic.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is listed within 106 marine Important Bird Areas. Within the EU it is listed within 575 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification and designation of marine protected areas for important sites at sea. Observer programmes on gillnet fisheries across its range to monitor bycatch rates.


taxonomicNotes:
Hydroprogne caspia (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Sterna.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the small population is declining and therefore is classified as Near Threatened. There is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the region, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species has a cosmopolitan but scattered distribution. It breeds locally in Europe, mainly around the Baltic Sea, northern Black Sea and in the northern Caspian region (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 11,800-14,800 pairs, which equates to 23,600-29,600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,700-2,100 pairs, which equates to 3,300-4,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In Europe the species occurs mostly along the Baltic Sea coast, and in the Black Sea during the breeding season, and with some year round residents in Turkey. Its habitat includes coastal areas, as well as on large inland lakes and reservoirs, breeding on sand, shell or rocky islands. It feeds in freshwater lakes, inland seas, and coastal estuaries and is rarely pelagic. Its winter roosts are around large lakes and estuaries on sandbars, mudflats, shell banks. It feeds mainly on small to medium-sized fish; occasionally eggs and young of other birds, and carrion. In Scandinavia its main prey are roach (Rutilus rutilus) and herring (Clupea harengus) (Gochfeld and Burger 1996).

threats:
The species is currently threatened by the loss and deterioration of breeding habitat through accelerated vegetation succession (possibly through the introduction of exotic plant species) (Shuford and Craig 2002) and may be threatened in the future by habitat loss through inundation as a result of sea-level rise (Shuford and Craig 2002). The species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies especially during the early-courtship and incubation periods (Shuford and Craig 2002), and exposure to bioaccumulated contaminants (e.g. organochlorines or methylmercury) in fish could be lowering the species's reproductive success (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Newcastle disease (Shuford and Craig 2002, Kuiken et al. 2006) and avian botulism may also threaten concentrated local populations (Shuford and Craig 2002). It is vulnerable to oil spills and marine pollution. It is susceptible to being caught as bycatch in fishing gears.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. It is covered by the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. In the EU it is listed on Annex I of the Birds Directive. There are 66 Important Bird Areas identified for this species. Within the EU there are 320 Special Protection Areas which include this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management of existing protected areas for site based threats. On board observer programmes to monitor bycatch events on fishing vessels and implement mitigation measures where appropriate.


taxonomicNotes:
Larus argentatus and L. smithsonianus (the latter including vegae and mongolicus) (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as L. argentatus following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This gull has undergone moderately rapid declines in Europe and is therefore classified as Near Threatened.

Within the EU27 declines have been more rapid and it is classified as Vulnerable (A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde).

range:
The species is distributed across northern and western areas of Europe. Subspecies argenteus occurs in Iceland, the Faroes, British Isles and from western France to western Germany, wintering in northern Iberia. Subspecies argentatus is found in Denmark and Fennoscandia to the eastern Kola Peninsula and winters mostly in northern and western Europe (Burger et al. 2013). During the 20th century the species's range has spread significantly, including an increase in breeding inland (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 685,000-809,000 pairs, which equates to 1,370,000-1,620,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 414,000-493,000 pairs, which equates to 829,000-986,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
It winters in north and west Europe. Its habitat includes coastal and near-coastal areas and also inland localities such as large lakes and reservoirs, on fields and at rubbish dumps. It is sometimes found at sea. Its breeding habitats are varied, including coastal cliffs and stacks, rocky and grassy islands, sandy beaches, gravel bars, salt-marshes, limestone outcrops, and buildings. The species also exploits man-altered habitats such as clay pits. It is omnivorous and highly opportunistic, exploiting superabundant food when available; spans the full range of gull dietary items and feeding behaviour; powerful predator. Feeds extensively on fish, earthworms, crabs, and other marine invertebrates (molluscs, starfish) (Burger and Gochfeld 2013).

threats:
The species is threatened by coastal oil pollution (Gorski et al. 1977) and is susceptible to avian influenza and so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). It is susceptible to colliding with offshore wind farms (Bradbury et al. 2014). It is vulnerable to being caught as bycatch in fisheries, including longlines, trawls and gillnets (Anderson et al. 2011, Zydelis et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered by the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. In the EU it is listed under Annex II of the Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
On-board monitoring programmes for seabird bycatch in fishing vessels, and implementation of mitigation measures where appropriate. Increased understanding of movements to assist placement of offshore wind farms.


taxonomicNotes:
L. michahellis and L. armenicus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as L. michahellis following a review by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group. Prior to that, L. armenicus had been split and L. cachinnans  (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) had be

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a restricted breeding range within Europe and has apparently undergone a recent decline. It is therefore classified as Near Threatened.

The bird is a scarce or irregular winter visitor and passage migrant in Cyprus, and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for the EU27 region.

range:
The species is found from the Caucasus through Armenia to western Turkey. In Europe, wintering populations are found in the eastern Mediterranean (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 19,000-29,000 pairs, which equates to 38,000-58,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most of this species undergoes short-distance migratory movements on a narrow front (along the rivers and deltas of Turkey) between separate breeding and wintering grounds. It winters across the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).  It inhabits both inland and coastal waters, but breeding is restricted to mountain lakes, using reedbeds, beaches, and agricultural fields.  The diet of this species is little known, but may consist primarily of fish as well as terrestrial invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and rodents (Burger and Gochfeld 1996, Adamian and Klem Jr. 1999).

threats:
The global population of this species decreased significantly in the past as a result of persecution (due to the damage it inflicted to fisheries) and egg harvesting (Burger and Gochfeld 1996,  Olsen and Larsson 2004). The breeding success of the species was dramatically reduced after the water-level in Lake Sevan (Armenia) was lowered due to extraction for irrigation and hydropower production (Adamian and Klem Jr. 1999).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
It is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species and is covered by the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. There are 20 Important Bird Areas for this species across the region.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification and designation of important sites for this species. Education programmes to fishers to reduce persecution.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, although this species may have a small range it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 21,600-22,000 pairs, which equates to 43,100-44,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 21,500-21,800 pairs, which equates to 42,900-43,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This coastal species rarely occurs inland. Colonies are located on exposed rocky cliffs and on offshore islands or islets, normally not more than 50 m above sea level. Characteristics of habitats used differ from region to region and even within the same areas in different years: altitude ranges from close to sea-level to 100 m, vegetation cover from bare rocks to 85% bush cover, and slope from 0–90°. During the non-breeding season the species prefers sheltered bays, either flat with shingle or sand or with cliffed margins (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It breeds in large monospecific colonies ranging from 10 up to 10,000 pairs. Egg-laying takes place in the second half of April until the beginning of May, and peak hatching occurs in late May (Burger and Gochfeld 1996), with fledging mainly in the first two weeks of July (Mañosa et al. 2004). The nest is a shallow scrape lined with available debris and vegetation (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It is placed among rocks and vegetation. Clutches normally have three eggs (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). It has a large foraging range while breeding, and has been recorded up to 200 km from the colony. The diet consists mostly of epipelagic fish, especially Clupeiformes (Mañosa et al. 2004). It is also known to take some aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, small birds and plant material such as the peanut (Arachis), olive (Olea), and grain (Cramp and Simmons 1983).  It is partially migratory and dispersive (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). After breeding the birds disperse widely around the Mediterranean coast (Sanpera et al. 2007, Burger and Gochfeld 1996). Almost all juveniles and some adults migrate past Gibraltar during July-October (Olsen and Larsson 2003), peaking in August (Guitiérrez and Guinart 2008), to winter on the North African coast (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

threats:
The trawling fishery off the Ebro Delta is regarded as unsustainable and its collapse would probably result in a decline in the breeding population due to the increase in density-dependence (Oro et al. 2004, Tavecchia et al. 2007, Barov and Derhé 2011). A similar outcome would arise if waste from the trawlers were used industrially to produce food for domestic animals, as occurs in other areas, rather than being dumped near the Ebro colony. More important could be the reduction of small-pelagic fish stocks, the main natural prey for the species, due to increasingly high fishing pressure around the breeding grounds, owing partly to high demand by tuna-farming (Arcos et al. 2008). Other important threats include coastal tourism developments, regulation of the river Ebro, mortality due to entanglement in fishing gear (mainly longlines and sporting lines) (Belda and Sánchez 2001, Cooper et al. 2003) and predation by terrestrial predators, such as Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Badger (Meles meles) and domestic dogs (Oro et al. 1999, Tavecchia et al. 2007). Predation by sympatric Yellow-legged Gull (Larus michahellis) can be high at some breeding colonies, especially when densities of Audouin's Gulls are low (Bonaccorsi 2003, Travichon 2004, Oro et al. 2006, Paracuellos and Nevado 2010). Predation on chicks by Black Rats (Rattus rattus) has a negative impact at some breeding colonies (Jones et al. 2008). Nevertheless this species shows a very nomadic breeding site selection and high dispersal rates from year to year, probably avoiding large densities of L. michahellis (Genovart et al. 2003, Martínez-Abraín et al. 2003, Oro and Matínez-Abraín 2007). Peregrines (Falco peregrinus), other raptors, some herons and snakes can also prey on adults and nests but only accidentally and locally (Oro 1996, 1997). Very high levels of mercury and other pollutants are found in this species (Sanpera et al. 2007), partly due to the consumption of discards (Arcos et al. 2002), thus posing a potential threat, although no negative effects have been demonstrated. Current marine wind-farm projects, particularly around the main breeding colony (Ebro Delta), could also represent a serious threat. Overgrazing of some islets by goats in the east of its breeding range may reduce breeding success. Natal and breeding dispersal are extremely high ensuring genetic mixing and buffering against bad local environmental conditions through emigration and colonisation (Oro and Ruxton 2001, Oro et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. A European action plan was published in 1996 and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). The ecology of this species, particularly its breeding and foraging behaviour, demography and population dynamics, has been extensively studied. Several LIFE Nature projects have been implemented between 1992 and 2006 in Spain and Italy, contributing to successful recolonisation of breeding islands and development of safe line-fishing techniques. Control of invasive Black Rats has been effective at some colonies (Jones et al. 2008). Culling of L. michahellis was conducted from 2000 to 2009 on Alborán Island, Spain, and demonstrated immediate local benefits (Paracuellos and Nevado 2010). However, even in small, remote colonies, culling needs to be continuous to avoid a return to the original situation (Paracuellos and Nevado 2010).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue to monitor breeding colonies. Identify appropriate actions to mitigate against the key threats. Implement strict fishery management policies in the species's range. Increase the area of suitable coastal habitat that is protected from development and degradation. Enforce laws designed to minimise marine pollution. Implement measures to reduce mortality in fishing gear, perhaps facilitated by legislation. Ensure regulation of the river Ebro benefits the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 54,100-87,500 pairs, which equates to 108,000-175,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,600-6,000 pairs, which equates to 7,100-11,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found along coasts and inland habitats. In Europe, it is largely confined to coastal regions, but locally also rivers and inland lakes (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).  It breeds on rocky and sandy islands, beaches, cliffs, spits, and grassy or shrubby river islands; in flooded areas may nest on bushes; in the Black Sea it nests mainly on islands, ranging from barren to well vegetated (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).  It feeds mostly on fish, invertebrates, mammals, refuse, scraps, offal, bird eggs and chicks, and insects.

threats:
In the Black Sea area, many nests were destroyed and adults shot during the 1940s, to reduce their predation on the 'beneficial' L. melanocephalus. Culling is also considered to protect L. audouinii from expanding L. cachinnans populations and has taken place in parts of Spain. It is a frequent victim of oil pollution in some areas (James 1984, Burger and Gochfeld 1996). Some colonies are affected by egg harvesting/collection activities.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. Within the EU it is listed on Annex II of the Birds Directive. There are 73 Important Bird Areas where this species occurs. In the EU there are 354 Special Protection Areas for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management of key breeding and feeding sites to reduce human disturbance and habitat destruction.


population:
The European population is estimated at 640,000-1,080,000 pairs, which equates to 1,280,000-2,160,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 262,000-352,000 pairs, which equates to 525,000-705,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Populations in Iceland, and around the North and Baltic seas are generally year-round residents, while other populations migrate between breeding and wintering grounds (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). During the winter the species expands its range to the North East Atlantic coasts of France and Portugal, the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, and the entire coasts of the Black Sea (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). Within Europe it inhabits coasts, tidal estuaries, agricultural land, reservoirs and breeds on coastal cliffs and islands, in beaches, bogs, marshes and meadows. It feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, small fish and grain (in spring). It occasionally kills birds and small mammals (Burger and Gochfeld 2014).

threats:
In its breeding grounds the species is threatened  by predation from introduced ground predators such as American Mink (Neovison vison) (Bukacińska and Bukacińska 2003), and by disturbance from tourism, angling and research activities during the laying period (Bukacińska and Bukacińska 2003). Inland populations breeding in colonies near rivers are also vulnerable to mass outbreaks of Black Flies (Simuliidae) (Bukacińska and Bukacinska 2003). The species is also threatened by the transformation and loss of its breeding habitats through land reclamation, drainage, afforestation (e.g., with conifers) and dam construction (Bukacińska and Bukacińska 2003). In its wintering range the species is potentially threatened by the activities of fisheries (e.g., reductions in fishing effort, increases in net mesh sizes and exploitation of formerly non-commercial fish species) and their effects on competition for prey resources (Bukacińska and v  2003). Other threats to wintering sites include land reclamation and drainage (Bukacińska and Bukacińska 2003). Eggs are collected from colonies in Germany, Scotland, and Poland (Bukacińska and Bukacińska 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. In the EU it is listed on Annex II of the Bird’s Directive. 83 Important Bird Areas have been identified for the species across the European region. In the EU it is listed in 381 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued invasive predator eradication programmes at breeding sites; monitoring of egg collection activities to ensure sustainability. Management of existing protecting sites and Important Bird Areas to reduce habitat degradation and conversion. On board fisheries observer programmes to monitor levels of fisheries bycatch.


taxonomicNotes:
Larus cachinnans (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into L. cachinnans and L. michahellis; L. armenicus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993; AERC TAC) has been lumped into L. michahellis. These changes to the BirdLife checklist follow examination by

population:
The European population is estimated at 394,000-460,000 pairs, which equates to 788,000-920,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 288,000-340,000 pairs, which equates to 577,000-681,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds around Scandinavia, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and northern U.K. to Iceland. It also breeds year-round on the coast of Portugal, southern Ireland, the U.K. and northern France, and one seasonally breeding population is found in north-east Spain. Seasonal breeders disperse widely, expanding its range to include the entire North Sea coast, much of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It inhabits coastal and inland waters, estuaries, harbours, rubbish dumps, fields, but breeds mainly on sandy, rocky or grassy sea coasts, rocky islands, islands of lakes and rivers, buildings, moorland, sea cliffs (heuglini). It tends to avoid cliffs favoured by L. argentatus (Burger et al. 2013).

threats:
Some populations of this species have significantly declined due to decreasing food availability caused by competition and predation from Larus argentatus and Larus marinus (Barcena et al. 1984, Olsen and Larsson 2003, Burger et al. 2013) and by changes in fishing and refuse disposal practices (Olsen and Larsson 2003, Mitchell et al. 2004) (e.g. closure of landfill sites and the covering of waste) (Barcena et al. 1984, Olsen and Larsson 2003, Mitchell et al. 2004, Burger et al. 2013). Population declines may also have been aided by poisoning from organochlorine pollution (Bustnes et al. 2006).  Colonies have been culled in Britain and Ireland in order to protect other breeding seabirds, such as terns, from predation and competition (Mitchell et al. 2004). The species is hunted unsustainably in Denmark (Bregnballe et al. 2006), and is threatened by egg-collecting and general human disturbance on the Iberian Peninsula (Barcena et al. 1984). The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this disease (Mitchell et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered within the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. In the EU it is listed on Annex II of the Birds Directive. There are 77 Important Bird Areas identified for this species. In the EU there are 391 Special Protection Areas which list this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management of existing protected areas, and monitoring of human activities (egg collection; disturbance etc.). Fisheries management to ensure long term sustainability of fish stocks. Reduction of marine litter on coasts and within the water column.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 35,900-57,300 pairs, which equates to 71,700-115,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,000-7,000 pairs, which equates to 10,000-14,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Within Europe this species occurs along the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula, through the Mediterranean and Black Sea. The species breeds on sand-spits, beaches (Burger and Gochfeld 1996) and islands with mudflats and marshes in shallow tidal waters (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), and on saline inland seas (Olsen and Larsson 2003). It may also frequent meadows and moist grassland by tidal inlets (Snow and Perrins 1998), and brackish or freshwater lagoons or marshes near river deltas during this season (Richards 1990, Burger and Gochfeld 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is almost entirely coastal outside of the breeding season, frequenting shallow inshore waters and salt-pans, although it generally avoids harbours (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

threats:
Eggs and chicks of this species are preyed upon by Larus cachinnans and Larus melanocephalus (especially where colonies are frequently disturbed by humans) (Burger and Gochfeld 1996), and storms or cold weather may threaten breeding colonies by causing nest flooding and chick mortality (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). The species is threatened by pollution from oil (Cooper et al. 1984, James 1984, Burger and Gochfeld 1996) and plastic waste, and is exploited by local people (subsistence egg collecting) in the Mediterranean (James 1984). It also suffers from disturbance caused by local people and tourists casually visiting breeding colonies, and by habitat loss resulting from tourism development (James 1984). The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Gaidet et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Listed on Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species and listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Listed on Annex I of the EU Bird?s Directive. It is listed within 45 marine Important Bird Areas within Europe. In the EU it is listed in 131 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of Important Bird Areas and designation as protected areas. Increased management in key breeding areas to prevent disturbance from tourism and recreational activities.


taxonomicNotes:
Larus glaucoides (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into L. glaucoides and L. thayeri following AOU (1998).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species is Not Evaluated (NE) for the EU27 region as winter (non-breeding season) data were not available.

population:
The European population is estimated at 50,000-100,000 pairs, which equates to 100,000-200,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in the Arctic regions including Greenland (to Denmark), and outside the breeding season can be found wintering in Iceland, Ireland, the U.K., the north coast of Norway, the southern tip of Scandinavia and the northern tip of Germany (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). Its habitat includes rocky coasts and fjords of low Arctic, breeding on steep cliffs, offshore stacks, sometimes undisturbed low islands. In winter it also occurs in harbours and occasionally rubbish dumps, and normally shuns fresh water (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

threats:
The species is extensively hunted by local people in Greenland, and increased non-native predators could also pose a hazard during the breeding season (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. There are two marine Important Bird Areas identified for this species (Greenland). Within the EU, there are two Special Protection Areas (Spain and Portugal).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of important sites for this species and subsequent designation as protected areas. Eradication of invasive predators from breeding sites. Continued monitoring of numbers caught for consumption.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

Although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species is Not Evaluated (NE) for the EU27 region as winter (non-breeding season) data were not available.

population:
The European population is estimated at 46,500-135,000 pairs, which equates to 93,000-270,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in the Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Birds breeding in northern Europe tend to remain near the colony year-round. Migratory populations also use the Atlantic coast of Europe down to Brittany, France including the United Kingdom and Ireland (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). Preferred habitat includes coasts, bays, harbours, landfill sites and fishing wharves. It breeds on cliffs in the Arctic and subarctic, mainly in the coastal zone or a few kilometres inland, particularly near human settlements, and often near gull or goose colonies; also on islands offshore or in lakes (Burger and Gochfeld 2014).  It feeds on fish, molluscs, crustaceans, rodents, birds, eggs and young of birds (especially ducks, auks, shorebirds), insects, berries, carrion, refuse and offal. In Iceland it consumes blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), Littorina palliata, crabs (Hyas), sea-urchins and sand eels (Ammodytes). In winter, southernmost birds feed mainly at rubbish dumps, behind ships, at sewage outfalls, and on fish offal; also exploits spawning squid, pelagic crabs, mammal carcasses, and occasionally faeces of marine mammals.

threats:
The species is threatened by organohalogen pollution in its Arctic breeding range (Bustnes et al. 2004, Verreault et al. 2007) (there is evidence that organohalogen contaminants alter the species's basal metabolic rate (Verreault et al. 2007) and that organochlorines reduce the efficiency of its immune system (Bustnes et al. 2004)). In parts of its breeding range the species is also being displaced by Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). Young birds are hunted in Greenland, mainly between August and November (Evans 1984).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. There are 16 Important Bird Areas which include this species. Within the EU there are 3 Special Protection Areas which include this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring of contaminant build up within individuals; Identification of important sites (breeding and at sea) and designation as protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 25,100-28,300 pairs, which equates to 50,100-56,500 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Its main habitat includes coasts and major rivers, harbours, fish ponds and rubbish dumps. It breeds on barren islands in fresh and saline lakes and in generally arid areas, preferring saline soils. It feeds chiefly on fish (particularly dead fish) and crustaceans, as well as insects, small mammals, birds, eggs and reptiles. It commonly follows fishing boats and takes fish offal in harbours. It often flies long distances from colonies to feed aerially on swarming insects (Burger et al. 2013).

threats:
This species is threatened by increasing predation from Larus cachinnans in its breeding range, and by nest predation by mammals (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). It is also still persecuted in some regions due to its depredation on commercial fish, and colonies are often subject to flooding following storms (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Listed on Appendix II of the Convention for Migratory Species and listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed in 13 Important Bird Areas, in Russia and in the Ukraine.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of Important Bird Areas for this species, and subsequent protection and management of sites.


population:
The European population is estimated at 118,000-133,000 pairs, which equates to 237,000-266,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 40,600-47,000 pairs, which equates to 81,100-94,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occurs along rocky or sandy coasts, estuaries and open seas, and larger inland waters, fields and moorland. It breeds on vegetated islands, dunes, flat-topped stacks, and sometimes salt-marsh islands among bushes, and locally on buildings (Burger et al. 2013). It is omnivorous and opportunistic, preying on fish, adult and young birds, bird eggs, mammals, marine invertebrates, insects, carrion, rubbish, offal and berries. Fish include cod (Gadus morhua), herring (Clupea harengus), and capelin (Mallotus villosus). It is an aggressive predator, particularly on eggs and chicks of L. argentatus, Rissa tridactyla, ducks, seabirds, and other species (Burger et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is hunted for sport in Denmark (Bregnballe et al. 2006). It is vulnerable to collision with offshore wind farms (Bradbury et al. 2014). It is also vulnerable to being caught as bycatch in fishing gears, including longlines, trawls and gillnets (Anderson et al. 2011, Zydelis et al. 2013).  It is vulnerable to coastal oil spills and other types of surface water pollution.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. In the EU it is listed under Annex II of the Birds Directive. There are 54 Important Bird Areas within Europe for this species. Within the EU there are 111 Special Protection Areas which include this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued monitoring of numbers hunted. On board observer programmes on fishing vessels to monitor bycatch rates, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented where necessary.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 118,000-328,000 pairs, which equates to 236,000-656,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 13,200-19,500 pairs, which equates to 26,400-39,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most populations are fully migratory and travel along coastlines between their breeding and wintering areas. Its preferred habitats include coasts, estuaries, harbours, marshes, inland lakes, fields and grasslands. In the Mediterranean it breeds along coasts, in coastal lagoons, steppe lakes and marshes in open lowland areas, favouring sparse vegetation, but generally avoiding barren sand; sometimes on coastal salt-marshes (NW Europe). It appears able to adapt more readily than many other species to new habitats, both breeding and wintering; in recent years has successfully colonized areas which differ markedly from its original habitats in (e.g., climate and vegetation) (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

threats:
This species sustains heavy losses as a result of tourist disturbance at breeding colonies (James 1984, Burger and Gochfeld 1996). The species may also be threatened by habitat loss resulting from tourism development and by marine pollution (e.g., oil spills and chemical discharges) (James 1984). Eggs are collected and adults exploited for food within Mediterranean breeding colonies, targeted by fishermen in the Mediterranean Sea (James 1984).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species, and is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is listed within 127 Important Bird Areas. Within the EU it is listed as occurring within 424 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of site based threats and management of protected areas.


population:
The European population is estimated at 409,000-534,000 pairs, which equates to 819,000-1,070,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 327,000-391,000 pairs, which equates to 655,000-782,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season the species nests near lakes surrounded by reedbeds (Olsen and Larsson 2003), pastures (Madeira) (le Grand et al. 1984), reservoirs, rivers (de Juana 1984), and on grassy or shrubby river islands (del Hoyo and Collar 2014), also forming colonies on sea cliffs (de Juana 1984), rocky and sandy offshore islands, rocky coasts (Snow and Perrins 1998, del Hoyo and Collar 2014), sandy beaches, spits (del Hoyo and Collar 2014), sand-dunes, and salt-pans (Snow and Perrins 1998), and foraging in intertidal zones (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) and in brackish coastal marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). Outside of the breeding season the species is more common along the coast (e.g. at harbours and ports) and in other marine habitats (though seldom far from land).

threats:
This species is vulnerable to oil pollution (James 1984, del Hoyo and Collar 2014), and is caught and killed by longlines (fishing lines) in the Mediterranean Sea and Macaronesia (Cooper 2003). It suffers from habitat destruction and disturbance from tourism at breeding sites in the Spanish Mediterranean (le Grand et al. 1984, de Juana 1984), and many colonies are regularly robbed of eggs by local communities (James 1984, de Juana 1984, del Hoyo and Collar 2014). The species was also persecuted in the past (adults were shot and nests destroyed) due to its predation on Mediterranean Gull (Larus melanocephalus) (del Hoyo and Collar 2014), culled in the Spanish Mediterranean (to protect Audouin's Gull (Larus audouinii)) (James 1984, del Hoyo and Collar 2014), and controlled by poisoning due to its predation on White-faced Storm-petrel (Pelagodroma marina) (le Grand et al. 1984). Culling of the species still occurs in the Mediterranean region, resulting in decreases in breeding colony size (mainly due to emigration rather than actual population decrease) (Bosch et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There is a single Important Bird Area identified for this species in Turkey. In the EU there are two Special Protection Areas, in Spain.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No specific conservation measures are proposed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,340,000-1,990,000 pairs, which equates to 2,670,000-3,980,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 883,000-1,150,000 pairs, which equates to 1,770,000-2,300,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Some populations of this species in milder areas of Europe are resident, with the remaining populations wintering to the south over a large range, encompassing much of the southern coast of Europe. It breeds chiefly inland, with much breeding habitat created by rising water levels. It inhabits the temperate zone to the edge of boreal forests of the Palearctic; mainly at low altitudes, and generally near calm, shallow water of coastal or inland waters, including rivers and their estuaries. In winter it tends to occur far more in coastal habitats, but also inland at relatively low elevations. It relies heavily on aquatic and terrestrial insects, earthworms and marine invertebrates, and to lesser extent on fish for prey (Burger and Gochfeld 2014).

threats:
The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (Hubalek et al. 2005). It may also be threatened by future coastal oil spills (Gorski et al. 1977) and has suffered local population declines in the past as a result of egg collecting (Burger and Gochfeld 2014). In some areas of its breeding range the species may also suffer from reduced reproductive successes due to contamination with chemical pollutants (Burger and Gochfeld 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. Within the EU it is listed on Annex II of the Birds Directive. It is listed within 43 marine Important Bird Areas. In the EU it is listed in 928 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management plans established for protected sites, including monitoring and enforcement from disturbance and removal of eggs.


population:
The European population is estimated at 12,700-16,500 pairs, which equates to 25,400-33,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in the high Arctic, north of the July 5°C isotherm (Snow and Perrins 1998) on broad upper ledges of steep, inaccessible coastal or inland cliffs (Burger et al. 2013, Snow and Perrins 1998) up to 300 m high (Snow and Perrins 1998), on broken ice-fields or on bare, level shorelines with low rocks (Snow and Perrins 1998, Burger et al. 2013). Outside of the breeding season it associates with the edges of pack-ice, showing a preference for areas with 70–90% ice cover. It breeds between late-June and August (although most pairs do not lay until early-July, and some pairs may not breed if food conditions are unfavourable) in colonies of 5–60 pairs. The nest is constructed of moss, straw and other debris, lined with dry grass and feathers, on a snow-free area of rock. Its diet consists predominantly of fish, shrimps, shellfish, algae and carrion (e.g. seal placentae) (Burger et al. 2013). It feeds mostly by hovering and contact dipping in open leads in ice-filled waters, or scavenging on marine mammal remains (Gilg et al. 2010). This species is migratory. It departs from its breeding grounds between August and October, (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and returns in late-March at Spitsbergen and in April at Franz Josef Land. Sometimes appears as a vagrant in several countries in western and northern Europe (Burger et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is thought to be declining due to changes in conditions on its staging or wintering grounds (e.g. more severe winters, changing sea-ice distribution and thickness) (Gilchrist and Mallory 2005). It is also hunted (Gilchrist and Mallory 2005).The species's reliance on seal and whale blubber makes it particularly vulnerable to heavy metal- contamination (Tucker and Heath 1994) as has been found outside of Europe (Braune et al. 2006) which may have had a long-term effect on breeding productivity (C. Miljeteig in litt. 2007). The levels of contaminants (e.g. organochlorines, brominated flame retardants, perfluorinated alkyl substances, and mercury) recorded in eggs of the species are among the highest among reported in Arctic seabird species (Miljeteig et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Annex II. In Russia, it was listed in the Red Data Book of the U.S.S.R. (1984) and is currently registered as a Category 3 (Rare) species in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation. As a result, the species is listed in regional Red Data Books along its breeding range in Russia (Gilchrist et al. 2008). However there are currently no specific conservation measures in action for this species (Varty and Tanner 2009). A Norwegian-Russian project satellite tagged 31 individuals in 2007/2008 to assess movements at breeding grounds and their dispersal ability (Gilg et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor population trends throughout the range, with particular emphasis on determining rates of decline in main breeding areas. Research the magnitude of threats facing all populations. Protect colonies from mining action.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species breeds mainly in the Siberian Arctic but tiny numbers breed within the region in Greenland. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Critically Endangered under the small population criterion, with a stable or fluctuating trend. The species could therefore be listed as Critically Endangered but given the potential for rescue from outside the region the final category is downlisted to Endangered (EN° D).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
The species breeds locally in Greenland (to Denmark), wintering mainly in the Arctic. The limits of its range are very poorly understood for all seasons (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). Concentrations of birds have been recorded regularly in Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land in the late-summer but there are no records of breeding there (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 0-5 pairs, which equates to 0-10 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in boggy terrain of the upper taiga and tundra, preferring marshy tundra in river deltas or small ponds with stunted alders (Alnus) and willows (Salix). Often associates with Arctic Terns (Sterna paradisaea) and waders (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). On its breeding grounds it is chiefly insectivorous, whilst during its migration it preys mainly on marine invertebrates (plankton, crustaceans, molluscs, and even priapulids) and small fish. Reported feeding on wave-washed “scum” on the beach, presumably plankton. Occasionally feeds on walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) dung. Forages in small loose flocks or solitarily; may join Xema sabini or phalaropes. Often follows ships through ice, capturing organisms on the undersurface of disturbed ice. It often feeds by aerial dipping; sometimes by walking, also by surface-dipping. Flocks sometimes gather around dead mammals (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

threats:
Adverse factors on species's numbers include predation on chicks by gulls, skuas and Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus). Oil development across the Arctic is also a potential threat (Burger and Gochfeld 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of Important Bird Areas in Arctic, including for sites at sea, and subsequent designation as marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This abundant small gull began undergoing rapid declines across the majority of its European breeding range since the 1980s. Extrapolated over a three generation period (39 years) these declines result in its classification as Vulnerable in Europe, and Endangered in the EU27 (where declines have been even more rapid).

range:
The species nests along coastlines in much of the Atlantic ocean, including those of the British Isles, Iceland and Greenland. It also breeds on islands off the northern coast of Russia and on the northern coast of Norway. It winters at sea, ranging across much of the north Atlantic (Burger et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,730,000-2,200,000 pairs, which equates to 3,460,000-4,410,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 421,000-422,000 pairs, which equates to 842,000-843,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In Europe this species breeds on cliffs and coastlines in both Arctic and temperate regions. This species is migratory and disperses after breeding from coastal areas to the open ocean (Burger et al. 2013). It returns to its breeding grounds from January where it breeds from mid-May to mid-June in huge single- or mixed-species colonies (Burger et al. 2013) that often exceed 100,000 pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998, Burger et al. 2013). Non-breeders may also remain at sea during the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). It nests on high, steep coastal cliffs with narrow ledges in areas with easy access to freshwater (Burger et al. 2013). The species moults on sandy beaches (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and on passage it may concentrate at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling (Burger et al. 2013) and at rich fish banks (Olsen and Larsson 2003). During the winter the species is highly pelagic, usually remaining on the wing out of sight of land (Burger et al. 2013). Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (e.g., squid and shrimps) and fish, although during the breeding season it may also take intertidal molluscs, crustaceans (Burger et al. 2013) (e.g., crayfish) (Flint et al. 1984), earthworms, small mammals and plant matter (e.g., aquatic plants, potato tubers and grain) (Burger et al. 2013). Many species of fish have been recorded in diet, but sandeels (Ammodytes), capelin (Mallotus villosus) and herring (Clupea harengus) are particularly important (Burger et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is threatened by the depletion of food resources (e.g. through over-fishing) (Frederiksen et al. 2004, Nikolaeva et al. 2006), marine oil spills (Nikolaeva et al. 2006, Burger et al. 2013) and chronic oil pollution (Nikolaeva et al. 2006). It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c. 10° latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20–50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (BirdLife International, unpublished data). It is caught as bycatch in longline fisheries, with significant numbers estimated to be caught off the western coast of Ireland and the U.K.. The species is considered a high risk for collision with offshore wind farms (Bradbury et al. 2014). The species is hunted in the Faroe Islands and in Greenland (Labansen et al. 2010, Burger et al. 2013, Thorup et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement, but is not listed on the Bern Convention, the Convention of Migratory Species or on the EU Birds Directive Annexes. It is protected in some European countries by national legislation, including: France ( ‘Liste des espèces d’oiseaux protégées en France en application de l’article L. 411-1 du code de l’environnement et de la directive 79/409 du 2 avril 1979 concernant la conservation des oiseaux sauvages’); Portugal (D.L. 140/99 de 24 de Abril rectificado pelo D.L. 49/2005 de 24 de Fevereiro; Spain (species listed on the State Catalogue of Threatened Species as a species of “Special Interest” – Royal Decree 439/1990& under regional legislation and included on the Galician Catalogue of Threatened Species: “Vulnerable” Decree 82/2007 of 19th of April). The species is categorised as Vulnerable in the Norwegian Red List and the All-Ireland Vertebrate Red Data Book (OSPAR, 2010). Population monitoring occurs across much of its breeding range, including Greenland, Norway (Anker-Nilssen et al. 2007), Iceland (Garðarsson 2006) France and the U.K.. The species is considered within the Nordic Action Plan for Seabirds.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species could benefit from regional level, international Species Action Plans, a regional monitoring strategy and further research on the effects on climate change and prey reductions. OSPAR recommends creating a network of hunting-free reserves in coastal areas. Monitoring of bycatch of this species through on board observer programmes is needed, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented where necessary. Sustainable manage fisheries to prevent over-fishing.


taxonomicNotes:
The BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group is aware that phylogenetic analyses have been published which have proposed generic rearrangements which may affect this species, but prefers to wait until work by other taxonomists reveals how these changes affect the

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, although this species may have a small range it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,300-2,900 pairs, which equates to 4,500-5,800 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species nests on sand-dunes, sand-spits, shingle beaches, reefs (Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes and rocky, sandy or coral islands, showing a preference for densely vegetated sites in temperate regions (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). It also shows a preference for nest sites close to clear, shallow, sandy fishing grounds in tidal bays and sheltered inshore waters (Snow and Perrins 1998). Throughout the year the species often rests and forages in sheltered estuaries, creeks (Urban et al. 1986), inshore waters and up to several kilometres offshore (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), moving to warm tropical coasts after breeding (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds in large, dense single- or mixed-species colonies that may contain several thousands of pairs.  The nest is a bare scrape in sand, shingle or coral rubble (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), preferably in sites surrounded by walls and rocks (Newton and Crowe 2000) or in the shelter of vegetation (in temperate regions) (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), also in crevices between and under rocks, or in the entrances to rabbit or Puffin burrows (Snow and Perrins 1998). Clutches are normally two eggs but can be only one in poor food years (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). This species is a specialist forager, and takes a small prey spectrum compared to Common Tern at the same sites (Birdlife International 2000). Its diet consists predominantly of small pelagic fish (Urban et al. 1986, Gochfeld and Burger 1996), particularly sand eel (Birdlife International 2000, Newton and Crowe 2000) and sprat (Birdlife International 2000) and sometimes clupeids (Birdlife International 2000, Newton and Crowe 2000) and gadoids (Newton and Crowe 2000), although it will also take insects and marine invertebrates (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Sandeel are particularly important during chick rearing (Newton and Crowe 2000). The species is migratory and Palearctic birds winter in west Africa (Gochfeld and Burger 1996).

threats:
The species is threatened by a number of agents, of which hunting in the wintering quarters may be the most significant (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper et al. 1984, Avery et al. 1995). At the northern European breeding grounds, the most significant threats are human disturbance (e.g., from habitat development, off-road vehicles and recreation (Buckley and Buckley 1984, van Halewyn and Norton 1984)) and predation from both natural and introduced avian and ground predators (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper et al. 1984, van Halewyn and Norton 1984, Avery et al. 1995, Snow and Perrins 1998). Disturbance and egg-collecting have been stopped in most areas by the use of wardens, but disturbance still threatens some major colonies in the Azores (van Halewyn and Norton 1984, Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Predation by rats, ferrets, red foxes and Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) occurs locally, and can have significant effects, including complete breeding failure at some Azores colonies (Avery et al. 1995). Natural predators can often take a great toll on localised colonies, particularly when terns are disturbed from the nest by other birds and humans (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper et al. 1984). Habitat loss in northern Europe is not a major problem but has caused the local extinction of some colonies, as have extreme weather events (Avery et al. 1995). Climate change may negatively affect the species but the exact mechanisms are not known (Newbery 1999). The species is also vulnerable to pollution and disease (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Avery et al. 1995).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Breeding birds are fully protected by national and international law but at sea outside of European territorial waters or in the coastal waters of other countries protection is limited (Tucker and Heath 1994). An action plan for the recovery of the European population was launched in 1987 (Avery 1987) and most of its recommendations have been implemented (Avery et al. 1995). An International Species Action Plan was published in 1999 (Newbery 1999).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Legislative protection and enforcement should be introduced for the entire range of this species (Tucker and Heath 1994). Breeding pairs are known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992) and nesting-boxes provided (chicks may also use nest-boxes as shelters if adults do not nest in them directly) (Avery et al. 1995, Casey et al. 1995, Newton and Crowe 2000). Increased breeding successes can also be gained through nest-site vegetation management (Casey et al. 1995, Newton and Crowe 2000), landscaping (e.g. creating terraces or infilling flooded hollows), flood prevention (Newton and Crowe 2000), and continuous wardening to minimise unauthorised disturbance (Casey et al. 1995, Newton and Crowe 2000). Non-lethal predator control (e.g. destroying eggs and nests of gull species attempting to nest on islands) can also be successful in increasing the overall breeding success of the species (Casey et al. 1995, Leonard et al. 2004). Colonies which seem abandoned should still be protected and maintained to allow recolonization. At selected sites population and productivity monitoring should continue (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 316,000-605,000 pairs, which equates to 631,000-1,210,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 132,000-213,000 pairs, which equates to 265,000-426,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in a wide variety of habitats in coastal and inland areas from sea-level to heights of greater than 4,000 m (Gochfeld et al. 2013). Along the coast it shows a preference for nesting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands (Snow and Perrins 1998), open shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits (Snow and Perrins 1998, Gochfeld et al. 2013), vegetated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in estuaries (Gochfeld et al. 2013) and coastal lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), mainland peninsulas (Snow and Perrins 1998) and grassy plateauxs atop coastal cliffs (Gochfeld et al. 2013). Inland it may nest in similar habitats including sand or shingle lakes shores (Richards 1990), shingle banks in rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in lakes and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998, Gochfeld et al. 2013), sand- or gravel-pits (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), marshes, ponds, grassy areas and patches of dredged soil (Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds between April and June in solitary pairs or colonially in groups of up to several thousand pairs (inland colonies often smaller and more widely-dispersed than coastal ones). The nest is a shallow depression on open substrates with little or no vegetation placed near a vertical object (e.g. rock, shell, plant or artefact) to provide shelter for chicks and to facilitate nest identification. Nest sites include the edges of bare sand amongst vegetation, rocks or logs, open areas on the margins of vegetation on beaches, the edges of mats of vegetation in marshes, and grassy or rocky substrates on rocky islets. The species will also readily nest on artificial rafts. Clutches at higher latitudes are normally three eggs, however this is affected by food availability. It is an opportunistic feeder, its diet consisting predominantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic crustaceans and insects. This species is a strongly migratory coastal seabird (Snow and Perrins 1998, Gochfeld et al. 2013). Palearctic breeders migrate south after breeding between August and October, returning to the breeding grounds in March or April (Gochfeld et al. 2013).

threats:
During the breeding season the species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Blokpoel and Scharf 1991) (e.g. from off-road vehicles, recreation, motor-boats, personal watercraft and dogs) (van Halewyn and Norton 1984, Hyde 1997, Burger 1998, Gochfeld et al. 2013), and to the flooding of nest sites as a result of naturally fluctuating water levels (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Hyde 1997, Gochfeld et al. 2013). On its breeding grounds the species is also threatened by habitat loss as a result of coastal development (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, Hyde 1997, Gochfeld et al. 2013), erosion (Hyde 1997), vegetation overgrowth (rapid vegetation succession encroaching upon nesting habitats) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, Hyde 1997Gochfeld et al. 2013), and chemical pollution (which may also result in eggshell thinning) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, Hyde 1997, Gochfeld et al. 2013). It suffers predation at nesting colonies from rats (especially on islands) (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Gochfeld et al. 2013) and from expanding populations of large gull species (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Gochfeld et al. 2013) such as Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) (Buckley and Buckley 1984) (gulls may also prevent the species from nesting in the area by colonising it first) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, Gochfeld et al. 2013). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Other threats include organochlorine pollution, over-fishing by man (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and fatalities from wind turbine collisions (Everaert and Stienen 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996).

Conservation Actions Proposed
In the Po Delta of Italy a conservation scheme has specified that bare islets with 30–100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). Artificial nesting rafts have proved effective in promoting breeding success in areas where there is a lack of suitable nesting habitat or where human disturbance is a particular threat (1996) (Gochfeld et al. 2013). Using fire to expose the ground surface in areas where vegetation succession is proceeding too far towards closed vegetation stages has been successful in some areas (Hyde 1997). Management techniques used to increase the breeding numbers and reproductive success of the species in the Great Lakes region of North America include creating artificial nesting sites, vegetation management, enhancement of existing nesting habitat, using models and vocalisation to attract breeding pairs and predator control (e.g. mammal-exclusion, destruction of gull nests, direct predator removal, or preventative measures against gull nesting) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991). Culling predatory gulls can be an effective management tool to enhance breeding productivity (Guillemette and Brousseau 2001), although some management plans recommend non-lethal harassment techniques that target gulls (e.g. egg and nest destruction, conspicuous human observers, gull displacement walks, and pyrotechnics) to reduce predation on nesting colonies rather than culling (Donehower et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 564,000-906,000 pairs, which equates to 1,130,000-1,810,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 160,000-211,000 pairs, which equates to 320,000-422,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds along northern coastlines (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and on inshore islands, as well as inland on tundra and forest-tundra (Flint et al. 1984). It shows a preference for habitats with a vegetation cover of less than 40%, nesting on sand or shingle beaches, ridges (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and spits, rocky ground and small islands (Flint et al. 1984) in lakes and coastal lagoons (Gochfeld et al. 2014). It may also nest on islets or banks along rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), on swampy tundra and peatlands with bog hummocks (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and reed-covered flats (Flint et al. 1984), or on inland heaths, rough pastures, meadows (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and sedge grassland (Snow and Perrins 1998) not far from water (Flint et al. 1984). The species also forages offshore, in ice-filled coastal bays or over wet tundra (Gochfeld et al. 2014). On passage it largely flies over open ocean (Snow and Perrins 1998) resting at sea on kelp, logs or flotsam, but may occur inland or along coastlines on beaches, reefs and spits (Higgins and Davies 1996). It breeds between May and July (although the exact timing varies with temperature and food availability) in solitary pairs or colonies of a few to several hundred pairs (usually 2–25). The nest is a shallow scrape (Gochfeld et al. 2014) in sand, shingle or turf (Richards 1990) on beaches, ridges and spits, rocky ground, small islands  in lakes, coastal lagoons (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), swampy tundra and peatlands with bog hummocks (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and reed-covered flats (Flint et al. 1984), or on inland heaths, rough pastures, meadows (Gochfeld et al. 2014) and sedge grassland (Snow and Perrins 1998) not far from water (Flint et al. 1984). It will also nest on artificial structures. Clutches are two to three eggs. Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans (especially planktonic species), molluscs, insects (e.g. caterpillars, Chironomidae) and earthworms. It will also take berries in the early spring on arrival on its breeding grounds but does not readily switch to other prey items when preferred prey supplies fail. The species is a very strong migrant and makes exceptional long-distance movements offshore or along western continental coastlines (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gochfeld et al. 2014) between its high Arctic breeding grounds and Antarctic wintering grounds (Gochfeld et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10° latitude from the polar edge of continent within  20–50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under a doubling of CO2 levels (Birdlife International, unpublished data). In many parts of Scandinavia, declines have been caused in the past by egg collecting, however this has decreased in recent years allowing the population to recover (Gochfeld et al. 2014). In some areas predation by Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) (Horobin 1971) and American Mink (Mustela vison) can be a problem (Hagemeijer and Balir 1997) and mortality has been recorded as a result of red tide (Horobin 1971). In northern Britain the collapse of sand eel stocks have caused a crash in the population and in Svalbard the population may be vulnerable to oil, particularly in the post-breeding period (Gochfeld et al. 2014). Pollution is likely a major factor in the species's decline and yachting and other leisure activities have led to an increase in disturbance. Declines have also been correlated with gull abundance (Hagemijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II.  In the Baltic Sea, removing feral American Mink (Neovison vison) from a large archipelago with many small islands resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species in the area (Nordstrom et al. 2003). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Gull control measures may also be practised successfully at some sites to reduce predation and displacement, especially when carried out in conjunction with the use of recordings and models to induce recolonistion of nesting terns (Buckley and Buckley 1984). This species also benefits from the removal of American Mink (Nordstrom et al. 2003).


taxonomicNotes:
Sternula albifrons (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Sterna.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 36,000-53,000 pairs, which equates to 71,900-106,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 14,500-19,600 pairs, which equates to 29,000-39,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is mainly coastal, but is also found inland along rivers and on oceanic islands. It breeds on barren or sparsely vegetated sandy, shell and rocky islands, shingle beaches, spits in estuaries and lakes, salt-marshes, salt-pans and rivers. Outside of the breeding season it frequents tidal creeks, coastal lagoons and salt-pans; sometimes feeds far out to sea (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). It feeds mainly on small fish and crustaceans, also insects, annelids and molluscs. The main fish species include sand eels (Ammodytes), roach (Rutilus rutilus), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), carp (Cyprinus carpio), perch (Perca fluviatilis). It specializes in prolonged hovering and plunge-diving into shallow water, often at edge of advancing tide. Groups of birds may dive synchronously (Gochfeld and Burger 1996).

threats:
The species is threatened by habitat destruction (Barcena et al. 1984) such as the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats (Barcena et al. 1984, Gochfeld and Burger 1996) (e.g. for the development of new harbour facilities) (Barcena et al. 1984). It is also highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures (Barcena et al. 1984, Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury and DDT) (Barcena et al. 1984, Thyen et al. 2000, Choi et al. 2001) and artificially induced water-level fluctuations in saltmarshes (Barcena et al. 1984) may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive success (Barcena et al. 1984, Thyen et al. 2000, Choi et al. 2001). The species also suffers from local egg collecting (Barcena et al. 1984) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species and is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Within the EU it is listed on Annex I of the Birds Directive. Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas, erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this species on sandy beaches (Richards 1990, Medeiros et al. 2007). There is also evidence that earlier breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season (Medeiros et al. 2007). Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992). A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). There are 258 Important Bird Areas identified across the European region. Within the EU there are 648 Special Protection Areas which include this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management of existing Special Protection Areas, including continuing measures to reduce human disturbance to breeding sites.


taxonomicNotes:
Thalasseus sandvicensis (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Sterna.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 79,900-148,000 pairs, which equates to 160,000-295,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 53,900-63,600 pairs, which equates to 108,000-127,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season the species forms colonies on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes, shingle beaches and extensive deltas with immediate access to clear waters with shallow sandy substrates rich in surface-level fish (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for raised, open, unvegetated sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates for nesting. Outside of the breeding season the species frequents sandy or rocky beaches, estuaries, harbours and bays, often feeding over inlets and at sea. It breeds from May to June in dense colonies with other terns or Black-headed Gulls (Larus ridibundus). The nest is a shallow scrape on raised, open, unvegetated sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates preferably far from upright vegetation (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes and shingle beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998). Clutches are one or two eggs. The species forms very dense colonies during the breeding season in which the eggs of neighbouring pairs may only be 20 cm apart. Its diet consists predominantly of surface-dwelling marine fish (Snow and Perrins 1998) 9–15 cm long, as well as small shrimps, marine worms and shorebird nestlings. This species is migratory, undergoing post-breeding dispersive movements north and south to favoured feeding grounds before migrating southward (Gochfeld and Burger 1996).

threats:
The species is particularly vulnerable to human disturbance (Gochfeld and Burger 1996) (e.g. from tourists) especially near breeding colonies on beaches early in the breeding season (Bourne and Smith 1974). It is also sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004). It is threatened by the loss or degradation of its favoured breeding habitats through inundation, wind-blown sand and erosion (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), and has suffered previous local declines from exposure to bioaccumulated organochlorine pollutants in marine fish (Koeman et al. 1967, Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Other serious threats include recreational disturbance, coastal developments, pollution, land-use affecting vegetation and predation (Garthe and Flore 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100% cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species responds favourably to habitat management such as vegetation clearance, and can be readily attracted to suitable nesting habitats by the use of decoys (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered a vagrant or passage species in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,100-2,100 pairs, which equates to 2,100-4,100 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the Arctic it occupies the tundra, breeding at wetlands with mosses and sedges. It is pelagic in winter. Its prey includes invertebrates and small fish and occasionally small birds and eggs of Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea) and of conspecifics. It also feeds on carrion and fish discards. Breeding birds feed mainly on terrestrial prey in marshes. During the non-breeding season it feeds by swooping low over water and snatches prey from surface and sometimes swims, or feeds on land (Burger and Gochfeld 2013).

threats:
No specific information on threats to this species has been recorded within Europe, however as an Arctic breeding species, it is likely to be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change including habitat change and ecosystem shifts (Ganter and Gaston, 2013). Beyond Europe, the species is hunted in Russia, including egg harvesting (Merkel and Barry 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed within six marine Important Bird Areas across the region. Within the EU it is listed in two Special Protection Areas in Spain.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification of Important Bird Areas in the Arctic region, and subsequent designation as protected areas, with particular emphasis on sites at sea.


taxonomicNotes:
Himantopus himantopus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously split as H. himantopus, H. leucocephalus and H. mexicanus and  following AOU (1998) and SACC (2006). Prior to that, H. melanurus had been split from H. mexicanus following Sibley and Monroe (

population:
The European population is estimated at 53,900-75,700 pairs, which equates to 108,000-151,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 37,800-47,400 pairs, which equates to 75,600-94,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
BehaviourNorthern populations of this species make long-distance migratory movements, travelling southwards to their wintering grounds between August and November and returning to their breeding areas between March and April (Hayman et al. 1986). In more temperate regions the species is sedentary or only locally dispersive however (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species breeds solitarily or in loose colonies of 2-50 or occasionally up to several hundred pairs (Urban et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996). It is typically a gregarious species, occurring in small groups (Snow and Perrins 1998) (up to 15 individuals) (Urban et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996) or larger flocks of several hundred up to a thousand individuals on migration, during the winter (Urban et al. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998) and at nightly roosts (Urban et al. 1986).

Habitat Breeding The species typically breeds in shallow freshwater and brackish wetlands with sand, mud or clay substrates and open margins, islets or spits near water level (Snow and Perrins 1998). Suitable habitats include marshes and swamps, shallow lake edges, riverbeds, flooded fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996), irrigated areas (Snow and Perrins 1998), sewage ponds (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and fish-ponds (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also breed around alkaline and high-altitude (montane) lakes (del Hoyo et al. 1996) or in more saline environments such as river deltas, estuaries (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal lagoons (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998) and shallow coastal pools with extensive areas of mudflats, salt meadows (Johnsgard 1981), saltpans, coastal marshes (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and swamps (Snow and Perrins 1998). Non-breeding Outside of the breeding season the species occupies the shores of large inland waterbodies and estuarine or coastal habitats (del Hoyo et al. 1996) such as river deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal lagoons (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998) and shallow freshwater or brackish pools with extensive areas of mudflats, salt meadows (Johnsgard 1981), saltpans, coastal marshes (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and swamps (Snow and Perrins 1998).

Diet Its diet is strongly seasonal (del Hoyo et al. 1996) but generally includes adult and larval aquatic insects (e.g. Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Diptera, Neuroptera and Lepidoptera), molluscs, crustaceans, spiders, oligochaete and polychaete worms, tadpoles (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and amphibian spawn (Urban et al. 1986), small fish, fish eggs (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and occasionally seeds (Urban et al. 1986).

Breeding site The nest is a depression (Flint et al. 1984) or shallow scrape positioned on hard ground near water on a hummock (Flint et al. 1984) or amongst grass and sedge (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Alternatively the nest may be a more elaborate platform of vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) constructed on a floating mass of aquatic vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species nests singly or in loose colonies (del Hoyo et al. 1996), showing a preference for open areas close to foraging sites with good all-round (360 degree) visibility (Johnsgard 1981).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 58,400-74,300 pairs, which equates to 117,000-149,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 51,700-59,300 pairs, which equates to 103,000-119,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Northern populations migrate south between August and October and return to the breeding grounds between March and May, staging on route in large numbers at certain sites (Pierce and Boesman 2013). The species is present all year round in parts of Western Europe (Hayman et al. 1986, Pierce and Boesman 2013). It breeds from April to August in large colonies (Pierce and Boesman 2013) usually of between 10 and 70 pairs (Johnsgard et al. 1981). The species breeds in flat open areas (Pierce and Boesman 2013) on shallow saline or brackish wetlands (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, Urban et al. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998, Pierce and Boesman 2013) with islands, ridges, spits or margins of bare sand, clay or mud (Snow and Perrins 1998) and sparse short vegetation (Hayman et al. 1986), including inland lakes, pools, coastal lagoons, estuaries, saltpans (Pierce and Boesman 2013), saltmarshes, irrigated land and flood-plains in arid areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). The most important characteristics of breeding habitats appear to be water levels which gradually decline over the summer to expose additional feeding areas, and high salt concentrations that prevent the development of excessive emergent and shoreline vegetation (Johnsgard et al. 1981). Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits coastal and inland saline lakes and mudflats, lagoons, pools, saltpans, estuaries (Pierce and Boesman 2013), sandy beaches, river deltas and flood-plains (Urban et al. 1986). It rarely occurs on inland freshwater lakes and rivers (Urban et al. 1986, Pierce and Boesman 2013) but may forage on agricultural land (Pierce and Boesman 2013). Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic invertebrates 4–15 cm long including aquatic insects (Pierce and Boesman 2013) (e.g. small beetles, midges and brine flies) (Johnsgard et al. 1981), crustaceans (Pierce and Boesman 2013) (e.g. Corophium spp.) (Johnsgard et al. 1981), oligochaete and polychaete worms, and molluscs, as well and small fish (Pierce and Boesman 2013) (e.g. sole) (Urban et al. 1986) and plant matter (Pierce and Boesman 2013) (e.g. seeds and small roots) (Urban et al. 1986). The nest is a scrape (Pierce and Boesman 2013) that may be positioned in a variety of sites including on bare sand (Johnsgard et al. 1981), dried mud, short grass (Urban et al. 1986), dead vegetation and built-up mounds of debris (Johnsgard et al. 1981). The species nests in large colonies and neighbouring nests are usually one metre apart (Hayman et al. 1986) or occasionally as close as 20–30 cm (Urban et al. 1986).

threats:
The species is threatened in Europe by the pollution of wetlands with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), insecticides, selenium, lead and mercury (Pierce and Boesman 2013). Important wintering sites (e.g. in Portugal) are also threatened by infrastructure development (Pierce and Boesman 2013), land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006). The species is susceptible to avian botulism (Blaker 1967, Hubalek et al. 2005) and avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive and Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Artificially constructed nesting sites in coastal locations such as beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation are successful in attracting breeding pairs of this species (Burgess and Hirons 1992). The species responds positively (e.g. breeding numbers increase) to the introduction of cattle grazing on coastal grasslands, possibly as a result of reduced vegetation cover allowing improved predator detection (Olsen and Schmidt 2004). Pollution of wetland habitats, land reclamation, infrastructure development and human disturbance at key breeding sites needs to be stopped.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species has undergone moderately rapid declines and is therefore classified as Near Threatened under Criterion A (A2abc+3bc+4abc).

range:
The species breeds across Europe, except for in Iceland where it is not present (Hagemijer and Blair 1997). Outside the breeding season, it populations can be found wintering in western Europe (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 794,000-1,460,000 pairs, which equates to 1,590,000-2,920,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 224,000-380,000 pairs, which equates to 448,000-760,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full migrant, migrating at night overland on a broad front across both deserts and mountains (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Small numbers may also remain in the northern maritime climatic zone (e.g. the British Isles and Mediterranean) throughout the year (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The European population that overwinters in West Africa migrates south between mid-July and August (juveniles following one month later, and returns to the breeding grounds from late March to April (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Immature individuals may also remain in the winter range throughout the summer breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds from May to June in scattered single pairs 60?70 m apart in optimal breeding habitat, and migrates singly or in small flocks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), although it usually remains solitary in its winter range (Urban et al. 1986). It forages diurnally (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and may aggregate at night (Johnsgard 1981) into roosts of over 100 individuals (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). During the breeding season this species shows a preference for pebbly, sandy or rocky margins of fast-flowing rivers (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), as well as small ponds, pools (Snow and Perrins 1998) and dams (Urban et al. 1986), clear freshwater lake shores, sheltered sea coasts with rocky or sandy beaches, tidal creeks and estuaries (Urban et al. 1986), and often forages in patches of dry meadow (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). In its winter range this species inhabits a wide variety of habitats, such as small pools, ditches, riverbanks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), streams, dam shores (Yalden 1992), marshy areas (Johnsgard 1981), estuaries, freshwater seeps on coastal shores and saltmarshes, harbours, docks (Yalden 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) and filtration tanks of sewage works (Yalden 1992). It will also forage on grassland along roadsides and occasionally in gardens (Yalden 1992, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), but it generally avoids large coastal mudflats (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The diet of this species consists of adult and larval insects (such as beetles and Diptera), spiders, molluscs, snails, crustaceans, annelids, and occasionally frogs, toads, tadpoles and small fish, as well as plant material (including seeds) (Urban et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest is a shallow depression, sometimes amongst shrubs and trees (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The size of the breeding population in England is threatened by disturbance from recreational anglers (Yalden 1992).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing very rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Endangered (A2abc+3bc+4abc). Since the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
In Europe this species breeds in Fennoscandia and Russia, as well as Greenland. It winters along the coastlines of the Baltic and western Europe (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 35,900-77,100 pairs, which equates to 71,800-154,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,000-4,600 pairs, which equates to 5,900-9,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It breeds from May to early-August (Hayman et al. 1986), although several pairs may nest close together in optimal habitats (Johnsgard 1981) along coasts or on islands (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species migrates in large flocks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and is gregarious and sociable when feeding or roosting in winter (Snow and Perrins 1998), often foraging in close flocks of 10?100 or more individuals, especially in tidal areas (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species breeds near the coast or up to several kilometres inland (Snow and Perrins 1998) in the high Arctic (Hayman et al. 1986), nesting on coastal plains, marshes and tundra (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and showing a preference for mosaics of bare rock, clay or shingle and vegetation near water (Snow and Perrins 1998) or in areas that remain damp until late summer (Johnsgard 1981). Outside of the breeding season the species is mainly coastal, although on migration it may occur inland along dykes or on lake shores (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). During the winter it frequents productive rocky and shingle shores (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), breakwaters, short-grass saltmarshes, sheltered inlets, estuaries, mudflats with beds of molluscs (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), sandy beaches with storm-wrecked seaweed (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). On its Arctic breeding grounds the species takes Diptera (especially adult and larval midges) as well as larval Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and spiders, occasionally also taking vegetable matter early in the season. Outside of the breeding season its diet consists of insects, crustaceans, molluscs, annelids, echinoderms, small fish, carrion and birds eggs. The nest is a shallow depression (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) in mud, peat or on dry ground (Johnsgard 1981) with dense vegetation (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), often positioned on a slight ridge, hummock or tussock, or in a cleft or shallow fissure (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species usually nests solitarily, although neighbouring pairs may nest as little as 15 m apart along coasts or on islands (where abundant feeding habitats are available) (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species suffers nest predation from feral American Mink (Neovison vison) in some regions (Nordstrom et al. 2003), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Removing feral American Mink (Neovison vison) from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea had the result of increasing the breeding density of this species in the area (Nordstrom et al. 2003).


population:
The European population is estimated at 25,100-50,100 pairs, which equates to 50,100-100,000 mature individuals. The species occurs in the EU27 only in winter and the minimum population is estimated at 68,200-75,200 individuals, which equates to 45,500-50,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full long-distance migrant that travels mainly via offshore and coastal routes using a number of favoured stopover sites. It breeds from June to mid-July in solitary pairs (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), departing the breeding grounds between mid-July and early-September (Hayman et al. 1986). The species usually occurs in small flocks on migration (Johnsgard 1981) although it may aggregate into larger flocks at stopover sites (Hayman et al. 1986), and in winter it forages in small to very large flocks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species breeds in the high Arctic on barren, stony tundra with well-drained ridges (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), gentle slopes or level alluvial plains supporting scattered vegetation of willow Salix spp., Dryas spp. and saxifrage Saxifraga spp. usually less than 200 m above sea-level (Johnsgard 1981). On passage the species may occur on inland freshwater or saline lakes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) but it is largely coastal during the winter, inhabiting open sandy beaches exposed to the sea, the outer reaches of estuaries, rocky and muddy shores and mudflats (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). When breeding the species takes insects (especially adult and larval Diptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera) as well as spiders and crustaceans (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). On arrival on the breeding grounds the species may also complement its diet with plant matter (e.g. seeds, saxifrage buds, moss and algae) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) before invertebrate prey becomes available (Johnsgard 1981). During the winter its diet consists of small molluscs, crustaceans, polychaete worms and adult, larval and pupal insects (e.g. Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera), as well as occasionally fish and carrion. The nest is a shallow depression on bare earth (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) of stony well-drained ridges, gentle slopes or level alluvial plains (Johnsgard 1981).

threats:
The species is sensitive to disturbance on beaches (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. from recreational activities and free-running dogs (Thomas et al. 2003)), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Recreation at staging and wintering areas needs to be controlled. Land reclamation, infrastructure development at key staging areas should be controlled.


population:
The European population is estimated at 426,000-562,000 pairs, which equates to 853,000-1,120,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 24,200-41,300 pairs, which equates to 48,400-82,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a fully migratory circumpolar breeder with several sub-populations that employ a number of migration strategies, from short coastal flights to long, non-stop flights overland on a broad front. The sub-population that breeds in north-east Greenland migrates through Iceland, Britain and western France to arrive in its West African wintering grounds (specifically Banc d'Arguin in Mauritania) from late-July, returning again between March and early-April (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). In the breeding season this species frequents moist boggy ground interspersed with surface water, such as tussock tundra and peat-hummock tundra in the arctic, as well as wet coastal grasslands, salt marshes and wet upland moorland (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). In the non-breeding season this species mainly prefer estuarine mudflats, but also frequent a wide variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), both coastal and inland, including lagoons, muddy freshwater shores, tidal rivers, flooded fields, sewage farms, salt-works, sandy coasts (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), lakes and dams (Hockey et al. 2005). For roosting during high tides and at night this species prefers large fields of naturally fertilised short pasture or soil-based crops with few vertical structures that could be used by predators (Shepherd and Lank 2004). This species is omnivorous during the breeding season, consuming mostly adult and larval insects (dipteran flies, beetles, caddisflies, wasps, sawflies and mayflies), and also spiders, mites, earthworms, snails, slugs and plant matter (usually seeds) (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It is also omnivorous during the non-breeding season, consuming mostly polychaete worms and small gastropods, as well as insects (dipteran flies and beetles), crustaceans, bivalves, plant matter and occasionally small fish (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Its nest is a scrape or shallow depression in the ground, concealed in vegetation and sometimes in a tuft or tussock (and thus raised slightly off the ground) (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
This species is significantly threatened by the loss of its breeding habitat though afforestation of moorland (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Lavers and Haines-Young 1997). It may also suffer from nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog Erinaceus europeaus) on some islands (Jackson 2001). In the winter this species is restricted to a small number of estuaries, so it is vulnerable to any changes in this habitat for example through land reclamation (drainage) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), and the invasion of alien plant species (such as the grass Spartina anglica which has spread on British mudflats, resulting in the reduction in size of feeding areas available) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species is also threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats from construction work (UK) (Burton et al. 2002a) and foot-traffic on footpaths (Burton et al. 2002b). Important migratory stop-over habitats on the Baltic Sea coastline adjacent to the Kaliningrad region of Russia are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, peat-extraction, reedbed mowing and burning, and abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub and reed overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1 in particular) and is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive and Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The provision of well-surfaced paths in breeding areas that receive> 30 visitors a day has been shown to reduce the impact of human disturbance on this species's reproductive performance (Pearce-Higgins et al. 2007). It is also known to show increased hatching success when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas (Jackson 2001). Recreation, pollution of wetland habitats, drainage and afforestation of wetland areas at key breeding and staging areas should be controlled.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large breeding range across Arctic North America, extending into Europe only in western-most Greenland. The population size within the region is small and the population trend is unknown, but there is no evidence of a decline. The species therefore meets the thresholds for classification as Near Threatened but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted by one category to Least Concern (LC°).

The species does not occur within the EU27 and it is Not Applicable for the region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 500-1,000 pairs, which equates to 1,000-2,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory. Many migrate inland, across North American prairies, te Rockies and northern Andes, often staging at high altitude lakes. Adults depart on autumn migration early July, females slightly preceding males. Juveniles migrate later from the breeding grounds, from late July, in more leisurely fashion, and over a broader front. Northwards migration is occurs largely along the same route. It is a vagrant to several European countries, especially Britain and Ireland, and also to Turkey, the Azores, Madeira, Canary and Cape Verde Islands. The species breeds on low mountain tops, river terraces and coastal barren areas and bluffs in high Arctic tundra; dry, high-lying lichen tundra and stony ridges. On migration and in winter the species occurs at inland wetlands to coastal habitats, including grassland, ditches, irrigated or rain-soaked fields, pools in desert, sand dunes; occasionally in upper littoral zone of estuaries, mudflats and beaches; usually on higher parts of the shore or dry fringes of wetland sites, often among vegetation. During the breeding season the diet consists mainly of insects, such as chironomid and cranefly larvae and adults, and beetles; also spiders. On migration, the species feeds on adult and larval beetles, larval Diptera. It is less gregarious than most other calidrines; in winter it can be found in flocks of 20–30 birds; some individuals defend feeding territory. Eggs are laid in June. Monogamous. Nest is relatively exposed; simple, shallow depression in bare ground, or amongst short vegetation, filled with bits of lichens or other vegetation (Van Gils et al. 2015).

threats:
The species may be vulnerable to climate change, driving a mismatch between breeding and peak cranefly abundance (Green and Pearce-Higgins 2014).


population:
The European population is estimated at 15,000-30,000 pairs, which equates to 30,000-60,000 mature individuals. The species occurs in the EU27 only in winter and the minimum population is estimated at 505,000-565,000 individuals, which equates to 337,000-377,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full long-distance migrant that utilises few stopover sites or staging areas (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species breeds from June to August (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary pairs (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), travelling in flocks on migration (Hayman et al. 1986) and remaining highly gregarious in winter often foraging in flocks of 300–10,000 individuals (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) at select feeding and roosting sites (Hayman et al. 1986). The species breeds in the high Arctic (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) on dry upland tundra including weathered sandstone ridges, upland areas with scattered willows (Salix spp.), Dryas spp. and poppy, moist marshy slopes and flats in foothills, well-drained slopes hummocked with Dryas spp. (Johnsgard 1981) and upland glacial gravel close to streams or ponds. Outside of the breeding season the species is strictly coastal, frequenting tidal mudflats or sandflats, sandy beaches of sheltered coasts, rocky shelves, bays, lagoons and harbours, occasionally also oceanic beaches and saltmarshes. During the breeding season the species's diet consists predominantly of insects (mainly adult and larval Diptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera and bees) as well as spiders, small crustaceans, snails and worms (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). When it first arrives on the breeding grounds however, the species is dependant upon vegetation (including the seeds of sedges, horsetails (Equisetum spp.) and grass shoots) owing to the initial lack of insect prey (Johnsgard 1981). Outside of the breeding season the species takes intertidal invertebrates such as bivalve and gastropod molluscs, crustaceans (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. horseshoe crab (Limulus spp.) eggs) (Karpanty et al. 2006), annelid worms and insects, rarely also taking fish and seeds (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest is an open shallow depression (Flint et al. 1984) either positioned on hummocks surrounded by mud and water or on stony or gravelly ground (Johnsgard 1981) on open vegetated tundra or stone ridges (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The species is vulnerable to extensive land reclamation projects that encroach upon staging areas in Western Europe (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), and is threatened by the over-exploitation of shellfish (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Goldfeder and Blanco 2006) which leads directly and indirectly to reductions in prey availability (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species also suffers from disturbance in the non-breeding season as a result of tourism (Goldfeder and Blanco 2006), foot-traffic on beaches (Burton et al. 2002), recreational activities and over-flying aircraft, which together reduce the size of available foraging areas (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Shellfish fishing at wintering and stop-over habitats needs to be sustainably managed. Recreation, pollution of wetland habitats, land reclamation, infrastructure development and human disturbance at key staging areas needs to be stopped.


taxonomicNotes:
Calidris falcinellus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Limicola.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 29,700-44,100 pairs, which equates to 59,400-88,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 29,300-42,600 pairs, which equates to 58,600-85,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full migrant, and migrates on a broad front (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) by making short flights between a series of stop-over sites (Verkuil et al. 2006). Adults breeding in Fennoscandia leave the breeding grounds in July (juveniles departing in August), and stop-over in substantial numbers in Sivash, southern Ukraine, on the Middle Eastern coasts, Caspian Sea and Bulgarian seaboard, before arriving in wintering grounds in Africa, Pakistan and south India between August and early-October (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). A few non-breeding birds also remain at the wintering sites during the summer. Breeding occurs in early- to late-June in Fennoscandia, and between mid-June and early July in Russia, pairs nesting in loose colonies of 2–10 nests, usually spaced 80–100 m apart. The species migrates singly or in small groups, although during the spring migration flocks of up to several hundred can occur (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species breeds in the wettest parts of bogs (Snow and Perrins 1998) and on open peatland; the Scandinavian and north-west Russian populations breeding in the subarctic montane and lowland zones above 200 m (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (around 1,000 m in Norway) (Snow and Perrins 1998), and the Siberian population breeding in wet Arctic tundra (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of marine nereid worms, small bivalves and snails, crustaceans (e.g., amphipods), adult and larval insects (e.g., beetles, flies, grasshoppers, ants) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), as well as the seeds of aquatic plants (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a cup on top of a wet sedge or moss cushion, well raised above the water level (Johnsgard 1981).

threats:
Local exctinctions have occurred in Norway as a result of habitat changes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), most likely through drainage and flooding of its breeding habitats. In Finland some of the most suitable peatland areas have been flooded to create artificial lakes but over all there do not appear to be any large-scale threats to the species or its breeding habitats (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation of wet fens is most important, with no management to keep them as natural as possible. Cenussing and monitoring programmes should be implemented to reliably determine the species's distribution, population size and trends. Further research on its habitat requirements on the breeding grounds and wintering quarters should be undertaken in order to help inform conservation actions (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Calidris paramelanotos (Hayman et al.1986) was treated as a subspecies of C. melanotos following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993) but is now considered a hybrid of  C. melanotus and C. ferruginea following Higgins and Davies (1996). Calidris cooperi was des

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This species does not breed in the region and is assessed on the basis of its small wintering population in Spain and Portugal. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Vulnerable under the small population criterion, with an increasing population trend. Since the population trend of the wintering population in west Africa is decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is unchanged.

The species is therefore classified as Vulnerable (D1) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species migrates across Europe from it breeding grounds in Siberia to its wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa through the Middle East.  In the western Palearctic there are three major routes: to White Sea, down western European coasts to west Africa; across eastern Europe via the Black Sea and Tunisia to west Africa, following the north African coast or flying via Mali; and via Black and Caspian Seas and across the Middle East and Rift Valley lakes to eastern and southern Africa (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

population:
The species only occurs in winter in Europe and the EU27. The minimum European population in winter is estimated at 1,000-1,800 individuals, which equates to 690-1,200 mature individuals. The entire population occurs in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full migrant, moving long distances by well-travelled routes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). On migration, the species crosses Europe in July, reaching Africa from mid-July to September. The return migration to the breeding grounds begins late-April to May, with arrival in the Arctic beginning in early June, and breeding stretching from June to July. Many 1st-year birds remain on the wintering grounds, and non-breeding adults remain just south of the breeding grounds in central Siberia during the summer (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season, occurring in small parties or larger flocks of up to several hundreds on the coast, but usually in smaller numbers inland (although gatherings of hundreds can occur locally on passage) (Urban et al. 1986). It forages both diurnally and nocturnally (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species breeds on slightly elevated areas in the lowlands of the high Arctic (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) especially on southward-facing slopes (Johnsgard 1981), as well as along the coast and islands of the Arctic Ocean (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It shows a preference for open tundra with marshy, boggy depressions and pools (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) from melting permafrost and snow (Snow and Perrins 1998). On the breeding grounds the diet of this species consists mainly of insects, such as the adults, pupae and larvae of Diptera (e.g. midges, craneflies (Johnsgard 1981)) and beetles, as well as bugs and leeches (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). In the winter its diet consists of polychaete worms, molluscs, crustaceans (such as amphipods, brine shrimps and copepods), and occasionally insects and seeds. The nest is a cup positioned on the margins of marshes or pools, on the slopes of hummock tundra, or on dry patches in Polygonum tundra (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
This species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet et al. 2007) and avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. In Europe, only a tiny proportion of its global population overwinters in Iberia, making it particularly vulnerable to any threats.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are thought to be currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species has undergone moderately rapid declines in winter and is therefore classified as Near Threatened (A2abc+3bc+4abc; C1).

range:
The species breeds in arctic and subarctic regions from Greenland through Iceland, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, as well as in northern temperate regions of Fennoscandia. It winters on the western coast of Europe (Van Gils et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 56,700-83,000 pairs, which equates to 113,000-166,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 710-2,900 pairs, which equates to 1,400-5,900 mature individuals. The minimum EU27 population in winter is estimated at 16,700-18,200 individuals, which equates to 11,100-12,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998, Van Gils et al. 2013). It arrives on the breeding grounds from mid-May to mid-June where it nests in solitary pairs (Van Gils et al. 2013) and forages in small loose groups (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds on Arctic coasts (Hayman et al. 1986) and in upland areas (Johnsgard 1981, Flint et al. 1984, Hayman et al. 1986), nesting close to the fringes of snow and ice, on wet moss or barren rocky tundra with patches of lichen and Dryas spp., on rocky islands and islets or on shingle beaches (Van Gils et al. 2013). It forages on dry tundra or along the moist margins of ponds, at the edges of melting snow-drifts and in areas of thick moss (Hayman et al. 1986). During the winter and on passage the species shows a preference for tidal rocky shores with strong wave action (Hayman et al. 1986) and suitable high-tide roosting areas (Van Gils et al. 2013), often utilising artificial structures such as concrete sea defences and breakwaters (Hayman et al. 1986). In some northern areas (e.g. Svalbard) the species frequents mudflats, shingle beaches and coastal lagoons before and after breeding but before migrating south (Van Gils et al. 2013). During the breeding season its diet consists largely of insects (e.g., adult, larval and pupal Diptera, Ichneumon wasps and aphids) and Collembola (springtails), as well as spiders, gastropods, annelid worms and some plant material (e.g. leaves, buds, berries and seeds) (Van Gils et al. 2013). On the coast the species feeds predominantly upon molluscs (especially gastropods Littorina spp. and mussels Mytilus spp.) as well as insects (e.g. beetles and Diptera), small crustaceans (e.g. amphipods), annelid worms (Van Gils et al. 2013), small fish (Johnsgard 1981) and algae (Enteromorpha spp.). The nest is a small scrape positioned in the open on tundra moss (Van Gils et al. 2013), in hummocky tundra (Flint et al. 1984) close to tufts of Dryas spp. or Arctostaphylos spp. (Johnsgard 1981), or in rocky or pebbly areas between cliffs (Flint et al. 1984).

threats:
The species is likely to be affected by climate change (Rehfisch et al. 2004). It is also vulnerable to disturbance (Burton et al. 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species must be protected from disturbance by humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species occurs in the EU27 only in winter, however it is considered Least Concern there based on available winter population data.

population:
The European population is estimated at 48,200-76,000 pairs, which equates to 96,400-152,000 mature individuals. The species occurs in the EU27 mainly in winter and the minimum population is estimated at 14,100-28,400 individuals, which equates to 9,400-18,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full long-distance migrant that migrates overland on a broad front (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (or by utilising a great many routes) (Snow and Perrins 1998) across much of the Western Palearctic (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). During the breeding season this species inhabits low altitude tundra in the high Arctic (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (although it exceptionally occurs above 1,000 m in the west of its range) (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for dry ground among dwarf willows near swampy areas or saltmarshes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), or areas where mosses and sedges are interspersed with hummocks covered by Empetrum (Johnsgard 1981). It avoids areas where annual rainfall exceeds 250 mm (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). On migration this species is found along the muddy edges of small inland lakes, reservoirs, sewage farms (Johnsgard 1981), riverbanks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and seasonal pools (Snow and Perrins 1998), as well as on coastal mudflats and seashores (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). In its winter range the species mainly inhabits coastal areas such as estuarine mudflats and sandflats (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Hockey et al. 2005), enclosed lagoons, tidal creeks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and saltpans (Urban et al. 1986), but it also occurs at inland freshwater wetlands such as open pools in marshes, paddyfields, jheels (and other small bodies of water covered with vegetation) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), small dams, floodwater margins and sandbanks along rivers (Urban et al. 1986). The diet of this species consists chiefly of invertebrates (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). During the breeding season larval and adult Diptera and small beetles are the primary foods (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), particularly the larvae of mosquitoes and craneflies (Johnsgard 1981). Outside of the breeding season the diet becomes more varied, with ants, Hymenoptera, waterbugs, annelids, small molluscs, crustaceans, freshwater mites and plant material being taken as well as Diptera and beetles (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest is a shallow cup (Snow and Perrins 1998) on the ground in the open (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), sometimes covered with vegetation (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
This species is susceptible to avian malaria (Mendes et al. 2005) and avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.


taxonomicNotes:
Calidris pugnax (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Philomachus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing very rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Endangered (A2abc+3bc+4abc). Since the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species breeds in arctic and subarctic regions in north-western and northern Europe east through Russia. Wintering populations occur in western Europe and the Mediterranean (Van Gils et al. 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 265,000-1,650,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 531,000-3,310,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 22,300-49,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 44,500-97,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits tundra habitats from the coast to the Arctic treeline (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Van Gils et al. 2014) during the breeding season, requiring adjacent foraging, lekking and nesting areas (Van Gils et al. 2014). It shows a preference for dry mounds and slopes with low willow (Salix spp.) and dwarf birch (Betula spp.) as lekking areas (Van Gils et al. 2014, Snow and Perrins 1998), and dry patches of tall sedge as nesting sites. Suitable foraging habitats include littoral belts, deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal saltmarshes (Johnsgard et al. 1981) and extensive lowland freshwater wetlands such as small shallow lakes with marginal vegetation, grassy hummocky marshes (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils et al. 2014, Snow and Perrins 1998), and damp swampy grasslands, with shallow pools or ditches. During the non-breeding season the species occupies the muddy margins of brackish, saline and alkaline lakes, ponds, pools, rivers, marshes and flood-plains, as well as freshly mown or grazed short-sward grasslands and wheat fields, usually roosting at night in the shallow waters of lake shores (Van Gils et al. 2014). It breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) with males gathering in suitable lekking areas to display and females nesting solitarily or in semi-colonial groups. The nest is concealed in marsh plants or meadow grass and is a shallow scrape lined with grass, leaves and stems. Clutches are generally four eggs but sometimes three. During the breeding season it feeds on mainly terrestrial and aquatic insects. Outside of the breeding season its diet is more varied, including small crustaceans, spiders, small molluscs, annelid worms, frogs and small fish (Van Gils et al. 2014). This species is fully migratory and the bulk of the population winters in sub-Saharan Africa. However small numbers do winter in north-west Europe, in southern Germany, the Netherlands and Great Britain (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997)

threats:
The species is threatened by petroleum pollution (Grishanov 2006), wetland and flood-plain drainage (Grishanov 2006, Van Gils and Garcia 2014) (for irrigation and water management) (Grishanov 2006), peat-extraction, and land abandonment and changing land management practices that lead to scrub and reed overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). The species may also suffer future population declines and range contractions as a result of global climate change (Zöckler 2002), and is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet et al. 2007), avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974, Hubalek et al. 2005) and avian malaria (Mendes et al. 2005), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I and II. An EU Life project in Denmark has succeeded in improving conditions for this species (Marsbøll and Aaser 2009) and another EU LIFE project in Germany aims to restore numbers of this species (Anon 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue ensuring adequate protection of important breeding and wintering sites and promote favourable land management practices. It should be ensured that suitable legislation on petroleum drilling transportation is in place and enforced.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 58,100-167,000 pairs, which equates to 116,000-333,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,400-11,600 pairs, which equates to 12,800-23,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full migrant, migrating on a broad front (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) overland across the full width of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East (Snow and Perrins 1998). This species breeds in arctic tundra, shrub tundra and forest tundra along flood-plains (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), although it avoids extremely cold conditions and exposed coasts (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is mainly found near coastal inlets, fjords, deltas, rivers or streams from sea level to 250 m, but also occurs up to 1,200 m inland (Snow and Perrins 1998) on flat, clear ground with little vegetation, areas covered with short grass and interspersed with patches of scrub (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), areas with grasses, sedges or Empetrum, and scrub willow or birch thickets with sandy or gravelly stretches (Johnsgard 1981). Both dry and wet areas are used, but habitats with elevated locations such as boulders or buildings are preferred because of their use as song perches (Johnsgard 1981). In Scandinavia the species also breeds near fishing huts and houses, and in industrial workings (Ronka 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits inland freshwater wetlands such as flood-lands, irrigated fields, sewage farms, densely vegetated wetlands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), ditches, muddy marshes and lake edges (Urban et al. 1986), and on the coast shows a strong preference for mudflats in sheltered inlets, estuaries and saltmarshes, whilst tending to avoid open and sandy beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998). On the breeding grounds and in inland habitats the diet of this species consists primarily of insects and their larvae (especially beetles and Diptera such as craneflies and midges) (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), as well as the occasional plant matter. On the coasts the species takes annelids, crustaceans (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (such as sand fleas) (Johnsgard 1981) and small molluscs (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest is a shallow cup (Snow and Perrins 1998) on the ground in the open or amongst low vegetation (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), often at the base of small willows, junipers or other shrubs (Johnsgard 1981).

threats:
This species is threatened by nest predation (Koivula and Ronka 1998, Ronka et al. 2006) from Common Gull (Larus canus) and Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) (Ronka et al. 2006), as well as from Hooded Crow (Corvus corone cornix), weasel (Mustela nivalis), American Mink (Mustela vison) and fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Finland (Ronka 1996). It is also threatened in its Scandinavian breeding range by shrinkage and deterioration of suitable habitats (due to eutrophication and the overgrazing of shore meadows), and by increased human recreational disturbance due to the building up of breeding sites (trampling and disturbance often lead to increased hatchling predation and abandonment of nests) (Ronka 1996). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza and may therefore be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Recreation, pollution of wetland habitats, land reclamation, infrastructure development and human disturbance at shore meadows needs to be stopped.


taxonomicNotes:
Gallinago gallinago and G. delicata (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as G. gallinago following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.
Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,670,000-5,060,000 pairs, which equates to 5,350,000-10,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 379,000-699,000 pairs, which equates to 757,000-1,400,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is mostly migratory, wintering in Europe and Africa. Some populations are sedentary or partially migratory, e.g. British Isles. The birds move quickly from breeding grounds to moulting areas, and after a few weeks quickly migrate to the wintering grounds. The species shows a high degree of site fidelity at staging sites. Birds wintering in the Afrotropics thought to be from Russia, crossing the Sahara on a broad front. European and Atlantic birds move to southern and western Europe. The species seems to have shifted its main moulting grounds from continental (particularly Netherlands) to Britain since late 1950s. Autumn passage is from late July to November, with arrival in Northern Africa mainly late September to early October. Most birds leave Africa for spring migration in March; crossing Europe from March to early May. The males typically arrive on the breeding grounds 10–14 days before the females. The species breeds in open fresh or brackish marshland with rich or tussocky vegetation, grassy or marshy edges of lakes and rivers, wet hay fields, swampy meadows and marshy tundra, in forest tundra and extreme northern taiga zones. The species breeds in general in areas providing combination of grassy cover and moist soils, rich in organic matter. Outside breeding season, generally occupies similar habitats, with more use of man-made habitats, e.g. sewage farms and rice fields, upper reaches of estuaries and coastal meadows. Its diet includes larval insects (10–80%), adult insects, earthworms, small crustaceans, small gastropods and spiders. Plant fibres and seeds are consumed in smaller quantities. It feeds by vertical and rhythmic probing in substrate, often without removing the bill from the soil. It typically forages in small groups. Laying April-June. Monogamous, but both sexes show high degree of promiscuity. Territorial; densities up to 10–38 (even 110) pairs/km2. Nest usually on dry spot, covered by grasses, rushes, sedges or sphagnum. High proportion of the nests may be predated or trampled by cattle (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The decline noted in breeding populations of Europe is probably chiefly due to habitat changes, especially drainage. In Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany, a decline was observed from 13,000 pairs in 1970 to 1,500 in 1992. A very high decline of 99–100%, followed the improvement of marginal grasslands in northern England. Low water levels shorten the period of food availability in pastures, due to the lower penetrability of soil, and thereby strongly influence the length of breeding season. Careful manipulation of water levels may allow improvement of breeding success (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (A) and III (B) of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Drainage of freshwater wetland habitats needs to be stopped and reversed. Marginal grasslands need to be restored.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 this species has a small, declining population and is therefore classified as Vulnerable (C1). Since the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species breeds primarily in Russia, with large numbers in Belarus and Norway. It also breeds in Poland, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine. It migrates through central and south-eastern Europe (notably Turkey and Cyprus). Its range has contracted and numbers have declined since the late 19th century (J. Ash in litt. 1999).

population:
The European population is estimated at 62,500-145,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 125,000-291,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,400-3,700 calling or lekking males, which equates to 4,700-7,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species's nesting habitats include floodplain and tussock meadows, natural fens with scattered bushes and peatlands up to 1,200 m (J. Ash in litt. 1999) in lowland interior taiga and wooded tundra (Cramp and Simmons 1983). In the Scandinavian mountains it breeds along the tree line. It shows a preference for habitats rich in sub-surface invertebrates and medium density scrub cover for nesting, often in wide river valleys (Van Gils et al. 2013). It is also tolerant of wooded and on occasion well-drained sites that adjoin bogs or marshes (Cramp and Simmons 1983). On migration it occurs in drier meadows but also on sedge marshes with Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago).

It breeds from mid-May to early-July and nests solitarily. It has a polygamous mating system, with males forming leks after sunset (Van Gils et al. 2013) from May to July and each lek holding 5–30 males (Johnsgard 1981). The nest is a shallow depression in the ground, filled with some moss or grass, in thick vegetation, usually completely concealed, but sometimes more open. Clutches are normally four eggs. Its diet consists predominantly of earthworms as well as gastropods, adult and larval terrestrial insects (beetles, tipulids), and the seeds of marsh plants. This species is migratory, however, some birds irregularly winter in north-west Europe and southern Scandinavia. It departs from its breeding grounds from early-August onwards and the return, northward migration occurs on a broad front across Africa between March and April (Van Gils et al. 2013).

threats:
Rapid declines in the southern forest and forest-steppe zones of Russia and Ukraine are largely a result of the destruction and deterioration of nesting habitats. The main causes of habitat loss are conversion to intensive agriculture (Kålås et al. 1997), wetland drainage and the submergence of river valleys during the creation of reservoirs. It is also hunted in eastern Europe (Kålås 2004), with reports of several thousand killed in just 15-20 days in Amasia, Armenia (L. Balyan in litt. 2008). Habitat loss due to climate change may represent the most severe threat to the Scandinavian population (R. Ekblom in litt. 2007, J. A. Kålås in litt. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. An International Single Species Action Plan was published in 2004 (R. Ekblom in litt. 2007). National action plans for this species have been published for several countries, including Sweden, Estonia, Ukraine and Latvia (R. Ekblom in litt. 2007).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Establish coordinated monitoring programmes in all countries within the species's distribution range to monitor trends. Research population numbers and trends in Russia. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Investigate the impact of climate change on the species and determine mitigation measures. Work with farmers and land managers to ensure the use of favourable land management. Initiate changes in agricultural practices through EU and national policies.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,000-5,000 pairs, which equates to 4,000-10,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory and travels over land on a broad front between its breeding and wintering grounds (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It breeds from late-May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) after which it migrates in small flocks of 5–10 individuals (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species also overwinters in small groups (Johnsgard 1981). It breeds in Arctic and boreal wetlands up to 2,300 m above sea-level on damp meadows along river valleys (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), in grassy and mossy swamps (Flint et al. 1984), swampy taiga forest (Johnsgard 1981, Flint et al. 1984), sphagnum bogs (Johnsgard 1981) and shrub tundra with patches of dwarf birch (Betula nana) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). In its wintering range the species inhabits a wider variety of wetland habitats including flooded paddy-fields, wet grasslands, seepage swamps and marshland (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), often foraging on the muddy shorelines of swamps and along streams (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Its diet consists of molluscs, adult and larval insects, earthworms and occasionally crustaceans, seeds and other plant matter. The nest is a shallow depression usually well-concealed in dense cover (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The species is subject to hunting pressures throughout its range (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is not listed on priority lists of the Conventions.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Hunting should be monitored and regulated to ensure it does not impact this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,700-9,000 pairs, which equates to 7,400-18,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,100-3,300 pairs, which equates to 4,200-6,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in marshy, swampy areas, in lowland moss and shrub tundra (Johnsgard 1981, Flint et al. 1984, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) near wet river valleys (Johnsgard 1981), lakes and sedge bogs (Flint et al. 1984), as well as on swampy heathlands in the willow and birch zone near the Arctic treeline (Johnsgard 1981), in open larch Larix spp. woodland close to water (Van Gils and Wiersma), and occasionally on open bogs in the extreme north of the coniferous forest zone (Johnsgard 1981). On passage the species may frequent inland wetlands (Hayman et al. 1986), sandy beaches with pine Pinus spp. stands, swampy lowlands near lakes (Flint et al. 1984) and short-grass meadows, but during the winter it is more common in intertidal areas along muddy coastlines, estuaries, inlets, mangrove-fringed lagoons and sheltered bays (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) with tidal mudflats or sandbars (Johnsgard 1981). It breeds from late-May to August (Hayman et al. 1986). The nest is a depression positioned on a dry elevated site often between clumps of grass (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) or under a thicket (Flint et al. 1984). When breeding the species feeds on insects, annelid worms, molluscs and occasionally seeds and berries. At other times in intertidal areas the species's diet consists of annelids, bivalves and crustaceans, although it will also take cranefly larvae and earthworms on grasslands and occasionally larval amphibians and small fish.  This species is a full long-distance migrant (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). After breeding adults disperse to coastal moulting sites, then onwards to their wintering grounds. Birds breeding in Europe mainly winter in western Europe. Birds from the east only use wetlands in western Europe as stop-over sites on their way to Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species is vulnerable due to concentration at a few wetlands in the non-breeding season (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It is threatened by the degradation of foraging sites due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Kelin and Qiang 2006) and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I and II. CMS Appendix II. The removal of Spartina anglica from tidal mudflats using a herbicide has shown benefits for the species (Evans 1986).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Important staging and wintering areas in France and Portugal are not yet protected (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Adequate protection and management of all important staging sites should be ensured, particularly in Germany and the Netherlands. Sustainable fisheries in the Wadden Sea and other important European estuaries should be promoted and the impacts of climate change in the high Arctic investigated. Particular focus should be given to the impact of increasing Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) abundance, changes in lemming population cycles and the northward encroachment of scrub habitat (Brown et al. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This godwit has undergone rapid declines in Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices and is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde).

Within the EU27 declines have been more rapid and it is classified as Endangered (A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde).

range:
In Europe, the species has a large breeding range extending from Iceland to throughout European Russia (Van Gils et al. 2014). Two subspecies are found in Europe, L. l. islandica and L. l. limosa. Subspecies islandica breeds predominantly in Iceland, with much smaller numbers in the Faroe Islands, Shetland (United Kingdom) and the Lofoten Islands (Norway). Significant numbers of this subspecies overwinter in France (Triplet et al. 2007). Subspecies limosa breeds across a wide area extending from western Europe and central Europe to central Asia and Asiatic Russia. The European population of this subspecies migrates south through France and Iberia to winter in West Africa (Gill et al. 2007, Oomen 2008).

population:
The European population is estimated at 102,000-149,000 pairs, which equates to 205,000-298,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 43,400-70,300 pairs, which equates to 86,800-141,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In its breeding range this species mostly inhabits areas with high grass and soft soil (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils et al. 2014). Its preferred habitats include cattle pastures, hayfields (Johnsgard 1981), lowland wet grasslands, grassy marshland, raised bogs and moorland, lake margins and damp grassy depressions in steppes (Van Gils et al. 2014). Extensive farmland habitats are of critical importance for breeding populations in western European. In its non-breeding range, it inhabits wet damp areas around fish-ponds and sewage farms, tidal marshes, mud flats and salt-water lagoons (Cramp et al. 1983, Tucker and Heath 1994). Subspecies limosa tends to winter in freshwater habitats. Subspecies islandica, while it frequents staging sites at inland wetlands and flooded grasslands in the Netherlands, it often winters in brackish habitats (Van Gils et al. 2014). Despite these general differences there is considerable overlap in wintering habitat between populations of subspecies limosa and islandica (Various 2007). It breeds from April to mid-June in loose, semi-colonial groups (Gunnarsson et al. 2006). The nest is placed on the ground in short, often luxuriant vegetation (Johnsgard 1981, Cramp et al. 1983, Van Gils et al. 2014). It consists of a shallow scrape 12–15 cm in diameter, lined with a thick mat of stem grass, leaves and other available vegetation (Cramp et al. 1983). Clutch size is normally four (Van Gils et al. 2014). Its diet consists of adult and larval insects, annelid and polychaete worms, molluscs, ragworms, crustaceans, spiders, fish eggs, and the spawn and tadpoles of frogs (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils et al. 2014). Particularly during the winter and on migration it will also take plant material including berries, seeds and rice grains (Cramp et al. 1983, Van Gils et al. 2014). This species is highly gregarious and migrates on a broad front, making long-distance flights, often overland between relatively few staging and wintering areas. The species migrates southwards between late-June and October (Van Gils et al. 2014). The eastern Atlantic flyway population has important staging areas on the Iberian peninsula and winters in western Africa.

threats:
Loss of nesting habitat owing to wetland drainage and agricultural intensification, and conversely, abandonment, are the most significant threats (Kentie et al. 2013). Detrimental activities include the conversion of wet meadows to arable land, increased fertilisation and drainage of grassland (Roodbergen and Teunissen 2014), artificial flooding of nesting habitats, earlier and more frequent mowing as farmers adapt to earlier springs, spring burning, overgrowing by scrub, land claiming by businesses and developers, the construction of roads and parks, and disturbance by walkers (Tucker and Heath 1994, A. van Dijk in litt. 2005,  A. Mischenko in litt. 2007, Hayhow 2008, Oomen 2008, Holm and Laursen 2009, Kleijn et al. 2010, Kentie et al. 2013). Increasing populations of predators to possibly unnatural levels is a significant cause of mortality in the Netherlands, exacerbated by intensive farming reducing available cover for the species (Schekkerman et al. 2009). In some areas, grassland turnover from 'natural, flower-rich, diverse and wet' to sillage monoculture leads to a loss of nests with eggs and chicks due to mowing and starvation of chicks due to a lack of food (Schekkerman and Beintema 2007). Habitat fragmentation may cause particular problems for this species, which nests in dispersed colonies and sub-colonies as protection against predators and may be unlikely to breed successfully in small areas of habitat. The planned development of a new airport near Lisbon is likely to have negative implications on an important site for migratory birds (Gill et al. 2007, Masero et al. 2011). Hunting has been another significant threat, although France has now followed the rest of the EU in implementing a five-year ban on hunting of the species, beginning in 2008 (I. Burfield in litt. 2008) which was extended in 2013 for a further five years. Outside the EU, hunting is known to occur but its scale and impact are unknown. Water pollution is probably an issue in parts of the species's range (H. Hötker in litt. 2005), and drought in the West African wintering quarters may have had negative impacts on the mainland European population (Tucker and Heath 1994). The Icelandic population is potentially at risk from the policy of the Icelandic government to encourage afforestation of the lowland habitats where they breed (S. Nagy in litt. 2005). Threats on migration include pollution, human disturbance, habitat reclamation for tidal energy plants, aquaculture ponds, land conversion for agriculture and urban expansion. A study in the Netherlands suggests that climate change has driven an advance in agricultural activities to the detriment of this species (Kleijn et al. 2010). Juvenile birds which select good wintering sites also select good breeding sites (Gunnarsson et al. 2005), therefore maintaining high quality wintering sites is crucial to raising productivity on breeding grounds and slowing the rate of decline. There is a marked decrease in the density of breeding birds near to roads, particularly those with heavy traffic (van der Zande et al. 1980, Reijnen et al. 1996). Natal philopatry means that a decrease in local recruitment could prove catastrophic for individual breeding sites (Kruk et al. 1998). A recent study shows that recruiters from good quality habitats disperse to low quality habitats that act as sinks and so these individuals are considered 'lost' to the population. This has repercussions for the effectiveness of agri-environment measures (Kentie 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. An EU management plan for 2007-2009 was adopted, and an AEWA action plan replaced it at the end of 2008 (Anon. 2008). Intensive management of breeding habitat has been carried out in some western European countries (H. Hötker in litt. 2005, Roodbergen& Teunissen 2014), and a number of agri-environment schemes focus on this species, although results have been mixed (Musters et al. 2001, S. Nagy in litt. 2005, Breeuwer et al. 2007,  A. Mischenko in litt. 2007, Verhulst et al. 2007). It occurs in a number of protected areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Obtain more quantitative data on status, population trends and conservation requirements outside of Europe. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of current conservation action. In the EU, use a mixture of agri-environment schemes, direct payments to wader-friendly farmers (Musters et al. 2001) and large reserves to secure protection and appropriate management of breeding habitat; the coverage of agri-environment schemes in Europe should be increased (Kleijn et al. 2010) and increases in groundwater depth should be prioritised as an outcome (Verhulst et al. 2007). Establish nature reserves on important breeding sites throughout the species's range. Manage existing reserves appropriately: prescriptions include avoiding drainage of existing wet meadows, raising water tables where necessary, low-level use of organic fertiliser, low intensity grazing, late mowing, and prevention of succession to bushy vegetation; winter flooding is sometimes recommended but may reduce numbers of invertebrate prey (Gunnarsson et al. 2005). Ensure that migratory staging posts and winter feeding habitats and roosts are conserved and monitored, and knowledge of them is improved (Estrella and Masero 2010). Designate a Special Protection Area around Extremadura's rice fields, which is a key stopover site (Masero et al. 2011). Manage artificial habitats appropriately, e.g. maintain low water levels in salinas such so that they are available to foraging godwits (Estrella and Masero 2010), and block drainage to retain water in Iberian rice fields (Lourenço and Piersma 2008). Engage with governments and local people throughout its migration routes. Effectively enforce the EU-wide ban on hunting until there is clear evidence that the population has returned to a favourable conservation status. Safeguard habitats in Iberia, perhaps by offering support to rice producers (Gill et al. 2007). Collaborate with farmers and hunters, carrying out environmental education and outreach work where appropriate. Prevent afforestation of lowland breeding habitat in Iceland. Prevent a loss of key breeding areas due to abandonment of grasslands and meadows in eastern Europe. Monitor human disturbance as a threat. Ensure recognition as a protected animal throughout range (Hancock 2008).


population:
The European population is estimated at 19,600-44,100 pairs, which equates to 39,300-88,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,500-23,100 pairs, which equates to 19,100-46,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory and crosses Europe on a broad front. It breeds from May to early September (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) in well-dispersed solitary pairs (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998), after which (between August and September) adults undergo a flightless moulting period close to the breeding grounds. The autumn south-west migration occurs from mid-September to mid-November, with the species departing its wintering grounds again in March to mid-April. Outside of the breeding season the species remains largely solitary, usually feeding singly or in groups of up to five individuals. Most of its activities are carried out nocturnally or in the early morning and late evening (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species breeds in the northern taiga and forest tundra zones on open grassy marshes and bogs with swampy ground (Johnsgard 1981, (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996)) on flood-plains (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996)), in swampy coniferous forest, willow (Salix spp.) marshes or wet alder (Alnus spp.) woods (Johnsgard 1981). Outside of the breeding season it inhabits both fresh and brackish wetlands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) showing a preference for mosaics of moist and waterlogged mudflats with soft, silty mud and dense of tussocks vegetation (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Suitable habitats include swamps, fens (Snow and Perrins 1998), grassy marshes (Johnsgard 1981), the margins of rivers and streams (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), overgrown flood-lands, sewage farms (Snow and Perrins 1998), rice-fields (Johnsgard 1981), flooded arable fields, damp pastures and water meadows (Snow and Perrins 1998). Its diet consists of adult and larval insects, annelid worms, small freshwater and terrestrial gastropods and the seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic and shoreline plants (Johnsgard 1981). The nest is positioned on hummocks of sphagnum moss or grass tussocks on floating bogs just above the surrounding water (Johnsgard 1981), also on drier ground amongst bushes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g., dwarf birch (Betula nana) and heather) (Johnsgard 1981).

threats:
The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its wetland habitats through afforestation, peat extraction and drainage for agricultural intensification (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It also suffers from lead poisoning as a result of ingesting lead shot deposited on wetlands (Olivier 2006). The species is hunted during the autumn migration (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. in Denmark) (Bregnballe et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (A) and III (B) of the EU Birds Directive. The annual success of reproduction is estimated every year by wing surveys in Denmark since the end of the 1970s, and in France since the mid-1990s. Hunting bags are estimated every year in Denmark (Clausager 2006).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Afforestation, peat extraction and drainage should be stopped. Hunting should be monitored and regulated to ensure it does not impact this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This widespread shorebird is undergoing rapid population declines across the European part of its extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is widely distributed, breeding across Europe from the British Isles, through north-western Europe and Scandinavia to the Urals in Russia. It winters around the coasts of north-west Europe and the Mediterranean, as well as Africa, the Middle East, parts of Asia (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 212,000-292,000 pairs, which equates to 425,000-584,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 164,000-186,000 pairs, which equates to 328,000-371,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species frequents fens, peat bogs, heathland, coastal marshes, wet grasslands and large river valleys. In boreal Russia and Fennoscandia it prefers tundra and in areas such as France, the Netherlands and the U.K. it has successfully colonised pastures and other agricultural grasslands. European wintering birds mostly gather at large estuaries and other extensive muddy sites (Tucker and Heath 1994). It also utilises wet grassland and arable fields during migration (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Most populations breed from April to August (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary, territorial pairs (Johnsgard 1981), occasionally also forming small colonies (Flint et al. 1984). The nest is a shallow depression on the ground or on a mound (Flint et al. 1984) in the open or in the cover of grass or sedge (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) often far from water (Johnsgard 1981). Clutch size is typically four. Throughout the year the diet includes annelids, arthropods, crustaceans, molluscs, berries and seeds. Vertebrates, including small fish, amphibians, lizards, young birds and small rodents as well as terrestrial insects and earthworms are also consumed, especially in summer (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species is migratory and European populations overwinter in Western Europe, the Mediterranean and in many parts of Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). After breeding adults gather on coasts (from July onwards) (Hayman et al. 1986) for the post-breeding moult (Snow and Perrins 1998) before migrating south between July and November. Non-breeders may remain in the wintering areas all-year-round (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The species is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of moorland habitats as a result of afforestation (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and of marginal grassland habitats as a result of agricultural intensification and improvement (Johnsgard 1981, Baines 1988, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. drainage, inorganic fertilisation and reseeding) (Baines 1988). The species also suffers from high egg and chick mortalities (due to mechanical mowing) and higher predation rates if nesting on improved grasslands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Wintering populations are threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Burton et al. 2002a, 2002b) (e.g. from construction work (Burton et al. 2002a) and foot-traffic (Burton et al. 2002b)), development on high-tide roosting sites, pollution (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and the flooding of estuarine mudflats and saltmarshes as a result of tidal barrage construction (Burton 2006). The species is also threatened by the degradation of migrational staging areas owing to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006). Local populations of this species have also declined owing to hunting pressures (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Annex I and II of the EU Birds Directive. A management plan for the species, updated for 2007-2009, was published in 2007, covering the EU portion of the species's range (Jensen and Lutz 2007). A five year moratorium on hunting the species was implemented in France in July 2008 (A. Duncan in litt. 2008). The species occurs in a large number of protected areas throughout its range and features in several national monitoring schemes.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The Management Plan for Curlew outlines key conservation targets: Protect key wintering sites (Jensen and Lutz 2007) and work to maintain the non-hunting status in France when the hunting (Brown et al. 2014) moratorium ends. Determine the key parameters driving declines in breeding areas and integrate agri-environment measures to counter these. Continue monitoring trends. Minimise disturbance on the wintering grounds (Jensen and Lutz 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 343,000-402,000 pairs, which equates to 687,000-805,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 39,200-70,100 pairs, which equates to 78,300-140,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory and travels over land on a broad front utilising few staging areas on route (in autumn no known concentrated staging occurs) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) either in well-dispersed (Johnsgard 1981) solitary pairs (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) or in loose groups depending on the topography of the land (Snow and Perrins 1998). The autumn migration occurs from July onwards with the return passage to the breeding grounds occurring chiefly between March and May (Hayman et al. 1986). The species breeds on dry scrub heathland (Snow and Perrins 1998), moss and lichen tundra with stunted bushes, sedge meadows (Johnsgard 1981), wet moorland (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and mossy hummock bogs (Johnsgard 1981, Flint et al. 1984) in open areas, river valleys, in birch forest near the Arctic treeline (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), along the shores of tundra lakes, burned areas of forest (Flint et al. 1984) and open montane forest in the boreal, subarctic and subalpine zones. On passage in the autumn and spring the species frequents wetlands, tidal flats (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), short-sward wet and dry grasslands (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), farmland (Hayman et al. 1986) and heathland with Empetrum spp., generally occupying coastal habitats in the winter such as muddy, rocky or sandy beaches, tidal mudflats (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), sandflats (Urban et al. 1986), tidal marshes (Johnsgard 1981) and lagoons (Urban et al. 1986). When inland on migration and during the breeding season its diet consists of adult and larval insects (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. Coleoptera, Orthoptera and cranefly larvae), spiders, millipedes, earthworms, snails, slugs, seeds, leaves and berries (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. of ericaceous plants) (Johnsgard 1981). On the coast during the winter the species takes crustaceans, molluscs, large polychaete worms and occasionally fish, reptiles or young birds. The nest is a shallow depression (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) often positioned on hummocks or in short heather or grass in dry exposed locations sometimes far from water (Johnsgard 1981, Flint et al. 1984). When the breeding habitat (e.g. tundra or heathland) is flat and open the species nests in solitary pairs, but where irregular features such as hummocks and tall vegetation patches give more visual isolation the species may nest in loose groups (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
A study in the Shetland Islands, U.K. found that when trying to enhance the grazing quality of heathlands by re-seeding (e.g. with high quality grass-seed mixtures) it is better to apply lime, grass-seed and inorganic fertiliser directly to the surface of the ground rather than ploughing and harrowing the ground first, as the latter maintains more natural vegetation hummocks and heather used by the species for nesting (Grant 1992). Re-seeding of heathland with prior ploughing and harrowing may improve feeding conditions for pre-breeding adults however (Grant et al. 1992).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered, Possibly Extinct (CR(PE))
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered, Possibly Extinct (CR(PE))

There are no recent confirmed sightings of this species, which formerly regularly wintered within the region, and it is therefore classified as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) for the European and the EU27 regions.

range:
The species has only been confirmed breeding near Tara, north of Omsk in Siberia, Russia, between 1909–1925. It migrates west-south-west from its presumed breeding grounds in Siberia through central and eastern Europe, predominantly Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and the former Yugoslavia to southern Europe, Greece, Italy, and Turkey, and North Africa. It has also been reported from Slovenia. Reports of birds staging in Ukraine persist but require confirmation (Birdlife International 1999).

population:
The species only occurs in winter in Europe and the EU27. The minimum European population in winter is estimated at 1-2 individuals, which equates to 1 mature individual. The entire population occurs in Bulgaria, although there have been no observations of the species in the country since at least 2000. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies a wide variety of habitats including: saltmarsh, steppe grassland, fishponds, saltpans, brackish lagoons, tidal mudflats, semi-desert, brackish wetlands and sandy farmland next to lagoons. Large coastal wetland complexes may be especially characteristic, and most records come from close to the sea (Buchanan et al. 2010). Only one reliable nesting description has been recorded which was in bog-forest transition zones. Very little is known of its breeding habits. Nest is constructed of dry grass and leaves (Gretton 1991). May nest in colonies and clutch size has been recorded as four eggs. Birds have been recorded feeding on insects, annelids, molluscs, snails and crustaceans (Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species migrates west-south-west (Gils and Wiersma 1996).  Migration peaks in September and in March (Gretton 1991),

threats:
There has been extensive drainage of wetlands in the Mediterranean. The conversion of European wetlands and central European steppes to arable farmland may have heavily impacted the species in depriving it of important habitats during migration (Gretton 1991). Historically, hunting was high, and may have been the key factor in its decline. Following the initial decline, breakdown of social behaviour patterns may have prevented recovery. Historically a gregarious species, smaller groups or individuals may have difficulty in locating suitable stop-over sites on migration (Gretton 1991). Individuals may join flocks of Eurasian Curlew (N. arquata), being led to unsuitable wintering habitat and rendered unlikely to find a mate (Gretton 1991).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. A Memorandum of Understanding, established under the auspices of the CMS, came into effect in 1994, and a working group was established in 1998 (Gallo-Orsi and Boere 2001). An international action plan was published in 1996. National action plans are in place in Italy (Nagy and Crockford 2004), Bulgaria and Ukraine. Several of the sites within the EU where the species has been recorded are designated as Special Protection Areas. There have been several international initiatives to survey passage and wintering sites (van der Have et al. 2001, Azafzaf and Feltrup-Azafzaf 2003, T. R. Cleeves in litt. 2006), collate records (Gallo-Orsi and Boere 2001), protect key sites, raise public awareness (Azafzaf and Feltrup-Azafzaf 2003) and educate hunters. Details of a 'last push' to locate any remaining populations (focusing initially on surveys of historical wintering areas) were announced at the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Migratory Species in December 2008 (BirdLife International 2008, Crockford 2009, RSPB 2010). Surveys across the potential non-breeding range took place in 2009-2011 with a particular focus on wintering and potential moult sites (G. Buchanan& N. Crockford in litt. 2012). The Slender-billed Curlew Working Group has developed a toolkit to assist people to identify and report the species in the field (available at: www.slenderbilledcurlew.net). If any can be found and caught then the sites used during the annual cycle could be determined by satellite tagging. An attempt to narrow down the search for breeding and moulting sites using stable isotope analysis and Strontium analysis of museum skins commenced in 2002 (Hilton 2003); preliminary results suggest that the main breeding area may have extended from southern central Russia into northern Kazakhstan (Nagy and Crockford 2004, G. Buchanan & N. Crockford in litt. 2012). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue to monitor key former and potential wintering and passage sites. Search for breeding grounds (taking into account results of stable isotope analysis). Attach satellite transmitters to captured birds. Provide training in species identification along the migration route. Promote protection of habitat. Provide legal protection for this and similar species. Increase public awareness.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large breeding range across the Arctic, extending into Europe only in small numbers in Svalbard, Greenland, Iceland and Russia. The population size within the region approaches the threshold for classification as Vulnerable, with an unknown population trend but no evidence of a decline; the species could therefore be listed as Near Threatened but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted by one category to Least Concern (LC°).

The species does not breed within the EU27, where it is a passage migrant, and it is considered Not Applicable for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 570-1,700 males, which equates to 1,100-3,400 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species?s range includes the coasts of Arctic Ocean, in West Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard. It winters pelagically mainly off western Africa. It breeds near the coast, on marshy tundra with small pools, boggy meadows with moss and grass, marshy river valleys or islets in fjords. Outside of the breeding season it is pelagic in tropical and subtropical upwelling zones where plankton occurs at high concentrations. During breeding season it feeds on invertebrates, including insects and their larvae, such as dipteran flies, caddisflies, beetles and bugs, also molluscs, crustaceans, annelids, spiders and mites, and occasionally plant material, mainly seeds, especially when food is limited. it feeds in or around small pools or lagoons or on Fucus seaweed washed ashore. It is also often at sea and forages by swimming, wading and walking, and quickly lunges forward at prey (Van Gils et al. 1996).

threats:
Changes to habitat in the Arctic and sub-Arctic are likely to impact this species during its breeding season. At sea, this species is likely to be vulnerable to being caught as bycatch in gillnet fisheries (?ydelis et al. 2013). The species relies on predator alarm warning from breeding Arctic Terns, and localised populations have decreased rapidly from some breeding colonies in Greenland in the absence of Arctic Terns (Jorgensen et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed within nine marine Important Bird Areas. 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identification and designation of marine protected areas for important sites at sea. Observer programmes on gillnet fisheries across its range to monitor bycatch rates


population:
The European population is estimated at 295,000-639,000 males, which equates to 590,000-1,280,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 20,000-34,000 males, which equates to 40,000-68,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds from the coast to interior of Arctic on tundra, forest tundra and Scandinavian alpine tundra, at or near lakes and pools with marshy margins, often overgrown with grass, sedges and moss; sparsely vegetated lava deserts in Iceland; coastal moorland; often in floodplains of large rivers or on islets; also Polygonum bogs (Van Gils et al. 2014). During migration, the species uses inland saline and hypersaline lakes. It winters at sea, in upwelling zones and ocean slicks with high availability of plankton. During the breeding season it feeds chiefly on insects, as well as beetles, caddisflies, ants and bugs; also other small invertebrates, and some seeds. On saline lakes it feeds on brine-flies (Ephydra), mostly larval. During its pelagic non-breeding period, it feeds mainly on euphausiids and calanoid copepods. It forages by swimming, wading and walking, pecking at prey at the water surface, from vegetation or mud, or rapidly lunges at prey just below water surface (Van Gils et al. 2014)

threats:
The species faces ongoing changes to habitat caused by increasing temperatures and impact of climate change (Huntley et al. 2007). Habitat destruction, including from peat extraction could also impact the species during its breeding stage. Coastal dredging could also reduce available habitat and prey while at sea (O'Brien et al. 1997). It is vulnerable to invasive alien predators (Biodiversity in Sweden 2012), as well as human disturbance on its breeding grounds.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
This species is found on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key areas of habitat should be protected from alteration and disturbance. Control of alien predators may be necessary in some areas.


population:
The European population is estimated at 6,890,000-8,710,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 13,800,000-17,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 728,000-1,470,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 1,460,000-2,940,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is sedentary on Atlantic islands (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and in some areas in south-western maritime countries (Snow and Perrins 1998) but is otherwise strongly migratory (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The distribution of earthworms is an important habitat characteristic for the species throughout the year (Johnsgard 1981). For breeding the species requires extensive unfragmented areas (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) of broadleaved deciduous or mixed broadleaved/coniferous forest (Johnsgard 1981) containing a dense undergrowth of shrubs and ground cover (Lutz and Pagh Jensen 2005) (e.g. of brambles (Rubus spp.), holly (Ilex aquifolium), hazel (Corylus avellana), gorse (Ulex spp.), bracken (Pteridium spp.) or bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Lutz and Pagh Jensen 2005) and with a mosaic (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) of dry, warm resting places, moist areas for foraging (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman et al. 1986) (e.g. streams, springs or damp, swampy patches) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), and clearings or other open areas as flight paths (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman et al. 1986). The species may also nest in swampy forests with mossy ground, brooks and other watercourses or alternatively in coniferous forest with moist leaf litter and an undergrowth of broadleaved shrubs and ferns (Johnsgard 1981). The species's habitats requirements during the daylight hours of the non-breeding season are similar to its breeding habitat requirements but are less restricted (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). As well as extensive broadleaved or mixed broadleaved/coniferous forest (Johnsgard 1981) the species will also occupy young conifer plantations (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), hedges with high densities of trees and shrubs (Duriez et al. 2005b), smaller woods, areas of scrub (Hayman et al. 1986) and coppiced habitats with coppice that is 7–20 years old (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It still shows a strong preference for woodlands with rich (e.g. mull) humus types that have high earthworm biomasses, and a dense shrub strata however (Duriez et al. 2005b). At night during this season the species gathers to roost and feed in damp, earthworm-rich, permanent grasslands (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Duriez et al. 2005b), showing a preference for grazed meadows compared to cultivated fields (as the latter contain higher earthworm biomasses) (Duriez et al. 2005b). The species may also feed on intertidal mud during freezing weather (Hayman et al. 1986). Its diet consists predominantly of earthworms, especially during the non-breeding season (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), but the species may also take adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, earwigs and millipedes), spiders, slugs and leaches.

threats:
The most significant threat to the species in its breeding range is the increased fragmentation of woodlands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species is threatened by the disappearance of permanent grasslands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and through the intensification of agricultural practices (e.g. the destruction of hedges, decreases in the number of permanent grazed meadows and the impoverishment of soil fauna as a result of ploughing and chemical application) (Duriez et al. 2005b). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (both in its breeding and wintering range) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is widely hunted, with the largest numbers taken in France, Italy, U.K. and Spain.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (A) and III (B) of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Permanent grasslands in key wintering areas need to be sustainably managed and restored.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species has undergone moderately rapid declines and is therefore classified as Near Threatened.

range:
In Europe, the species breeds from northern Scandinavia through northwest Russia. Wintering populations are found in western Europe and the Mediterranean (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 20,500-54,000 pairs, which equates to 41,000-108,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 15,000-38,000 pairs, which equates to 30,000-76,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full migrant (Hayman et al. 1986, Smit and Piersma 1989, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), breeding in the subarctic and arctic zone of Fennoscandia and Siberia (Smit and Piersma 1989). On passage to its wintering grounds the majority of the species travels overland on a broad front, although there is also an important route down the west coast of Europe (Smit and Piersma 1989, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). During the breeding season this species inhabits lowland and upland (but not montane) regions, in wooded and open tundra (Snow and Perrins 1998), marshes, swampy pine or birch forest near the arctic tree-line, and also more open areas such as heathland and shrub tundra (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). During migration and on its wintering grounds (Flint et al. 1984) this species frequents a variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands such as sewage farms, irrigated rice fields, brackish lagoons, salt-marshes, salt-pans, sheltered muddy coastal shores (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and mudflats (Johnsgard 1981), marshes and marshy lake edges (Johnsgard 1981, Urban et al. 1986), small reservoirs, pools and flooded grasslands (Urban et al. 1986). The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting chiefly of aquatic insects and their larvae (especially swimming beetles and hemipterans), terrestrial flying insects (such as craneflies), small crustaceans, molluscs, polycheate worms, and small fish and amphibians (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest of this species is a shallow depression (Snow and Perrins 1998) positioned in grass tussocks (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), on sphagnum moss (Flint et al. 1984), or in fairly dry areas of forest amongst low vegetation such as dwarf willows (Johnsgard 1981). Nest sites are often selected near dead trees or other suitable look-out perches (Johnsgard 1981).

threats:
This species is threatened by habitat loss in its wintering range and on migration.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive and Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Intensive grazing of grassland (>1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005).


population:
The European population is estimated at 763,000-1,520,000 pairs, which equates to 1,530,000-3,040,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 441,000-732,000 pairs, which equates to 881,000-1,460,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is a full migrant, traveling overland on a broad front across Europe and the Middle East (Van Gils et al. 2013). The adults start to move away from the breeding grounds in late June, with juveniles following in late August, arriving in tropical Africa from late July through August to October. Spring departure from the wintering grounds begins in late March to early April, with breeding areas starting to be reoccupied from late April (early June in northern Russia) (Snow and Perrins 1998), and with breeding occurring between May and mid July (Van Gils et al. 2013). Some non-breeding birds may also remain in the south throughout the summer (Snow and Perrins 1998). During the breeding season this species inhabits open, swampy areas in boreal forest (Van Gils et al. 2013), scrubland between tundra and coniferous forest with willow, dwarf birch or spruce, wet heathlands, and extensive mossy, sedgy or grassy marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). Whilst on the breeding grounds this species is chiefly carnivorous, taking small insects, especially the aquatic forms such as dytiscid or hydrophilid beetles, Hemiptera and the larvae of Diptera such as midges (Johnsgard 1981). The nest is a scrape on the ground amongst dense vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998, Van Gils et al. 2013) or raised on a tussock or slight ridge, and can sometimes be surrounded by water (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also nest in trees in the abandoned nests of other species (Van Gils et al. 2013) such as thrushes (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species is threatened in some European countries (such as Finland) from exploitation, and peatland drainage and destruction for forestry and agriculture (Van Gils et al. 2013). The populations in southern Sweden, Germany and Poland have also declined, possibly due to the threats of climatic change (Van Gils et al. 2013). The species is susceptible to both avian botulism (Hubalek et al. 2005) and avian malaria (Mendes et al. 2005), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive and Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Intensive grazing of grassland (>1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005).


population:
The European population is estimated at 98,700-202,000 pairs, which equates to 197,000-405,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 66,100-111,000 pairs, which equates to 132,000-222,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory and generally migrates overland on a broad front, although the majority of western European birds pass through coastal and estuarine sites (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The Wadden Sea for example is used by many Fennoscandian birds as a stop-over and moulting site from late April to mid-May. Most Palearctic birds are trans-Saharan migrants (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), the main autumn passage through northern and temperate Europe occurring from the second week of July to late October (Snow and Perrins 1998). Flocks arrive in southern Africa and Australia from August to September, and depart again in March for the northward return migration (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species breeds in the boreal forest zone from sea level to 1,200 m in Norway (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998) (although predominantly up to 450 m) (Snow and Perrins 1998), in swampy forest clearings, woody moorland, open bogs and marshes (including raised and blanket bogs) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), and eutrophic lakes with margins of dead and decaying vegetation (Johnsgard 1981). It avoids bare or broken barren expanses, mountain escarpments, and closed forests with very dense, tall vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998). In its wintering grounds this species frequents a variety of freshwater, marine and artificial wetlands, including swamps, open muddy or rocky shores of lakes and large rivers, sewage farms, saltworks, inundated rice-fields (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), ponds, reservoirs (Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes, sandy or muddy coastal flats, estuaries (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) or lagoons and pools on tidal reefs (Snow and Perrins 1998). On migration this species occurs on inland flooded meadows, dried-up lakes, sandbars and marshes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species is chiefly carnivorous, its diet consisting of insects and their larvae (especially beetles), crustaceans, annelids, molluscs, amphibians (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), small fish (mullet Liza spp., clinids Clinus spp. and tilapia Oreochromis spp.) (Hockey et al. 2005) and occasionally rodents (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest is a shallow scrape on open ground, often in clearings in woods (Snow and Perrins 1998), and is typically placed next to a piece of dead wood (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), or beside rocks, trees (Johnsgard 1981), fences and sticks (for use as nest markers) (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species has suffered in some areas from habitat degradation caused by off-road vehicles or dry conditions causing vegetation to become rank (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Breeding areas should be protected from disturbance and alteration.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 616,000-1,050,000 pairs, which equates to 1,230,000-2,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 249,000-421,000 pairs, which equates to 497,000-843,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is fully migratory and moves overland on a broad front (Urban et al. 1986) with European populations making well-documented stop-overs in Saharan oases (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). During the breeding season this species inhabits damp areas in swampy, old pine, spruce or alder woodland and montane forest with many fallen and rotten tree stumps, marshy forest floors and heavy carpets of lichens and mosses, generally in the vicinity of rivers, streams, swamps, ponds, lakes (Johnsgard 1981) and bogs (Snow and Perrins 1998). Outside of the breeding season this species shows a preference for a wider variety of inland freshwater habitats such as marshes, lake edges, sewage farms, small dams and ponds, ditches, riverbanks and forest streams, often near villages and cultivation (Urban et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (although less often in the vicinity of woodland) (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It is also very rarely found in intertidal areas such as creeks and the channels of saltmarshes (Johnsgard 1981, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species is omnivorous, although its diet is predominantly made up of aquatic and terrestrial insects (Snow and Perrins 1998) (e.g. dragonfly larvae, ants, waterbugs, moth larvae, and the adults and larvae of beetles, Diptera and Trichoptera), annelids, small crustaceans, spiders and fish, as well as plant fragments (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

This species frequently nests high in trees in the abandoned nests of passerine species such as Common Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus), thrushes (Turdus spp.) (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), crows, jays and shrikes (Johnsgard 1981), but may also nest in squirrel dreys (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998), on natural platforms up to 20 m high (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), and occasionally on tree stumps or mounds of accumulated pine needles, among branches and tree roots, or amongst fallen trees on the ground (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
This species is susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is not listed on priority lists of the Conventions.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Unfertilised grasslands with low cattle densities (0.5 cows per hectare) were found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the very small population size qualifies as Endangered and there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species is a summer visitor to central Russia and parts of eastern Europe. It breeds in east Romania, east Ukraine and west Russia. Isolated breeding populations are found in the Baltic States west to Poland. It winters in the Mediterranean (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Its northernmost limits in Europe are at Botnik Bay (65°N) from St Petersburg to the Kirov region (59°N) and its southernmost limit runs from 47–49°N through Ukraine and southern Russia (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 12,100-30,300 pairs, which equates to 24,100-60,600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 20-70 pairs, which equates to 40-140 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits warm inland wetlands from open steppe to boreal forest, including shallow freshwater and brackish marshlands, grassy or marshy lake-edges (Johnsgard 1981), river valleys, flooded meadows (Snow and Perrins 1998) and occasionally salt-lakes (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species typically occurs on the margins of inland freshwater and brackish wetlands such as rice paddy-fields, swamps, salt-pans, salt-marshes, sewage works and marshy lake-edges, and although it is rare on open coastlines it can occasionally be found on estuaries, lagoons and intertidal mudflats (Urban et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Hockey et al. 2005). It occupies its breeding areas by mid-April to mid-May (Snow and Perrins 1998). It usually nests solitarily or in loose colonies with pairs spaced less than 10 m apart (Hayman et al. 1986). The nest of this species is a shallow depression (Snow and Perrins 1998), often on a mound at the marshy edge of a lagoon, lake or pool (Johnsgard 1981). Clutches are typically four eggs. This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and both aquatic and terrestrial insects (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). This species is a full migrant, travelling overland on a broad front to winter in the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa through the Persian Gulf and southern Asia to Indonesia and Australia.  The main passage to and from Russia is believed to occur east of the Black Sea (Snow and Perrins 1998), with only a few birds crossing Europe (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The species has disappeared as a breeding bird from eastern Europe, Belarus, Moldova and Russia as a result of steppe habitat losses due to agricultural intensification (such as increased ploughing (Tomkovich 1992)), and possibly also due to egg-collecting (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It may be susceptible to future outbreaks of avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974), partly due to its choice of habitat (it often shows a preference for sewage works) (Hockey et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are no current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Adequate protection and expansion of its steppe habitat should be ensured. Legislation regulating egg collecting should be developed and enforced. Studies to develop understanding of its ecology, threats and their impact should be undertaken to inform future conservation measures.


range:
The species breeds across much of Europe. Two subspecies are present within Europe: totanus breeds from Orkney, Shetland and northern Scandinavia south to the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and Turkey, and east to Russia, with wintering grounds in the Mediterranean; robusta breeds in Iceland, the Faeroes and possibly Scotland and winters in the British Isles and western Europe (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 340,000-484,000 pairs, which equates to 680,000-968,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 93,700-130,000 pairs, which equates to 187,000-259,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a broad front over land and along coasts, some Icelandic and western European populations remaining close to their breeding grounds (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). It breeds from March to August (Hayman et al. 1986) in solitary pairs or in loose colonies (Hayman et al. 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), departing the breeding grounds from June to October, and returning from the wintering grounds again between February and April (Hayman et al. 1986). The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, inland wet grasslands with short swards (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (including cultivated meadows) (Johnsgard 1981), grassy marshes, swampy heathlands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and swampy moors (Johnsgard 1981). On passage the species may frequent inland flooded grasslands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and the silty shores of rivers and lakes (Flint et al. 1984), but during the winter it is largely coastal, occupying rocky, muddy and sandy beaches, saltmarshes, tidal mudflats, saline and freshwater coastal lagoons (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), tidal estuaries (Johnsgard 1981), saltworks and sewage farms. When breeding it feeds on insects, spiders and annelid worms. During the non-breeding season the species takes insects, spiders and annelid worms, as well as molluscs, crustaceans (especially amphipods e.g. Corophium spp.) and occasionally small fish and tadpoles (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The nest is a shallow scrape or hollow (Snow and Perrins 1998) on a hummock or at the base of a tuft (Flint et al. 1984) of grass, often well hidden by overhanging leaves (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996). The species usually nests solitarily inland (less than 10 pairs/km2) but in loosely colonial groups (up to 100–300 pairs/km2) on the coast (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The species is threatened by the loss of breeding and wintering habitats through agricultural intensification, wetland drainage, flood control, afforestation, land reclamation, industrial development (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), encroachment of Spartina spp. on mudflats (Evans 1986, Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), improvement of marginal grasslands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) (e.g. by drainage, inorganic fertilising and re-seeding) (Baines 1988), coastal barrage construction (Burton 2006), and heavy grazing (e.g., of saltmarshes) (Norris et al. 1998). The species is also threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats from construction work (U.K.) (Burton et al. 2002a) and foot-traffic on footpaths (Burton et al. 2002b). It is vulnerable to severe cold periods on its western European wintering grounds (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996) and suffers from nest predation by introduced predators (e.g. European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)) on some islands (Jackson 2001). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II (B) of the EU Birds Directive. The EU commisioned a Management Plan for this huntable bird species considered to be in unfavourable status (Technical Report - 2009 - 031) (Jensen et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Optimal breeding conditions for this species may be provided by creating a mosaic of unflooded grassland, winter-flooded grassland and shallow pools (Ausden et al. 2002). Winter flooding of grasslands is beneficial to the species as it helps to keep the sward height short and open and also creates pools which provide a source of aquatic invertebrates in the spring (Ausden et al. 2002, Olsen and Schmidt 2004). Such shallow pools on coastal grazing marshes should be maintained until the end of June (Ausden et al. 2003). The number of breeding pairs on improved grassland was successfully increased on a reserve in Wales by the implementation of a two-year rotation of chisel ploughing, as well as a seasonal sheep and cattle grazing regime and a controlled increase in the water-level (Squires and Allcorn 2006). At Lower Lough Erne in Northern Ireland the breeding population of the species increased considerably as a result of cutting rush beds in mid-winter (although the species nested on uncut areas, chicks benefited from the presence of adjacent short, open areas for feeding) (Robson and Allcorn 2006). Low-level grazing of salt marshes (e.g. c. 1 cow per hectare) does not appear to affect the species and may even be beneficial to breeding populations (Norris et al. 1997, Ausden et al. 2005), although cattle should not be put onto the marsh until towards the end of the nesting season (e.g. late-May or early-June) to minimise the risk of nest trampling (Norris et al. 1997). There is also evidence that too heavy grazing can be detrimental (Evans 1986). The species is known to show increased hatching success when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas (Jackson 2001), and in the U.K. there is evidence that the removal of Spartina anglica from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species (Evans 1986).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the tiny declining population qualifies as Critically Endangered. Since the species is declining within the EU27 region and the wider European population is decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
During the 20th century, the species has expanded westwards (Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds in southern Finland and Latvia, Ukraine, as well as north-west Russia, which holds the main European population (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 15,500-50,700 pairs, which equates to 30,900-101,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3-6 pairs, which equates to 6-12 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in lowland valleys in northern boreal forest and tundra, especially on floodplains with flooded meadows and marshes, and where overgrown moist grasslands alternate with willow scrub (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It also frequents lakesides and marshy banks of streams, and extends to the coasts of sheltered seas in the Baltic. The species avoids mountains, fast rocky streams, steep or broken terrain, extensive open spaces and tall dense forest (Snow and Perrins 1998). During migration the species may stop-over at inland freshwater wetlands (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), such as muddy lakes or river edges (Urban et al. 1986). Breeding occurs between May and June and is semi-colonial (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996), but the species is mainly solitary outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a shallow depression close to water either in the open, or sheltered by short grasses (Urban et al. 1986). Clutch size is normally four eggs. On its breeding grounds the diet of this species consists mainly of adult and larval midges (Diptera) as well as seeds. On migration the diet of this species is more varied, consisting of a variety of insects, small molluscs, crustaceans (including crabs), spiders and annelid worms. This species is a full migrant, moving south from late July to August. The Finnish population flies across eastern Europe and crosses the Mediterranean and Sahara non-stop (Van Gils and Wiersma 1996).

threats:
The breeding success of this species is not well known, but there are indications that an overall increase of common gulls, crows and mammalian predators has led to increased nest predation. Anthropogenic habitats in the wood processing industry are subject to unpredictable changes that can drive small range populations to extinction within a short period of time. Historically there are indications of illegal egg collection at the breeding sites (HELCOM 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. CMS Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research into population and migratory movements should be started in order to reveal the wintering sites. More efforts are needed to locate all breeding sites in the Bothnian Bay. At anthropogenic breeding sites, authorities should be aware of the presence of the species and its legal status (HELCOM 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Catharacta skua (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Stercorarius.

Catharacta skua, C. antarctica and C. maccormicki (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993), cross-regional species, are retained as separate species contra Christidis and B

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 16,300-17,200 pairs, which equates to 32,600-34,500 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,600 pairs, which equates to 19,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This marine species avoids land during migration and winter, aggregating in winter in areas where it can scavenge from fisheries. It breeds on islands, usually avoiding areas frequented by humans and favours flat ground with some vegetation cover, but less than 20 cm tall. Breeding begins in May and it is loosely colonial but highly territorial. The nest is a scrape typically lined with dead grass. Clutches are normally two eggs, but inexperienced birds may only lay one. It has a hugely varied diet owing to being a highly opportunistic feeder. Individuals regularly show individual specialisations in diet and feeding with some colony-specific learning. The species is migratory; wintering mostly off the coast of Iberia but younger birds will travel further (Furness 1996).

threats:
Declines in Shetland have been due to a recent reduction in sand eel stocks that have resulted in reduced breeding success and less birds at the largest colonies. Changes in fishing practices could also have serious impacts as more than half the summer diet at Shetland is made up of discards from fisheries (Furness 1996) and when discard rates are reduced this species will switch to predating other birds, especially if small shoaling pelagic fish are scarce (Votier et al. 2004). Fishing activities also pose a threat through drowning in fishing nets or being caught on hooks. Human persecution (often illegal) has limited the size of some colonies although harvesting for food has now nearly ceased (Furness 1996). The species is also affected by climate change (Oswald et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known significant conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
As it is not desirable to maintain current rates of fish discard, conservation measures are needed to conserve sandeel stocks in order to provide an alternative food source for this species and avoid a switch to preying on other bird species, which may impact populations of other seabirds (Votier et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

range:
This species breeds in the high Arctic of Eurasia and North America, and has a circumpolar winter distribution in the Southern Oceans (del Hoyo et al. 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 19,800-53,000 pairs, which equates to 39,700-106,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,700-22,000 pairs, which equates to 17,400-44,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine and highly pelagic, rarely occurring within sight of land except when breeding. It feeds mainly on lemmings during the summer but will also take shrews, many insects, berries and small birds when microtines are scarce. Its winter diet is largely unknown, but probably includes marine insects and fish with some scavenging and kleptoparasitism. Breeding begins in June with birds widely scattered over the Arctic and subarctic or montane tundra, up to 1,300 m in Scandinavia. It is highly territorial. The nest is an unlined, inconspicuous scrape into which two eggs are typically laid. It is a transequatorial migrant but due to its pelagic nature its migration routes and winter distribution are poorly known (Furness et al. 2013).

threats:
This species suffers heavy predation of eggs and young from Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus). Its breeding success is closely linked with lemming abundance (Furness et al. 2013) and thus is threatened by possible disruption to lemming cycles caused by climate change. This may already be a threat as recent anomalies in lemming cycle dynamics in eastern Greenland have already been observed (Gilg et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species has been the subject of a recent satellite tagging study, aimed at finding out more about its movements outside the breeding season (Gilget al. 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring to more accurately determine the population of this species is needed. Further research in the requirements and movements of this species would help inform future conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing very rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Endangered, and there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species is circumpolar and in Europe as elsewhere breeds in the northernmost areas of coastal tundra, typically within the band 57°–80° N (Furness 1996).

population:
The European population is estimated at 39,900-56,200 pairs, which equates to 79,800-112,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,000-3,300 pairs, which equates to 6,000-6,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine and predominately coastal but will migrate over land. It breeds on tundra, moorland or grassland.  Breeding begins in May or June, occurring later in the north than the south. It is either colonial at seabird sites or widely scattered across the tundra where it is territorial. The nest is an unlined scrape and is inconspicuous. Clutches are normally two eggs, but inexperienced birds may only lay one. Most or all of its food will be obtained by kleptoparasitism when nesting near other seabird colonies, otherwise its diet can include microtine rodents, adult and fledgling passerines, wader chicks, birds' eggs, insects and berries. The species is mainly a transequatorial migrant, with very small numbers wintering in Northern Hemisphere (Furness 1996).

threats:
Human persecution is a very local problem in Scotland, Faeroes, Iceland and Scandinavia. Increasing numbers of Catharacta skua have displaced some colonies in Scotland. Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is a major predator of eggs and chicks at higher latitudes, and Snowy Owls (Nyctea scandiaca) can also take many chicks (Furness 1996). In some areas the species is also threatened by wind energy production (Furness et al. 2013), fisheries (Furness 2002) and rising temperature extremes (Furness 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known significant conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
As the populations in Russia are poorly monitored and population estimates are very approximate (Furness 1996) better monitoring is required.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species is Not Evaluated (NE) for the EU27 region as winter (non-breeding season) data were not available.

population:
The European population is estimated at 20,000 pairs, which equates to 40,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is marine outside the breeding season, remaining somewhat coastal, especially in upwelling regions of the tropics and subtropics.  It breeds on Arctic tundra, favouring low-lying moss tundra with pools, and hummocky areas in moist bogs. Breeding begins in June at scattered sites across the tundra where lemming concentrations are high. Individuals are highly territorial. The nest is an unlined scrape and is inconspicuous. Clutches are normally two eggs. Whilst breeding it specialises on catching lemmings which frequently constitute over 90% of their diet, also feeding on young waders and gamebirds, bird eggs and carrion. In winter it takes fish, sometimes by kleptoparasitism, small seabirds, and scavenges on carrion. Outside the breeding season, it migrates south, including long migrations over land (Furness 1996).

threats:
The breeding success of this species is dependent on lemming abundance. Predation of eggs and chicks by Arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) and Snowy Owls (Nyctea scandiaca) occurs but is not a serious threat as this species is large enough to drive off nest predators (Furness 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known significant conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently thought to be required for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002b).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered, Possibly Extinct (CR(PE))
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered, Possibly Extinct (CR(PE))

There are no recent confirmed sightings of this species within the European region. The bird formerly bred on the Iberian peninsula, and it was last recorded in 1981. The bird is therefore classified as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) within the Europe and the EU27 regions, although the bird is considered Least Concern globally (BirdLife International 2012).

range:
The species has a predominantly south-east Asian and African range, which just extends into southern Spain (Debus and Kirwan 2013), in the province of Huelva. In Italy (Sicily) it was abundant during the 19th century but has been considered extinct there since 1920 and is also probably no longer present in Portugal (Madroño et al. 2004).

population:
The European and EU27 population is estimated to be possibly extinct, as there have been no confirmed sightings in more than 30 yeras. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species was formerly found in coastal scrub of bushes and dwarf palms (palmetto) Chaemerops humilis (Arecaceae), but now probably confined to suboptimal Mediterranean coastal sand scrub community including Halimium halimifolium (Cistaceae), Pistacia lentiscus (Anacardiaceae) and Quercus suber (Fagaceae) (Madge and McGowan 2002), as well as broom Calicotome villosa (Fabaceae) scrub and adjacent cultivated areas (Gutiérrez Exposito et al. 2011, Debus and Kirwan 2013). It breeds April to August (Debus and Kirwan 2013). The nest is a shallow, well-concealed scrape lined with grass, under grass tussock or low vegetation; standing grass stems often pulled over to form a loose canopy (Debus and Kirwan 2013). It usually lays four eggs (Madge and McGowan 2002). It feeds on seeds and invertebrates in about equal proportions (Madge and McGowan 2002). It is apparently sedentary in the western Palearctic (Debus and Kirwan 2013).

threats:
Over the past half century much of the habitat in the sandy areas of its range has been lost to irrigated agriculture or forestry. An unknown number are mistakenly shot each year by quail hunters. In some areas it may have been affected by overabundance of opportunistic predators such as foxes and wild boar (Madroño et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
In 2002 the hunting of Coturnix coturnix in much of the theoretical range of this species within in the province of Huelva, Spain was prohibited. This measure immediately aroused concern with the hunters who had hitherto been working on surveys for the species (Madroño et al. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The strengthening of surveys in Andalucía and the creation of a specialized, dedicated and detailed map of the species's distribution would help inform conservation decisions, as well as the continuation of research into the ecology and ethology of the species. Training forest ranger and volunteers in methods of detecting and tracking the species. Awareness-raising campaigns within the quail hunting community in the provinces of Huelva and Cadiz. Adapting forestry work in the species's range. The goal should be to reduce forests of pine or eucalyptus and create and qualitatively enhance large areas of scrubland where forest cover is uniform. Draft Recovery Plan for the species in Andalucía (Madroño et al. 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 224,000-247,000 pairs, which equates to 447,000-495,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 154,000-164,000 pairs, which equates to 308,000-327,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a large charismatic species with close associations to human culture, and is a flagship species for conservation. This species is a Palearctic migrant (Elliott et al. 2014) that travels with the assistance of thermal updrafts, the occurrence of which restricts the migratory routes the species can take (Hancock et al. 1992). It breeds from February to April in the Palearctic (Elliott et al. 2014). It nests in loose colonies of up to 30 pairs (Hancock et al. 1992, Elliott et al. 2014) or solitarily (Elliott et al. 2014). The main departure from the European breeding grounds occurs in August (Hancock et al. 1992) with the species travelling in large flocks (Brown et al. 1982, Hancock et al. 1992), generally arriving in Africa by early October (Brown et al. 1982). The species inhabits open areas, shallow marshes, lakesides (Hancock et al. 1992, Elliott et al. 2014), lagoons (Elliott et al. 2014), flood-plains, rice-fields and arable land (Snow and Perrins 1998) especially where there are scattered trees for roosting (Elliott et al. 2014). It generally avoids regions with persistent cold, wet weather or large tracts of tall, dense vegetation such as reedbeds or forests (Hancock et al. 1992, Elliott et al. 2014). During the winter the species shows a preference for drier habitats (Hancock et al. 1992) such as grasslands, steppe and cultivated fields (Elliott et al. 2014), often gathering near lakes, ponds (Hancock et al. 1992), pools, slow-flowing streams, ditches (Elliott et al. 2014) or rivers (Hancock et al. 1992). The species is carnivorous and has a varied and opportunistic diet. It takes small mammals (Elliott et al. 2014) (e.g., voles, water voles, mice, shrews, young rats (Hancock et al. 1992)), large insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and locusts), adult and juvenile amphibians, snakes, lizards, earthworms, fish (Elliott et al. 2014), eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds, molluscs and crustaceans (Hancock et al. 1992). The nest is constructed of sticks (Elliott et al. 2014) and is commonly positioned up to 30 m above the ground (Brown et al. 1982) in trees or on the roofs of buildings, as well as on pylons, telegraph poles, stacks of straw and other anthropogenic sites (including specially erected nesting structures), cliffs and occasionally among rushes on the ground (Elliott et al. 2014). The species nests solitarily or in loose colonies, often using traditional nesting sites (there are records of individual nests being used every year for 100 years) (Hancock et al. 1992, Elliott et al. 2014). Nesting sites are usually situated near foraging areas, but may be up to 2–3 km away (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species is threatened by habitat alteration including the drainage of wet meadows (Goriup and Schulz 1990, Elliott et al. 2014), prevention of floods on flood-plains (by dams, embankments, pumping stations and river canalisation schemes) (Goriup and Schulz 1990), conversion of foraging areas (Elliott et al. 2014), development, industrialisation and intensification of agriculture (Hancock et al. 1992) (e.g. mechanised ploughing of rough pastures to sow fertilised crops or swards of more productive grass varieties) (Goriup and Schulz 1990). It is also threatened by a shortage of nesting sites in some areas (Elliott et al. 2014) as, for example, the roofs of new rural buildings do not support nests and nest structures on pylons are frequently destroyed during maintenance work (Goriup and Schulz 1990). The species may also suffer as a result of the excessive use of pesticides  (Elliott et al. 2014, Hockey et al. 2005) and through eating poisoned baits put out to catch large carnivores (Elliott et al. 2014). Another serious threat is collision with and electrocution from overhead powerlines (Bairlein 1991, Elliott et al. 2014), especially whilst on migration in Europe (Hancock et al. 1992). The species is hunted for food and sport (Elliott et al. 2014), mainly on migration (Hancock et al. 1992) and in its winter quarters (Goriup and Schulz 1990).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
This species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA). The eastern and western populations are currently listed in columns C (category 1) and A (category 3b) in the AEWA Action Plan, respectively. The international population of the species is censused and monitored every 10 years (Schulz 1999).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Intensively grazed (>1 cow per hectare) unfertilised grassland was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005), and traditional livestock-farming practices such as creating herb-rich meadows for stock grazing and hay production are thought to be beneficial (Goriup and Schulz 1990). A model used to study the impact of different land use patterns on the species found that sequential (asynchronous) mowing of grasslands may increase the food supply for nestlings, thereby increasing reproductive success (as sequential mowing generates a small number of high-quality foraging patches throughout the breeding season) (Johst et al. 2001). A report by the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) suggests that habitat management for the species should include the periodic flooding of meadows, the creation of a mosaic of native grasslands and meadows, and the retention or creation of ditches, ponds and lakes (Goriup and Schulz 1990). The report also advises management strategies in relation to electricity pylons (e.g. burying or marking aerial cables and preventing disturbance to nests during maintenance) to reduce the threats of electrocution and collision (Goriup and Schulz 1990). Due to the species's habit of defecating on its legs to regulate its body temperature in hot climates it is inadvisable to fit individuals with leg-rings for tracking purposes (dry uric acid builds-up on the legs and hardens around leg-rings, tightening them and leading to injuries) (Goriup and Schulz 1990). Other methods of monitoring movements such as satellite telemetry or patagial wing-tags are therefore advised (Goriup and Schulz 1990). Other measures should: Monitor breeding, migrating, wintering numbers, age composition and ecological changes at key sites and habitats; Sustainably manage river valleys and wet grasslands; Abandonment of pastoral grassland, afforestation of farmland and drainage of wet meadows and inland wetlands in key breeding areas should be stopped; Bury power-lines or replace with more visible cables.


population:
The European population is estimated at 9,800-13,900 pairs, which equates to 19,500-27,800 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,000-7,700 pairs, which equates to 11,900-15,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a narrow front (Elliott et al. 2014) along well-defined routes (Brown et al. 1982, Hancock et al. 1992). Some breeding populations (e.g. in Spain) are also sedentary (Elliott et al. 2014). The species is a solitary nester, the timing of breeding varying between populations but generally coinciding with spring in the Palearctic Region (Elliott et al. 2014). On migration the species may travel singly (Snow and Perrins 1998) or in small groups (Elliott et al. 2014) of up to 100 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998), and on its wintering grounds it is normally observed singly or in small groups of less than 30 individuals (Brown et al. 1982). The species inhabits old, undisturbed, open forests (Snow and Perrins 1998, Elliott et al. 2014) from sea-level up to mountainous regions (e.g. 2,000–2,500 m in altitude) (Hancock et al. 1992). It forages in shallow streams, pools, marshes (Elliott et al. 2014), swampy patches (Snow and Perrins 1998), damp meadows (Hancock et al. 1992), flood-plains, pools in dry riverbeds (Hockey et al. 2005) and occasionally grasslands (Elliott et al. 2014) especially where there are stands of reeds or long grass (Brown et al. 1982). It generally avoids large bodies of water and dense forest (Elliott et al. 2014), but non-breeding birds may frequent the estuaries of tidal rivers (Hancock et al. 1992). It is predominantly piscivorous although it may also take amphibians, insects, snails, crabs, small reptiles, mammals and birds. The nest is a large construction of sticks (Elliott et al. 2014) positioned between 4–25 m high (Hancock et al. 1992) in large forest trees (Lohmus and Sellis 2003, Elliott et al. 2014) or on cliffs (Spain) (Elliott et al. 2014). The species shows a preference for nesting in trees that have canopies large enough to hold the nest away from the main trunk (e.g. trees 25 m high, 120 years old and with a diameter at breast height of 66 cm) (Lohmus and Sellis 2003). It nests solitarily, with pairs spread out in the landscape at a distance of no less than one kilometre (even where the species is most numerous) (Hancock et al. 1992). The species may occupy the nests of other bird species and commonly reuses nests in successive years (Elliott et al. 2014).

threats:
The main threat to this species is habitat degradation (Hancock et al. 1992, Balian et al. 2002, Lohmus and Sellis 2003, Diagana et al. 2006, Elliott et al. 2014). The area of suitable habitat available for breeding is being reduced in Russia and eastern Europe through deforestation (Elliott et al. 2014) (particularly the destruction of large traditional nesting trees) (Hancock et al. 1992, Lohmus and Sellis 2003), the rapid development of industry and farming (Hancock et al. 1992), the building of dams (Diagana et al. 2006) and lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian et al. 2002).

The species's wetland wintering habitats in Africa are further threatened by conversion (Elliott et al. 2014), agricultural intensification, desertification and pollution caused by the concentration of pesticides and other chemicals (Diagana et al. 2006, Elliott et al. 2014). The species is also occasionally killed by collisions with power-lines and overhead cables (Hockey et al. 2005), and hunting in southern Europe (especially during migration) has caused population declines (Hancock et al. 1992).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention, Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) and on Annex II of the Cites Convention. Wetlands International has published a Conservation Action Plan for the species in Africa, focusing on the wintering conditions of the birds breeding in Europe (Diagana et al. 2006).

Conservation Actions Proposed
A study in Estonia found that the retention of large older trees during forest management is important in providing nesting sites for the species (Lohmus and Sellis 2003). Conservation measures aimed at increasing the species's breeding success and population density should cover large territories of predominantly deciduous woodland and should focus on managing the river quality as far as 20 km away from nesting sites, protecting and managing feeding habitats, and improving food resources by establishing shallow artificial pools in grasslands or along rivers (Jiguet and Villarubias 2004). Other measures should: Monitor breeding, migrating, wintering numbers, age composition and ecological changes at key sites; Sustainably manage rivers and small streams; Establish non-intrusion zones around nest locations; Protect nesting trees (also in plantations) and rocks; Bury power-lines or replace with more visible cable; Prevent poaching and overexploitation of fish.


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,500-10,000 mature individuals, which equates to 2,500-10,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species typically inhabits areas of closed-canopy laurel forest (containing Lauraceae, Ericaceae and Rosaceae species, with Laurus azorica and Ocotea foetens particularly dominant) preferring ravines and passes (Tucker and Heath 1994, Baptista et al. 2013). It also uses heath vegetation consisting of Myrica faya and Erica arborea. It is sometimes found in open, degraded habitats including cultivated areas (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is typically present in the uplands.

It breeds between January and September with a peak in February-May. It lays one egg and may have two to three broods. The nest is made of sticks and is typically placed in the most abundant tree species:E. arborea, L. azorica, Ilex canariensis and M. faya. It feeds mainly on fruit but also takes grain, buds, leaves, shoots and invertebrates. It will feed on cabbages and other crops when berries are limited. The species is sedentary but moves to lower altitudes in late summer for feeding (Baptista et al. 2013).

threats:
Historical declines resulted from intensive exploitation of laurel forests. The extent of forest loss has slowed, although fragmentation has continued in some areas as forests are exploited for poles and tool handles. A small amount of illegal hunting occurs at drinking sites. As it is a tree-nesting species, predation by introduced mammals including rats is of less significance than for C. junoniae but it remains a potential threat, the impact of which has not been fully assessed (Hernández et al. 1999). Grazing pressure from sheep is leading to habitat degradation on La Gomera and at El Hierro. Forest fires also pose a moderate threat to its habitat (BirdLife International 2010). Recreational activities cause some disturbance in the breeding season. The species is potentially threatened by outbreaks of Newcastle Disease and Tuberculosis (BirdLife International 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. A European action plan was published in 1996 and reviewed in 2010. The majority of areas inhabited by this species are now protected under regional or national law (BirdLife International 2010). Hunting has only been a residual threat since hunting-free zones (coinciding with reserves) were implemented. The restoration of pine forest and thermophile forest is still pending full implementation. As part of a LIFE project (2005-2008), work has been carried out to eradicate exotic plant species, plant native species, raise public awareness and increase knowledge of the survival of different native species present in thermophilous forests. Tenerife has undertaken a major effort in eradicating Monterey pine and replanting with native species. Also in Tenerife, Canarian pine tree plantations are partly cleared (thinned) which makes them more suitable for the species. Some islands have rat control plans in place (BirdLife International 2010).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue to monitor the population and potential threats. Protect remaining areas of laurel forest. Establish an invasive species control plan. Implement awareness-raising campaigns.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species, endemic to Europe and the EU27, has a very small range, within which it is restricted to just four islands on which threats remain that could negatively impact the species in the future. It therefore qualifies as Near Threatened in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain, where it occurs on the islands of La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife and El Hierro (González 1996, Martín and Lorenzo 2001), and formerly on Gran Canaria (Barov and Derhé 2011). The largest subpopulation is found on La Palma, where it occurs across much of the northern half of the island. The species is common on La Gomera, where it is found primarily in the north, and also occurs patchily on the northern slopes of Tenerife. It has recently also been recorded on El Hierro; however, breeding there has not yet been confirmed (Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martín et al. 2000).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,000-2,500 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers thermophilous forest, with a potential altitudinal range of 200–500 m Asl on the north slopes of the islands, and 600–1,000 m in the south (Nogales et al. 2009) and occurs in areas with steep slopes, escarpments and gullies, as well as in laurel forest and Canary pine forest, and cultivated areas (Martín et al. 2000). The breeding season varies between islands, but extends from January to September, with a peak between April-June. At least on Tenerife, breeding success appears to be low, as a consequence of intense nest predation (Hernández et al. 1999, Martín et al. 2000). Nests are on the ground (in fissures, holes or small ledges, at the bases of trees, and under rocks or fallen tree trunks) in steep, rocky, shady areas with abundant shrubby vegetation (Martín et al. 2000). Clutch is one, occasionally two eggs. It feeds mostly on fruit, buds, some grain and flowers. A large part of its diet is made up of fruits of Ocotea foetens and Persea indica. It forages both in trees and on the ground and locally also feeds in orchards. The species is sedentary but sometimes moves from upland forests to lowland agricultural areas to feed (Baptista et al. 1997).

threats:
Habitat loss has been extensive. Dry and laurel forests have been intensively exploited since the 15th century, and some areas of remaining forest continue to be felled and fragmented owing to the demand for wooden stakes and poles for agriculture, particularly vine-growing (Martín et al. 2000, Hernández 2004). Grazing by livestock, notably sheep, is degrading habitat on El Hierro and La Gomera. Predation of eggs and chicks by rats, and of nesting adults by feral cats (Felis catus), are important threats (Hernández 2004), particularly on Tenerife where five of seven nests monitored were predated, primarily by black rats (Rattus rattus) (Hernández et al. 1999, Martín et al. 2000). Illegal hunting remains a threat, especially when birds concentrate at drinking and feeding sites (Hernández 2004). Recreational activities such as climbing, abseiling, quad-biking, mountain-biking and motocross may disturb nesting birds (Hernández 2004, Barov and Derhé 2011). The species is potentially threatened by outbreaks of Newcastle Disease and Tuberculosis (Barov and Derhé 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Bird Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. It is fully protected under Spanish law. Many protected areas have been established, including Garajonay National Park (La Gomera), and El Canal and Los Tiles (La Palma). The majority of areas inhabited by the species now have protected status under regional or national law (Barov and Derhé 2011). There have been several projects focused on the conservation of this species since the 1980s. An action plan was published in 1996 and reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). The restoration of pine forest and thermophile forest is still pending full implementation (Barov and Derhé 2011). As part of a LIFE project (2005-2008), work has been carried out to eradicate exotic plant species, plant native species, raise public awareness and increase knowledge of the survival of different native species found in thermophilous forest. Rat control programmes are in place on some islands. There are on-going efforts to reintroduce the species to Gran Canaria using birds from La Palma (Barov and Derhé 2011).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct a population census and initiate monitoring. Ensure the adequate protection of key sites, particularly as yet unprotected ones on La Gomera and La Palma. Continue to promote the restoration of dry and laurel forests. Avoid further damage to laurel forest from commercial forestry. Control introduced predators at breeding sites, particularly on Tenerife. Control illegal hunting, especially at drinking sites. Continue on-going education and awareness campaigns.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 11,000,000-22,600,000 pairs, which equates to 22,100,000-45,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,220,000-11,300,000 pairs, which equates to 10,400,000-22,700,000 mature individuals. The population size of the truly wild population of this species is obscured by confusion with feral birds. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species's natural habitat consists usually of rock faces, ledges in caves and sea cliffs where birds nest. The feral form is commensal with man and is particularly abundant in cities. It avoids areas of tall and dense vegetation. Breeding season varies between regions. It breeds year round in the U.K. and Ireland with peak breeding in April. In the Mediterranean it breeds between March and July and in Cyprus from March to May. The nest is a cup loosely fashioned from stems, leaves, roots, driftwood, seaweed and feathers. It lays two eggs and may produce up to five broods each year. It typically feeds on grains but may also take some invertebrates. Natural populations are resident and sedentary (Baptista et al. 1997).

threats:
It is difficult to evaluate the conservation status and security of "natural" populations due to the confusion concerning the degree of mixing with feral birds. Natural populations are threatened by interbreeding with feral pigeons in many areas and pure populations are already confined to the remoter cliffs and islands, e.g. off north and west Scotland, but even here feral birds join the flocks (Baptista et al. 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management is needed to keep feral birds geographically isolated from natural populations and monitoring is needed to determine the extent of natural populations (Johnson et al. 1988).


population:
The European population is estimated at 561,000-1,040,000 pairs, which equates to 1,120,000-2,070,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 524,000-959,000 pairs, which equates to 1,050,000-1,920,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in generally fairly open country (Baptista et al. 1997). It uses woodland-edge habitat, parks and farmland with mature trees or other habitats offering suitable nest-hole sites (Tucker and Heath 1997). It mainly breeds between April and October, nesting in holes in old trees, rock crevices, rabbit burrows, buildings, old Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) nest holes and nest boxes. It may also nest in clumps of dense vegetation or under bushes. The nest is usually a twig platform but eggs may sometimes be laid on bare wood. It normally lays two eggs. It mostly feeds on the ground taking seeds, grain, green leaves, buds, flowers and some invertebrates (Baptista et al. 1997). It is wholly migratory in northern Europe and mainly resident in southern Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994, Baptista et al. 1997). Birds winter in Iberia and in the southern half of France, as well as the rest of the northern Mediterranean basin (Baptista et al. 1997).

threats:
In parts of its range, the species underwent severe declines after the 1950s with the introduction new herbicides, although populations have recovered to a limited extent (Baptista et al. 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 20,500,000-29,000,000 pairs, which equates to 40,900,000-58,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 19,000,000-26,400,000 pairs, which equates to 38,100,000-52,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in a mosaic of woodland and open ground, notably farmland, parks and suburban gardens (Tucker and Heath 1997). It is typically a species of ecotone in deciduous or coniferous woodland. Its breeding season varies between regions, ranging from late February to early September. It normally lays two eggs. The nest is built of twigs and lined with more twigs, grasses and leaves usually 1.5-2.5 m above ground in trees and on building ledges or occasionally in thick vegetation or under a hedge. It takes food from the ground and also feeds in trees, mainly taking plant matter such as green leaves, buds, flowers, seeds, berries, grain and occasionally invertebrates. It is mainly migratory in northern and eastern Europe and partially migratory or resident in the rest of Europe (Baptista et al. 1997).

threats:
There are currently no known significant threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II and III; C. p. azorica on Annex I. There are no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, although this species may have a small range it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 10,000-14,000 mature individuals, which equates to 10,000-14,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is dependent on laurel (Laurus) forest on Madeira, which is mainly found on the north-facing slopes of the island although there are also isolated pockets of forest in the south (Tucker and Heath 1994). It occurs in the high forest zone which is often covered in clouds. The species nests all year round but mainly between February and June. It lays one egg. The nest is an untidy heap of sticks placed in crevices and caves in inaccessible cliffs and occasionally in heather and laurels (Baptista et al. 1997). It feeds mainly on the berries of Laurus azorica which is the most common tree in the laurel forest (Tucker and Heath 1994). It also eats the fruit of Ocotea foetens, Persea indica, Appolonias barbujana, Myrica faya, Clethra arborea and Piconia exelsa (Zino and Zino 1986, Jones 1988, Tucker and Heath 1994). When food resources in the forest are scarce the species moves to agricultural areas where it feeds on cabbages, watercress and fruit trees (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is sedentary but may move from cliffs to lowland areas to feed (Baptista et al. 1997).

threats:
Habitat loss threatens this species as laurel forests have been reduced to only 13.5% of surface area of Madeira (Baptista et al. 1997). Fires, as result of burning to improve pasture, destroy or degrade forest (Gibbs et al. 2001) and goats and pigs also cause some destruction (Baptista et al. 1997). It is regarded as a pest by farmers and is still shot when it invades arable land during food shortages. The species also suffers losses to predation by Black Rat (Rattus rattus) (Gibbs et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species now protected under European law, and farmers are provided with bird-scarers. Its native laurel forests are now protected (Baptista et al. 1997). A Species Action Plan was published in 1996 (Oliveira and Heredia 1996) and reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2010).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued survival of species depends directly on protection of habitat and strict control of hunting, and perhaps also of rats (Baptista et al. 1997). The implementation of the management plan should be maintained and improved and monitoring schemes should be continued. Ensure authorities have appropriate means to prevent and extinguish fires in the Laurel forest. Awareness campaigns and increased funding should be provided for the scaring devices project. Research on breeding success, habitat preferences and factors contributing to expansion movements outside laurel forest areas should be conducted. In addition investigation into the impact of rats and their population dynamics should be carried out. Continue monitoring rat control (Barov and Derhé 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Spilopelia senegalensis (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Stigmatopelia.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant or introduced (Spain) in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 61,500-204,000 pairs, which equates to 123,000-408,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is associated with cultivation, trees (but not forests) and human habitation. Breeding season varies between regions. The nest is a frail, thin platform of roots, twigs and petioles placed in a bush or tree up to 15 m above the ground (Baptista et al. 1997). It may also nest on buildings under the eaves, on drainpipes or in cracks in walls (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds on small seeds but also takes fruits, nectar from Aloe and some insects (Baptista et al. 1997). It is largely resident throughout range (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
There are currently no known serious threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Currently no conservation measures are required for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Streptopelia decaocto and S. xanthocycla (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as S. decaocto following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 7,910,000-14,300,000 pairs, which equates to 15,800,000-28,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,950,000-9,780,000 pairs, which equates to 11,900,000-19,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in towns and cities, parks, orchards and gardens. In the mountains of Kurdistan (including south east Turkey) it is found in poplar (Populus) thickets, bramble (Rubus) clumps, tamarisk (Tamarix) groves and orchards. In cooler parts of its range it generally breeds between March and October in more southerly areas it breeds all year round. It lays two eggs. The nest is a platform of twigs, stems and roots placed 2 m above ground in bushes, trees, tall hedges and man-made structures including pylons and buildings. It mainly feeds on the ground taking seed, cereal grain, fruits of herbs and grasses and some green parts of plants. It will also take some invertebrates. It is generally resident (Baptista et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Currently no conservation measures are required for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this numerous species is undergoing rapid population declines, and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable. Within the EU27 declines are moderately rapid and the regional classification here is Near Threatened.

range:
The breeding range of the nominate race of this species is largely confined to and covers most of Europe and the Canary Islands (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).  It is distributed from central and southern Britain east to Poland and northern Russia and south to the Mediterranean coast and on through Asia Minor (Baptista et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,150,000-5,940,000 pairs, which equates to 6,310,000-11,900,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,340,000-4,050,000 pairs, which equates to 4,670,000-8,110,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species uses hedges, borders of forest, groves, spinneys, coppices, young tree plantations, scrubby wasteland, woody marshes, scrub and garigue, all with agricultural areas nearby for feeding (Tucker & Heath 1994). It uses a wide variety of woodland types. It tolerates humans but does not breed close to towns or villages (Baptista et al. 2013). It breeds at low altitudes not exceeding 500 m in the temperate zone and up to 1,000?1,300 m in Mediterranean areas (Tucker & Heath 1994). Breeding commences in May. It lays two eggs (Baptista et al. 2013). The nest is a small platform of twigs lined with plant material and placed in the lowest parts of trees (Tucker & Heath 1994) and in shrubs and hedges. It mainly feeds on the ground taking seeds and fruits of weeds and cereals, but also berries, fungi and invertebrates. It is strongly migratory (Baptista et al. 2013), wintering south of the Sahara from Senegal east to Eritrea and Ethiopia (Tucker & Heath 1994).

threats:
Transformation of agricultural land, including destruction of hedges, is thought to be an important factor in the decline of this species, also loss of semi-natural habitats. Changes in agriculture practices have several impacts on the species, as they can both reduce food supply and nesting habitat availability and it is likely that the decline in food is the main limiting factor rather than decline in nest site availability (Lutz 2006). Widespread use of chemical herbicides appears to also be a very serious factor, with consequent decline or elimination of many food plants. Hunting is also significant, during migration and in winter quarters; with annual toll in France computed at 40,000 birds (Baptista et al. 2013). The species is also vulnerable to infection by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas gallinae, which causes mortality (Stockdale et al. 2014). Severe drought in the Sahel zone is thought to be a possible factor in the decline as well as competition with Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto) (Lutz 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II. In the UK, it is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Northern Ireland) Order 1985.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Breeding and staging habitats should be managed (Lutz 2006), ensuring the conservation and re-creation of hedges with hawthorn (Crataegus) which is a favoured tree for breeding and also the reduction in agricultural herbicides (Tucker and Heath 1994). Restrictions on hunting to avoid affecting late breeding birds and birds during spring migration should be introduced and enforced. Annual national bag statistics where hunting takes place must be collected in order to develop a level of hunting which is sustainable. Research and population monitoring should be continued (Lutz 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This widespread kingfisher is undergoing rapid population declines across the European part of its extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable under Criterion A in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is a widespread breeder across much of Europe south of 61°N. Birds breeding in eastern Europe are migratory, moving into western and southern Europe in winter, with some wintering around the Mediterranean (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 97,500-167,000 pairs, which equates to 195,000-334,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 68,200-115,000 pairs, which equates to 136,000-229,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers still or gently flowing water with plenty of small fish, and with reeds, rushes or shrubs on the banks for perches. Streams, small rivers, canals and ditches are favoured to open waterbodies, but it also uses lakes, ponds and flooded gravel pits. In winter it becomes more coastal, also using estuaries, harbours and rocky seashores. Egg-laying occurs from March to July with laying time peaking in April in Britain and in May in Sweden. Suitable banks for nesting required in breeding season, but nest-sites can be over 250 m from foraging waters and can occur infrequently in walls, rotten tree stumps, concrete tunnels in canal banks, terrestrial termitarium, or in the burrow of Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) or water vole (Arvicola terrestris). Clutch size can be from three to ten eggs but typically six or seven. In Europe, the main prey is fish but will also consume aquatic insects, flies (Diptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), amphibians (Rana), crayfish (Astacus), prawns (Palaemon), shrimps (Gammarus) and isopods in winter. Very occasionally it feeds on berries (Rubus, Sambucus) and stems of reed (Phragmites). In areas where freezing conditions occur in winter, it regularly migrates south, but generally stays within the species's breeding range. Southern populations are usually sedentary (Woodall 2001).

threats:
Hard winters are thought to be a significant threat to this species (Tucker and Heath 1994), particularly northern populations (Woodall 2001). Severe winters in 1961–1962 and 1962–1963 caused the species to be almost entirely extirpated from parts of Europe. Long term declines are thought to be due to chemical and biological river pollution. The two main sources of this are most likely industrial waste disposal and agricultural chemical runoff. Canalization of streams and clearance of emergent vegetation to improve drainage result in loss of nesting and feeding habitat and declines in fish numbers (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is also at risk locally from persecution to protect fish stocks (Woodall 2001).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Preservation of rivers and streams must be mediated through industry, agriculture and water authorities (Tucker and Heath 1994). Research to investigate the importance of individual threats and mitigation measures against these is also important.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment:  Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

In Europe this species has a very small, declining population and is therefore classified as Endangered. It does not occur in the EU27 and is Not Applicable to that region.

range:
The species has a predominantly African and Asian distribution, which just extends into south-eastern Europe, in Turkey and (recently) Cyprus (Woodall 2001).

population:
The European population is estimated at 100-200 pairs, which equates to 200-400 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits small and large lakes, large rivers, estuaries, coastal lagoons and sandy and rocky coasts, dams and reservoirs with either fresh or brackish water. It is also found by streams and smaller fast-flowing rivers and marshes. It requires waterside perches such as trees, reeds, fences, posts, huts and other man-made objects for hunting. In Turkey it lays from August to September and breeds in pairs or in family groups consisting of primary helpers and/or secondary helpers. It can be colonial or solitary. The species nests in earth banks over or up to 1 km from water or occasionally in flat grassy ground. Tunnels are excavated by jabbing at the soil with the bill partially open and kicking soil backwards with the legs. Short holes are dug but the nest-tunnel is typically 1-2.5 m long with an unlined chamber at the end. Clutch size can range from one to seven eggs but usually four or five. Its diet is primarily fish possibly supplemented by aquatic insects, and frogs, tadpoles and molluscs have also been recorded. It hunts from perches, diving into the water to catch prey. Small fish may be swallowed on the wing but larger ones are taken back to the perch and bashed repeatedly. It also regularly hovers before plunging down to take prey in water. The species is generally sedentary with some local movement in response to changes in food availability. However movements can extend over several hundred kilometres. There are a few records of birds from Cyprus, Greece, south-east Russia, Spain, Sicily and Poland (Woodall 2001).

threats:
The construction of dams such as the Ilısu dam project in Turkey poses a risk to the nesting habitat of this species (Biricik and Karakas 2012). They are also at risk of poisoning through bioaccumulation of pollution and toxins in the fish they prey on (Rayner et al. 1991).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. No Red List in Cyprus. Listed as Critically Endangered on Turkish Red List (Kiziroglu 2008).  There are no known conservation measures specifically targeting this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research should be developed into the species's range, ecology, habitat requirements and movements to inform future conservation measures. Also, the investigation of potential threats and their impacts is important, particularly looking at pollutants and toxins in the species. Legal protection of the species and key sites should be developed and implemented as well as a Regional Action Plan for the species.


taxonomicNotes:
Halcyon smyrnensis and H. gularis (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as H. smyrnensis following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

In Europe this species has a small, declining population and is therefore classified as Vulnerable (C1, D1).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
The species has a predominantly Asian distribution, which just extends into south-eastern Europe, in western and southern Turkey (Woodall and Kirwan 2015). Formally its northernmost breeding locality was Izmir, where the species was described, but has not occurred for many decades in this area (Snow and Perrins 1998, Woodall and Kirwan 2015).

population:
The European population is estimated at 170-260 pairs, which equates to 340-520 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species uses a wide variety of habitats including dams, ponds, canals, creeks, swamps, mudflats, farmland, large gardens, roadside trees, light industrial sites and dry deciduous forest. It usually avoids dense forest except for clearings and is less common above 2,000 m (Woodall and Kirwan 2015). Breeding birds have been recorded in April and May in Europe (Kirwan et al. 2008). The species is considered monogamous, but the presence of three birds in some areas suggests possibility of communal breeding. The nest is usually excavated in an earthen bank of a ditch, stream, river, pond or road cutting and can also sometimes be in a termitarium, rock crevice, tree or mud hole. The nest-chamber is normally up to 15–23 cm wide and 13 cm high, at the end of an inclined tunnel 30–150 cm long. Clutches can be between four and seven eggs but usually five or six. The diet is widely variable and includes insects, scorpions, centipedes, snails, crustaceans, earthworms, fish, frogs and toads, lizards, chameleons, snakes, birds, voles, mice and squirrels. It hunts from a perch and will batter prey before swallowing it. Many populations exhibit partial short-distance migration, with seasonal changes in abundance, probably involving mostly juveniles. Vagrants have been recorded in Greece, Cyprus and the former U.S.S.R., and individuals may move more than realized (Woodall and Kirwan 2015).

threats:
Little is known about the threats facing this species in Europe. The small population in Turkey is not widely distributed, with 75% of birds concentrated in five localities. This makes the species vulnerable to any threats (van den Berk and Kasparek 1988). Habitat degradation from factors such as irrigation, overgrazing, dam construction and erosion as well as  are recorded in areas where the species in present (Ozturk et al. 2012) and may be a threat to this species. The use of pesticides may also be a problem (Ozturk et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Due to the restricted range of this species in Europe important sites should be protected, including legislation to guard them from development. Research into the species's ecology and habitat needs should be undertaken to inform future conservation measures and help assess potential threats and their impacts in order to develop appropriate responses.


taxonomicNotes:
The RollerCoracias garrulus is a polytypic species with two subspecies: the nominateC. g. garrulus breeds from Morocco, south-west and south-central Europe and Asia Minor east through north-west Iran to south-west Siberia (Russia);C. g. semenowi, breeds i

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 37,700-79,200 pairs, which equates to 75,400-158,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 11,900-22,800 pairs, which equates to 23,800-45,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds throughout temperate, steppe and Mediterranean zones characterized by reliable warm summer weather. It prefers lowland open countryside with patches of oak (Quercus) forest, mature pine (Pinus) woodland with heathery clearings, orchards, mixed farmland, river valleys, and plains with scattered thorny or leafy trees.

The species is monogamous and performs a rolling and diving aerial display. Typically four to five eggs are laid between May and July (Fry et al. 2014). In Europe, the species mainly breeds in abandoned Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis) cavities in white poplar (Populus alba), especially in riparian forests, less often in Salix spp., or infrequently in natural cavities of plane trees (Platanus orientalis), walls or sand-banks. They mostly forage in agricultural habitats, especially meadows (May and August) and in cereals in June-July. Fallow land is always favoured. Vineyards can be attractive if the soil keeps some vegetation cover. Hedgerows (as well as fences and powerlines) are essential perches while looking for prey (Tron et al. 2006, Poole et al. 2007). This species is an intercontinental migrant with almost the entire world population wintering in Africa south of the Sahara (Fry et al. 2014)

threats:
Threats include persecution on migration in some Mediterranean countries. The loss of suitable breeding habitat due to changing agricultural practices, conversion to monoculture, loss of nest sites, and use of pesticides (reducing food availability) are considered to be the main threats to the species in Europe (E. Raèinskis in litt. 2005, Kovacs et al. 2008). It is sensitive to loss of hedgerows and riparian forest in Europe which provide essential habitats for perching and nesting.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II and it was added to Appendix I of the Bonn Convention at the eleventh Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals in 2014. An International Species Action Plan is in place (Kovacs et al. 2008) and species action plans have been developed in Hungary, Latvia, and Andalusia (Spain); similar documents are being drafted in Slovakia and Catalonia (Spain). Working groups are present in Austria, Belarus, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Serbia and Slovakia. There are a number of national monitoring schemes within its range and it has been the focus of targeted study.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue monitoring population trends. Tackle specific threats such as hunting. Address threats in Europe relating to the Common Agricultural Policy and integrate appropriate measures into agri-environment schemes.


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,800,000-5,050,000 pairs, which equates to 5,600,000-10,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,470,000-4,440,000 pairs, which equates to 4,950,000-8,870,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In Europe, this species inhabits broad river valleys, pasture and cultivated land with shelter-belts and scattered trees; sunny hillsides, meadows, clover fields, plains, dissected steppe, shrubby riverbanks in semi-desert, and practically any open and well-timbered country, such as cork-oak woods, olive groves, tamarisks, rice fields, cereal and root crops, and Mediterranean macchia scrub. Egg-laying is from May to June, in Europe and clutches can be from four to ten eggs. The nest is a burrow, which is occasionally excavated in flat or sloping sandy ground but more often in an earthen cliff (Fry and Boesman 2014). It feeds on flying insects, primarily Hymenoptera, and it hunts from perches. The species is migratory and winters almost entirely within Africa (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In the past the species has been killed as an apiary pest in Moldova, Hungary, Russia and Azerbaijan but present attitudes are unknown. Large numbers are shot in Malta and Cyprus each year (Tucker and Heath 1994). In the long term, greater threats are likely to be depression of insect faunas by the wide scale application of pesticides, increases in large-scale crop monoculture, the canalization of rivers resulting in the loss of riverbank nesting sites, and the development of wilderness land (Fry and Boesman 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known, specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Food availability may be difficult to increase and may not be the limiting factor of bee-eater populations in any case; this may be nest-site availability. If so the provision of small sand cliffs free of vegetation, erosion and interference would be beneficial for this species. The implementation and enforcement of legislation could reduce the number of birds shot in Malta, Cyprus and other counties with high levels of hunting (Tucker and Heath 1994). Research should be undertaken to identify the limiting factors of this species to help inform future conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,300-15,500 pairs, which equates to 10,500-31,100 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In its breeding grounds, this species occupies semi-desert, steppe, dunes, saline pans, cultivation, thorn woodland and sandy slopes with small gulleys, ravines, quarries, pits and embankments. It breeds mainly in sand deserts near bodies of water fringed with reeds and tamarisks. Eggs generally are laid from March to June, but in any one region all birds lay within three weeks of each other. It nests solitarily, or more commonly in loose colonies (Fry and Kirwan 2012). The nest is a tunnel one to two metres long ending in an enlarged chamber, excavated into sloping ground, vertical bank or even nearly flat ground (Snow and Perrins 1998). Clutch size is typically seven or eight eggs (Fry and Kirwan 2012). It feeds entirely on winged insects, such as dragonflies and damselflies which are important throughout the year. The species is migratory and winters almost entirely within Africa (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species suffers from human disturbance, particularly in colonies near human habitation. Agricultural development can destroy or displace flat-ground colonies (Fry and Kirwan 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Nesting sites should be protected from disturbance during the breeding season and as well as the development of agriculture. Research should be undertaken into the impacts posed by agriculture and disturbance as well as studies examining factors of nest site selection (Yuan et al. 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 84,100-252,000 pairs, which equates to 168,000-505,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 82,100-246,000 pairs, which equates to 164,000-493,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species favours savanna-like heathland, often with cork oak (Quercus suber) or stone pine (Pinus pinea), as well as olive groves. In the Mediterranean it breeds between late April and early June. It is a brood parasite of crows and magpies in the Mediterranean, particularly Black-billed Magpie (Pica pica), Azure-winged Magpie (Cyanopica cyanea) and Carrion Crow (Corvus corone) in Spain. The female can lay 12–25 eggs in one season, often laying several eggs per nest. It feeds on insects, mainly large hairy caterpillars, also termites, grasshoppers, moths and small lizards. The species is migratory. Most birds migrate to Africa, wintering north of 10°N but possibly many move south of the Sahara; small numbers winter in southern Spain (Payne 1997).

threats:
Hunting and traffic accidents are the main causes of mortality in southern Europe. In Crete it is preyed upon by Eleonora's Falcon (Falco eleonorae) (Erritzøe et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures in place for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research should be undertaken to assess the impact of hunting and traffic accidents to inform future conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 5,960,000-10,800,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 11,900,000-21,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,300,000-3,830,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 4,600,000-7,660,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits forests and woodlands, both coniferous and deciduous, second growth, open wooded areas, wooded steppe, scrub, heathland, meadows, reedbeds, lowlands and moorlands. In north-west Europe it breeds between May and June. It is a brood parasite; host species include many insectivorous songbirds such as flycatchers, chats, warblers, pipits, wagtails and buntings. Over 100 host species have been recorded. The species feeds on insects, spiders and snails and rarely on fruit. Individuals of the nominate race breeding from the British Isles and Scandinavia east to Russia winter in central and southern Africa. Individuals of the bangsi race that breed in Iberia spend the winter south of the equator from west Africa to Lake Tanganyika (Payne and Christie 2013).

threats:
Declines in northern Europe have been attributed to the intensification of agriculture, resulting in fewer insects and hosts. Climate change is also an important factor where short-distance migrating host species have advanced their arrival more than the cuckoos resulting in a mismatch of nesting times (Erritzøe et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed as 'red' on the U.K. National Red List (Eaton et al. 2007).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Traditional farming methods that protect and create habitats and food sources for host species should be promoted. Further research on the effects of climate change and monitoring of populations should be undertaken.


taxonomicNotes:
Cuculus saturatus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously split as C. saturatus and C. optatus following Payne (2005). Prior to that, C. lepidus (Payne 2005, del Hoyo and Collar 2014), C. saturatus and C. optatus had been lumped as C. saturatus followin

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27, the bird is only known as a vagrant in Finland and is considered Not Applicable (NA).

population:
The European population is estimated at 250,000-700,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 500,000-1,400,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in forest canopy, open wooded areas and orchards, often in hill country, also in coniferous forest and in birch (Betula) above the tree-line (Payne 1997). In Russia, it favours high coniferous forests of spruce (Picea), pine (Pinus), silver fir (Abies alba) and mixed coniferous and broad-leaved trees such as birch and aspen (Populus). It is sometimes found in pure broad-leaved forests, steppe birch copses, riverside willows, and thickets. It also uses northern taiga to forest edge, riversides, ravines, wetland fringes and slopes of wooded hills and mountains.

In central Russia the eggs are laid in June and July in nests belonging to Arctic Warbler (Phylloscopus borealis), Common Chiffchaff (P. collybita), Willow Warbler (P. trochilus) or other Phylloscopus species, as well as Olive-backed Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds on insects, mainly caterpillars, and some fruit. It winters in the Malay Peninsula and Philippines and south through Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Moluccas, Lesser Sundas and New Guinea, to the coastal parts of northern and eastern Australia (Payne 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures for this species are currently needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this falcon has a small, declining population and is therefore classified as Endangered (C1). Within the EU27, the population trend is unknown but the total population is small, and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable (D1).

range:
The species has a predominately African range but is a patchily distributed resident in southern Europe, from southern Italy and Sicily in the west to Azerbaijan in the east (Kemp 1994).

population:
The European population is estimated at 430-840 pairs, which equates to 850-1,700 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 190-250 pairs, which equates to 370-500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species typically frequents open dry grassland and steppe and requires large areas of stony, bare or dry grassland for hunting and cliffs for nesting. In the northern Apennines where the mountainous habitat is largely forested, the species occurs in areas comprising at least 50% open landscapes. Coastal areas are generally avoided, with most pairs holding inland territories 200–600 m above sea-level, and in Sicily more frequently approaching 1,000 m (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Eggs are laid between February and May. It frequently nests on the old structures of corvids, other raptors or herons, usually in trees or on electricity pylons. Alternatively it uses scrapes on cliffs, the ground, quarries or buildings. Clutch size is usually three or four eggs (Kemp 1994). The diet is mostly small to medium-sized birds as well as some small mammals, reptiles and large insects (Tucker and Heath 1994). It will hunt by fast aerial pursuit from a stoop or horizontal chase, often around a water-hole and often with a pair combining in attack (Kemp 1994). Birds are usually recorded singly or in pairs, but are known to gather in groups of up to 20 at concentrated feeding sites (Kemp 1994, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Most birds are resident and migration is only recorded outside of Europe (Kemp 1994).

threats:
In the mid-20th century the species underwent severe declines in Europe, driven by poisoning, shooting and trapping for falconry (Kemp 1994). These threats have subsided, though persecution and the collection of eggs and chicks for falconry still probably constitute the most serious threats to the species. In Italy it is still threatened by illegal shooting (Snow and Perrins 1998, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001) and in other countries where Skylarks (Alauda arvensis) are hunted (Gustin et al. 2000). It is also vulnerable to the effects of potential wind energy development (Strix 2012). Habitat loss through urbanisation, modification of agricultural practices, construction of roads, open-cast mining, agricultural expansion into steppe and grasslands and afforestation has caused a reduction in hunting areas and prey species.  It also suffers from human disturbance, such as rock-climbers, pesticides, electrical powerlines and interspecific competition with Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) (Gustin et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. An international Species Action Plan was published in 2000. The species is protected by national legislation in Albania, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Serbia and Turkey and appears in the Red Books of Albania (DD), Italy (EN), Turkey and the Red Data book of the former Yugoslavia (Gustin et al. 2000).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Habitat protection should be ensured through the promotion of appropriate agricultural and forestry policies, including reduction of pesticides, protection of steppe and grassland habitat, and the promotion of zoned forestry management. Legal protection of key sites, especially breeding sites (e.g. designation of IBAs as SPAs in CEE countries) is also required. Wardening schemes to combat theft of eggs and chicks, and illegal shooting of adults should be promoted as should reductions in human disturbance at breeding sites (e.g. climbing, quarrying and building work). National action plans for the species should be developed as should research studies, especially in areas where data on breeding seasons and population sizes and trends are unknown (Gustin et al. 2000).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This species has a small population in both Europe and the EU27, which is now increasing owing to intensive wardening and management, after historical declines. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Vulnerable under the small population criterion, with an increasing population trend. Since the species is estimated to be undergoing rapid declines across much of the remainder of its large global range, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is unchanged. The species is therefore classified as Vulnerable (D1) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species breeds mainly in south-east Europe, which holds only a tiny proportion of its global breeding population. Breeding occurs in Austria, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia & Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, Turkey, Armenia and Russian Federation, with wintering or passage populations regularly occuring in Italy, Malta, Cyprus and Azerbaijan (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998, Haines 2002, ERWDA 2003).

population:
The European population is estimated at 350-500 pairs, which equates to 710-990 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 270-350 pairs, which equates to 550-700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
It is physically adapted to hunting close to the ground in open terrain, combining rapid acceleration with high manoeuvrability, thus specialising on mid-sized diurnal terrestrial rodents of open grassy landscapes such as steppes and arid montane areas; in some areas, particularly near water, it switches to birds as key prey, and has recently substituted domestic pigeons (Columba livia) for rodents in parts of Europe. It uses copses or cliffs for nest sites (sometimes even the ground), occupying the old nests of other birds. Clutch size varies from two to six, with means from 3.2-3.9 in different circumstances. Breeding success varies with year (especially in areas where rodents cycle) (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species usually occurs singly or in pairs (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Birds are sedentary, part-migratory or fully migratory, largely depending on the extent to which the food supply in breeding areas disappears in winter (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998). Migrating central European adults travel as far as the Mediterranean. Juveniles are mainly migratory with central and eastern European birds wandering from the Balkans to Turkmenistan, Egypt and north-west India (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Migrating birds generally leave their breeding grounds in September and October, returning between February and May (del Hoyo et al. 1994).

threats:
In Europe, this species has suffered mainly from the loss and degradation of steppes and dry grasslands through agricultural intensification, plantation establishment and declines in sheep pastoralism, causing a decline in key prey species; offtake for falconry is a serious problem, which has caused local extinctions (Baumgart 1991, 1994, K. Ruskov in litt. 2007). In eastern Hungary, landscape reversion following the abandonment of agriculture could have a negative influence, as most prey species require short swards that are maintained by agricultural practices (S. Nagy in litt. 2007). Elsewhere, declines are mainly attributable to offtake for falconry, although persecution, pesticide use and agrochemical deployment play a lesser part (Baumgart 1991, Riddle and Remple 1994, Barton 2000, Eastham et al. 2000, Fox 2002, Haines 2002, ERWDA 2003). Hybridisation with escaped or released hybrid falcons could influence the genetic integrity of wild populations (S. Nagy in litt. 2007, Nittinger et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
This is a protected and Red-listed species in many range states, particularly in the western parts of its range (Baumgart 1991, 1994). It is listed on CMS Appendix I and II (as of November 2011, and excluding the Mongolian population) and CITES Appendix II, and in 2002 CITES imposed a trade ban on U.A.E., strongly affecting the unregulated market there (Fox 2002). It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Intensive wardening and management has produced a steadily rising population in Hungary (Baumgart 1994). Controls of illegal trade were implemented in various countries in western range in the 1990s (Baumgart 1994). Captive breeding has developed strongly in some countries as a means of substituting farmed for wild-caught birds (Riddle and Remple 1994, N. Fox in litt. 2002). New research programmes in many parts of the range have begun to establish baseline data on distribution, population, ecology and threats. As a product of the resolution resulting from CMS COP10 in November 2011, a Saker Falcon Task Force was established and met for the first time in March 2012 in Abu Dhabi (U.A.E.). The task force has the objective of involving range states, partners and interested parties in the development of a coordinated Global Action Plan for the species's conservation, including a management and monitoring framework. Conservation efforts in Europe have resulted in positive population trends (A. Dixon in litt. 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Maintain or implement programmes of population and habitat management throughout the range. Maintain or improve systems of wardening and customs control (including DNA sampling to check provenance of traded birds). Continue key biological research (Baumgart 1991, 1994). Enforce CITES regulations. Improve exportation standards including meeting IATA transportation specifications. Improve import regulations, staff capacity and practices (quarantine facilities). Monitor markets to quantify falcon trade. Develop existing microchipping schemes to help monitor and regulate trade and quantify its effects. Increase awareness of health and conservation issues among falconers. Continue studying, monitoring and censusing the species throughout its range. Maintain ecologically and socially sustainable grazing systems to ensure long-term survival of key prey species. Bring greater protection (against conversion, degradation and pollution) to key breeding environments (Baumgart 1991, Bailey et al. 2001, Fox 2002, ERWDA 2003).


population:
The European population is estimated at 32,000-51,600 pairs, which equates to 64,000-103,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,200-13,500 pairs, which equates to 16,300-27,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level up to tree line in some mountain ranges, from boreal forest and tundra to parkland with deciduous trees, shrub steppe, moorland, open prairies and steppes. It generally prefers areas with some trees or scrubby vegetation. On migration it inhabits an even broader range of habitats, often along sea coasts. It breeds from March to June and does not build a nest. Instead, it uses old stick nests of other species especially corvids (Corvus, Pica) in trees but also uses tree cavities, cliff ledges or stick nests on ledges and the ground. Clutches are usually three to six eggs. It feeds principally on small birds, bats and insects, small rodents and shrews. The species is migratory except for those populations in Iceland and the British Isles (White et al. 2015).

threats:
The use of chlorinated hydrocarbons between 1960s and 1970s caused some reproductive failure and eggshells in Europe showed 13% thinning. With the banning of these pesticides their impact has fallen as indicated by breeding densities and distributions, migration counts and wintering distributions and numbers. The species also suffers collisions with man-made objects (White et al. 2015). Population declines have also been attributed to loss of suitable habitat through overgrazing, insensitive management, and increased tourism disturbing nest sites. Predation by Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) is also a threat (Mebs and Schmidt 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. CMS Appendix II, CITES Appendix II. The ban of organochlorine pesticides, which were used heavily during the 1960s and 1970s has allowed this species to recover in some areas (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

Conservation Action Proposed
Habitat should be protected and restored. As the species often suffers more heavily from pesticide poisoning than other raptors, the use of pesticides should be minimised (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).


population:
The European population is estimated at 14,300-14,500 pairs, which equates to 28,700-29,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 14,300-14,400 pairs, which equates to 28,500-28,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is fully migratory, leaving its Mediterranean breeding grounds in October and November to winter in Madagascar, East Africa and the Mascarene Islands. The return journey begins in late April and May (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Birds are known to fly as high as 1,000 m during the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). They are generally gregarious (though sometimes solitary), tending to move in small and loose flocks, and on migration often associating with other species flying at high altitudes, including F. subbuteo (Snow and Perrins 1998, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). They hunt mainly at twilight (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Birds usually breed and stop over on small islands and islets, wintering mainly in open woodland on Madagascar. It feeds on large flying insects and small birds. Birds nest in the holes and ledges of sea cliffs, or on the ground. Clutches are usually two or three eggs (Orta and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
The species has historically suffered from exploitation and persecution brought about by local people. Human disturbance associated with tourism development has also been shown to negatively influence birds’ breeding success (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Predation by rats is also possibly important on some breeding islands (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The species is vulnerable to the effects of potential wind energy development (Strix 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. In addition the species is protected by national laws in many countries within its range. An International Species Action Plan was published in 1999 (Ristow 1999) and was reviewed in 2010. A national action plan is established in Italy and regional action plans are in place in Spain. Monitoring programmes exist in most countries at a national level and in protected areas in Greece, Spain and Cyprus (Barov and Derhé 2010). Private research on the species has been conducted on an archipelago off Crete for three decades, in collaboration with the University of Heidelberg and the area became an SPA in 1997 (Ristow 1999). An EU LIFE Nature project, ‘Conservation measures forFalco eleonorae in Greece’ was set up in 2003, which met with much success performing the first ever global population census of Eleonora’s falcon, undertaking many public awareness campaigns, and reducing nest predation through rat eradication programmes (Hellenic Ornithological Society 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Effective actions to protect coastal areas should be implemented and Environmental Impact Assessments conducted on all developments in coastal areas. National and international coastal tourism policies should discourage the development of new resorts and favour environmentally friendly, sustainable tourism. Colonies should be protected by non-intrusion zones. Wintering areas and their ecological requirements and threats should be identified and protection implemented for these and areas of migration habitat. The impacts of rat predation should be investigated. Awareness of the species should be raised and the value of its habitat promoted (Barov and Derhé 2010).


range:
Falco naumanni breeds in Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar (to UK), France, Italy, Bosnia-Herzegovina, FYRO Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Israel, Palestinian Authority Territories, Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia. Birds winter in southern Spain, southern Turkey, Malta and across much of Africa, particularly South Africa. The European population is estimated at 25,000-42,000 pairs, with half of these in Spain. Several thousand pairs breed outside this range, principally in central Asia. Western Palearctic populations have undergone serious declines, although a few have begun to increase again. The western European population has declined by c.95% since 1950, and the species has disappeared from the Ural region of Russia and from northern Kazakhstan, as well as from the western and central parts of the Balkan Peninsula (Davygora 1998, B. Barov in litt. 2007). However, some populations in south-western and central Europe are stable or increasing (Iñigo and Barov 2010) and eastern breeding populations are also reported to be stable (Galushin 2009). Italy has seen a marked population increase and range expansion since 2000 (N. Baccetti in litt. 2010), and the population in Andalucía, Spain, has increased from c.2,100 pairs in 1988 to c.4,800 in 2009 (J. R. Garrido in litt. 2011). In Kazakhstan, the species appears to be stable or increasing slightly, perhaps in association with the abandonment of villages and livestock stations in the 1990s (J. Kamp in litt. 2010). Coordinated counts of the South African wintering population recorded 117,000 birds in 2005/2006 (van Zyl 2007, A. van Zyl in litt. 2007) and 98,000 birds in 2006/2007 (A. van Zyl in litt. 2007), but it is not clear whether this represents a genuine reduction in numbers or whether the missing birds were wintering elsewhere, most likely in East Africa (A. van Zyl in litt. 2007). An enormous roost discovered in January 2007 in Senegal contained over 28,600 individuals (most likely European/North African breeders).

population:
The European population is estimated at 30,500-38,000 pairs, which equates to 61,000-76,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 25,700-29,300 pairs, which equates to 51,500-58,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
It is usually a colonial breeder, often in the vicinity of human settlements. It forages in steppe-like habitats, natural and managed grasslands, and non-intensive cultivation. It is mainly migratory, with most breeders overwintering in sub-Saharan Africa, although some travel to parts of north-west Africa, southern Europe and southern Asia. Migrants leave their breeding grounds in September and return between February and April (Orta and Kirwan 2015). It migrates in flocks of varying sizes, usually tens to low hundreds, often with other falcons such as F. tinnunculus, F. vespertinus and F. amurensis (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Large numbers, sometimes up to thousands, gather at roosts on migration (Orta and Kirwan 2015). They cross water bodies readily on a broad front, flying high enough to be barely detectable; they fly lower over land (often c.20–30 m), particularly on northward migration (Brown et al. 1982, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It breeds colonially and egg-laying occurs mainly in May, nesting mainly in human constructions, such as large old buildings, houses, walls and ruins, in towns or on the outskirts but also uses natural sites, for example rock faces, clay banks and quarries, and occasionally old corvid nests. The nest is placed in a hollow or below eaves, and it has also taken readily to artificial nesting boxes in some areas. Clutches are normally three to six eggs. It feeds mostly on aerial and terrestrial insects. It is a trans-Saharan migrant although some birds winter in southern Europe and northern Africa (Orta and Kirwan 2015).

threats:
The main cause of its decline was habitat loss and degradation in its western Palearctic breeding grounds, primarily a result of agricultural intensification, but also afforestation and urbanisation. The use of pesticides may cause direct mortality, but is probably more important in reducing prey populations. The neglect or restoration of old buildings has resulted in the loss of nest-sites (Davygora 1998, J.-P. Biber in litt. 1999). At La Crau in southern France, where such nest sites are rare, a population increase in the 1990s may be linked to the progressive selection of ground nests in stone piles, reducing interspecific and intraspecific competition (Prugnolle et al. 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. Research and management of the species, its sites and habitats have been carried out in France, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and South Africa. A European action plan has been published.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Encourage surveys and monitoring. Research limiting factors and habitat management. Promote national action plans. Promote appropriate agricultural policies, control of pesticides and zoned forestry. Construct artificial nests. Protect colonies. Encourage legal protection.


