# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Bathysaurus ferox is a deep water species found throughout the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Population and ecological information is limited for this species. However, it is not utilized and there are no other known major threats. Therefore, Bathysaurus ferox is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathysaurus ferox is found throughout the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992), Porcupine Seabight (SW of Ireland) (Merrett et al. 1991), northern Ireland (Sulak 1996), Bay of Biscay, France (Mahaut et al. 1990), the Azores (Lloris et al. 1991) and Madeira (Mormede and Davies 2003), but is not known from the Mediterranean (Sulak 1984). Bathysaurus ferox is a deep water fish found from 600—3000 m but is more commonly found at depths of 1000—2500 m (Scott and Scott 1988, Sulak 1990).  

habitat:
Bathysaurus ferox is a benthic species found at depths of 1,000—3,500 m, but commonly found above 2,000 m at less than 4°C (Sulak 1984). This species is carnivorous (Mahout et al. 1990). Bathysaurus ferox is known to be synchronously hermaphroditic. It also seems to have a long larval period (at least 8 months) before it transforms into its more benthic juvenile and adult forms. These larvae are pelagic and feed on zooplankton and phytoplankton. Bathysaurus ferox seems to be able to avoid bottom trawls, indicating an ability of short burst swimming. 

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may occur in a marine protected area somewhere throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Bathysaurus mollis is a deepwater benthic species known from throughout most of the ocean basins. Little is known about its population status in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean or Mediterranean. It is not known to be used commercially and it is typically found at depths below that which trawlers can effectively operate. There are no major threats known to affect B. mollis; therefore, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathysaurus mollis is circumglobal between 50°N and 20°S, except in the tropical eastern Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic, it has been recorded from Ireland (Sulak 1984) and Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014) to the Azores and Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carniero et al. 2014). There is one record from the Mediterranean Sea (Sulak 1984). It occurs at depths of 1,550 to 4,800 m and is commonly found below 2,000 m at temperatures less than 4 °C (Sulak 1984).

population:
There is little population information available for this species. It is known from only a few records in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean.

habitat:
Bathysaurus mollis is a bathydemersal species. It is found on the continental rise and the abyss, commonly below 2,000 m, in water colder than 4°C. Larvae are probably pelagic in near-surface midwaters. It is a solitary, lurking bottom feeder, probably piscivorous (Sulak 1984). Contrary to Thresher (1984), this species is hermaphroditic (Nelson 1994).

threats:
There are currently no known threats to Bathysaurus mollis. Because of the depth distribution of this species, it is less likely to be threatened by anthropogenic disturbances.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathysaurus mollis. It may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. It was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean, as it is known from only one record there (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially and is likely too deep-dwelling to be directly or indirectly caught in bottom trawl fisheries.

redListContributors:
Papacontantinou, C., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and common throughout its range, and occurs mainly in deep waters. Although it is an important by-catch species and it is not targeted at present, this may change in the future, and it could be threatened by fisheries. Currently it is considered as Least Concern, but there are no data available on its population size and trend, and further research is needed to establish the status of this species and to monitor catches throughout its range.

range:
Chlorophthalmus agassizi was previously considered circumglobal in tropical seas, but it is now regarded as being restricted to the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (M. Gomon pers. comm. 2014). In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the species is present from the UK to the Canary Islands (Aguilar et al. 2010), including seamounts such as Gorringe Bank (Oceana 2014).  It is a widespread species in the Mediterranean Sea. In Spain, it occurs in Alborán Sea Spanish seamounts such as Djibouti (Aguilar 2010), Avempace and Chella Banks (Aguilar pers. obs. 2010, 2011), and the Balearic Islands (Guijarro and Massuti 2006, Massutì and Reñones 2005, Marín et al. 2011). In Italy, it is present in Sardinia, Messina strait, Ionian Sea, central and south Tyrrhenian Sea and the Adriatic Sea (Costa 1991, Campagnuolo et al. 2001, Gristina et al. 2006, Madurell and Cartes 2001, D'Onghia et al. 2006, Specchi et al. 1995). In Turkey, this species is present in the northeast Aegean Sea (Kabasakal 1999, Filiz and Bilge 2004). In Greece, it is present in the Ionian Sea (Petrakis 1998, Anastasopoulou et al. 2006). In Tunisia, one specimen was found in the stomach of a spotted ray captured in 2009, confirming the presence of the species in Tunisian waters (Mnasri et al. 2010).  The species occurs at depths between 50 and 1,000 metres, but most commonly between 350 and 450 metres (Fisher et al. 1987).

population:
There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, although it is known to be quite common.

habitat:
Chlorophthalmus agassizi is a bathydemersal species that can be found on the continental shelf and the upper slope over mud and clay bottoms. The species has been described as occurring on seamounts and hard-bottom fauna, including coralliferous stones (Abad et al. 2007). It is a hermaphroditic species. The maximum reproductive activity for the species has been registered at Mediterranean waters from May to September, and specimens at sexual maturity where sized in the study by D’Onghia et al. (2006) at a range between 4.7 to 20.4 cm TL. The species has a longevity of more than 10 years (D’Onghia et al. 2006) and late maturation, therefore some authors consider fishing as a threat to the species due to possible overexploitation. While the young are pelagic, living near the surface, the adults are demersal, living between 50 and 1,000 metres depth, typically from 300 to 600 metres (Figueiredo et al. 2002). It mainly feeds on bottom or pelagic-living invertebrates, including pelagic crustaceans like euphausiids, decapods and mysids (Macpherson and Roel 1987). Larvae of the species have been captured during summer months around Malta and in the Aegean Sea (Aguilar et al. 2009). Ecological information is scarce, but it is considered a relevant species for deep-sea fish aggregations (Anastasopoulou and Kapiris 2008), and catch data indicate a schooling habit. Its maximum size is 40 cm (TL).

threats:
The species is caught by open sea trawlers from the north of the Alborán Sea (Abad et al. 2007). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, C. agassizi is one of the main by-catch species, and there are existing plans to commercialize the species (GFCM 2012).A decrease in captures is being registered in Sardinian waters, where the species is locally consumed. Moreover, it is considered as vulnerable to fishing, due to its longevity and late maturation. Therefore, the species could be threatened by overfishing at some areas.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books and there are no conservation actions in place for this species.It is present in Chella Bank, a seamount in the Alborán Sea that has been proposed as a Natura 2000 site by the Spanish Government in December 2014 (BOE 2014). Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species, and monitoring should be undertaken on its catches.

useAndTrade:
Chlorophthalmus agassizi is a non-targeted (ICES 1996) and non-commercial species (Fishbase 2014). However, the species is caught by open sea trawlers from the north of Alborán Sea (Abad et al. 2007). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, it is one of the main by-catch species and there are existing plans to commercialize the species (GFCM 2012). In Sardinia, the species is locally consumed, but a recent decrease of catches is occurring (Cabiddu et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Coccorella atlantica is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores and Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species has a circumglobal distribution. Within Europe it is known only from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014, Santos et al. 1997).

population:
There is a lack of information regarding this species' population.

habitat:
This is a marine, bathypelagic, oceanodromous species, with a depth range of 50-1,000 m (Riede 2004, Mundy 2005).

threats:
There is a lack of information regarding threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There is a lack of information regarding conservation actions for this species.

useAndTrade:
There is a lack of information regarding use or trade of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Evermannella balbo is a widely distributed, deep sea species. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is found at depths of 400 to 1000 m. While it is rare, it is not utilized, and occurs deep where it is not as disturbed by human activity.  Therefore, E. balbo is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Evermannella balbo is widely distributed in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and is presumed to be circumglobal in the transition zone of the southern oceans (Johnson 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, E. balbo is known from Iceland (Astthorsson and Palsson 2006), the Rockall Trough off the coast of Ireland (Byrkjedal et al. 2004), south to Portugal, Azores, and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Evermannella balbo is also widely distributed in the Mediterranean Sea. In Italy, it is present in the Ligurian sea, Messina strait (Berdar et al. 1975), and in 1948 it was also found into the Adriatic Sea (Costa 1991, 1999). It was also present Anzio harbour, Latium, Central Tyrrhenian Sea (Psomadakis et al. 2006). In Greece, it is found in Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea and around Crete (Papakonstantinou 1988), and has also been recorded from  Antalya Bay Turkey (Deval 2013). It is present on the Iberian coast and around Balearic Islands (Lloris and Rucabado 1998). It is typically found at depths of 400 to 1000 m (Johnson 1984).

population:
Evermannella balbo is widespread but it is rare and infrequently caught (Johnson 1984). Population information is limited.

habitat:
Evermannella balbo is a meso- and bathypelagic and oceanodromous species. Most adults are found between 400 to 1,000 m (Johnson 1990). It feeds on midwater fishes (Johnson 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may occur in a marine protected area somewhere throughout its range.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Bannerman, P., Nunoo, F., Poss, S., Papaconstantinou, C., Palmeri, A., Massuti, E. & Keskin, Ç.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has been sometimes been recorded as E. indica, but all records of this species from the Atlantic are now known to be E. melanoderma (Swinney 1994).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The fish is commonly found in the eastern Atlantic and is widespread between 30°N and 5°S. In the European region, the fish is known from off the coast of the Portuguese mainland, the Madeira archipelago (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries, and there are numerous records of this species in its Eastern Central Atlantic distribution. Furthermore it is not utilized nor does it have any major threats affecting it. Therefore this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
The fish is commonly found in the Eastern Atlantic and is widespread between 30°N and 5°S, although not found in the Mediterranean Sea (Johnson 1990).  In the European region, the fish is known from off the coast of the Portuguese mainland and the Madeira archipelago (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Rare and uncommonly recorded in European waters (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
A meso- and bathypelagic and oceanodromous species, found between 215 and 924 m, both day and night (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

redListContributors:
Bannerman, P., Nunoo, F., Poss, S. & Russell, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathymicrops multispinis is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This is an eastern Atlantic species. Within Europe it has only been recorded off Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
This is a marine, bathydemersal, deep-water species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathymicrops regis is a circumglobally-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to Madeira and the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is found in the Atlantic and Indo-West Pacific; off NW Africa and east of the mid-Atlantic Ridge between the equator and 30ºN and equator (ECA vol 3(11)). Within Europe, it is known from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Its depth range is reported as 3000-6000 m.

habitat:
Bathymicrops regis is thought to have low fecundity and batch spawning tendencies (Merrett and Fasham 1998). It feeds on small benthopelagic crustaceans (Sulak 1984).

threats:
This is a deep-dwelling species, and is less-likely to be affected by anthropogenic disturbances because of this.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species, however, its depth range may provide it protection from anthropogenic disturbances.


taxonomicNotes:
Within the Mediterranean, this species has also been reported as Bathypterois mediterraneus, a junior synonym of B. dubius (Quéro and Ribes 1999).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Bathypterois dubius is a deepwater benthic marine species species is found in warmer temperate to tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. There are no population data available for B. dubius. It is not utilized, and there are no major threats known to affect it, given its preferred depth distribution. Therefore, B. dubius is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathypterois dubius is primarily found in warmer temperate to tropical waters of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean in depths of 750 to 2,800 m (Sulak 1984, Merrett 1990). It has been recorded from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997) and the coast of Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). In the Mediterranean, B. dubius has been recorded as Bathypterois mediterraneus, now regarded as a junior synonym of B. dubius (Quéro and Ribes 1999). It is present in the Ligurian Sea (Tortonese 1971, Barletta and Torchio 1986), Balearic Islands (D'onghia et al. 2004), Ionian Sea (D'onghia et al. 2004), Catalan Sea (west Mediterranean; Sardà et al. 1994, Carrasson and Cartes 2002, Carrasson and Matallanas 2001), south Adriatic (Ungaro et al. 2002), Levantine basin, and east Mediterranean Sea basin (Klausewitz 1989, Goren and Galil 2006).

population:
Population data is limited for this species, though it is known throughout the North Atlantic (Sulak 1984). It is considered the most abundant deep-water fish in the Mediterranean (Morales-nin et al. 1996).

habitat:
Bathypterois dubius is a bathydemersal species, found on continental slope and rise at depths ranging from 260 to 2800 m and temperatures of 4 to 12°C (Merrett 1990). Within the northwestern sector of the Mediterranean Sea, this species appeared starting below 700 m, its relative abundance and biomass increased progressively going deeper. It reaches its maximum between 1,500-2,000 m (Morales-Nin et al. 1996). In the Ionian Sea, this species is found between 800-3,300 m (D'Onghia et al. 2004).Bathypterois dubius feeds on pelagic plankton, including mysid shrimp and benthopelagic copepods (Sulak 1984, Trenkel et al. 2001) . In the Catalan Sea, juveniles are found between 1,800 to 2,250 m, and are recorded to feed secondary on benthic tanaidaceans, whereas for the adults, mysids are secondary. At other depths, calanoid copepods are consumed almost exclusively. Adults ingest larger amounts and sizes of prey than juveniles (Carrasson and Matallanas 2001). It is usually solitary, but it probably forms occasional aggregates.  It is synchronously hermaphroditic (Sulak 1984). Maximum reported size is 19 cm, though it is usually around 13 cm (Sulak 1984).

threats:
There are no major threats known to affect this species, and given its depth range, it is less likely to be affected by anthropogenic disturbances.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may inhabit a marine protected area somewhere throughout its range. Bathypterois mediterraneus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially, and considering its depth preference, is likely below the depth at which trawlers will have an impact.


taxonomicNotes:
This species belongs to the Chlorophthalmidae family (Fischer et al. 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Carrasson and Matallanas 2001).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC ) Bathypterois grallator is a widely distributed species thought to be circumglobal in tropical to temperate waters. It is known from the assessment zone from only a few scattered records. Little is known about its population status, but it is likely not used commercially due to the depth range it inhabits. Therefore this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathypterois grallator is thought to be circumglobal in tropical to temperate waters (Sulak 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, B. grallator has scattered records off Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014), in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer et al. 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Carrasson and Matallanas 2001, Goren 2014) and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Borges et al. 2010, Carniero et al. 2014).  It has been found from 900 to 4,720 m depth (Mundy 2005), but is most common on the continental rise between 1,500 and 2,300 m (Sulak 1984).

population:
Population data is limited for this species.

habitat:
This is a benthic species found from 900 to 4720 m depth (Mundy 2005), but is most common from 1,500 to 2,300 m (Sulak 1984).  It is a larger species of the genus Bathypterois, often exceeding 30 cm (Sulak 1984), and likely feeds on larger organisms.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation actions in place for this species. However, trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters in the Mediterranean Sea, which will provide some protection for this species throughout part of its range. This species may occur in a marine protected area somewhere throughout its range. Bathypterois grallator was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 due to the limited records from the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially, due to its depth preference.

redListContributors:
Papaconstantinou, C., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Bathypterois longipes is a benthic, abyssal species thought to be circumglobally distributed in tropical to temperate waters. It is considered one of the most common deep-sea species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, but no specific population trend data are available. This species is not utilized, and there are no major threats known to affect it, given its preferred depth distribution. Therefore, B. longipes is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathypterois longipes is a widely distributed species that is thought to be circumglobally distributed in tropical to temperate waters, except where bottom temperatures are greater than 4oC (Sulak 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been recorded from Ireland (Priede et al. 2009), Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014), Madeira (Angel 1990, Carneiro et al. 2014), and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014), but is absent from the Mediterranean (Sulak 1984). It is found at depths of about 2,600 to 5,600 m (Sulak 1984).

population:
Bathypterois longipes can be common in areas of its distribution. It is considered one of the most common deep benthic fish in the northeastern Atlantic (Sulak 1977, Merret 1992).

habitat:
Bathypterois longipes is benthic abyssal species found at depths of about 2,600 to 5,600 m (Sulak 1984). It primarily feeds on planktonic crustaceans. It is synchronously hermaphroditic (Sulak 1984), with low fecundity and batch spawning tendencies (Merrett and Fasham 1998). Adults are typically 15 to 20 cm, with a maximum size of 25 cm (Sulak 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathypterois longipes. This species may occur in a marine protected area somewhere throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially, considering its preferred depth.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Bathypterois phenax is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known only from the Azores. A bathydemersal species, B. phenax can be common in parts of its range, especially at depths of 1,200 to 2,000 m. It is of no interest to fisheries, and there are no other known threats. Therefore, Bathypterois phenax is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathypterois phenax is widely distributed along both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, B. phenax is known only from the Azores (Rannou & Gaborit-Rezzouk 1976, Sulak 1977, Carneiro et al. 2014). Elsewhere in the eastern Atlantic, it has been reported of Sierra Leone and Liberia. There have also been verified records of this species in the Canary Islands, off Western Sahara and off the northwestern coast of Portugal, off Equitorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Principe, Angola and South Africa. It is also in the western Atlantic, at bathyal depths between latitude 40°N-5°N including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and off southern Brazil (Merrett 1990). It is also found off South Africa (as Bathypterois ater) (Merrett 1990).  It has a depth distribution of 800 to 2800 m (Sulak 1984). .

population:
Bathypterois phenax can be common in areas of its distribution (Sulak 1984).

habitat:
Bathypterois phenax is a demersal species typically found at depths of 800 to 2,800 m, though more commonly between 1,200 and 2,000 m (Sulak 1984). Crustaceans, primarily copepods, ostracods and gammarideans are the dominant prey (Crabtree et al. 1991).

threats:
There are no known threats affecting this species.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathytyphlops sewelli is a widely-distributed species which within Europe is confined to the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Bathytyphlops sewelli is widespread in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Within Europe, it is known only from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). It has a depth distribution of 3000-4200 m.

population:
Bathytyphlops sewelli is relatively uncommon globally.

habitat:
Bathytyphlops sewelli is found in bathydemersal waters (Merrett 1990).

threats:
There are no known major threats to Bathytyphlops sewelli.  Given its depth distribution it is less likely to be impacted by anthropogenic disturbances.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathytyphlops sewelli.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Ahliesaurus berryi is a deepwater pelagic species that is circumglobally distributed in tropical and subtropical waters. Population information is limited, and it is not known to be used commercially. It has no known major threats. Therefore, Ahliesaurus berryi is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Ahliesaurus berryi is circumglobally distributed in subtropical and tropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014), Madeira, and Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). It has also been reported from the Canary Islands (Bordes et al. 1999). It has a depth range of 0 to 1500 m. Tropical and subtropical Atlantic, southwestern Indian and central South Pacific oceans (Krefft 1990).

habitat:
This is a deepwater, pelagic species found at 0 to 1500 m. It feeds on small crustaceans, primarily copepods. It is a hemaphroditic species, and grows as large as 27 cm (Krefft 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter marine protected areas throughout its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Scopelosaurus argenteus is widely distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean. Population data are limited. It is not known to be used commercially and there are no known threats. Therefore, S. argenteus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scopelosaurus argenteus is found in the North Atlantic Ocean from the equator to about 46oN (Krefft 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from the Bay of Biscay south to the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and Canary Islands (Santos et al. 1997). It has a known depth distribution of 100 to 600 m (Krefft 1984).

habitat:
This is a demersal species that is known to feed on small invertebrates such as small crabs, shrimp and other benthos (Guenette and Morato 1997). Larvae are typically found at 50 to 100 m. The maximum length is around 21 cm (Krefft 1984).

threats:
This species is not believed to have any major threats affecting it.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter a marine protected area somewhere along its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Scopelosaurus lepidus is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from Iceland and the Bay of Biscay to the Azores and Madeira. Population information for this species is limited. It is not known to be used commercially and there are no known major threats. Therefore, S. lepidus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scopelosaurus lepidus is widespread throughout the North Atlantic (Krefft 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. lepidus is found from Iceland (Krefft 1984, Stefansdottir et al. 2010) and the Bay of Biscay (Swinney et al. 1986) south to the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Adults are typically found at 500 to 800 m, while juveniles are found in shallower waters from 70 to 200 m (Krefft 1984).

habitat:
This is a deep-water species found at depths of 500 to 800 m (Krefft 1984). They feed on copepods while the large ones on euphausiids, hyperiids and mesopelagic fishes. Adults undertake far-ranging feeding migrations (outside the spawning season) to the slope areas of Europe, North America and West Africa. Spawning probably occurs in midwater far offshore, with a concentration in the Sargasso Sea (Krefft 1984). The maximum size is 36.5 cm standard length (Krefft 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter a marine protected area within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Scopelosaurus smithii has a circumglobal distribution in tropical through temperate seas. In the European region, it is known only from Madeira and perhaps also the Azores. This   species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in   Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of   the global population.

range:
Scopelosaurus smithii has a circumglobal distribution in tropical through temperate seas. In the European region, it is known only from Madeira and perhaps also the Azores.

population:
Scopelosaurus smithii is common in parts of its range (www.fishnet2.org, Accessed on 2 March 2015). There is limited information available on its population status and trends. 

habitat:
Scopelosaurus smithii occur in the mesopelagic and are found in depths greater than 500 m over continental and insular slopes (Kefft 1986, 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation actions in place for this species. 


taxonomicNotes:
The correct spelling for this species is Omosudis lowii (Günther 1887), though other spellings are in use (Eschmeyer 2014). This species is also referred to as Omosudis loweii by FAO.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Omosudis lowii is a deepwater pelagic species that is circumglobally distributed in tropical to temperate waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from the waters of Portugal, including Madeira and the Azores. Population information on this species is limited. It is not known to be used commercially, and there are no known major threats. Therefore, O. lowii is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Omosudis lowii is circumglobal in tropical to temperate waters (Post 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from southern Portugal, Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014), as well as from the Canary Islands (Bordes et al. 2009). This species has a wide depth distribution of 100 to 4000 m.

habitat:
Omosudis lowii is a deepwater pelagic species. In a trawl sampling of the Sargasso Sea, this species was only collected below 1000 m (Sutton et al. 2010), but may be found as deep as 4000 m.  They are likely found individually or in small groups.  They primarily feed on squids and other fishes. Reproduction is continuous, but mostly occurs in the spring and summer (Post 1984), and they are synchronous hermaphrodites (Mitcheson and Liu 2008). Maximum length is around 20 to 25 cm (Post 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter a marine conservation area in its range of habitat.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Arctozenus risso is a widely distributed deepwater pelagic species. Population data are limited, although it has a widespread distribution. It is not known to be used commercially, and has no known threats. Therefore, A. risso is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Arctozenus risso is circumglobally distributed (Post 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been found from Iceland to the Azores and Madeira (Melo and Menezes 2002, Carneiro et al. 2014). Larvae are reported from the epipelagic zone west of Ireland (Horstmann and Fives 1994, O’Brien and Fives 1995, Acevedo et al. 2002, Tiedemann et al. 2013). In the Mediterranean, adults have also been recorded from deep water in the southern Tyrrenian Sea (Busalacchi et al. 2010) and the Ionian Sea (Carlier et al. 2009), and larvae are reported from the northern Ionian (Granata et al. 2010) and northern Aegean seas (Somarakis et al. 2011). It is typically found from 200 to 1,000 m (Post 1984). Worldwide distribution from the Arctic to Antarctic (Post 1990).

population:
Population information is very limited for Arctozenus risso.

habitat:
Arctozenus risso is an oceanic, meso- to bathypelagic species which feed on fishes and shrimps. Arctozenus risso occurs singly or in small schools (Post 1984). Arctozenus risso is hermaphroditic and oviparous with planktonic larvae (Richards 2006). Arctozenus risso spawn at continental slopes and oceanic banks. Arctozenus risso spawn at continental slopes and oceanic banks (Cherel and Duhamel 2003). The maximum total length (TL) is 31 cm (Thompson 2002). Larvae chiefly occur in the epipelagic zone 0–200 m (Horstmann and Fives 1994, O’Brien and Fives 1995, Tiedemann et al. 2013).

threats:
There are no known major threats to Arctozenus risso. Although it is caught as bycatch in some deep water fisheries (Melo and Menezes 2002), this is not thought to be a major threat at present.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures for Arctozenus risso. This species may occur in a marine protected area somewhere throughout its wide distribution.

useAndTrade:
This species is not known to be used commercially. However, it is caught as bycatch in deep water fishery in some areas (Melo and Menezes 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
An Atlantic species. Western Atlantic: Nova Scotia, Canada south to northern Brazil (Thompson 2002, Richards 2006), the Eastern Central Atlantic: Macaronesia, Morocco to Angola. In the Caribbean, occurs in the Gulf of Mexico, but its distribution throughout the Caribbean is uncertain (Richards 2006, Rofen 1966). Richards (2006) noted a depth of <2,000 m, usually <600 m. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Rare in waters around the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
Mesopelagic to bathypelagic, hermaphroditic; oviparous with planktonic larva (Richards 2006). The maximum total length (TL) is 11 cm (Thompson 2002).

conservationAction:
There are no known species specific conservation measures in place or required.

redListContributors:
McEachran, J.D., Moore, J. & Polanco Fernandez, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LCLestidiops jayakari is broadly distributed in tropical to temperate waters worldwide, including the northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. Population information is limited. There are no known major threats to this species and it is not used commercially. Therefore, L. jayakari is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lestidiops jayakari occurs in tropical and subtropical waters in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, except for the eastern Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, L. jayakari is recorded from the southern British Isles, Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014), the Mediterranean (Costa 1991, Siccardi and Montanari 1997, Jennings 2000, Golani et al. 2006), Azores (Borges et al. 2010, Carneiro et al. 2014), Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and larvae from off the Canary Islands (Rodriguez 2000). In the Mediterranean, this species has been reported from off the Catalonian coast (Sabatés and Masò 1992). Adult L. jayakari are found between 200 to 2000 m in depth, while juveniles are found between 50 to 200 m (Richards 2006).

population:
Population information for L. jayakari is very limited, but it appears to be widely distributed.

habitat:
Lestidiops jayakari is epipelagic to bathypelagic; typically found around 300 to 600 m, though it is known from 200 to 2000 m (Post 1984). Lestidiops jayakari is hermaphroditic and oviparous with planktonic larvae (Richards 2006). Little is known about the life history and ecology of L. jayakari. The maximum total length (TL) is 17cm.

threats:
There are no major threats to Lestidiops jayakari.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures for Lestidiops jayakari. This species may enter a marine conservation area somewhere throughout its  range. It was assessed in the Mediterranean as Least Concern in 2007 due to the relatively broad distribution in the Mediterranean. Lestidiops jayakari was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Lestidiops sphyrenoides is widely distributed in the Northern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, L. sphyrenoides is known from the Celtic Sea to the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean. It is somewhat rare, with low catch rates. It is not known to be used commercially, and it has no known major threats. Therefore, L. sphyrenoides is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lestidiops sphyrenoides is widely distributed in the temperate eastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean (Post 1984). This is a widespread Mediterranean species (Fischer et al. 1987, Papaconstantinou 1988, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Mytilineou et al. 2005, Mallol-Martinez 2005, Golani et al. 2006), and is known from the coast of Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Larvae have also been recorded from the Celtic Sea (Horstman and Fives 1994) and the Canary Islands (Rodriguez 2000). It is known from depths of 50 and 700 m (Mallol-Martinez 2005, Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
Population data are limited for this species. It is thought to be relatively rare: in the Gulf of Lion, 0.09 ind./h (biomass = 0.0007kg/h, % occurrence = 1.47) were caught (Mallol-Martinez 2005). In the east Ionian Sea, 0.1 ind/h were caught in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each one (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

habitat:
This species is epipelagic to mesopelagic (Post 1984), and is thought to occur between 50 and 700 m (Mallol-Martinez 2005, Mytilineou et al. 2005). Juveniles are generally collected in the upper 400 m (Post 1984). Little is known about its ecology, but it is presumed carnivorous (Post 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter a marine protected area in its range of habitat. It was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 due to its broad distribution (IUCN 2011). Lestidiops sphyenoides was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

redListContributors:
Papaconstantinou, C., Palmeri, A., Keskin, Ç., Massuti, E. & Stump, E.


range:
This species is known from the northern and southern temperate Atlantic and in the southern Pacific. Off western Africa, it is found from Morocco south to Angola and the Cape Verde Islands. It is also found from St. Helena. It has a depth range of 50-2,000 m (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Additional collecting in the central part of its range is required to establish its presence there. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
This is a temperate, pelagic species found from 50-2,000 m; it is primarily the larvae that occur in the shallower parts of this depth range. There is little information about its feeding habits, however, it likely feeds on pelagic fishes and crustaceans. It is also a food fish for other pelagic organisms.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, this species has an antitropic bipolar distribution in the Atlantic ocean (FishBase 2015, G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015).

population:
There is no information on the population of this species in Europe.

habitat:
This is a pelagic-oceanic species that is found at depths of zero to 650 m (Post 1984). It is found in the temperate zone. The maximum length recorded is 13.5 cm SL male/unsexed (Post 1990). This species primarily feeds on planktonic organisms and rarely on small fishes (Post 1984).

threats:
There are no major threats known to affect the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Magnisudis atlantica is a deep-water pelagic species found circumglobally except in the Mediterranean. Its population information is limited, but it can be locally common. This species is not known to be used commercially, and has no known threats. Therefore, M. atlantica is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Magnisudis atlantica is almost ubiquitously found throughout the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (Post 1984). It is known from throughout the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Bay of Biscay (Casamajor and Morandeau 2013). It has not been recorded from the Mediterranean (Post 1984).  It has an estimated depth distribution of 50 to 2000 (Post 1990).

population:
Abundance and population data are unavailable for this species. From other records, it appears to be common in many other parts of the world, except the Mediterranean.

habitat:
Magnisudis atlantica is a meso- to bathypelagic species that dwells in waters at 50 to 2,000 m. Juveniles generally occupy shallower parts of its depth distribution while adults venture deeper. It is consumed by many other large pelagic species, and feeds on small pelagic fishes and shrimps. In the tropical and sub-tropical region of its distribution it is known to spawn all year round (Post and Nielsen 1984). The maximum known size is 50 cm (Post 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter a marine protected area somewhere in its range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable  Paralepis brevirostris is a cosmopolitan species. In the European region it is recorded from the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Paralepis brevirostris is a cosmopolitan species. In the European region it is recorded from the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores.

population:
Paralepis brevirostris is a widely distributed and common species (www.fishnet2.org, Accessed on 2/03/2015).

habitat:
The family, Paralepididae, is characterized by generally occurring in the meso- to bathypelagic, but can also be found from the surface to about 800 m. Feeds on small fishes. Paralepis brevirostris is known to occur from 100 -- 600 m. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Paralepis coregonoides is a deep-water pelagic species found in the northern Atlantic Ocean. Its population information is limited, as it is widely distributed but rare. It is not known to be used commercially, and there are no known major threats. Therefore, P. coregonoides is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Paralepis coregonoides is distributed throughout much of the North Atlantic Ocean (Post 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from Iceland and Norway south to the Canary Islands (Post 1984). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the Strait of Sicily (Costa 1991), the central Mediterranean (Consoli et al. 2008), Gulf of Genoa, Corsica and coasts of Provence, France (Maurin 1962), Tuscany and Latium coasts (Biagi et al. 2002), Gulf of Lion (Mallol-Martìnez 2005) and east Mediterranean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Golani et al. 2006). Larvae were found in the Celtic Sea (Acevedo et al. 2002), as well as in the Strait of Sicily (Cuttita et al. 2004). Its depth ranges from 50 to 600 m (Post 1990) and it may occur at even greater depths of more than 1000 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
This species is widespread but generally scarce and rarely caught.

habitat:
This species is meso- to bathypelagic, ranging in depth 50 to 600 m (Post 1990) while Mytilineou et al. 2005 report of a single specimen from a haul between 900 to 1200 m. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and occasionally planktonic organisms (Post 1984). It spawns from March to September, and larvae are found near the surface (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. Paralepis coregonoides was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

redListContributors:
Papaconstantinou, C., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A., Keskin, Ç. & Stump, E.


redListCategoryRationale:
Paralepis speciosa is widely distributed in the Mediterranean Sea, where it was thought to be endemic, though there are a few records from the Azores and Canary Islands. It is thought to be rare, and little is known about its population status, habitats or ecology. There are no known major threats for this species. Therefore, P. speciosa is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Paralepis speciosa was thought to be endemic to the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). There are records from the west (D'Onghia et al. 2004), Levantine basin, and east Ionian Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, D'Onghia et al. 2004, Mytilineou et al. 2005). It also present in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 2006). However, it has been reported from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014), Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 March). Single specimens have been caught between 600 and 800 m depth (D'Onghia et al. 2004, Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
This species is generally scarce. One specimen of nine grams was found in the western Ionian Sea (D'Onghia et al. 2004). One other specimen of four grams was found in east Ionian Sea (D'Onghia et al. 2004), where its frequency of occurrence was 1.9% (0.1 ind/h) in 145 trawl hauls of one hour each (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

habitat:
This is a pelagic species (Post 1984, Fischer et al. 1987). The only known depth resolved findings were between 600 and 800 m depth (D'Onghia et al. 2004, Mytilineou et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. Paralepis speciosa was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011); it is now known from outside of the Mediterranean Sea.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC  Sudis hyalina is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. Though rare, it is thought to be broadly distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean. Population data are limited. It is not fished commercially, and there are no known major threats. Therefore, S. hyalina is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sudis hyalina is broadly distributed in the Atlantic Ocean from about 50°N to 40°S, including the Mediterranean Sea (Post 1984). In the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987, Jennings 2000), this species is present in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Bello 1990, Golani et al. 2006), north and west Aegean Sea, Greece (Papaconstantinou et al. 1994), Anzio Harbour, Latium, central Tyrrhenian Sea (Psomadakis et al. 2006), Strait of Sicily (Costa 1991, 1999; Ragonese et al. 2001), Libyan coasts (UNEP/FAO 1995), Gulf of Genoa (Siccardi and Montanari 1997) and the Ionian Sea (Parenzan 1970). It has a depth distribution of 200 to more than 2000 m (Post 1990).

population:
This species is generally very scarce. Population data are limited.

habitat:
This species is mesopelagic to bathypelagic, typically found from 200 to more than 2000 m (Post 1990). It is carnivorous. It probably spawns near the surface in temperate to tropical waters (Post 1984). It has been supposed to be one of the 'cable-biters' species, reconstructions from big teeth found in submarine cables suggests that it reaches at least 100 cm body-length (Post 1984, 1990).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. It was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean, as there are few records from the Mediterranean Sea (IUCN 2011, Abdul Malak et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size and trend of the species. Further research should also be conducted on the ecology of the species in order to establish its status throughout its range.

range:
Uncisudis longirostra has probably a wide distribution, including tropical waters, but is known only from a few specimens. In European waters, it is known only from the type locality, Madeira (Post 1986b). It is present at depths ranging from 170 to 800 m.

habitat:
Uncisudis longirostra can be found in meso- and bathypelagic waters. The largest specimen recorded was 18.7 cm SL (Holotype). The species from this family eat small fishes and can also be hermaphroditic, but this has not been confirmed for this species (Post 1986b).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., de Bruyne, G., de Morais, L., Polidoro, B., Soto, S. & Stump, E.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size and trend of this mesopelagic fish species. Further research is needed to establish the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
Uncisudis quadrimaculata seems restricted to the Eastern Atlantic Ocean (Post 1990c). In European waters, it was caught off the Azores (Porteiro et al. 1999). It is found between 500 and 600 m depth.

habitat:
Uncisudis quadrimaculata is a mesopelagic fish which is present close to the surface at night and inhabits 500-600 m of depth during the day (Post 1990c, Porteiro et al. 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Benthalbella infans is a very widely distributed species, which within Europe is only known from the waters of mainland Portugal, the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is found circumglobally in warmer temperate to tropical waters world-wide, although it is absent from the Mediterranean. In Europe, it is known from the waters of mainland Portugal, the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014, Santos et al. 1997) as well as the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). The depth distribution of this species is poorly documented, however records appear to be common in the range of 500-1,000 m.

population:
There is a lack of information on this species' population in Europe.

habitat:
This is a deep-water pelagic species found at depths of 200-5,000 m. It is piscivorous.

threats:
There are no major threats known to affect this species, however it may be removed as bycatch in deep-water trawl fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Rosenblattichthys hubbsi is found in the Azores and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Rosenblattichthys hubbsi is found in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).  Globally, Rosenblattichthys hubbsi is intermittently distributed  in the waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, most often found in tropical and subtropical waters. It has not been reported to inhabit the central South Pacific nor the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Central Atlantic, it is known from only three stations, 24°N -2.5°S, and none from the Gulf of Guinea or Benguela (Johnson 1990).  It is found between the depths of 500-1,000 m (Thompson 2002).

population:
Very little is known about the population density and dynamics of this species.

habitat:
Rosenblattichthys hubbsi is a meso- and bathypelagic species of fish. It is a piscivore that feeds mainly on a variety of other pelagic fishes (Thompson 2002). This family of fishes is presumed to be synchronous hermaphrodites (Thompson 2002). Little else is known about the fecundity, ecology or life history of this fish.

threats:
Not enough is known about this fish to determine if there are any significant threats towards it.

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation measures are in place.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is found in the Canary Islands, the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is found in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014).  Globally, this species is circumglobal in all waters of warmer temperate to tropical. In Western Africa it is found from Morocco to Angola including the Azores, Cape Verde, and Canary Islands. In the eastern Pacific, it is found in the California Current region off southern California to the Baja California Peninsula. It is also found in the western Atlantic, it is found from Canada southward to the Bahamas, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Greater Antilles (Scott and Scott 1988).  It has a depth range of 200-1,500 m (Kells and Carpenter 2011).

population:
There are no population data available for this species. It is presumed to be common, however, not abundant.

habitat:
This is a mesopelagic to bathypelagic species, found at depths of 200-1,500 m. However, juveniles and larvae have been captured at shallower depths (Johnson 1990). They are oviparous and synchronous hemaphrodites (Watson and Sandknop 1996). They are piscivorous (Johnson 1990).


range:
In Europe, this species occurs only in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, it is found in all subtropical and tropical waters worldwide. The depth distribution of this species is poorly documented.  It likely occurs at depth of about 500-1,000 m.

habitat:
This is a mesopelagic/oceanic species, found at depths of 500-1,000 m.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Scopelarchus michaelsarsi has a circumglobal distribution in tropical through warm temperate seas. In the European region, it is known only from the Azores and the Canary Islands. This   species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in   Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of   the global population.

range:
Scopelarchus michaelsarsi has a circumglobal distribution in tropical through warm temperate seas. In the European region, it is known only from the Azores and the Canary Islands.

population:
Scopelarchus michaelsarsi is common in parts of its range (www.fishnet2.org, Accessed on 2 March 2015). 

habitat:
Scopelarchus michaelsarsi is a mesopelagic species found in depths between 256 -- 500 m. Most adults are taken in hauls to depths exceeding 500 m, none in hauls to depths less than 250 m. Larvae are taken year-round throughout its range, chiefly in hauls to depths less than 200 and apparently not in hauls restricted to the upper 100 m (Johnson 1990). 


taxonomicNotes:
Synodus bondi was recently resurrected from synonymy under S. foetens and both were redescribed by Frable et al. (2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Synodus foetens is found only in the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Synodus foetens is found only in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Synodus foetens is distributed in the western Atlantic from New Jersey south along the U.S. coast, Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Caribbean from Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and St. Martin. It ranges over the continental shelf to 208 m depth (Polanco 2006).

population:
There is no information on the population.

habitat:
Synodus foetens occurs near the bottom in shallow inshore waters over sand or mud bottoms including salt-water creeks, rivers, sounds, along beaches, among seagrasses, bays, estuaries, inlets and lagoons. It can withstand a wide range of environmental conditions (Overstreet 1968). It is considered estuarine-dependent as young use coastal lagoons as nurseries (Garcia-Abad et al. 1999). This species is a voracious predator and it buries itself in sand or mud to ambush prey (Kells and Carpenter 2011, Russell 2002, Cruz-Escalona 2005). It feeds primarily on fishes and small mobile invertebrates. The maximum length for this species is 40 cm and is common to 30 cm and the world game record is 0.9 kg (Russell 2002). It can live to nine years of age (Jeffers et al. 2008).

threats:
Effects of shrimp trawl bycatch may be significant at the subpopulation level for non-exploited species and a broader ecosystem-scale examination of bycatch effects is warranted (Jeffers et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
There are not any species specific conservation efforts in place for S. foetens.

useAndTrade:
Synodus foetens is captured as bycatch and discarded in shrimp trawl fisheries throughout its range. It is not of commercial value (Frable et al. 2013). It is usually discarded as trash fish (Russell 2002, Garcia-Abad et al. 1999).

redListContributors:
Russell, B., Polanco Fernandez, A., Moore, J. & McEachran, J.D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Synodus saurus is distributed in the insular east and west Atlantic Ocean. It is considered to be common in some localities, and may be expanding its range in others. It may be taken as bycatch, but is not known to be used commercially. This species has no known major threats. Therefore, S. saurus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Synodus saurus is distributed primarily in the eastern Atlantic Ocean (Sulak 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is distributed around the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), the Canaries, off of Spain and Portugal (Goncalves et al. 2007, Carneiro et al. 2014), and in the Mediterranean Sea (Sulak 1984). It is commonly found at depths of less than 20 m, but was caught once at about 400 m (Sulak 1984).

population:
There are little population data available for Synodus saurus. It is considered rare in the Adriatic Sea, although there is circumstantial evidence that this species is expanding its range (Tutman et al. 2003). It is common around the Azores (Soares et al. 2002).

habitat:
Synodus saurus is most common in the shallow waters around islands, typically to less than 20 m depth though it has been recorded to 400 m (Sulak 1984). It is is primarily associated with sandy substrates. This species is a cryptic ambush predator that feeds mainly on small, pelagic, gregarious fish less than 35% of its body size (Esposito et al. 2009).  However, it is a highly mobile predator, capable of rapidly swimming more than five meters to capture its prey (Soares et al. 2002). It is thought to reproduce during the spring and summer, with a peak in July (Sousa et al. 2003). Females are considered to be larger (Soares et al. 2002). In the north-east Mediterranean, this species has a mean total length is 19.51 cm and a mean total weight is 64.71 g (Cicek et al. 2006).

threats:
Although not a target species, Synodus saurus it may be taken as bycatch during commercial trawling (Relini et al. 2000, Abdallah 2002).  However, this is not considered a major threat to this species at present, as it only occurs in localized regions of this species' range.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. This species may enter a marine protected area in its range of habitat. Synodus saurus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Synodus saurus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This may be caught and sold in local markets, however, there is no major targeted fishery for it.

redListContributors:
Edwards, A., De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


taxonomicNotes:
The name Synodus synodus (Linnaeus 1758) (type locality: "America") has been widely used for this species. Genetic evidence indicates approximately 5-6% divergence in COI between eastern and western Atlantic populations indicating deep population structure or potential cryptic species within its lineage (Frable et al. 2013). This suggests that populations on either side of the Atlantic may represent distinct species. The nominal Synodus atlanticus (Johnson 1863) is currently available for this species.  However, further work is needed to stabilize the nomenclature.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Synodus synodus, as currently defined, is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. There may be two Synodus species in the Atlantic Ocean; however, further work is required to stabilize the taxonomy. Regardless, in the northeastern Atlantic, it is known only from the Canary Islands and Madeira. Synodus synodus is a demersal species found to 90 m depth. Although there may be small artisanal fisheries throughout its range, S. synodus is of little importance to fisheries. There are no other known threats. Therefore, Synodus synodus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Synodus synodus is found along both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, S. synodus is known from the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985) and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Records from the Mediterranean are probably misidentifications. It is typically found to about 90 m (Russell in press).

population:
In the Canary Islands, S. synodus was reported as relatively common inshore (Dooley et al. 1985) and comprised ~5% of visual survey of inshore species (Hajagos and van Tassell 2001). There is no indication that there have been any major declines in the population of Synodus synodus.

habitat:
Synodus synodus is a bottom dwelling species that occurs over rocky or reef areas and perches on hard surfaces to depths of about 90 m (Russell in press). This species feed primarily on small fishes (Kells and Carpenter 2011). The maximum size for S. synodus is 30 cm and it is common to 15 cm (Russell in press).

useAndTrade:
Synodus synodus is of little importance to fisheries (Russell in press). This species is likely consumed throughout its range in artisanal fisheries, but there is no commercial target for it, and it is not believed to be harvested at any threatening level.


taxonomicNotes:
 Recent work indicates that Atlantic and Indo-west Pacific populations are genetically (Frable et al. 2013) and morphologically (Polanco 2006) distinct. Further investigation of this genus is needed.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Trachinocephalus myops is found only in the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Trachinocephalus myops is found only in the Azores (as Synodus myops; Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Trachinocephalus myops occurs worldwide in tropical and warm temperate waters, except the eastern Pacific. There are strong genetic data that suggests Atlantic populations represent a separate species from the Pacific populations, however, further investigation is still needed. In the western Atlantic it is known from Maine south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along South America to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil including Trinidade Island (Simon et al. 2013). In the eastern Atlantic it is known from Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, the Cape Verde Islands, and along West Africa from Senegal to Namibia. In the Indo-Pacific it is known along East Africa, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, northern Australia, and the Hawaiian Islands (Forster in Bloch and Schneider 1801, Cressey and Waples 1984, Sulak 1990). The depth range is zero to 365 m, but it most commonly occurs between 25-90 m (Russell 2002). 

population:
There are no population data available for Europe.

habitat:
Trachinocephalus myops is a marine, reef-associated species that occurs in tropical and warm temperate waters to a depth of 400 m (Lieske and Myers 1994); it is usually found between three and 90 m (Sulak 1990). This species can be found near shore above 40 m, over sandy bottoms of deep outer reef slopes (Yamada et al. 1995). It has also been reported to be common in estuaries (Heemstra 1995, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The maximum total length for this species in 40 cm male/unsexed (Lieske and Myers 1994) and the maximum reported age for this species is seven years (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The spawning season is from February to October (Zhuangli 1997). It is an ambush predator and individuals bury themselves in wait for small fishes and crustaceans.

threats:
There are no major threats known to affect this species. It is removed as bycatch in many fisheries.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.

useAndTrade:
Trachinocephalus myops is of minor commercial importance to the fisheries industry (Sinoda et al. 1978).

redListContributors:
Russell, B., Polanco Fernandez, A., Moore, J., McEachran, J.D., Kaymaram, F., Bishop, J., Al-Husaini, M. & Alam, S.


taxonomicNotes:
A second morphotype found in the Gulf of Guinea, with larger eyes and a narrower interorbital width, is currently considered, with some question, as part of this species but may represent another valid species, Halobatrachus conspicillum (Cuvier, 1829) according to Collette et al. (2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread in Europe. As a shallow-water species it could be vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts (for example shallow-water trawls), however it is common with no known major threats and is therefore assessed as Least Concern. There is no substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in Europe.

range:
This species has two forms which may represent different species (Collette et al. 2006). The small-eyed Halobatrachus didactylus form is known from an old northern record from the Kattegat in Norway south along the coast of the Iberian Peninsula into the Mediterranean and along the coast of northern West Africa. The large-eyed form is found from the Straits of Gibraltar south to at least Ghana and possibly Nigeria, with some old literature records from the Canary Islands (Collette et al. 2006). In the European region, the fish is found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Spain and Macaronesia (Canary Islands and Malaga) to southern France, with a single historical record from the Kattegat (Nilsson 1832). In the Mediterranean, it mainly occurs in the western part, but it is also recorded in the west Ionian Sea (Argyriou et al. 2006); it is known from from Libya to Morocco, and the Italian Peninsula (Roux 1971, Costa et al. 2003).

population:
This species is common and taken in artisanal fisheries and as bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its range in Europe (Collette and Greenfield, in press).

habitat:
This is a benthic, sedentary species that occurs on soft sand or mud, often partly buried or concealed in rock crevices. It is solitary in shallow water. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs and small fishes (Roux 1986). The female lays large eggs which are turned over to the males who guard them (Maigret and Ly 1986). A bottom-dwelling species inhabiting mainly shallow coastal waters to about 60 m depth, although it has been reported from deeper waters (to about 250 m). Feeds chiefly on molluscs and crustaceans. In the northern part of the range, spawning extends from March to April (Collette in press). Females produce between 227-1,233 eggs (Palazon-Fernandez et al. 2001).

threats:
There are no known current major threats for this species (B. Collette pers. comm. 2013); as a shallow-water species it could be vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts (for example shallow-water trawls), although the potential scale of this is unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range.

useAndTrade:
This is a species with minor commercial importance and is caught with bottom trawls and artisanal fishing gear (Collette and Greenfield in press).


taxonomicNotes:
Three subspecies are recognized (Collette and Parin 1970, Collette 2003): Belone belone belone (Linnaeus, 1761) from northeastern Atlantic Ocean, Belone belone euxini Günther, 1866 from the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, and Belone belone acus Risso, 1826 from the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent parts of the Atlantic, Madeira, Canary Islands, Azores, and south to the Cape Verde Islands.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In Europe, this species is widespread and common in most parts of its range. It is a minor commercial species, although overexploited in artisanal fisheries in parts of its range in Turkish waters, and there are no known major threats to the species. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic from Trondheim, Norway (occasional strays have been taken farther north: the White Sea, the Murman coast, and south Iceland), south through the North Sea and the Baltic Sea along the coasts of Britain, France, and Spain to the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands, and throughout most of the Mediterranean and Black seas (Collette and Parin 1970, 1990, Collette 2003).

population:
The species is common in most parts of its range, and is seasonally common in the Mediterranean Sea. It appears to be common in commercial catches from the Swedish coast (Dorman 1991). Population trends in the Black Sea require monitoring as there are reports of overfishing there (Samsun et al. 2006).

habitat:
This epipelagic species is found in surface waters. During the summer the shoals move northwards and are sometimes even found in the Barents Sea (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It feeds on small fishes, particularly in the families Clupeidae and Engraulidae. In the Aegean Sea (Sever et al. 2009), crustaceans (36.7% IRI, index of relative importance) were the most important prey, especially brachyurans (13.0%) and copepods (10.1%), followed by teleosts (26.1%) and other food categories, much of which was of terrestrial origin, including insects. Prey items include crustaceans, especially crab larvae, and juvenile fish, mostly clupeids in Ireland (Dorman 1988, 1991). Males and females reached sexual maturity at 28.0 and 31.5 cm TL in the Adriatic Sea (Zorica et al. 2011). Spawning began in January and peaked March to May. Batch fecundity in the Adriatic Sea was 1,242.46 ± 843.64 mature eggs per ovary. Mature oocytes ranged from 1.223-4.283 mm in diameter, mean 2.269 mm. Total fecundity was 10,196-48,903 eggs per female in the Black Sea. Maximum age in the Aegean Sea was five for females, four for males. The eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils. The von Bertalanffy growth equations for length and weight were: Lt = 62.71 (1-e-0.2379t+1.566) for both sexes. Embryonic and larval development were described by Munk and Nielsen (2005) and Dulčić et al. (2009). In the Black Sea, Belone belone euxini females reached sexual maturity at age two and at 38.8 cm (Samsun et al. 2006). The spawning period begins in May, peaks in July, then declines until it is over in September. The mean number of eggs produced by females during the spawning season was 24 088 ± 184 and ranged from 8460 to 51 694 eggs per female. The length–weight relationship and von Bertalanffy growth parameters were estimated as W = 0.00076 L3.137, L∞ =  74.64 cm, K = 0.13 year -1, t0 = -3.67, respectively. Artisanal fishery harvest mostly on females and juveniles males. Embryonic and larval development were described by Munk and Nielsen (2005) and Dulčić et al. (2009).

threats:
There are no major known major threats impacting populations in Europe, although surface pollution and local overexploitation (in the Black Sea) in Turkey may affect the distribution of the species in some parts of its European range. It is a mobile surface species so any major pollution event is likely to affect it. It is a minor commercial species and is caught mainly by beach and boat seines, pelagic trawls, purse seines, set nets, small driftnets, fish traps, handlines and trawl lines. It is sometimes a target species in sport and recreational fisheries.

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the minimum legal landing size is set at 35 cm. No other national minimum landing sizes are in place. The species is mobile and occurs in many marine protected areas in the region. Fishing gear controls are in place for the fish in in Croatia (AdriaMed 2015).

useAndTrade:
It is a commercial species (fresh and frozen). This species is exported internationally for food. It is also captured in recreational fisheries (Dorman 1988). It is sometimes a target species in sport and recreational fisheries. There is a good market for the species in the Mediterranean Sea. Approximately 550 tonnes of garfish were caught nationally in Turkey in 2005, with most consumed fresh (Koral et al. 2009); this figure probably reflects the capture of both species of Belone in one category “garfish”, as both species occur on the Turkish coast and they are not easily distinguished. However, B. belone euxine overfishing was noticed in the Sinop artisanal fishery along the coast of the Black Sea, and has led to a declining catch with increasing catch effort and a reduction in age at first maturity from 5-6 years to two years (Samsun et al. 2006).

redListReviewers:
de Sant'Anna, V.B., Allen, D.J. & Polidoro, B.


taxonomicNotes:
Before its description by Collette and Parin (1970), the species was confused with Belone belone.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In Europe, this species is widespread and common in most parts of its range. It is a minor commercial species. There are no known major threats to the species and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species occurs in the eastern Atlantic, with a range including southern Ireland, southern United Kingdom (occasional), Spain and Portugal, and is also widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Dorman 1984).

population:
The population trend for this species in the Mediterranean Sea is not known. It is rarer than Belone belone, but fisheries statistics include this in landings figures for other species.

habitat:
An epipelagic species is found in surface waters. The species is a southern European species that is a regular visitor to the south coast of Ireland (Dorman 1987). Maximum age is seven years (Dorman 1987). Prey items also include crab larvae, and juvenile clupeids (Dorman 1987).

threats:
There are no major known major threats impacting populations. In the Mediterranean Sea, surface pollution may affect the distribution of the garpike. It is a very mobile fish and as a surface species, any major pollution event is likely to affect it first. There do not appear to be any marked trends for this species in Mediterranean Sea fisheries. It is a minor commercial species and is caught mainly by beach and boat seines, pelagic trawls, purse seines, set nets, small driftnets, fish traps, handlines and trawl lines. It is sometimes a target species in sport and recreational fisheries. There is a good market for the species in the Mediterranean Sea. It does not appear to be under serious threat at present.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range. 

useAndTrade:
It is a minor commercial species and is frequently not distinguished from Belone belone. In Ireland (Dorman 1987) and elsewhere the fish is a minor component of recreational fisheries.


taxonomicNotes:
Seven geographic subspecies were recognized by Collette and Parin (1970):  Platybelone argalus argalus from the western Atlantic;  P. a. lovii from the Cape Verde Islands;  P. a. annobonensis from Annobón and Fernando Po islands in the Gulf of Guinea;  P. a. trachura from Ascension and St. Helena;  P. a. platyura in most of the Indo-West Pacific;  P. a. platura in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; and  P. a. pterura from the eastern Pacific. The Azores population is of taxonomic interest (B. Collette pers. comm. 2012).

range:
In Europe, this species occurs only in the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). This circumglobal, pelagic, polytypic species has seven subspecies inhabiting tropical offshore surface waters within the 23.9oC isotherm (Cressey and Collette 1970). It is particularly abundant around islands. Platybelone argalus platura, a geographic subspecies of P. argalus, is known only from the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf (Collette in Heemstra and Heemstra in press). In the eastern Atlantic it is known only from the Azores, the Cape Verde Islands (P. argalus lovii), Fernando Póo, São Tomé and Annobón in the Gulf of Guinea (P. argalus annobonensis), and the Ascension and St. Helena Islands (P. argalus trachura). In the western Atlantic (P. argalus argalus) it is known from Virginia south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along South America to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil including Trinidade Island (Simon et al. 2013).  The depth range is zero to two metres (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).

population:
This species is abundant around islands (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).

habitat:
Platybelone argalus is neritic and epipelagic. It inhabits offshore surface waters, particularly abundant around islands (Collette 1984). Early life history of this species is covered by Collette (2005). It is generally seen in small groups (Randall 1995). Its diet consists of fishes (Randall 1967, Collette 2003). The maximum recorded total length is 45 cm (Randall 1995).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place.

useAndTrade:
This species is collected with casting or trolling surface or near-surface lure, seines, trammel nets and often using lights (Collette 1984). It is harvested as a food source in parts of its range.


taxonomicNotes:
Four subspecies are recognised: T. a. acus (Lacepède, 1803) in the western Atlantic (Massachusetts, USA to Brazil) and east Atlantic (off Morocco and the western Mediterranean Sea) T. a. imperialis (Rafinesque, 1810) in the Mediterranean Sea and Cape Verde Islands) T. a. rafale Collette and Parin 1970 from the Gulf of Guinea and T. a melanotus (Bleeker, 1850) in the the Indo-West Pacific and oceanic islands in the eastern tropical Pacific (Revillagigedos, Clipperton, and Cocos).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the European region, this species is known from scattered localities in the Mediterranean. It is uncommon, however it has no known major threats, and is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species has a wide distribution in the western Atlantic (Massachusetts, USA to Brazil) and in the eastern Atlantic (Cape Verde, Morocco and the Mediterranean; Collette and Parin 1970), the Gulf of Guinea, the Indo-Pacific (eastern Africa to the central and south Pacific) and the east-central Pacific (oceanic islands such as the Revillagigedo, Clipperton and Cocos). In Europe, this species is known from scattered localities in the Mediterranean Sea, with recent records from the Aegean Sea (Akyol and Kara 2011, Türker Çakir and Zengin 2013) and the Adriatic Sea (Bello 1995), however Di Natale et al. (2011) state it to be distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea and likely to be more widespread than currently recorded.

population:
The species is uncommon and is known only from scattered localities (B. Collette pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
This is an epipelagic species, inhabiting offshore waters but also found in coastal waters. This species feeds mainly on small fishes (Collette 1981). It is oviparous and its eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils. Ripe females were reported from late May and early June in the northern Aegean Sea (Akyol and Kara 2011). This species either lacks the left gonad or it is greatly reduced in size (Collette 2005). Eggs measure 3.22-4.0 mm in diameter. Ovarian egg counts in two females, 485 and 500 mm BL: 116-196 eggs in the left ovary, 1,792-12,313 eggs in the right ovary (Collette 2010). Hatching takes about 10-12 days. Maximum size: 128 cm (SL), 95 cm BL (body length).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. It is an offshore species and may not significantly impacted by surface pollution (B. Collette pers. comm. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range. Further research into its European distribution is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This species may be incidentally caught in fisheries (commercial or recreational) for Belone belone (B. Collette pers. comm. 2013), and it is a target of sport fisheries.


taxonomicNotes:
Gibbs and Staiger (1970) found some minor difference between the western and eastern Atlantic populations of C. cyanopterus (considered at that time as disjunct) in two meristic characters, visible number of vertebrae and number of predorsal scales. Atlantic and Indo-West Pacific populations of C. cyanopterus have been never compared.This species has been historically known as Cypselurus cyanopterus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Cheilopogon cyanopterus is widely distributed in tropical, oceanic waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known only from the coast of Portugal and the Canary Islands. Only a minor portion of this species' range is within the assessment area. Therefore, C. cyanopterus is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Cheilopogon cyanopterus is widely distributed in tropical, oceanic waters (Parin 1999). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from the coast of Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands. It is typically found from zero to 20 m depth.

population:
There is little population information available for this species. 

habitat:
This is a predominantly neritic species, found to a depth of about 20 m. This species does not school to the extent that Hirundichthys affinis does (H. Oxenford pers. comm. 2013). It feeds on zooplankton and small fishes, and is eaten  by a wide variety of fishes, including the Rainbow Runner, Elagatis bipinnulata (Vaske et al. 2006). This species matures at about 27 cm standard length and the maximum length is about 33 cm (Parin FAO ECA Guide in prep). Spawning occurs in schools o several hundred individuals (Bane 1965). The largest ovarian eggs taken from not fully ripe female did not exceed 1.2 mm in diameter (Gibbs and Staiger 1970). Eggs have very long filaments about 4.5 mm in length covering their entire surface (Parin and Gorbunova 1964).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for Cheilopogon cyanopterus.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Cheilopogon exsiliens is a widespread oceanic species. It may be common in parts of the Mediterranean. This species is not of importance to fisheries and there are no known major threats. Therefore, Cheilopogon exsiliens is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Cheilopogon exsiliens is a widely distributed oceanic species, found warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean but never entering inlets or bays. It has been recorded from the coast of Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is commonly reported along the Mediterranean coasts, but these records require verification (Parin 1986). Most eastern Atlantic records have been reported from around the Cape Verde islands; the most southern record is 25o50' S, 26o45' W (Parin and Belyanina 1996).

population:
Little population data are available for C. exsiliens.

habitat:
Cheilopogon exsiliens is an oceanic species and may enter clear, coastal waters. It has been reported in warm waters from 23—25oC and in depths from 0—30 m (Avrova 1984). This species feeds on zooplankton and has pelagic eggs. Cheilopogon exsiliens matures at 18.5-20 cm SL; the maximum size recorded is 23.8 cm SL in the north-western Atlantic but 27.3 cm SL elsewhere (Parin in press). The largest ovarian eggs reported were 1.6 mm in diameter found in a specimen of 201 mm SL. Eggs have short filaments over the entire surface.

threats:
There are no known threats to Cheilopogon exsiliens.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for Cheilopogon exsiliens.  This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Cheilopogon exsiliens is of no importance to fisheries.


taxonomicNotes:
Parin and Belyanina (1998) separated the subspecies Cheilopogon furcatus furcatus from two new subspecies in the Indian and Pacific oceans.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cheilopogon furcatus is circumglobally distributed in tropical oceanic waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known only from the Azores and Madeira, though it has recently been reported from the Mediterranean. It is not utilized and there are no known threats. Therefore, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cheilopogon furcatus is widely distributed in all tropical oceanic waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). It was recorded for the first time in the Mediterranean Sea, near Zarzis, in the Gulf of Gabès, southern Tunisia, which may be due to migration from the eastern Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar (Ben Souissi et al. 2005). Eastern and southern boundaries for the species need to be clarified (Parin and Belyanina 1998).

population:
There is little population information for this offshore species, but it appears to be rare in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean (Parin FAO ECA Guide in prep).

habitat:
This is a true oceanic species not connected with inshore waters during any period of life. It feeds on zooplankton (Parin FAO ECA Guide in prep) and small fishes (Parin 1999). The maximum size for Cheilopogon furcatus is 27 cm standard length in the western Atlantic, up to 29 cm standard length in other oceans (Parin and Gibbs 1990, Parin and Belyanina 1998). The smallest recorded ripe male was 19.3 cm standard length (Bruun 1935). Eggs are demersal, laid on drifting algae or other floating objects, 1.5-1.7mm in diameter, with two bunches of filaments on opposite poles, one consisting of 10-12 tiny threads, the other with 18-20 long filaments, about twice the egg diameter in length (Cotten and Comyns 2005). Breeding occurs throughout the year in tropical waters; embryonic development is 5-7 days (Gorbunova and Parin 1963).

threats:
There are no known threats. It is not of importance to fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cheilopogon heterurus is widely distributed in subtropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, C. heterurus is known from the coast of Portugal to Madeira, including the western Mediterranean. There are no population data available for this species. It is not currently targeted in the region, though it is occasionally caught in the Mediterranean Sea. This is not thought to be a major threat at this time, and there are no other known threats. Therefore, Cheilopogon heterurus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cheilopogon heterurus is found in subtropical, nearshore waters (Parin 1986). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it inhabits the western Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Moravec and Garibaldi 2003), and has been recorded from the coast of Portugal and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), as well as off the Azores (Parin and Belyanina 2000). Individual stragglers are known from as far north as Denmark and southern Norway (Bruun 1935, Nielsen 1963). It is found at depths of 0 to 20 m. 

habitat:
This is an epipelagic, neritic species, very rarely found offshore (Parin in press).  Cheilopogon heterurus matures by about 28-30 cm standard length and the maximum size recorded is 35 cm standard length (about 45 cm total length). This species feeds on zooplankton (Parin in press). This species is host to a parasite of trichinelloid Huffmanela schouteni (Moravec and Garibaldi 2003). It spawns in inshore waters, during the summer months (May to August) in the southwestern Mediterranean Sea (Bruun 1935).  Eggs are demersal, laid on aquatic vegetation, with thin filaments (1.3—1.4 mm) over the entire surface area (Parin 1986).  

threats:
Cheilopogon heterurus is not commercially exploited (Maigret and Ly 1986), though it is sometimes caught incidentally in the Mediterranean. As an epipelagic species, any surface pollution event is likely to affect it first.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. It may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. Cheilopogon heterurus was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This flying fish is not commercially exploited (Maigret and Ly 1986). Sometimes this fish is caught in the Mediterranean Sea, but it is not targeted by any fisheries in the region.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has been divided into several subspecies (Shakhovskoy 2007): Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus pinnatibarbus (Bennett 1831), Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus altipennis (Valenciennes 1847), Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus californicus (Cooper 1863), Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus japonicus (Franz 1910), Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus melanocercus (Ogilby 1885).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus is widely distributed in temperate to subtropical waters. It may be taken as by-catch in heavily exploited regions, and monitoring of the extent and levels of by-catch is needed to ensure this threat does not become more widespread. There are no other known major threats. Therefore, Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus is a coastal species found in most temperate and tropical waters. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from Cape Fisterra, Spain to the Canary Islands, including the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), to Senegal, one record from Liberia, also Cape Verde, Ascension and St. Helena Islands, and São Tomé Island (Afonso et al. 1999). In the western Atlantic, it has been reported off Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and from Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean (Collette and Parin 1991).

population:
Population data for this species are limited.

habitat:
Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus is distributed circumglobally in waters between 15-25°C, generally avoiding tropical latitudes (Andrew et al. 1995). It is able to leap out of the water, and glide over the water surface for long distances and has been reported as injuring a man wading on a Mediterranean beach (Goldenberg et al. 1998). It feeds on zooplankton and small fishes. From five specimens taken from southern Portugal during March 1996-June 1997, the average length was 44.3 cm and the average weight was 449.7 g (Borges et al. 2003). This species is a prey item for sharks (Galván-Magaña et al. 2013), including the hammerhead shark, Sphyrna mokarran. 

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus, however it may occur in a number of marine protected areas. It was globally assessed as Least Concern in 2009 as there are no known major threats (IUCN 2010).

useAndTrade:
There is no known commercial fishery for this species, although it is likely to be taken as by-catch in some areas of its broad range.

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Livingstone, S., Polidoro, B., De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Wilson, P., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


taxonomicNotes:
Exocoetus obtusirostris is endemic to the Atlantic Ocean and showed no significant differences from different parts of this ocean. It was thought to occur circumglobally before it was split into three other closely related species (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). 

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Exocoetus obtusirostris is a widely distributed coastal species found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Little is known about its population status, but there are no known major threats. Therefore, Exocoetus obtusirostris is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Exocoetus obtusirostris is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). In the northeastern Atlantic, it has been recorded south of Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), with stragglers off the coast of Portugal (Parin 1986). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is only known from one record from the Ligurian Sea.

habitat:
Habitats: This is a pelagic, oceanic species. It occurs in surface waters both near and far from the coast (Cervigón et al. 1992). It is typically found at depths of 0 to 20 m. It lives in a very wide temperature range, 18 to 29o C commonly 20-27o C (Grudtsev et al. 1986). Ecology: Exocoetus obtusirostris is consumed by a large variety of predatory fishes, such as dolphinfishes, tunas, snake mackerels and also by omastrephid squids, seabirds and dolphins (Parin in press). It feeds on small zooplankton, predominantly copepods and chaetognaths (Gorelova and Grudtsev 1967). This species is host to the trematode Gonapodasmius cypseluri, with 29% of inspected specimens having these trematodes in the orbits of their eyes and gills (Nikolaeva and Mordinova 1988).    Reproduction and Life History: Females and males attain sexual maturity at about 14‑15 cm standard length and all females larger than 17 cm standard length are in spawning condition during the year (Alekseev et al. 1989). Maximum size recorded is 24.5 cm total length, 19.5 cm standard length (Parin in press). Otoliths of mature fishes constantly show one opaque and one hyaline zone, thus longevity is about 1 year, and all fishes die during the first reproductive season. Spawning is intermittent with up to 20 portions laid in 5 or more days; each portion consists of 420‑890 (mean 630) eggs. Their eggs are pelagic without any filaments, and estimated total fecundity averages 10,300 eggs (Alekseev et al. 1989).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Exocoetus obtusirostris was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007, as it is known from only one record from the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species has no commercial interest.

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Molinari, A., Oral, M. & Golani, D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Exocoetus volitans is a widely distributed species in the tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, E. volitans is known only from the Canary Islands. Wandering individuals have been recorded off the Azores, Madeira, and the eastern Mediterranean Sea, but all or some of these records may be based on misidentifications. Only a minor portion of this species' range is within the assessment area. Therefore, E. volitans is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Exocoetus volitans is widespread in offshore tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans, including the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, E. volitans is reported from the Canary Islands (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). Wandering individuals have been recorded off the Azores, Madeira, and the eastern Mediterranean Sea, but some or all of these records may be based on misidentifications (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). It is typically found at 0 to 20 m depth.

population:
This species is considered the most abundant flying fish species in offshore tropical waters (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). However, specific population data are unavailable.

habitat:
This is an epipelagic, oceanic species that stays near the surface (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000). Adults occur in surface waters both near and far from the coast (Cervigón et al. 1992). It feeds mostly on crustaceans (copepods) and other planktonic animals (Gorelova and Grudtsev 1987).  It is consumed by a large variety of predatory fishes, such as dolphinfishes, tunas, snake mackerel, and the rainbow runner, Elagatis bipinnulata (Vaske et al. 2006). Exocoetus volitans has pelagic eggs without any filaments and exhibits intermittent spawning with each batch numbering 327—418 (mean 370) eggs (Alekseev et al. 1989). Individuals under 14 cm standard length are immature and all above 17 cm standard length are ripe. The maximum age for E. volitans is at least one year, while the maximum known size in the Atlantic Ocean is 19 cm standard length (Parin 2003).

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution. It was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Exocoetus volitans is of no importance to fisheries (Parin 2003).


taxonomicNotes:
The H. rondeletii superspecies complex of the subgenus Danichthys is now recognized as containing four allopatric species: H. volador (western Atlantic), H. rondeletii (Mediterranean), H. gilberti (northern Pacific), and H. rufipinnis (Southern Hemisphere). The other two species, Hirundichthys marginatus (eastern tropical Pacific) and H. albimaculatus(west & central Pacific) are both distinct species in the subgenus, but are not part of the rondeletii superspecies complex (Parin and Belyanina 2002, B. Collette pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
Hirundichthys rondeletii is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is widely distributed and common. Little data on population trends are available, but there are no known major threats. Therefore, Hirundichthys rondeletii is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Hirundichthys rondeletii is now considered to be a superspecies complex that includes four allopatric species (Parin and Belyanina 2002) found in subtropical waters of all oceans. The species that is endemic and common in the northeastern Atlantic is H. rondeletii, and is known only from the Mediterranean Sea and the adjacent coasts of the Iberian peninsula and Morocco (Parin and Belyanina 2002). It has been reported from the western Mediterranean (Akyol et al. 2011), off Tunisia (Ben Souissi et al. 2005), in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Tsagarakis et al. 2012), and the Sea of Marmara (Fricke et al. 2007). The North Atlantic species, H. volador, has been reported from the tropical and warm temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean (Fricke et al. 2007), including the Portuguese coast, the Azores, and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), as individual strays.

population:
No specific population data are available for this species.

habitat:
This species is found in offshore tropical to subtropical waters to about 5 m. The species has a maximum size of about 30 cm total length (Parin 2003). Their eggs are about 1.5 mm in diameter (Hubbs and Kampa 1946).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas. The superspecies Hirundichthys rondeletii was globally assessed as Least Concern in 2008 and the endemic Mediterranean species, H. rondeletii, was also assessed as Least Concern (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Hirundichthys speculiger is widely distributed in tropical, oceanic waters. Population information is limited for this species, but there are no known major threats. Therefore, Hirundichthys speculiger is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Hirundichthys speculiger occurs worldwide in offshore tropical waters (Shakhovskoy and Parin 2013). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Madeira to the Canary Islands (Parin 1986, Carneiro et al. 2014). It has been recorded at least once from the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), but it is unclear whether there is a stable population there.

habitat:
Habitats: This is an oceanic, epipelagic species found in oceanic surface waters (Parin 1999).  Ecology:Hirundichthys speculiger primarily consumes amphipods and larval fishes. In general, H. speculiger had a smaller fullness value and fewest occurrences of ingested plastic, suggesting that, in comparison to the other fish species being studied, it most likely has a low residence time in the gut or that it has a low ingestion rate (Van Noord et al. 2013). Hirundichthys speculiger is a prey item for breeding birds at Europa Island (Le Corre et al. 2003) as well as Lesser noddys, Brown noddys, Sooty terns, White-tailed tropicbirds (Catry et al. 2009) and the shark Carcharhinus brevipinna (Avendaño-Alvarez et al. 2013). This species is host to parasitic isopods from the family Cymothoidae, which live in H. speculiger's mouth (Shakhovskoy and Parin 2013) as well as parasites Pennelia biloba between the base of the skull and the beginning of the dorsal fin (Mathew and Antony 1994).  Reproduction and Life History: The maximum size of H. speculiger is 25 cm standard length, 31 cm total length (Parin 1986, Parin 2003). It spawns throughout the year in warm waters (Parin 1986). Eggs are demersal, laid on floating objects (Parin 2003) because they do not have much oil globule for buoyancy; this species' eggs have been seen on floating substrata such as Sargassum weeds, driftwood, fragments of algae, pieces of wood, bird feathers, coconuts, driftnets, empty bottles, and some pleustonic organisms (Lao et al. 2007). 

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Hirundichthys speculiger is of no importance to fisheries (Parin 2003).


taxonomicNotes:
Hemiramphus balao is frequently misidentified as Hemiramphus brasiliensis.

range:
The fish is distributed in the eastern and western Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it is known from New York (USA) to Bermuda and south throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and off South America to São Paulo, Brazil (Dennis and Bright 1988, McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, Vasquez-Yeomans 2000, Collette 2002). In the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Canary Islands and along West Africa from the Ivory Coast and in the Gulf of Guinea from Victoria, Nigeria south to Luanda, Angola (Collette and Parin 1990). In the European region the fish is known from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands.

population:
The fish is known from few records in the European region.

habitat:
This offshore, surface dwelling species forms large schools and can be associated with pelagic Sargassum in the North Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico (Coston-Clements et al. 1991, Collette 1999). It is also reef-associated in brackish and marine waters to a depth of 5 m within subtropical climates (Collette 1978, Collette and Parin 1990). It mainly feeds on zooplankton, particularly copepods, decapods, siphonophores, and polychaetes. Unlike H. brasilinensis, H. balao does not consume seagrasses. Sizes of H. brasiliensis and H. balao overlap greatly, but on average, H. brasiliensis is longer and heavier than H. balao (Mahmoudi and McBride 2002). It is oviparous and batch fecundity is about 3,700 hydrated eggs (McBride and Thurman 2003). These eggs have long filaments which attach to seagrasses and algae. Spawning occurs in waters less than 10 m deep and spawning is greatest during March-July. Early life history information is summarized by Collette (2005). The maximum length for H. balao is 40 cm TL (28 cm standard length) and is commonly found to 35 cm TL (Collette 1999). H. balao are short lived; maximum longevity is estimated at 2 years and sexual maturity is reached in the first year, at a fork length of 16 cm (Berkeley and Houde 1978, McBride and Thurman 2003). In Florida, the size structure changes rapidly with respect to season; initial recruitment into the fishery occurs in June as age-0 fish and at sizes as small as 10 cm FL. These young-of-the-year are fully recruited by October. Ages 0 and 1 dominate the commercial catches. Halfbeaks are not known to make extensive migrations, but they move seasonally.

threats:
There appears to have been some localized declines in populations (e.g. Florida), however the species generally remains widespread and common in many parts of its range.

useAndTrade:
Not a significant food fish in the European region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is abundant and it is not thought to be threatened at present in Europe. It present in at least one marine protected area and is therefore assessed as Least Concern in Europe.

range:
In the European region, this fish is found in the Mediterranean Sea (the southern part of the Mediterranean Sea; from Morocco to the Bardawil Lagoon in north Sinai, Israel, and Lebanon. It is recorded from the Levantine Sea, Turkey (Bilecenoğlu et al. 2014), possibly extending to the Turkish Aegean (Turan 2007). In the eastern Atlantic, the fish is recorded from southwestern Spain (to at least the Gulf of Cadiz; Drake and Arias 1991) and from the Canary Islands. Outside the European region, the species is found in the eastern Atlantic from Morocco south along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea to Luanda, Angola (Collette 1965).

population:
Hyporhamphus picarti is common in the eastern Mediterranean, and populations in the European region are considered stable.

habitat:
This is an epipelagic species, occurring in shallow coastal waters. It often enters estuaries (Collette 1981). Omnivorous, feeding on algae and small animals. It forms schools and is attracted to lights at night. Its eggs are attached to aquatic vegetation by sticky threads.

useAndTrade:
The species is incidentally caught in fisheries.


taxonomicNotes:
Two subspecies are recognized, Scomberesox saurus saurus (Walbaum, 1792) from the Northern Hemisphere and S. saurus scombroides (Richardson, 1843) from the Southern Hemisphere (Hubbs and Wisner 1980, Collette 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in western European marine areas, including in the Mediterranean Sea, but there are no data for population trends. Current fisheries are not thought to be causing major declines, and it is assessed as Least Concern in the region.

range:
This species occurs in the east and west Atlantic. In the east Atlantic it has been recorded from Iceland, Norway and Denmark (rarely), along the British Isles and into the Baltic Sea. S. saurus saurus is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea region, including in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas to Israel, the coast of Tunisia and Morocco. Records from the eastern Mediterranean Sea for recent years need to be confirmed. The subspecies Scomberesox saurus scombroides occurs in the South Atlantic, and in the Indian and Pacific oceans (Hubbs and Wisner 1980). This subspecies is generally circumglobal in temperate waters of the southern hemisphere. It is more common between 30°S to 40°S, but it occurs more northerly to 15°S near Africa and to near the equator off Ecuador along the South American west coast (particularly the young and juveniles).

population:
Population size and trends in European waters are unknown.

habitat:
The species is amongst the most abundant epipelagic planktivores inhabiting the open ocean. They feed mainly on siphonophores, copepods, euphausiids, and amphipods (Dudnik et al. 1981). This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is highly migratory, forming schools and is gregarious. Occasionally schools can be found close to shore in large numbers. The species feeds on zooplankton and fish larvae, and it is preyed upon by dolphins, whales, sea birds, and many different fishes, including tunas, marlins, bluefish and cod (Collette 2002). Individuals often leap out of the water when chased by predators and may strand on beaches (Muus and Nielsen 1999). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is highly migratory, forming schools and is gregarious. Intra-Mediterranean migration occurs for spawning (Fischer et al. 1987). The species is more commonly present in late spring and summer in the north part of the Mediterranean Sea, and is more common in the south part in the winter. This is a short-lived species maturing at age two, at 25-30 cm, with a maximum age of five years (Sauskan and Semenov 1969).

threats:
Globally, there are no known major threats for this species. This is a minor commercial species in the Mediterranean Sea, except during several weeks in the spawning season when it commands a good price.

conservationAction:
This species is listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Driftnets have been banned in the Mediterranean Sea since 2002 for some species, including this one. This species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.

useAndTrade:
This is a minor commercial species in Europe (Mediterranean Sea), except during several weeks in the spawning season when it commands a good price. The species is caught using lampara nets, surrounding nets, handlines, and small driftnets. It is also fished using fish aggregating devices (FADs). Catch statistics, where they exist, are extremely poor.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is sometimes placed in its own genus, Nanichthys (Collette 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In European waters, the species has a limited distribution in the Eastern Atlantic from Portugal (including the Azores and Madeira), southern Spain, and the Straits of Gibraltar. However it is a small species that is not commercially exploited, and it is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species mainly inhabits tropical and subtropical waters in the southwestern and northeastern Atlantic, with a few records from the eastern Indian Ocean (Hubbs and Wisner 1980: fig. 12). They are antitropical, confined to warm-temperate or tropical waters 19.3-22.3°C (Dudnik 1976). In the eastern Atlantic, they are found from Portugal, the Azores and Madeira to Sierra Leone and westwards to 50°W, and from Angola to South Africa. They are not known from the Mediterranean Sea. In the western Atlantic, they are found from Brazil to Uruguay. The fish may be confused with juveniles of Scomberesox saurus. In European waters, the species is known from the eastern Atlantic: Portugal (including the Azores, Canaries and Madeira), southern Spain, and the Straits of Gibraltar.

habitat:
The species is a pelagic-oceanic species that lives very near the surface of the water. It is an oceanodromous species that migrates extensively as ocean waters warm in the spring and summer (Collette 2004). This species eats mainly planktonic forms.

threats:
This species is prolific throughout its range and is too small to be of any commercial importance (Smith and Heemstra 1986). There are no known threats towards this species.

useAndTrade:
The species is too small (126 mm SL) to be of any commercial importance (Smith and Heemstra 1986) in Europe.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Anoplogaster cornuta is a rare but widespread deep-sea fish that occurs circumglobally between about 65°N and 46°S. Individuals are most often caught at depths of about 2,000 metres, and they are thought to migrate vertically to shallower depths at night. There is no population information available, and there are no known species-specific threats. Therefor this species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Anoplogaster cornuta is distributed circumglobally in tropical and temperate regions. In the northeastern Atlantic, the species has been found off the coast of the British Isles, France, Spain, Portugal, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. It is found at depths ranging from 75–5000 m (Maurin and Quero 1982, Moore in press, Balanov and Kharin 2009).

population:
Anoplogaster cornuta is a widespread deep-sea fish which is not uncommon (Moore in press).

habitat:
This deep-sea species inhabits the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones. It has a maximum size of 18 cm standard length (SL) (Scott and Scott 1988). Juveniles feed on crustaceans, while adults feed on fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods (Fitch and Lavenberg 1968, Post 1986). This species may swim in small groups at times (Moore in press) Off Hawaii this species is found between 135–980 m depth at night and migrates to deeper water between 650–2,915 m during the day (Mundy 2005). It is reportedly a common prey item of the longnose lancetfish, Alepisaurus ferox (Fujita and Hattori 1976). Larval size has been reported as follows: 3.9 mm preflexion, 4.7-9.1 mm standard length (SL) postflexion, and a 15.7 mm SL juvenile (Konishi 1999).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to A. cornuta. This species occurs in deep waters and is not utilized by fisheries, although it can be caught with midwater trawls (Fitch and Lavenberg 1968).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is likely to occur within marine protected areas that exist within its range. More research is needed into the population size, life history traits, and possible threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized (Moore in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Beryx decadactylus is a globally-distributed species which forms dense aggregations over hard bottoms and seamounts. It is a long lived (at least 69 years), slow growing species. These intrinsic characteristics, combined with its aggregating behavior, make this species particularly vulnerable to sequential depletion of stocks by deep-water fishing, as has been documented in parts of this species’ global range. This species has exhibited some signs of over-exploitation in the northeastern Atlantic, including a truncated life history. The maximum age of B. decadactylus observed in fisheries ranged from 11 to 15 years, which is in contrast to the oldest currently known age of this species, 69 years. The age at which this species begins to mature is 3–4 years, but the age at which most specimens become sexual maturity is unknown. Additionally, declines in the relative proportion of B. decadactylus in the Beryx fisheries of the Azores suggest that declines in landings of this species may reflect declines in the population in this area. Within the assessment region, this species is subject to Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations, and fishing effort is generally regulated. However, landings have consistently overshot the TAC limits. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has advised that fisheries not be allowed to expand until they can be proven to be sustainable, and that catches should be reduced. Beryx decadactylus is assessed as Near Threatened under the Conservation Dependent clause based on the truncated life-history of this species within the assessment region which has been attributed to fishing, the decline in the relative proportion of B. decadactylus in the catch, and the dependence of this species on fisheries management to control deep-water trawling and to protect critical habitat.

range:
Beryx decadactylus is distributed circumglobally from 70°N to 45°S in tropical and temperate zones of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, including the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, B. decadactylus is known from Iceland and Norway to South Africa, including the Azores, Great Meteor Seamount, Madeira, Canary Islands (Moore in press, Mundy 2005), from between the Canary Islands (27°34'N) and Cape Garnet (25°07'N) (Maurin and Quéro 1982), and Cape Verde (Vakily et al. 2002). It is also known from the western Mediterranean Sea (Psomadakis et al. 2012). It is found at depths ranging from 7 to 1000 m, usually deeper than 200 m (Muus and Nielson 1999, Mundy 2005).

population:
Beryx decadactylus is widespread throughout its range, but is generally uncommon. It can occur in localized aggregations (Moore in press). In a trawl survey conducted off the northwestern African coast between the years 1962 to 1973, a total of 72 specimens were captured between the Canary Islands and Cape Garnet with the largest catch occurring off of Western Sahara. This small catch size is indicative of the rare occurrence of this species in the region. It is speculated that high catch rates in 1962 (n=72) caused a serious decline in the local population as evidenced by comparatively low catch rates in subsequent survey years (n=3 in 1968, n=0 in 1971, n=6 in 1973) where the number of stations sampled was doubled (Maurin and Quéro 1982). This species is experiencing a probable population decline in the southwestern Indian Ocean off of La Reunion Island due to commercial fishery exploitation and bycatch (Fricke et al. 2009). A genetics study that compared samples from the Azores Archipelago and the Charleston Bump off the southeastern United States found evidence for transatlantic gene flow between the two locations (Friess and Sedberry 2011a). Due to the lack of genetic differentiation between eastern and western Atlantic, it has been hypothesized that recruits are supplied to the Azores from the Charleston Bump. The Azorean population may be a population sink (Friess 2008).  International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) from the Gulf of Cadiz from 1997 to 2001 show declining trends in biomass (g/haul), but relatively stable trends in n/haul, indicative of a reduction in size of sampled individuals. The IBITS operates at maximum depth of 600 m (ICES WGDEEP 2012). This species is assessed as "Beryx spp." by the ICES WGDEEP working group. Most (50%) of the landings are taken by handline and longline in the EEZ of the Azores. Landings are roughly 25% of the landings of B. splendens in the Azores in the last 10 years. This species is also taken by deep-water trawl outside the EEZ. Although B. decadactylus and B. splendens are taken in the same long-line and hand-line fisheries in the Azores, the total landings of B. decadactylus have declined more than total landings of B. splendens. In addition, the relative proportion of B. decadactylus in the catches has declined: in 1988 B. decadactylus represented ~50% of the catch, while in 2012 it only represented ~17% of catch. Based on these declines, it is inferred that the population is declining.

habitat:
Beryx decadactylus is benthopelagic species with a maximum size of 43 cm standard length, but commonly caught to 35 cm. This species forms aggregations over the continental shelf and slope, and commonly near seamounts where it vertically migrates to shallower water at night. It feeds on fish, crustaceans, and squid (Moore in press). It prefers sand and mud bottoms (Fricke et al. 2009). A greater amount of research has been carried out on the congener B. splendens, which is often applied to this species (Aboim 2005). In a diet study conducted in the Canary Islands, both species mainly fed on small fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods (Dürr and González 2002). Similar results were found in a diet study conducted off the southeastern United States on the Charleston Bump (Goldman and Sedberry 2011). In a deep-sea submersible survey conducted on the Cape Fear coral mound off North Carolina, this species was strongly associated with high-profile hard coral habitat on the reef crest with moderate to high percentages of live coral cover (Quattrini et al. 2012).  Near the Azores archipelago, the maximum recorded size was 55 cm fork length (FL) (Rosa et al. 2006), with an age at first maturity of about 4 years and size at first maturity of 32.5 cm FL for females and 30.3 cm FL for males (Estácio et al. 2001). In a study conducted on larval samples of the two species from the Southeast Hancock Seamount in the central North Pacific Ocean, size at flexion was 3.7 to 6 mm standard length (SL) and juveniles were greater than 15 mm SL, spawning season was in the summer, and samples were collected from 0 to 50 m depth, but with the greatest amount less than 25 m deep (Mundy 1990). Off the southeastern coast of the United States, mature specimens of this species ranged from 41 to 63 cm fork length, females were ripe between June through September and males were reproductively active year-round (Friess and Sedberry 2011b). Ages, validated with radiometric dating, ranged from 8 to 69 years; the minimum lifespan was estimated at 49 years and natural mortality was estimated at 0.06 per year (Friess and Sedberry 2011b). Results from an age-and-growth study conducted on this species off the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands showed that this species is slow-growing and capable of reaching an age of at least 11 years old (Krug et al. 2011). Additional maximum ages from the Azores are recorded as 15 years, with 3 to 4 years at age of first maturity (Isidro 1996).

threats:
Vulnerability to fishing and signs of over-exploitation Beryx spp. may experience increased threats from over-exploitation due to their aggregating behavior. Further study is needed on the connectivity of populations between seamounts in order to determine the rate of recolonization of a seamount following fishing activity (Norse et al. 2012). Deepsea corals are often damaged by trawling operations, which may result in habitat loss for Beryx spp. in part of their range (Reed and Ross 2005). As a result to their life history and distribution on seamounts and their aggregation behavior, these species are considered to be easily over-exploited and could only sustain low rates of exploitation. It is considered a Data Poor Stock by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). Beryx decadactylus is a highly regarded foodfish targeted by deep-water trawl and longline fisheries that are widespread throughout the eastern Atlantic and elsewhere (Moore in press). In a trawl survey conducted off the northwest African coast between 1962 and 1973, 72 specimens were captured. It is speculated that high catch rates in 1962 (n=72) caused a serious decline in the local population as evidenced by comparatively low catch rates in subsequent survey years (n=3 in 1968, n=0 in 1971, n=6 in 1973 where the number of stations sampled was doubled). This study serves as an example of the extreme consequences that even a small amount of fishing can have for this species. Despite a doubling of the number of sampling stations, the species did not experience a population recovery during the eleven years that elapsed between 1962 and 1973 (Maurin and Quéro 1982). This species is considered sensitive to human activities and is experiencing a probable population decline in the southwestern Indian Ocean off of La Reunion Island due to commercial fishery exploitation and bycatch (Fricke et al. 2009). Recent data collected from a study off the southeastern coast of the United States shows that this species is long-lived and vulnerable to overfishing (Friess and Sedberry 2011b). The North Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) recognizes that demersal fisheries on the Corner Rising, Orphan Knoll, Newfoundland, and New England Seamounts, which target Beryx splendens but also include B. decadactylus as bycatch, have been experiencing significant declines in catch levels since the 1970s, likely due to the fishery being unsustainable (Kulka et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
Beryx decadactylus is subject to Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations in the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone, set at roughly 0.33 kt. However, most years since 2003 to 2011 declared landings have overshot this target (ICES Advice 2013). This is considered a Data-Limited Stock in the Northeast Atlantic. ICES recommends a 20% reduction in catches from the last three year's average (ICES WGDEEP 2013). This species is likely found in protected areas throughout its range. This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is a highly regarded foodfish targeted by deep-water trawl and longline fisheries that are widespread throughout the eastern Atlantic and elsewhere (Bertrand et al. 2012, Moore in press). It is often targeted by seamount fisheries (Morato et al. 2006). This species is described as commercially valuable in many areas throughout the world, including Madeira and the Indian Ocean where it is caught in longline and trawl fisheries (Paxton 2002). Both this species and its congener B. splendens were targeted by a deep-water longline fishery off of northwest Spain in the 1990s (Pinheiro et al. 1998). Both species occur as bycatch in the Spanish bottom-longline fleet that has been targeting hakes (Merluccius senegalensis and M. polli) since the 1990s off of Mauritania (Ramos et al. 2001). As reported in 1959, this species is/was targeted from the fall to spring seasons by hook and line in Sagami Bay, Japan (Abe 1959). Off the Canary Islands, both species are captured via handlines and bottom drop lines in a commercial artisanal fishery (Dürr and González 2002). Off the Atlantic coast of the southeastern United States this species occurs in small numbers as bycatch in the wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) fishery (Friess and Sedberry 2011a). This species is normally captured as bycatch in the demersal fishery for B. splendens in the Azores Archipelago, however, fisheries statistics lump these two species together. There is some concern that this species may be more susceptible to overfishing due to smaller populations and more conservative life history than B. splendens (Aboim 2005). The Azorean landings of Beryx spp. were relatively higher in 1993–2003 than in 2004–2009 (Menezes et al. 2013). Beryx spp. are described as being heavily exploited on seamounts in the Azorean Archipelago between 1992–2002 (ICES Report 2002). There is concern about sequential depletion and underreporting in commercial fisheries from international waters and data was considered insufficient to complete an assessment in 2003 (ICES Report 2004).

redListAssessors:
Fernandes, P., Collette, B., Heessen, H., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Herrera, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Beryx splendens is a globally-distributed species which forms dense aggregations over hard bottoms and seamounts. It is a moderately fecund species which is long-lived and slow growing. These intrinsic characteristics, combined with its aggregating behavior make this species particularly vulnerable to sequential depletion of stocks by deep-water fishing, as has been documented throughout this species' global range. In the northeast Atlantic, this species has exhibited some signs of over-exploitation including a truncated life history. The maximum age of B. splendens observed in fisheries ranged from 9 to 12 years, which is in contrast to the oldest currently known age of this species, 23 years. The age at which this species begins to mature is 2 years, and the age at which most specimens have achieved sexual maturity is 5 to 6 years. Additionally, available genetic studies suggest that population connectivity within this species may be low. CPUE information from the Azores is available only from the early 1990s onwards. The available data show sharp decreasing trends in CPUE early in the time series, followed by stabilization and a period of increase towards the end of the series. Within the assessment region this species is subject to Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations, and fishing effort is generally regulated. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has consistently advised that fisheries not be allowed to expand until they can be proven to be sustainable, and that catches should be reduced. Beryx splendens is assessed as Near Threatened under the Conservation Dependent clause based on the truncated life-history of this species within the assessment region which has been attributed to fishing, observed declines in CPUE in the only available survey from the Azores, and the dependence of this species on fisheries management to control deep-water trawling and to protect critical habitat.

range:
Beryx splendens is distributed circumglobally in tropical to cold-temperate waters, excluding the northeast Pacific (Paxton 1999). There are records from the western Mediterranean Sea exist (e.g., Orsi Relini et al. 1995, Psomadakis et al. 2006, Ligas et al. 2010), though there is some question about the validity of these records. In the northeastern Atlantic, B. splendens can be found from Iceland and the Atlantic slope of Ireland (Blacker 1962) to the Canary Islands and Madeira (Maul 1986), including over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Hareide and Garnes 2001). Its depth range is between 25 to 1300 m (Paxton 1999), but is most commonly found between 400 to 600 m (Bianchi et al. 1999).

population:
Based on the limited gene flow between the Canary Islands and Madeira, two distinct populations may be present (Schönhuth et al. 2005). Regional population information: Beryx splendens is a common fish within its natural habitat and it often forms dense aggregations (Moore in press). In exploratory surveys conducted on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, this species was one of the top two dominant and most abundant fish along the ridge south of 48°N (Hareide and Garnes 2001). In a study conducted on the Seine and Sedlo Seamounts, this species dominated the upper-slope assemblages at depths of less than 800 m and a large reproductive aggregation was recorded at the edge of the Sedlo Plateau (Menezes et al. 2009). The only available survey abundance index for B. splendens is from the Azores; there was a significant decline between 1995 and 1997, and the index has since remained at very low levels until 2007. An increasing trend on the abundance has been observed during the last three years (ICES WGDEEP 2013). Global population information: In an experimental fishing survey conducted in 2001 on the Sierra Leone Rise in the Gulf of Guinea, this species accounted for more than 90% of the total catch between 200 and 800 m depth (Ramos et al. 2001). In a trawl survey conducted off the northwestern African coast between the years 1962 and 1973, a total of 79 specimens were captured between 26°49'N and 17°09'N with the largest catch occurring off of Western Sahara. This small catch size is indicative of the rare occurrence of this species in the region (n=27 in 1962, n=23 in 1968, n=19 in 1971, n=10 in 1973, when the number of stations sampled was doubled) (Maurin and Quéro 1982). This species was described as frequently occurring in a trawl survey conducted off the coast of Namibia between the years 1992—1996 (Hamukuaya et al. 2001).  This species frequently occurred in a trawl survey off the Cape Verde Islands (Menezes et al. 2004).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology This is a benthopelagic fish that prefers hard ground and rocky reef areas of the outer continental shelf and slope, often over sea mounts, as well as underwater ridges (Paxton 1999). It forms dense schools (Pakhorukov and Parin 2012) and feeds mainly on fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods (Galaktionov 1984, Dubochkin and Kotlyn 1989, Heemstra and Heemstra 2004, Moore in press). Individuals appear to be moderately selective feeders that forage primarily in the mesopelagic layers (Horn et al. 2010). It exhibits a vertical migration for feeding purposes proportional to the diurnal migration of its prey (Vinnichenko 199a7). Feeding periods for this species usually occurs during morning and evening twilight hours and increase with the intensity of the tidal flow as the availability of food decreases (Lehodey and Grandperrin 1996). Reproduction and Life History This species usually experiences its peak spawning period during the summer, in December and January in the southern hemisphere (Lehodey et al. 1997) and July through September in the northern hemisphere (Gonzalez et al. 2003). The length at which half of the population reaches sexual maturity is 33.2 cm for females and 34.5 cm for males. Females outnumber males by a ratio of about 1:1.35 (Gonzalez et al. 2003). The estimated fecundity of females between the lengths of 32–51 cm fork length is 270,000 to 2,500,000 eggs (Lehodey et al. 1997). The eggs are oviparous and are spawned in about 10–12 batches over a period of four days (Lehodey et al. 1997). The eggs and the larvae are both pelagic initially in vegetative zones but are brought to the breeding grounds as they reach maturity by ocean currents and eddies (Lehodey et al. 1997). A deep-sea fishery targeting this species has been operated by the Soviet fleet since 1976 on the Corner Rising seamounts (34–37°N, 47–53°W) in NAFO Subarea 6, and have since landed 19,000 tonnes (Moore 2002). Studies on these catches revealed size ranging from 20–59 cm FL (mainly 34–43 cm), weights from 1.2–1.7 kg, ages from 2 to 11 years, a relatively high growth rate in the first year (mean length at age 1 was 8 cm, age 2 was 15 cm, and age 3 was 22 cm), age at first maturity of 2 at a mean length of 18 cm, all specimens having reached sexual maturity by age 5 to 6 years at 25–30 cm, spawning occurring between July-August in bottom waters of 7–12 degrees Celsius and was intermittent with individual estimated spawning periods of two months in duration, and young (25–98 mm) captured between 0–600 m depth in autumn (Vinnichenko 1997a). This species can reach 23 years of age (Adachi et al. 2000) and most commonly reaches a length of 40 cm, but it has been measured up to 70 cm (Sommer et al. 1996). Females have a higher growth rate than males. Males reach maturity at the age of 7 to 8 years and females at 6 years. In the Atlantic ocean, individuals begin to mature in their second year of life, at 19 to 20 cm standard length, and most are mature by the fifth or sixth year (Kotlyar 1987). It has asynchronous gonadal development (Flores et al. 2012). During the early stages of life, growth is probably rapid. After hatching, larvae and juveniles are pelagic for a few months before the juveniles settle on the bottom of shallow seamounts. As individuals mature, they move to deeper water and enter the domain of the commercial fishery. Recent research shows that mature individuals may be capable of migrating to reproductive areas via currents and meso-scale eddies (Flores et al. 2012). This species may follow oceanic currents suggesting long distance dispersal (Levy-Hartmann et al. 2011). The growth rate of this species also depends upon temperature fluctuations and particularly on the El Nina/Nino Southern Oscillations (ENSO) (Lehodey and Grandperrin 1996). Variations in life history in the North Atlantic In a longline groundfish survey conducted off the Azores archipelago, this species ranged in size from 16 to 38 cm FL (Rosa et al. 2006). In a study conducted in the Azores Archipelago, individuals had a size at first maturity of 23 cm FL and age at first maturity of 2 years (Estácio et al. 2001). In another study on specimens caught off the Azores, specimens ranged in size from 15 to 43.5 cm FL. Females were aged from 1 to 12 years and males were from 1 to 9 years old (Anibal et al. 1998). In a study comparing specimens across the Macaronesian Archipelago, spawning seasons varied: September–March in the Azores, March–June in Madeira, and July–September in the Canary Islands. Size at maturity for Madeira was 32 cm FL, the Canary Islands 30 cm, and the Azores 23 cm. It was speculated that the differences in size at maturity between Madeira and the Canaries vs. the Azores may be explained by higher exploitation rates in the Azores (Gonzalez et al. 2003). In another study, fish from the Canary Islands were aged 1 to 9 years (18.2–38.9 cm FL), in Madeira 0 to 12 years (15.2–41.0 cm FL), and in the Azores 0 to 11 years (15.3–43.0 cm FL) where the growth rate was fast in the first year and slowed significantly after that (Rico et al. 2001). Studies on fisheries catches for the species on the Corner Rising Seamounts revealed sizes ranging from 20 to 59 cm FL (mainly 34 to 43 cm), weights from 1.2 to 1.7 kg, ages from 2 to 11 years, a relatively high growth rate in the first year (mean length at age 1 was 8 cm, age 2 was 15 cm, and age 3 was 22 cm), age at first maturity was 2 at a mean length of 18 cm, all specimens had reached sexual maturity by age 5 to 6 years at 25 to 30 cm, spawning occurred between July to August in bottom waters of 7 to 12°C and was intermittent with individual estimated spawning periods of two months in duration, and young (25 to 98 mm) were captured between 0 to 600 m depth in autumn (Vinnichenko 1997b). In a study conducted on the Seine and Sedlo Seamounts, this species dominated the upper-slope assemblages (less than 800 m) and a large reproductive aggregation was recorded at the edge of the Sedlo Plateau (Menezes et al. 2009).

threats:
Vulnerability to fishing and documented over-exploitation The North Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) recognizes that demersal fisheries on the Corner Rising, Orphan Knoll, Newfoundland, and New England Seamounts which target this species have been experiencing significant declines in catch levels since the 1970s, likely due to the fishery being unsustainable (Kulka et al. 2007). Beryx spp. may experience increased threats from overexploitation by deepwater trawl due to their aggregating behavior. Further study is needed on the connectivity of populations between seamounts in order to determine the rate of recolonization of a seamount following fishing activity (Norse et al. 2012). High longevity, slow growth and moderate size of maturity makes B. splendens prone to overexploitation because of a rapid reduction in surplus production (Ricker 1963, Booth and Buxton 1997). Mature individuals also have medium-small ovaries, suggesting that they are moderately fecund and that a moderate number of eggs are released during the spawning (Lehodey et al. 1997). As a result this species may be more sensitive to heavy fishery impact than those species exhibiting a higher reproductive output (Smale 1988). Beryx splendens may be vulnerable to overfishing because it inhabits sea mounts which offer limited habitat and the slow growth rates for the species (Lehodey et al. 1994). This is a very commercially viable species of fish. It is marketed frozen and eaten steamed, fried, broiled, boiled, microwaved and baked (Frimodt 1995). Global catch statistics for Alfonsino fishes, in general, reflect a trend upwards between the years of 1980 and 2003. In 1982, about 200 tonnes were taken, in 1985, 2000 tonnes. In the years 1991, 1997, and 2003, 5,500, 9,100, and 157,000 tonnes were harvested each year, respectively. In 2009, the tonnage had decreased to abut 5,500 tonnes, but spiked back up to around 9,800 tonnes in 2010 (FAO 2011). It has been reported as overfished, or has shown signs of overfishing, in many parts of its range, including Hawaii (Moffitt et al. 2004), Japan (Adachi et al. 2000), possibly the Azores (Aboim 2005), Chile (Galvez et al. 2010) Habitat-Specific Exploitation and Destruction Gonzalez et al. (2003) stated that this species is more susceptible to growth overfishing and population depletion due to its specialized life history strategy. Deepsea corals are often damaged by trawling operations, which may result in habitat loss for Beryx spp. in part of their range (Reed and Ross 2005). In a study on the seamounts off New Zealand where fisheries for this species exist, the authors were able to demonstrate the deleterious effects from trawling on the habitat (Clark and Rowden 2009).

conservationAction:
In the northeast Atlantic, Beryx spp. are managed by Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has consistently advised against allowing the fishery to expand, and has recommended reductions in catch (ICES 2013).  Globally, this species could be potentially overfished in some areas. This species often occurs in international waters, and there are no conservation measures in place. In 2006, the North Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) closed areas of the Corner Rising, Orphan Knoll, Newfoundland, and New England Seamounts to demersal fishing where the main target species is B. splendens. This action was taken after concerns that significant declines in catch levels since the 1970s was likely due to the fishery being unsustainable (Kulka et al. 2007). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) established a Preliminary Fishery Management Plan for foreign ground fish fishing in the Fishery Conservation Zone, especially for the Hancock Seamounts. Foreign fishing for seamount groundfishes has been exclusively conducted by trawling since that time (Seki and Tagami 1986). In 2001, New Zealand protected 19 seamounts (Clark and O'Driscoll 2003). The fishery off of Chile has been closed since 2010 due to collapse (Flores et al. 2012). The South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (SEAFO), established in 1997, manages this fishery in FAO area 47 (de Barros and Cochrane 2011) where the current total allowable catch is 200 tonnes for the SEAFO CA for 2013 and 2014 (SEAFO 2013). Additionally, there are NEAFC regulations of effort in the fisheries for deep-water species and closed areas to protect vulnerable habitats (ICES WGDEEP 2013). This species may also occur in other marine protected areas that exist throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Beryx splendens is a popular food fish throughout the world. It is caught purposely by trawl or longline (Lehodey et al. 1994, Heemstra and Heemstra 2004, Moore in press) and is also caught as bycatch in the Spanish bottom trawl hake fishery and in midwater trawl fisheries (Bianchi et al. 1999). Off the Canary Islands, both Beryx species are captured via handlines and bottom drop lines in a commercial artisanal fishery (Dürr and Gonzalez 2002). The species is targeted off the islands of Gran Carania and El Hierro and is captured with handlines and bottom drop lines (Dürr and Gonzalez 2002). Catch data for this species was not published and/or collected from 1974-1975; however, from 1976 to 1981 there was an overall catch increased at all seamounts except for Hancock (Humphreys et al. 1984). The species are variably targeted by a deep-water longline fishery off of northwest Spain (Piñeiro et al. 2001). This species is targeted in the demersal fishery of the Azores Archipelago. Fishery statistics are not separated out from B. decadactylus, which occurs mainly as bycatch but is marketed as well (Aboim 2005). The Azorean landings of Beryx spp. were relatively higher in 1993–2003 than in 2004–2009 (Menezes et al. 2013). Beryx spp. are described as being heavily exploited on seamounts in the Azorean Archipelago between 1992–2002 (ICES Report 2002). There is concern about sequential depletion and under-reporting in commercial fisheries from international waters and data was considered insufficient to complete an assessment in 2003 (ICES Report 2004). A deep sea fishery targeting this species has been operated by the Soviet fleet since 1976 on the Corner Rising seamounts (34–37°N, 47–53°W) in NAFO Subarea 6, and have since landed 19,000 tonnes (Moore 2002). Studies on these catches revealed size ranging from 20–59 cm FL (mainly 34–43 cm), weights from 1.2–1.7 kg, ages from 2–11 years, a relatively high growth rate in the first year (mean length at age 1 was 8 cm, age 2 was 15 cm, and age 3 was 22 cm), age at first maturity of 2 at a mean length of 18 cm, all specimens having reached sexual maturity by age 5–6 years at 25–30 cm, spawning occurring between July-August in bottom waters of 7–12 degrees Celsius and was intermittent with individual estimated spawning periods of two months in duration, and young (25–98 mm) captured between 0–600 m depth in autumn (Vinnichenko 1997a). Global Use and Trade Beryx spp. occur as bycatch in the Spanish bottom-longline fleet that has been targeting hakes (Merluccius senegalensis and M. polli) since the 1990s off of Mauritania (Ramos et al. 2001). The deep water fisheries of the southeast Atlantic (FAO area 47) occur almost exclusively in Namibian waters, where landings of this species peaked at more than 4,000 tonnes in 1997 but declined thereafter to 300 tonnes in 2009 (de Barros and Cochrane 2011). This species is targeted by commercial fisheries on seamounts off of New Zealand (Clark and O'Driscoll 2003). The Soviet fishing fleet began targeting the species in the 1990s on Indian Ocean seamounts and continues today, however, reliable assessment data does not exist (Rogers 2012). The species has been fished off of Chile since 1989, gained importance in 1999, and experienced the peak in 2003 at 9,000 tons. In 2004, the fishery was declared ‘fully exploited’ and reduced fishing pressure by introducing an annual quota of 3,000 tons. However, in 2009 and 2010 less than half of this quota was reached (Galvez et al. 2010). It was declared overfished and subsequently closed after the spawning biomass was estimated at 12% of the unexploited biomass (Wiff et al. 2012).  Large-scale fisheries on the Hawaiian and Emperor Seamount chains in the north Pacific targeted this species in the 1960s to 1980s. Valuable fisheries for this species also exist in the southwest Pacific (Clark 2009). A 2004 report described the bottomfish fishery of the main Hawaiian Islands to be experiencing overfishing (Moffitt et al. 2004). In the south Atlantic, this species is exploited on the Vavilov Ridge with some daily landings capable of reaching up to 40–50 tons (Parin et al. 2010). Beryx splendens has been exploited off of Japan since 1870 with further development occurring since 1970, and total catch size and mean body size have been declining since 1987 (Adachi et al. 2000). Declines in CPUE are observed in the Southern Hemisphere during summer. This season is the breeding period for this species in New Caledonian waters and the decline may be due to breeding migrations (Lehodey et al. 1994, Chikuni 1971).


range:
This fish is distributed circumglobally in tropical and temperate regions between 60°N-40S° from 200-2,100 m depth in the Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic it has been reported from Iceland, Ireland, Faroes, Portugal, Bay of Biscay (north Spain), Morocco, Madeira, and Canary Islands (Arronte and Heredia 2006). It has also been reported from the Sedlo Seamount in the Azores Archipelago (Menezes et al. 2012).

population:
An uncommonly occurring deepsea fish that is occasionally taken in trawl fisheries. This species may be locally abundant at times. In a trawl survey conducted off the northwest African coast between the years 1962-1973, this species was only captured in one sample that consisted of 118 specimens, specifically off of Western Sahara and is therefore considered rare in the Eastern Atlantic region (Maurin and Quero 1982).

habitat:
A deepsea fish with a maximum size of 37cm SL that occurs in the mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and benthopelagic zones where it feeds on small planktonic crustaceans. Juveniles are found near the surface from 0-200 m depth (Schneider 1990, Mundy 2005). Vakily et al. (2002) describes D. parini as bathypelagic with a maximum size of 40 cm TL off of West Africa. The preflexion larvae of this species have been reported at 3.2-6.0 mm NL, postflexion at 8.8 mm SL (Konishi 1999).

threats:
Occasionally taken as bycatch in deepsea trawl fisheries, but is not considered commercially important. There are no known major threats.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Diretmus argenteus is distributed circumglobally between 60°N–40°S in the tropical through cold-temperate Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans from 250–2,600 m depth in mesopelagic tropical/temperate zones. In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from Iceland to the Azores and the Canary Islands. It is not recorded from the Mediterranean. This species is widely distributed and there are no known major threats. Therefore, D. argenteus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Diretmus argenteus is distributed circumglobally between 60°N—40°S in the tropical through cold-temperate Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans from 250–2,600 m depth (Post 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic, D. argetneus is found from Iceland to the Azores and the Canary Islands. It is not recorded from the Mediterranean (Post 1986, Brito 2002, Poteiro et al. 2010, Bordes et al. 2009). It is found at depths between 250 and 2,600 metres (Bordes et al. 2009, Porteiro et al. unpublished data).

population:
This is an uncommonly-occurring deepsea fish that is occasionally taken in trawl fisheries and may be locally abundant at times (Moore in press). In a deepwater trawl survey off the coast of Ireland and on the Porcupine bank, only 5 specimens were captured in 2 years (Johnston et al. 2012).

habitat:
This is a deep-sea fish which reaches a maximum size of 12.5 cm SL (Post 1992) that occurs in the deep pelagic zone where it feeds on small planktonic crustaceans (FAO ECA guide in prep JA Moore). Larvae and juveniles are found near the surface to 250 m depth, while adults are normally distributed from 500–700 m depth (Schneider 1990, Mundy 2005). In a diet study on Bigeye Tuna in the western tropical Atlantic, this species was considered an important prey item (Vaske et al. 2012). It is also a dominant prey item for swordfish in the western Indian Ocean (Marsac and Potier 2001). This species occurred in the diets of Swordfish (Clarke et al. 1995), Sowerby’s Beaked Whales (Pereira et al. 2011), and Common Terns (Granadeiro et al. 2002) that were captured off the Azores.

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. It may sometimes be taken as bycatch (Schneider 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures for this species, although it may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout its range. Research is needed into possible threats to the species before conservation need can be assessed.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized (FAO ECA guide in prep JA Moore). Schneider (1990) reported this species occurs as bycatch in trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Guinea.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Sargocentron hastatum is distributed on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean; however, within the assessment zone it is only known from one record off the coast of Portugal. Therefore, S. hastatum is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Sargocentron hastatum is distributed on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. hastatum is only known from one record off the coast of Portugal (Ben-Tuvia 1986). This species is found at depths ranging from 50 m (Greenfield 1981) to 200 m (Schneider 1990).

population:
Within the assessment region consisting of the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea this species is only known from one record from Portugal so there is no information on the population size and trend for this species.

habitat:
Sargocentron hastatum is a nocturnal (Ben-Tuvia 1990), reef-associated fish that occurs in reefs and rocky areas from the shoreline to 200 m depth (Schneider 1990). It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (Ben-Tuvia 1990). The maximum size is 46 cm (common to 25 cm total length) (Schneider 1990). Eggs and larvae of the Holocentridae family are pelagic (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats within the assessment region.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. hastatum.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized within the assessment region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)   In the European region, the fish has been reported from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and is also known from two records from the Mediterranean Sea (Algerian and Sicilian waters (Tyrrhenian Sea), where it is assumed to be vagrant and not established. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In the Eastern Central Atlantic the fish is distributed throughout from 75-1,250 m depth. Bunkley-Williams and Williams (2004) record that the depth range for adults is 60-1,000 m and juveniles is 9-536 m. Vakily et al. (2002) reports G. darwinii as distributed off of the Cape Verde Islands, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, and Sierra Leone. G. darwinii inhabits the transitional deep-sea coral reef habitat off of Angola (Le Guilloux et al. 2009). In the Eastern Atlantic it has been reported from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) to Cape Verde from 160-600 m depth. It is also known from two records from the Mediterranean (Algerian and Sicilian waters (Tyrrhenian Sea); Andaloro et al. 2012), the Indian Ocean off of Natal in the Bay of Bengal and off of southern Australia in the Pacific (Maurin and Quero 1982). In the southwestern Pacific this species has been recorded from 200-1,000m depth off of New Caledonia and New Zealand (Fricke et al. 2011).

population:
Considered rare in Atlantic European waters, and a very occasional vagrant in the Mediterranean Sea.

habitat:
A demersal species with a maximum size of 48 cm SL, but is commonly caught at 25 cm. It is found in deep water over hard bottoms on continental slopes and off of islands. This species may be found locally abundant during spawning or feeding aggregations. G. darwinii feeds on mesopelagic shrimp, small fishes, and squid. Data on reproduction, age, and growth for fishes of the Trachichthyidae family are limited, however, it may have a lengthy generation length if similar to Hoplostethus atlanticus (Orange Roughy), which has a maximum age of at least 125 years.

useAndTrade:
Occasionally as bycatch in deep-water trawl fisheries between 200-500 m depth in the Gulf of Guinea and off Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1999, Schneider 1990). This species is reportedly commercially exploited both for food and oil, in the east central Atlantic (Andrade et al. 2004). This species is not commercially exploited in the Cape Verde Islands (Monteiro pers comm 2013) or off Mauritania (Camara pers comm 2013).G. darwinii is utilized as fishmeal and a source of oil in eastern central Atlantic (Maul 1981).

redListContributors:
McEachran, J.D., Moore, J., Polanco Fernandez, A. & Russell, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Vulnerable (VU) Hoplostethus atlantics is a globally distributed species which ranges from 500 to 1,844 m depth, however it is more commonly found at depths of less than 950 m. In the eastern Atlantic, H. atlantics is found from Iceland south to off the coast of Morocco including around pinnacles and seamounts along the mid-Atlantic Ridge. It is a slow-growing, long-lived, low productivity species which forms dense aggregations over seamounts. Due to its low productivity and aggregating behavior this species is intrinsically vulnerable to over-exploitation by fisheries. Fisheries for this species have been characterized as boom-and-bust. Globally, after being heavily fished over the last 30 years abundance is generally less than 20% of the estimated virgin biomass for most populations. Within the assessment region, targeted fisheries began in the late 1980s to early 1990s. Population declines in the area were estimated from ratios between virgin biomass and catch in each of three management units within the region (Subarea VI, Subarea VII, and Other). The resulting percent declines were then weighed by the relative contribution to the total catch of management unit, and then summed to give a percent decline across the region as a whole. Estimates of decline in biomass ranged from 59% to 69% over a time period of 12 to 15 years and we assume that this represents the total reduction over three generation lengths because of the recent onset of directed fisheries. Additionally, since there is no population information available prior to the onset of commercial fisheries, an assumption that virgin biomass has remained relatively constant prior to the onset of commercial fishing must be made in order to apply the IUCN Categories and Criteria over an appropriate timescale (three generation lengths, or about 265 years). This species is subject to management throughout the assessment region. Total Allowable Catches (TACs) were set at zero in 2010. The fishery is considered by regional fisheries management to be unsustainable. There is currently very little directed fishing in the region, and efforts are under way to understand the impact of mixed-species fisheries, though it does not appear to be a significant component of bycatch. This species is assessed as Vulnerable under Criteria A1bd. The cause of the population decline, directed fishing, has ceased, and efforts are under way to rebuild depleted stocks in the region using a combination of TAC regulations and area closures.

range:
Hoplostethus atlanticus is a globally distributed species which ranges from 500 to 1,844 m depth; however, it is more commonly found at depths of less than 950 m. In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from Iceland south to off the coast of Morocco including around pinnacles and seamounts along the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Moore in press).

population:
History of fisheries and characterization of knowledge gaps The development of Orange Roughy fisheries has been characterized as large-scale and sporadic. This species was first fished in 1978 in the Chatham Rise off New Zealand. In the ensuing 20 years, Orange Roughy stocks were discovered and fished in several regions around the temperate Southern Hemisphere (elsewhere around New Zealand, off Tasmania, Namibia and Chile) and in the North Atlantic as well. Orange Roughy and several associated species of oreosomatids are fished at depths of ca. 600 to 1400 m, making them among the world’s deepest fished species. Most Orange Roughy fisheries have been fished down within five to 10 years to < 20% of their original stock size. Where fisheries are unregulated, these stocks have been fished to commercial extinction (Thiel and Koslow 2001). Generation Length Calculation The age of  50% maturity for this species is approximately 28 years, with a longevity of 149 years. Using these estimates, an approximate generation length of 88 years is calculated using the formula: Am + 0.5 (Amax-Am), where Am= age at first (50%) maturity = 28 and Amax = longevity = 149. Three generation lengths = 265.5. Population structure There is no information available to determine the existence of separate populations of H. atlanticus in the North Atlantic. Current International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) practice is to assume three assessment units; subarea VI, Subarea VII, and other areas. Population decline Fisheries for this species in the northeastern Atlantic developed in the late 1980s to mid-1990s. Prior to this time period there is no available population information for this species. In order to estimate population decline over an appropriate timescale (3 generation lengths = 265 years), it is assumed that virgin biomass was relatively constant prior to the onset of commercial fisheries. Landing statistics from Subarea VI, Subarea VII, and Other Areas were compiled from the ICES WGDEEP Report (2012). Population decline in each region were calculated as follows: In Subarea VI a 90% population decline was calculated from the estimated ratio between virgin biomass and accumulated catch (0.9) over 15 years.  In Subarea VI a 50% population decline was calculated from the estimated ratio between virgin biomass and accumulated catch (0.5) over 12 years.  There is no information available concerning the relationship between virgin biomass and catch in all Other Subareas. Population declines were assumed to be between 50% and 90% based on the relationships seen in Subareas VI and VII.  Percent decline was weighed based on the percent contribution to the total declared landings for each of the three areas. Subarea VI, in which a total of 7,200 tonnes was landed since the onset of the fishery in 1991, accounted for 17% of total landings. Subarea VII, in which a total of 24,600 tonnes was landed since the onset of the fishery, accounted for 58% of total landings. In all Other Subareas, a total of 10,724 tonnes was landed since the onset of the fishery, and accounted for 25% of landings. The resulting percent weighed declines were summed in order to give a total percent decline for the region which ranged from 57% to 67%, depending on the assumed percent decline in the Other Subareas category.  These calculations do not take into account potential production in this species; however, available biological information suggests very low productivity. Although the assumptions about the ratio between virgin biomass and depleted biomass are highly uncertain, they currently represent the best available information. Ratio between virgin biomass and catch was used by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in order to perform a Depletion-Corrected-Average-Catch (DCAC) analysis in ICES subareas VI and VII. The methodology for this analysis, which is to be made available as a stock annex document is not currently available (ICES WGDEEP 2012). ICES has advised that, due to its very low productivity, H. atlanticus can only sustain very low rate of exploitation. Currently, it is not possible to manage a sustainable fishery for this species.Area-Specific Population Information Subarea VI Landings are available from 1991 to 2012. The cumulative catch in Area VI until 2012 was 7185 tons. 3502 tonnes were landed in 1991 alone, afterwhich landings decline steeply throughout the 1990s prior to the establishment of  Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations in 2003. The stock in this area was depleted over a 15 year period. Assumptions about the ratio between virgin biomass and depleted biomass are highly uncertain. For modelling purposes, ICES assumed the ratio between biomass and catch for this region was 0.9. The fishery in this area has been depleted and is closed (ICES WGDEEP Report 2012). This is interpreted as a 90% population decline.Subarea VII After the collapse of the fishery in Subarea VI, the main fishery for H. atlanticus in the Northern Hemisphere moved to this area. Fishery peaked in 2002 and declined thereafter. Some targeted fishing was carried out from a few small trawlers until 2008, and subsequent landings were bycatch from mixed deep-water trawl fishery operating on the continental slopes. Total Allowable Catches (TAC) were first introduced in 2003, however landings declared by EC vessels were systematically below the TACs, and decreased steadily throughout the time series from 2003 to 2009. This appears to indicate that the fishery may have been depleted prior to the establishment of TACs in this region. Prior to the establishment of TACs, historical landings data (1988 to 2012) show that no landings were declared in 1988, 3 and 2 tonnes were declared in 1989 and 1990, 3101 tonnes were declared in 1992, 5465 tonnes were declared in 2002. There have been no landings reported in this area since 2010, corresponding to TAC. It is not currently possible to manage a sustainable fishery for this species. Assumptions about the ratio between virgin biomass and depleted biomass are highly uncertain. For modelling purposes, ICES the ratio between biomass and catch for this region was 0.5. This is interpreted as a 50% population decline. The fishery in this area has been depleted and is closed (ICES WGDEEP Report 2012).  Other areas: I, II, IIIa, IV, V, VIII, IX, X, XII, XIV Fisheries have been conducted in area Va, Vb, VIII, X, and XII. Most started in the early 1990s, the exception being Subarea X which started in 1996. In the last seven years, fisheries are mainly occurring in X and XII with sporadic catches in Va, Vb and IX. Time series of Orange Roughy landings are available in all areas except VI and VII. The ratio between biomass and landings in the remaining ICES areas is unknown (ICES WGDEEP 2012). Landings in Iceland (Va available from 1988 to 2012) peak in 1993, at 717 tonnes, and decline steadily to 16 tonnes in 2012. Landings in Division Vb, declared by Faroes and France, are available from 1988 to 2012, peak in 1995 at 419 tonnes and decline to 2012. In subarea VIII (1988 to 2012) in the early 1990s at 83 and 68 tonnes in 1992 and 1993 respectively, fluctuate to a second peak of 43 tonnes in 2006, and then decline to 0 in 2012. In subarea IX, 28 tonnes were declared by Portugal in 2012, no landings were declared prior. In subarea X, landings were first declared in 1993, peaked in 1996 at 470 tonnes, again at 2001 at 455 total tonnes, then again at 403 tonnes in 2004; landings subsequently decline to 45 tonnes to 2012. In Subarea XII, landings peak during the years 1995 to 1998 at around 700 tonnes, then decline throughout the time series to 94 tonnes.  Total international landings in ICES areas, excluding VI and VII, peak in the early 1990s at around 1400 tonnes, peak again at roughly 1300 tonnes in 2001, and then steadily decline, with most landings originating from  areas X and XII.

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Hoplostethus atlanticus is a benthopelagic species with a maximum size of 69 cm SL, but is commonly caught from 45 cm. It is found in deep water near the bottom on continental slopes, off of islands and near high-relief topographic features from 400 to 1,100 m depth but normally shallower than 800 m. This species is locally abundant during spawning or feeding aggregations. Hoplostethus atlanticus feeds on mesopelagic shrimp, small fishes, and squid. Life History and Reproduction In the Northeastern Atlantic, Area VI (Rockall, Northwest Coast of Scotland and North Ireland). Mature female fish were collected between 1,400 m and 1,650 m depth. Mature females were collected between 300 mm and 540 mm (SL). Total fecundity ranged between 20.352 to 244.578 oocytes per female. Fifty percent of females were not mature until they reached 27.5 years and 37 cm SL. Northeast Atlantic mature at a larger size and generally have a higher mean fecundity than those found in the southern Hemisphere (Minto and Nolan 2006). This species is a group synchronous spawner. It a slow-growing species, with a high age of first maturity and relatively low fecundity (Bell et al. 1992). Maximum age of this species has been estimated at 149 years (Fenton et al. 1991).

threats:
Hoplostethus atlanticus are a long-lived, late maturing species with relatively low fecundity. Longevity is in excess of 100 years and age of first maturity is not reached until 20+ years of age. After being heavily fished over the last 30 years, abundance is less than 30% of the estimated virgin biomass for most populations. Caught exclusively by deep-sea trawling, habitat damage is substantial in fished areas, including sensitive habitats on seamounts. Fishery management has closed some areas to bottom trawling; however, slow-growing species like coral will take decades to recover fully. Bycatch of finfish is low to moderate because fisheries target large aggregations of this species. This species has a high intrinsic vulnerability index. Productivity Susceptibility Analysis (PSA) resulted in an overall productivity score of 2, indicating a medium biological risk to fishing, comparable to that of the roundnose grenadier (Dransfeld et al. 2013). Hoplostethus atlanticus is threatened by commercial trawl fisheries throughout the world that quickly deplete local populations by targeting entire aggregations. This species has a low level of recruitment and lengthy longevity (up to 125 years), which causes slow population recovery rates. In Africa, there is an established commercial fishery off of Namibia and an experimental fishery that has started off of the Azores (Moore in press). Productivity of H. atlanticus stocks throughout the world are often low even where the population sizes are initially large, which makes them particularly vulnerable to overfishing (Medley 2011). Due to its slow growth, long life, and aggregating behavior, H. atlanticus is especially vulnerable to overfishing. It is difficult to manage due to uncertainty in stock assessments and the lack of knowledge of recruitment (Dunn 2007). Although many fisheries for H. atlanticus in the Mediterranean have closed and landing this species is illegal in EU waters, this species is still vulnerable to being discarded bycatch in deepwater mixed trawl fisheries which target other species (Dransfeld et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
In the assessment region consisting of the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea, H. atlanticus is managed via Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations and area closures. ICES recommends no directed fisheries, and bycatch in mixed fisheries should be as low as possible. A TAC was introduced in this area in 2003, which remained at 88 tons until 2006. Total Allowable Catch (TAC) was reduced annually between 2007 and 2009. TAC was set at 0 in 2010 (ICES WGDEEP Report 2013). Examination of French observer data suggests that bycatch and discarding  is currently not significant (<0.2%). Fisheries in areas VI and VII have ceased following periods of depletion. In order to allow stock recovery, monitoring of the spatial overlap of existing fisheries has been recommended. The EU TAC was set in 2005, after the fishery had shown some sign of decline, and applies to Community waters and EC vessels in International Waters.

useAndTrade:
Hoplostethus atlanticus is exploited in the following Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) areas: 27, 47, and 81. It is caught at depths over 800 m by trawl fisheries that often target spawning aggregations associated with seamounts. Recently, catches are mostly from the Pacific Ocean with only limited catches from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Overall, catch has been in decline with 91,000 tonnes in 1990 to 13,000 tonnes in 2009 and many smaller fisheries have closed down as stocks become commercially nonviable (de Barros and Cochrane 2011).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Heessen, H., Herrera, J. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population, however its range in the European region may be increasing as its range increases at higher latitudes.

range:
The fish is known from the Eastern Atlantic and western Indian Oceans. In the European region the species has been collected as far north as La Chapelle Bank, France (Bianchi et al 1999), and is recorded from mainland Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). In the Atlantic, it ranges from 27°30'N to 26°14'S including off of northwest Spain (Diaz et al. 1997).

population:
The fish occurs on continental slopes where it can be locally abundant in feeding or spawning aggregations. In a trawl survey conducted off the west African coast between 1962 to 1973, more than 2,000 specimens of H. cadenati were caught between Cape Corveiro and Cape Verde (Maurin and Quero 1982). This species was described as frequently occurring in a trawl survey conducted off the coast of Namibia between the years 1992-1996 (Hamukuaya et al. 2001). Quero (1998) notes that the fish had not been recorded from Portugal prior to 1950.

habitat:
A benthopelagic species with a maximum size of 30 cm SL that occurs on continental slopes. This species may be locally abundant during spawning or feeding aggregations. H. cadenati feeds on mesopelagic shrimp, small fishes, and squid. Data on reproduction, age, and growth for fishes of the Trachichthyidae family are limited, however, Hoplostethus atlanticus, has been aged up to 125 years. In a trawl survey conducted from 1962-1973 off of the northwestern African coast it ranged from just north of Cape Corveiro south to Cape Verde between 90-1,000 m depth (Maurin and Quero 1982).

threats:
The fish is not utilized, however, it is likely occasionally caught as bycatch in commercial trawl fisheries. This is not considered a significant threat.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
The fish is not utilized in the European region.


taxonomicNotes:
A subspecies, Hoplostethus mediterraneus trunovi, has been reported off of Namibia (FAO ECA guide in prep by JA Moore).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and the populations are quite common. Although it is facing some threats, it is not thought that these are currently of sufficient magnitude to be causing significant declines.

range:
This is a cosmopolitan demersal species, occurring in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean, but also found in the Indian and South Pacific Oceans (Madurell and Cartes 2005). In the west Indian Ocean, it is present in the Red Sea (Klausewitz 1994) and South Africa (Heemstra 1986), although it is not present in the Black and Marmara seas. In the west Atlantic, it occurs from Georges Bank to north Gulf of Mexico, Great Antilles and from Venezuela to south Brazil (Moore pers. comm. 2007). In the east Atlantic, it is present from Ireland to Senegal, including the Canary Islands, the Gulf of Guinea, Namibia and South Africa (Heemstra 1986). It has also been reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992). Within the Mediterranean Sea, it is widespread in deep waters, being present in the Balearic area (Polunin 2001, Moranta et al. 2004), the Strait of Sicily (Costa 1991, Vitale et al. 2006), the Ionian Sea (D'onghia et al. 1995, D'onghia et al. 1998, Petrakis 1998, Petrakis et al. 1998, Madurell and Labropoulou 2000, Terrats and Petrakis 2000, Madurell and Cartes 2001, Mytilineou et al. 2001, Mytilineou et al. 2003, Madurell et al. 2004, Madurell and Cartes 2005, Conisma 2007), the Adriatic Sea (Soljan 1975), the Aegean Sea (Kabasakal 2000, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002), the Levantine basin and the east Mediterranean Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Golani et al. 2006). Its depth lower limit is 1,300 metres, while its upper limit is 100 metres below sea level.

population:
This is a common and widespread species, and it is dominant on the middle slope in the east and southwestern Mediterranean, and in the northeast Atlantic. It is also relatively common in deep offshore waters (Gordon and Duncan 1987). Its overall trend in biomass is considered to be stable.

habitat:
This is a benthopelagic species. While Maul (1990) states that it is pelagic, Schneider (1990) indicates that it is demersal. Its depth distribution varies according to size, but it occurs between 100 and 1,300 metres, with a maximum abundance around 400-600 m (D'Onghia et al. 1998, Massuti et al. 2004). The species can be found over muddy bottoms (Sanches 1991). It avoids areas with high influence of terrigeous-advective fluxes such as the Catalan Sea, being considered a rare species there. It is the dominant species on the middle slope in the east and southwestern Mediterranean, and in the northeast Atlantic. Its diet consists on pelagic and vagile epibenthic organisms (Madurell and Cartes 2005), preying mainly on decapod crustaceans, and its fecundity is high, with an age of 1.5 at maturity, a longevity of 11 years and a maximum size of 42 cm (SL), with a typical size range between 3-26 cm (TL). The sex ratio changes by size, with females being larger than males (D'Onghia et al. 1998). Its length-weigth ratio is 8.0–18.0 (Lmin–Lmax), 7.23–81.6 (Wmin–Wmax) (Filiz and Bilge 2004).

threats:
Although this species is not commercially important, it is frequently taken and discarded because of its small size by deepwater fisheries. It is caught with bottom trawls (Fischer et al. 1987) and as by-catch during bathial trawling in the Ionian sea (Madurell and Cartes 2005). It is one of the main discards (21%) in weight from the crustacean trawling off the Algarve coast (Monteiro et al. 2001). Since trawling is banned below 1,000 m in Mediterranean waters and this is a benthopelagic species, it may be less vulnerable than true benthic species to bottom-trawling (although increased midwater trawling would presumably impact this species).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species, but it is present in marine protected areas throughout its range, such as El Cachucho, in Spain. 

useAndTrade:
This species has low commercial value (Madurell and Cartes 2005). It is caught occasionally with bottom trawls, and it is rarely found in markets where it is sold fresh. It is used primarily to make flour and fish oil (Fischer et al. 1987). In Irish waters, it is not commercially exploited, and although it was previously taken as a by-catch by deep-water trawlers/gill-netters, it was usually discarded (most likely dead). Although there has been a significant increase in landings in recent years by both Spain and Portugal, it is important to note that the data does not indicate fishing effort and that the species is currently not subject to TAC/Quota. Nevertheless, it suggests that the species may be increasingly targeted in the future elsewhere throughout its range, possibly as a source of industrial fish meal (Sargent et al. 1983).

redListContributors:
Garcia, S., Blanco, J., Pollard, D.A., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Cetichthys indagator is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is only known from Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is known primarily from the southern hemisphere, in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. Within Europe, there is only one record of its occurrence, from off Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014, Vieira et al. 2012).

population:
There is a lack of information regarding this species' population. The specimen captured off Madeira in 2012 was only the fifth specimen of this species captured worldwide (Vieira et al. 2012).

habitat:
This is a marine bathypelagic species. Its depth range is 1,500-3,620 m.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Cetomimus hempeli has been found between 500 and 1,500 metres depth in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off the Macaronesian Islands, with records outside the European region from the Gulf of Mexico. Little can be said about its population since the only specimens that have been found were 11 females. There have been no males found. There are no species specific threats. This species has been assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Cetomimus hempeli have been found between 500 and 1,500 metres deep in the Atlantic Ocean, from the eastern central Atlantic and the west central Atlantic (northeastern Gulf of Mexico; McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). It is known only from the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009) and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) in the European assessment region.

population:
The only specimens that have been found were 11 females. There have been no males found (Paxton and Johnston in press).

habitat:
The largest C. hempeli recorded was 15 cm but they are more commonly found to 8 cm. The smallest recorded specimen was 5.7 cm (Paxton and Johnston in press). Females of species in the Cetomimidae family have been found to eat crustaceans while the males do not feed after transformation. The larvae eat copepods (Paxton and Johnston in press).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation actions.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Cetostoma regani is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from the waters of mainland Portugal, Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species can be found circumglobally (50°N to 40°S apart from the South Pacific Ocean, where it is found to 15ºS; Moore in press). Within Europe, it is known from the waters of mainland Portugal, madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries (Carneiro et al. 2014, Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Cetostoma regani has been found between 0 and 3,700 metres deep. The shallower depths were found at night, often with smaller specimens.

population:
Globally, there have been 150 females found and 7 males (Moore in press).

habitat:
The largest female was 25 cm standard length but is most commonly found to be 19 cm long. The smallest found was 4 cm long. Males were found to range between 3.4 and 4.1 cm (Moore in press). Females from species from the cetomimdae have been found to eat crustaceans, while males do not eat after transformation (Moore in press).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts.

useAndTrade:
This is not a commercially important species.


range:
Gyrinomimus myersi has been found circumglobally, between 2,200 and 2,350 metres. Recorded in the Atlantic between 55°N to 20° S, tropically in central Indian Ocean and in the Pacific Ocean between 40° to 20° N. There are also museum specimens from off eastern Australia. In the European region the fish is known from the Azores archipelago (Carneiro et al. 2014).

population:
Globally, there have been 20 females found and no males.

habitat:
The largest female found was 30 cm standard length but they are more commonly found around 16.5 cm. Females from species from the cetomimdae have been found to eat crustaceans, while males do not eat after transformation.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place or required.


taxonomicNotes:
Based on meristics, the unique hairy fish, Mirapinna esau, is the juvenile (but senior synonym) of the most generalised cetomimid Procetichthys kreffti (Paxton and Johnson 2008, Johnson et al. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) In the European region, Mirapinna esau is only known from the holotype, collected from off the Azores, Portugal. Little is known of the fish, but Mirapinna esau has been established as the postlarva, and senior name, of Procetichthys kreffti. The fish is considered Data Deficient.

range:
In the European region, Mirapinna esau is known only known from midway between the Azores and southern Ireland (47°20'N, 22°30'W; Whitehead et al. 1986). Outside the region, the only record of the fish (as the synonym Procetichthys kreffti; Paxton and Johnson 2008, Johnson et al. 2009) is from the southeastern Atlantic. The taxon is still only represented by one postlarva and two adult females, with more than 100 years between the first and last collections (J. Paxton pers. comm. 2015).

population:
Mirapinna esau is known in European waters only from the holotype collected from the Azores (Bertelsen 1986).

habitat:
Little is known about the habitats and ecology of the fish. Prey items include copepods (Bertelsen 1986).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for M. esau. Research is required into the taxonomic identity of the fish.

redListReviewers:
Comeros-Raynal, M., Nieto, A. & Allen, D.J.


taxonomicNotes:
Parataeniophorus gulosus is currently being reclassified after Johnson et al. (2009) concluded that the holotype is actually a larval form of the family Cetomimmidae.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) The holotype for P. gulosus has been identified as a larval stage of the family Cetomimidae, and so is no longer considered to be a separate species of the family Mirapinnidae. The status of the species as a whole is thus unknown, and so Parataeniophorus gulosus has been assessed as Data Deficient.  The holotype was described from Seychelles, and it has a disjunct distribution. There might be a possibility that this be described as a new species or intermediate populations found. Systematically unsettled, and comparative material needs to be collected for further research, in particular phylogenetic studies.

range:
Parataeniophorus gulosus is mostly found in the eastern Atlantic and in the western Indian Ocean from the equator to 21o S (Bertelsen 1986). A few collection records report specimens from Oahu, Hawaii (1 specimen) and the straits of Florida, U.S.A. (2 specimens), but occurrences at these locations has not been reported elsewhere (Accessed through the FishNet2 Portal 2013 October). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is reported from Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira Islands (Bertelsen 1986). Parataeniophorus gulosus is associated with depths of between zero and 1,400 m.

population:
There is limited population data, based on few collections and holotypes, for this species. Bertelsen (1990) describes Parataeniophorus gulosus as a rare species. Population information for the northeastern Atlantic is not readily available.

habitat:
Parataeniophorus gulosus is a bathypelagic species, frequently occurring in the area of oceanic islands (Vakily et al. 2002, Bertelsen 1990), It spends its larval stage in depths of zero to 200 m and migrates to depths of up to 1,400 m as a mature individual (Bertelsen 1986). The maximum recorded length of any individual of this species is 3.5 cm total length (TL) (Bertelsen 1986). Metamorphosis is mainly correlated with changes in feeding mechanisms, with males transforming from copepod-consuming larvae to a non-feeding adult with an enlarged liver and lost stomach and esophagus. Females' mouths transform from small and upturned as larvae to large gapes that allow consumption of larger prey. Younger individuals are often in the upper 200 m of water depth and consume mostly copepods (Bertelsen 1986). Johnson et al. (2009) found that the family displays the most extreme sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic metamorphosis observed in any vertebrate.  The holotype for this species was found to be a larval example of the family Cetomimidae (the flabby whalefishes), rather than a separate species and is currently being reclassified.  Information regarding spawning periodicity, fecundity, and early life history are poorly understood for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures for the species. This species may occur in marine protected areas that exist throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Research into the taxonomy, population, ecology and biology, as well as potential threats is needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Rondeletia loricata occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Rondeletia loricata occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Rondeletia loricata is circumglobally distributed, except for the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and far western Atlantic. It is known to 1,400 m depth, but larvae and juveniles are typically found in the upper 200 m.

population:
Rondeletia loricata is a rare, meso- to bathy-pelagic species, with over 150 specimens known.

habitat:
Rondeletia loricata is a mesopelagic to bathypelagic species. There is only limited evidence for diel vertical migrations, but larvae and small juveniles are typically found in the upper 200 m. The maximum reported size is 11.0 cm, but individuals are more common to 9.0 cm.

threats:
There are no known threats to R. loricata.

conservationAction:
There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.

useAndTrade:
Rondeletia loricata is of no commercial importance and is not utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
The temporal and spatial genetic structure of this species, or species complex, is still under debate, and presents challenges for fisheries management. Clupea harengus stocks have traditionally been delineated on the basis of differences in spawning behavior and meristic or morphological characters. However, there is little concordance between these characters and genetic differentiation (André et al. 2011, Ruzzante et al. 2006, Ryman et al. 1984, Clausen et al. 2007). Morphological differences may be expressions of phenotypic plasticity resulting from early ontogentic exposure to differing environmental regimes (Anokina 1971, Aneer 1985, Rajasilta 1992). The extent to which there is genetic differentiation between NW and NE Atlantic is unresolved. In the NE Atlantic, there is some structuring between the population in the English Channel and that found in the remainder of the North Sea (Mariani et al. 2005). Concordant structuring has been found between the North Sea and Baltic spawning populations, and it is hypothesized that the relatively low salinity in the Baltic Sea is driving this divergence (Ruzzante et al. 2006; Bekkevold et al. 2005; Mariani et al. 2005; Larsson et al. 2007, 2010). Spring-spawning populations and autumn spawning populations within the Baltic Sea appear to differ from each other morphologically (Heincke 1898) and genetically (Jøgensen et al. 2005); however, genetic variation within the Baltic Sea is generally low (Johannesson and André 2006). Additionally, there is structuring between the northern and southern populations within the largest, most commercially important stock, the Norwegian Spring spawning stock, which is found in the Barents and Norwegian Sea (Shaw et al. 1999, Reiss et al. 2009). The Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras is widely regarded as subspecies of the Atlantic herring Clupea harengus. Baltic herring as a subspecies includes populations of autumn-spawning herrings mainly in the western and southern Baltic Sea and spring-spawning herring mainly in the eastern and northern parts of the sea basin. There is wide overlap in the distribution of the different forms (HELCOM Red List Project). Differences between the two forms (spatial distribution, meristic and morphometric, temporal spawning) are not supported by genetic differentiation when using either allozyme or microsatellite markers. However, some studies employing high-throughput sequencing revealed high levels of genetic differentiation at loci which may under selection, which may suggest the existence of locally adapted populations within the Baltic Sea which are connected by some gene flow (Corander et al. 2013). 

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC In the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean Clupea harengus, the Atlantic Herring, is distributed from northern Bay of Biscay to Iceland and southern Greenland, eastward to Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, including the Baltic. It is also found in the Western Atlantic. This species is managed across 12 stocks in the European Regional Assessment. It is a pelagic, schooling species which can be found to depths of 200 meters. The temporal and spatial genetic structure of this species, or species complex, is still under debate, and presents challenges for fisheries management. Over the past 15 years (1995-2012) summed SSB across all stocks shows an increasing trend from 8 million to 9 million tonnes. Clupea harengus has been assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Clupea harengus is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, C. harengus is distributed from northern Bay of Biscay to Iceland and southern Greenland, eastward to Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, including the Baltic Sea. It is also seen along southwestern Greenland and Labrador down to South Carolina in the Western Atlantic. It is found at depths of 0—200 meters (Whitehead 1985).

population:
This species is managed across 12 stocks in the European Regional Assessment. Over the past 15 years (1995-2012) summed SSB across all stocks shows an increasing trend from 8 million to 9 million tonnes (ICES Advice 2013, Fernandez pers comm. 2013). However, fluctuations in biomass of C. harengus stocks are influenced by variations in climate, which influences the long-term survival of recruits (Toresen and Østvedt 2000).Since a severe population crash in the stock in the 1970s, limits were imposed on the harvest levels of this species in an attempt to rebuild the stock. Since then the biomass has shown in an increase. Current estimates suggest that only 10% of the stock is being exploited and there are no reports of over-fishing occurring. Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and stock biomass is needed to ensure limits can be revised should there be changes to the levels of recruitment. (Dickey-Collas 2010).In the Northeastern Atlantic, the majority of stocks, including the largest stock (Norwegian Spring Spawning Herring) appear to be well managed and, in most cases, SSB is increasing. There are several stock/subpopulations for which this is an exception, notably the Western Baltic Spring spawning stock, and stocks off Porcupine Bank/West of Ireland/West of Scotland. Stock-specific information The Norwegian spring-spawning  herring stock represents more than 50% of the biomass in the Northeastern Atlantic, and has undergone large-scale fluctuations in biomass throughout the 20th century. Following a decline in biomass to roughly 50,000 tonnes in the late 1960s due to overfishing (Dragesund et al. 1980), and recovery throughout the 1970s and 1980s, this stock has recovered to biomass levels seen in the 1940s, averaging about 10 million tonnes from 1991-2011. The current trend in biomass for this stock is one of gradual increase (Toresen and Østvedt 2000). SSB is estimated at 6,136,000 tonnes in 2012. Although SSB is predicted to decline in 2014 by 5-18% depending on the management scenario. This stock appears to be well managed (Fcurrent<Fmsy. Bcurrent>Blim) (ICES Advice 2012). The North Sea autumn-spawning herring stock  collapsed in the late 1970s due to recruitment over-fishing, which resulted in a 5-year closure of the fishery. Estimated biomass prior to the collapse was roughly greater than 2000000  in the 1960s, and declined to less than 50000 by the mid-1970s, accompanied by a change the maximum age of fish from 14 to 5 years old. The stock has since recovered, and SSB is estimated to have fluctuated near 1000000 metric tonnes in the last 20 years. There has been no change in the spatial distribution of the population before and after the collapse. Based on the latest (2013) ICES advice, Herring in Subarea IV and Divisions IIIa and VIId (North Sea autumn spawners) appears to be well managed (Fcurrent<Fmsy. Bcurrent>Blim). Current SSB is estimated at 1,996,101 tonnes. This stock is considered to be at full reproductive capacity, and spawning stock biomass has been increasing since 2005. However, year classes from 2002 onwards are estimated to be the weakest since the 1970s, and recruits-per-spawner in the last decade are the lowest observed since the 1970s. Thus, this stock is considered to be a in a low-productivity phase. SSB is estimated at 199610 tonnes in 2013. SSB is expected to decrease in 2014 under all proposed management scenarios scenarios except zero fishing (ICES Advice 2013 book 9). Herring in Division VIa (North) Celtic Seas West of Scotland is considered to be well-managed (Fcurrent<Fmsy; Bcurrent>Blim. Since 1977, this stock has been fluctuating at a lower biomass than in the previous 20 years. Fishing mortality has fluctuated around Fmsy in recent years. Recruitment is lower than in the historical period. Temperatures and salinity have been increasing over recent decades, and coincide to reduced productivity observed since the 1980s. SSB in 2013 is estimated at 101920 tonnes, and is expected to decrease by up to 7%  in 2014 depending on the management scenario (ICES Advice 2013 book 5). Herring in Divisions VIa (South) and VIIbc: West of Scotland, West of Ireland, Porcupine Bank is suffering from reduced reproductive capacity (Bcurrent<Blim since the mid-1990s). Stock identity is complex due to mixing with juveniles from west of Scotland and of adults from the Irish Sea and VIa North Herring. ICES advises that there should be no catches of this stock unless a rebuilding plan is implemented, and that all activities that have a negative impact on the spawning habitat of herring, such as extraction of marine aggregates and marine construction on spawning grounds, should not occur. F has declined since 1989, however depending on the model used, it may or may not be above Fmsy. SSB was estimated at 11588 tonnes in 2012, well below the mean of 93295 tonnes from 1957-2012. Projections are unavailable due to uncertainties in F.  Herring in Division VIIa north of 52°30'N (Irish Sea) is currently considered to be well-managed. Fishing  Fcurrent is at or slightly above Fmsy, depending on confidence interval. Spawning Stock Biomass has been above MSY since 2006, and has increased from 5000t in 2002 to above 20,000 in 2012. Mean SSB is estimated at 22,114 tonnes (ICES advice June 2013). Herring in Divisions VIIa (South of 52°30'N) and VIIg,h,j,k (Celtic Sea and South of Ireland) is currently considered to be well-managed ( Fcurrent<Fmsy; SSBcurrent>SSBmsy). Current Biomass is the highest since the 1960s, and SSB in 2013 is estimated at 156355 tonnes. SSB is expected to decrease by up to 15% depending on the management scenario proposed, with the exception of zero-catch scenarios. Herring in Division Va (Icelandic summer-spawning herring) is currently considered to be well-managed (Fcurrent<Fmsy; Bcurrent > Blim.  Age groups 4-6 are most abundant in catches. SSB is expected to increase in 2013. SSB is estimated at 444,000 tonnes. Baltic Sea FisheryThe Baltic Sea herring fishery is a single unit, and its harvest is considered to be unsustainable in relation to precautionary limits set by ICES (2011). The autumn-spawning Baltic herring in the western and southern Baltic Sea was assessed as Endangered in HELCOM (2007). The assessment was based on declines in estimated spawning stock biomass, driven by declines in individual biomass not in individuals, in excess of 50%, which have been attributed both to exploitation and to oceanographic influences (Anokin 1971, Sjöblom 1978, Ojaveer et al. 2003). However, there was no significant trend in biomass when considering the Baltic Sea as a whole, and the Baltic Sea population/subspecies. Clupea harengus membras was assessed as Least Concern by the HELCOM Red List in Project in 2013. Populations/Stocks in the Baltic: Herring in Division IIIa and Subdivisions 22-24 (western Baltic spring spawners) are currently not considered to be well-managed (Fcurrent>Fmsy; Bcurrent at/above Blim). The lowest SSB in the time series was in 2011, following a steady decrease since 1991; Recruitment has been steadily decreasing since the early 1990s for reasons which are unknown. There are no management plans known, and ICES encourages the development of one. Due to its proximity to North Sea stocks and the possibility of mixing, ICES advises that TACs for the North Sea be based on reference points calculated for the Western Baltic Spring Spawners. Estimated biomass for 2013 is 106053 tonnes; SSB is projected to increase if catch is bellow 57,632 tonnes in 2014 (ICES advice 2013). Populations/Stocks in the Baltic: Baltic Sea Herring in Subdivisions 25-29 and 32 (excluding Gulf of Riga): Stock is at full reproductive capacity and is considered to be harvested sustainably. It is well managed (Fcurrent< Fmsy. Bcurrent>Blim). F has decreased since 2000, and SSB, which had decreased continuously from 1975 until 2000, began to increase in the early 2000s. Increase in Spratt stock size has exacerbated the interspecific competition, leading to decreases in herring weight-at-age. SSB is estimated at 716586 tonnes in 2013; all projections except a zero-catch scenario will lead to decreases in SSB in 2014 (ICES advice May 2013). Herring in Subdivision 31 - Bothnian Bay: This is a data-limited stock, therefor reference points are unavailable; However, relative SSB is higher in the past two years than the average of the previous 3 years; Fishing mortality decreased until 2009, and is thought to have increased recently. Stock structure is uncertain. CPUE by trawl and trapnet have both increased from 2011-2012. Herring in Subdivision 30 - Bothnian Sea:  SSBcurrent>SSBmsy;Fcurrent<Fmsy (well managed) Stock structure uncertain.  SSB remained stable until 2003, but has since more than doubled to record-high estimates. SSB in 2013 is estimated at 940567 tonnes. SSB is expected to decrease in 2014 under all management scenarios with the exception of a zero-catch scenario.  Herring in Subdivision 28.1 Gulf of Riga: Fcurrent< Fmsy; Bcurrent>Bmsy (well managed). SSB in 2013 is estimated at 77088 tonnes. Recruitment is high. This stock is considered sustainably harvested, and SSB has been above MSYBtrigger since 1992. Decreases in mean weight-at-age were first noted in the 1980s and reached their lowest levels in 1997 - they have since stabilized but remain much lower than in the 1980s.

habitat:
This is a coastal, pelagic, shoaling/schooling species which is found to depths of 200 meters. It spends the day close to the bottom, but at night can be found near the surface. Light is an important factor controlling its vertical distribution. It schools in coastal waters, with complex feeding and spawning migrations. Spawning occurs from spring to late autumn.. The eggs are deposited on the substrate. The species is a facultative zooplanktivorous-filter feeder, i.e. it can switch to filter-feeding if the food density and particle size is appropriate. Other characteristics are schooling, silvery sides, excellent hearing, and very fast escape response act as anti-predator devices. It is an important prey species for many predators including cod and seals (c.f. Gårdmark et al. 2012).This species feeds on small planktonic copepods in the first year, and thereafter mainly copepods (especially Calanus finmarchicus and Temora longicornis), but also hyperid amphipods, euphausids, mysid shrimps, small fishes, arrow-worms, ctenophores and pteropods) (Whitehead 1985).  At least one population is spawning in any one month of the year, each race having a different spawning time and place (spring, summer, autumn and winter herrings; in 0 to 5 m off Greenland down to 200 m in autumn (bank) herrings of the North Sea; eggs laid on the sea bed, on rock, stones, gravel, sand or beds of algae or phanerogams. There are a wide range of spawning strategies in C. harengus which include complex feeding and spawning migrations occuring in a spatially and temporally distinct manor. Races/populations differ on morphological grounds, mainly variations in the numbers of vertebrae, finrays, scales and gillrakers.  Mixed-stock genetic analysis indicates that coastal Skegerrak is used as a nursery for both the Baltic and North Sea spawning populations (Ruzzante et al. 2006). The distribution of feeding shoals of herring is correlated with the abundance of zooplankton, which is influenced by the Atlantic inflow. When Calanus spp. copepod peak abundance is further North, Herring tend to be distributed further north. Variations in the distribution of North Sea herring are driven by changes in stock size, zooplankton production, and variability in the Atlantic Inflow by the Far Isle current, and temperature also influences recruitment (ICES advice 2008 book 1).Female C. harengus are generally sexually mature between ages 2 and 3 at lengths of 25 cm, although the proportion of mature at age varies by year and by cohort (Davidson 2009), and many studies show decreased fecundity with increased age. The generation length used by the HELCOM Red List project to assess this species was 6.7 years in the Baltic Sea. However, the average age of mature individuals (one generation length) is currently estimated to be 4-5 years across its the range in the Northeastern Atlantic.Stock-specific information:Norwegian Spring Spawning Herring: The oldest herring recorded was 25 years old. Age at 50% maturity varies from 4 to 7 years at lengths of 28 to 31 cm. Norwegian spring-spawning herring is a determinate one-batch spawner. Wintering occurs in the open ocean east of Iceland, off northern Norway, and in fjords along the west and north coasts of Norway. This species occurs in enormous schools or layers which are distributed deeper during the day than at night. Spawning occurs during February-April in two major spawning waves. Eggs are deposited on hard bottom, coarse sand, gravel, and rocks at depths of 30 to 250 meters. Spawning grounds are located off the Norwegian coast from 58oN to 70oN. Schooling behavior changes from large, dense and deep-swimming schools during the spawning migration to small, loose schools when feeding is resumed after spawning.North Sea Herring: Lifespan is 17-20 years, with maximum lengths of 38-39 cm. Age of maturity is currently 2 to 3 years, at mean lengths of 25-27 cm at age 2, 26-28 cm at age 3. The Atlantic herring is a synchronous determinate batch spawner. Spawning for the main part of the North Sea population begins in the Northern Part of the North Sea in September, then progresses southwards with time. Eggs are benthic, and adhere to each other and to the substratum, which is gravel beds found at depths of 20-40 meters. North Sea herring exhibits natal homing, returning to the "home" spawning bed. The main feeding period is April-June, mostly by foraging and targeting prey items. Adults feed on Calanus, Temora, Oikopleura, Schizopoda, Amphipoda, and juveniles Ammodytes spp., and the distribution of plankton shoals corresponds to plankton abundance. Variability in recruitment is less than that in the Baltic Sea. Mixed-stock genetic analysis indicates that coastal Skegerrak is used as a nursery for both the Baltic and North Sea spawning populations (Ruzzante et al. 2006).Northwest Irish Herring: The oldest reported age is 16 years. 100% maturity is reached at 3 years. Determinate one-batch spawner. Northwest Irish stock is composed of autumn-, winter- and spring-spawning components. Spawning occurs on inshore spawning grounds between September and October. Celtic Sea Herring: Lifespan is up to 12 years, however in recent years fish older than 8 years have rarely been caught. Age of 50% maturity is 2 years. Celtic Sea herring consist of a mixture of autumn and winter/spring spawners, which spawn inshore along the coast and then move to deeper waters after spawning. Calanus spp. copepods are an important component of the diet. Mean size and weight-at-age peaked in the mid-1970s and have since declined. Condition factor has also declined during this period.  Low recruitment and high fishing mortality led to a collapse of the fishery in the 1970s and again in the 1990s.Baltic Herring - Spring Spawning stock: Average lifespan 9-10 years, with a maximum of 20 years. Maturity occurs at 2-3 years with maximum length of 25-30 cm. One-batch determinate spawner. Spawning occurs as successive schools enter inshore areas. Eggs are deposited in a range of depths, from 0.5m to deeper areas.  Growth occurs in late summer-autumn. Prey items include large copepods (Pseudocalanus spp. and Temora longicornis) as well as nektobenthos (mysids, amphipods, and polychaetes). Mixed-stock genetic analysis indicates that coastal Skegerrak is used as a nursery for both the Baltic and North Sea spawning populations (Ruzzante et al. 2006).

threats:
This species is susceptible to threats from overfishing and habitat loss. In the mid 20th century, the Atlantic Herring was considered to be one of the most commercially valuable food fish species. In recent years it has been the 3rd to 5th most commercially important species. While stocks hit critically low levels in the 1970s and showed signs of commercial extinction, they have since recovered (Melvin and Stephenson 2007). In some areas, such as off the coast of NW Ireland, spawning aggregations are targeted (ICES Cooperative Research Report 306). Historical stock collapses, such as the collapse of the 1960s, have been ascribed to a combination of over-fishing and changes in environmental variables.  Herring spawning and nursery areas are vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbances, especially as gravel substrate is important fish habitat for herring spawning, and can be impacted by activities such as the extraction of marine aggregates (ICES advice May 2013).

conservationAction:
The HELCOM (2013) Red List project assessed this species as Least Concern under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, using the following rationale: "Autumn spawning herring is listed as EN in HELCOM (2007), however assessing all herring as one species results in Least Concern status. ICES estimates of spawning stock biomass (ICES 2011) show more than 50% decrease last 20 years in the Western Baltic spring spawning stock. The decrease in biomass is mainly a decline in individual biomass, not in numbers. In the rest of Baltic Sea there is a 25% decrease in Baltic proper (ICES SD25-29+32) but an increase in Bothnian Sea (SD30) and in Riga Bay (SD29:2). Furthermore, according to catch per unit effort in trapnet fishery there is a stable population in Bothnian Bay. Summing total spawning stock biomass for whole Baltic show no significant trend the last 20 years."In summary, this is a widely distributed species with high population size and according to estimation of total spawning stock biomass in the HELCOM area no significant decline the last three generations can be detected. No protection actions are currently needed in HELCOM area, however, fishery statistics should continue to be monitored to prevent overfishing.

useAndTrade:
This is one of the most commercially important species within the northern Atlantic Ocean.

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Nedreaas, K., Fernandes, P., Kjellén, N. & Florin, A.


taxonomicNotes:
Morphological studies based on gill raker counts and head length supported the designation of two sub-species within Sardina pilchardus. S.p. pilchardus (Eastern Atlantic from the North Sea to southern Portugal) and S. p. sardina (Mediterranean Sea and Northwest African coast)(Parrish et al. 1989). Genetic analysis using nuclear micro satellites supports S. pilchardus as a single evolutionary unit with present day gene flow among populations, with some weak but significant structuring best explained by an isolation-by-distance model (Gonzalez and Zardoya 2007). S. pilchardus is treated as a single evolutionary unit by fisheries managers, and the various stocks have been designated arbitrarily as magnitude of exchange between areas continues to be uncovered. This species does not appear to be as commercially important in the south-eastern Mediterranean. Long-term changes in the environment are related to productivity of S. pilchardus and other sardine and anchovy species in the Mediterranean (ICES 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT)Sardina pilchardus is an important commercial species in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It is found from Iceland and the North Sea south to Bay de Gorée, Senegal, including the Mediterranean basin as well as Madeira, the Canary Islands, and Cape Verde. The northern and southern limits of S. pilchardus distribution are related to average water temperature, and this species may be expanding its range northwards, towards Norway. It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 180 metres. Based on age of first maturity of about 1 year, and maximum longevity of 7 or 8 years the average generation length in the Northeastern Atlantic is estimated to be approximately 3.5 years. Based on the age of first maturity of approximately 1 year and maximum longevity of 4 years, the generation length in the Mediterranean is calculated as 2.5 years. The rate of population decline in the region is examined over a 10 to 12 year period.  Within the assessment region, S. pilchardus is landed in two FAO fishing zones: The Northeast Atlantic (NEA) Fishing Zone and the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fishing Zone; the NEA accounts for approximately 40% of landings declared to FAO while the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone accounts for 60% of landings. In the absence of additional information concerning the relative distribution of S. pilchardus within the assessment zone, it is inferred that the large-scale spatial distribution of landings approximates the spatial distribution of this species. Therefore, population declines were weighted by fishing zone.  The only stock assessment available in the Northeast Atlantic originates from the Iberian Peninsula, where 80% of non-Mediterranean landings originate. In the absence of additional data clarifying the spatial distribution of the population of S. pilchardus in the Northeast Atlantic, it is inferred that the abundance of landings originating from the Iberian Peninsula is reflective of the spatial distribution of the population in the Northeast Atlantic. There has been a 50% decline in estimated SSB on the Iberian Shelf over the past 12 to 15 years (1998-2013). However, this species appears to be increasing in abundance in the northern parts of its range.  The status of stocks in the Mediterranean is uncertain, as no reliable Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) evaluations are available. In addition at least 3 of the 9 reviewed stock management areas in the Mediterranean were reported to be overexploited and/or at risk of collapse in 2013. Therefore, this species is assessed under criterion A2 instead of A1 depsite an attempt at management. Another stock in the Southern Adriatic, which may be the largest in the Med, has experienced historical declines is estimated SSB of more than a 70% decline in estimated SSB based on an independent study conducted between 1984 and 1999. Additionally this species exhibits a truncated life history which is likely the result of prolonged exploitation. While S. pilchardus in the northeast Atlantic have a longevity of 8 years, those in the Mediterranean only live to 4 years.  Given the estimated 16% decline in the population within the assessment region, the truncation of life history in the Mediterranean, and the overexploited status and of several Mediterranean stocks, Sardina pilchardus is listed as Near Threatened under Criterion A2bd.

range:
Sardina pilchardus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the Baltic and North seas south to Senegal (Munroe in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, S. pilchardus is distributed from the British Isles south to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean and Black seas (Vasil'eva 2007). During the 1990s, S. pilchardus successfully invaded the entire North Sea and adjacent regions, such as the Irish Sea, Skagerrak, Kattegat and western and central Baltic Sea (Alheit et al. 2012). It is rare in Iceland, and it has been suggested that S. pilchardus is expanding its range northward in response to climate change (Brander et al. 2003). The northern and southern limits of the global distribution appears to be determined by temperature: to the north by the 10°C surface isotherm and to the south by the 20°C isotherm (Robles et al. 1992). Gaps in the distribution are likely due to a lack of data rather than evidence that the species is not present. This species is found at depths ranging from 10 to 180 metres.

population:
Population information by regionNortheast Atlantic Sardina pilchardus is increasing in abundance in parts of its range. During the 1990s, S. pilchardus successfully invaded the entire North Sea and adjacent regions, such as the Irish Sea, Skagerrak, Kattegat and western and central Baltic Sea (Alheit et al. 2012). It is rare in Iceland, and it has been suggested that S. pilchardus is expanding its range northward in response to climate change (Brander et al. 2003).  A stock assessment is available from the Iberian Peninsula and the Bay of Biscay (Iberian Shelf - ICES subareas 8c and 9a), where more than 80% of non-Mediterranean landings originate. Estimates of Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) from the Iberian Shelf over the past 12 to 15 years show a 50% decline from approximately 400,000 tonnes in 1998 to 200,000 tonnes in 2012 (ICES 2013). This decrease in biomass has corresponded to increasing landings and a doubling of the historical mean in fishing effort. Additionally, recruitment in recent years has been poor. Recruitment in 2010 was 76% below the historical geometric mean recruitment.   There is no stock assessment available from the Celtic Sea and English Channel. Advice provided by ICES indicate that fishing mortality is below reference points, and SSB is decreasing to just below long-term averages, with a cut in catch recommended (ICES Advice 2013).  There is no stock assessment available for the Northern component of the Bay of Biscay (8a,b and 8d), although there is evidence from surveys (PELGAS, BIOMAN) of strong recruitment of year-classes 2012 and 2013.  Mediterranean  The status of stocks in the Mediterranean is uncertain as no reliable estimates of SSB are available. Advice published in 2013 by the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF 2013) indicated that at least 3 of the 9 reviewed stock management areas in the Mediterranean were overexploited and/or at risk of collapse. These were the Gulf of Lyons stock, the eastern Ionian stock, and the Northern Spain Stock. In the eastern Ionian Sea landings were highly variable. The stock assessment estimated an increase from 2004 to 5600 tonnes in 2008, and the stock was considered overexploited. The Gulf of Lyons landings have fluctuated. In 2010 only 600 tonnes were landed. Biomass was considered very low and stock was at risk of collapse. The Northern Spain stock reached very low levels in 2009 (8000 metric tonnes) and was overexploited and at risk of stock collapse.  Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, stocks in the northern Alborian Sea were considered fully and sustainably exploited. Annual landings from the southern Alborian Sea have fluctuated, and no evaluation of the stock was made. In the Strait of Sicily an average of 1400 tonnes were landed annually. A decreasing trend in landings has been observed, and the stock is considered moderately exploited and at low to intermediate stock abundance. The stock in the Northern and Central Adriatic is considered sustainably exploited. Landings in 2008 exceeded 20,000 tonnes, with discards. Large historical declines in SSB (approximately 70%) of one of the largest Mediterranean stocks were recorded in an independent study conducted between 1984 and 1999 in the southern Adriatic Sea (Santogiani et al. 2005). Landings in the Aegean Sea have fluctuated decreasing between 2005 and 2008, with 9000 tonnes in 2008, with a slight recovery of SSB to 20,000 tonnes in 2008. This stock was considered to be harvested sustainable.  Regional StatusWithin the assessment region, S. pilchardus is landed in two FAO fishing zones: The Northeast Atlantic (NEA) Fishing Zone and the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fishing Zone; the NEA accounts for approximately 40% of landings declared to FAO while the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone accounts for 60% of landings. In the absence of additional information concerning the relative distribution of S. pilchardus within the assessment zone, it is inferred that the large-scale spatial distribution of landings approximates the spatial distribution of this species. Therefore, population declines were weighted by fishing zone. In the Iberian Shelf area, SSB has declined by 50%; elsewhere in the assessment region, populations are inferred to be relatively stable. As the Iberian Shelf represents 80% of the NEA landings, the population in the NEA is inferred to have declined by approximately 40%. As the NEA represents approximately 40% of the landings from the assessment zone, it is inferred that S. pilchardus has declined by 16% in the assessment zone. Trends in global FAO landing statistics and global population information from outside the assessment region  Landings of S. pilchardus from the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone accounted for 40 to 50% of global FAO landings by fishing area until the early 1960s, when landings from this fishing area began to gradually and continually decrease, from a high of 270000 tonnes in 1961 to less than 12% of the global catch with the lowest recorded landings in 2011 of 114843 tonnes. The largest landings were declared from the Eastern Central Atlantic, followed by the Northeastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The sardine stocks off Atlantic Morocco collapsed in 1997, when biomass decreased from 5660 to 1130 thousand tonnes despite no change in landings (Charouki et al 2004 cited in Charouki et al. 2011). Fluctuations in recruitment in some areas have been reported in recent years. Unfavorable environmental conditions combined with over exploitation may explain decreases in landings some areas (Martin et al. 2012).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology This is a pelagic, oceanodromous, littoral species (Brito 1991). This species forms schools, usually at depths between 25 to 55 or even 100 m by day, rising to 10 to 35 m at night. It mainly feeds on planktonic crustaceans and also on larger organisms.  Life History and Reproduction Sardina pilchardus is a batch spawner of indeterminate fecundity (Ganias et al. 2007) which is adapted to coastal upwelling ecosystems (Santos et al. 2004). Reproductive strategies of S. pilchardus are adapted to minimize Ekman offshore transport effects. In some areas, changes in the intensity and frequency of upwelling events during the spawning season have negatively impacted recruitment of this species (Santos et al. 2004). There is a latitudinal gradient in the duration and peak of the spawning season (longer duration and earlier peak in the south) (Stratoudakis et al. 2007, ICES 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea the species spawns in September-June, with a peak in autumn, in the Black Sea it spawns from June to August.  Reproduction occurs at depths between 20 to 25 m, near the shore or as much as 100 km out to sea (Munroe in prep 2014), producing 50,000-60,000 eggs with a diameter of 1.5 mm (Muus and Nielsen 1999). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 23 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 7.9 cm TL to 15.0 cm and for males ranges from 7.9 cm to 13.8 cm (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Most individuals are mature at age 0 or age 1 (80 %) at a length of 14 cm (Silva et al. 2006). In the eastern Mediterranean, length at which 50% of individuals are mature is 8 cm (GFCM 2004).  The last age class recorded in the Bay of Biscay was 7 to 8 years old. Fishing mortality was considered low relative to natural mortality in the Bay of Biscay fishing area (ICES WKPELA Report 2013). Maximum length is 23 cm (Silva et al. 2008), and individuals reach 90% of maximum length by age 4. Growth is seasonal, occurring outside the spawning period in late spring and summer, with body condition and fat content peaking in autumn. An increase in weights-at-age has been observed since 1991, which has been attributed in enhanced feeding rate induced by temperature noted since the early 1970s (Silva et al. 2010). Sardina pilchardus stocks in the eastern Mediterranean were dominated by age group 1 and 2 individuals, with individuals not exceeding age 4. This age range is very narrow compared to that found in the Atlantic, and also with other Mediterranean sardine stocks. In the Adriatic sea the age range exceeds age group 6, with a dominant age group 3 (Silva et al. 2008), and the western Mediterranean, the age range in sardine landings exceeds age group 5 ,with age group 0 and 1 dominating landings. The total length ranged from between 75 and 185 mm (Antonakakis et al. 2011). Using the formula Am + (Amax-Am/2), where Am = age at first maturity, and Amax=longevity. Based on age of first maturity of about 1 year, and maximum longevity of 7 or 8 years the average generation length in the Northeastern Atlantic is estimated to be approximately 3.5 years. Based on the age of first maturity of approximately 1 year and maximum longevity of 4 years, the generation length in the Mediterranean is calculated as 2.5 years

threats:
This is a highly-commercial species which is exploited throughout its range. It is dependent on regulatory control of fishing effort throughout its range. Its main catching methods are purse seines, set nets, lampara nets, and small drift nets. Off the Catalan coast, purse-seining is practiced 10 months/year and 5 days/week. Over the period 1994–2009, classes 0 and 1 represented more than 70% of the sardine landings off the Catalan coast, both in numbers and in weight. Class 1 was the major contributor to the annual landings (around 50%, both in numbers and weight) (Martín et al. 2012). As the principal commercial species in the basin, this species is fished throughout the Mediterranean, and has undergone population declines due to over-exploitation which have prompted reductions in effort and fisheries closures, particularly in northwest. In the south-western Mediterranean, stocks from Morocco, which account for the majority of Mediterranean landings, are considered over-exploited and continue to face high levels of exploitation. Data from the Eastern Mediterranean are scarce, however age 0–1 individuals comprise the majority of landings. In the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean off the coast of Egypt, S. pilchardus is the second-most abundant component (10–15%) of the commercially-important purse-seine small pelagic fishery after Sardinella aurita. Although S. pichardus is caught in large numbers in the purse seine fishery operating east of Alexandria, the catch is comprised of small sized fish of low value (Akel 2009). Recruitment fluctuations due to changes in local climactic and oceanographic regimes have been reported throughout the range of S. pilchardus. An increase in upwelling events in the winter, observed since the 1960s, has reduced the sardine spawning area in north-western Portugal by transporting larvae seaward rather than towards the coast (Stratoudakis et al. 2003, Santos et al. 2004). In the Mediterranean, connections have been found between low landings of S. pilchardus and Engraulis encrasicolus and the Western Mediterranean Oscillation index. The combination of over-exploitation and unfavorable environmental conditions for the species may explain the decreasing trend of sardine and anchovy landings in the western Mediterranean (Martín et al. 2012). 

conservationAction:
This species undergoes varying degrees of stock evaluation and assessment throughout the European Assessment Zone. Regional Fisheries Management Organizations such as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) which also set minimum landing sizes, area and seasonal closures, and gear/effort restrictions. The European Union has a minimum landing size adopted by countries in the Mediterranean Sea as 11 cm or 55 specimens per kg. There are no minimum landing sizes in the Black Sea. This species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Regional Assessment in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is a species with high commercial importance, though not necessarily high value, throughout its range. It is eaten and also used as bait or fish food. It is marketed fresh, frozen or canned, as well as dried or salted and smoked. It is the target of an important fishery on the Atlantic coast of the Iberian peninsula (Robles et al. 1992). This species dominates Mediterranean landings, accounting for 20% of Mediterranean annual landings (Lleonard and Maynou 2003) and 25% of the whole European sardine production (Freon and Misund 1999).

redListAssessors:
Cook, R., Fernandes, P., Florin, A., Lorance, P. & Nedreaas, K.


taxonomicNotes:
Disjunct populations of S. aurita  in the Western and Eastern Atlantic are in need of further study to determine their taxonomic status (Whitehead 1985). Sardinella brasiliensis is a species which has been described from the southeast Brazilian Bight and is a valid species according to Eschmeyer (Figueiredo et al. 2010). There are reports of sympatric occurrence with S. aurita in the Gulf of Mexico, however these may be based on misidentifications (Kinsey et al. 1994). We accept the conclusions presented in Tringali and Wilson (1993) that S. brasiliensis is a junior subjective synonym of S. aurita.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Sardinella aurita is a coastal neritic species found at depths ranging from 0 to 350 meters around the Canary Islands and in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. The populations of S. aurita appears to become more concentrated towards the equator. It is harvested at low levels in Northern Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea, as the large majority of harvests (>85%) originate from the Eastern Central Atlantic fishing zone, in waters regulated by CECAF. Stocks of S. aurita are considered over-exploited in the Eastern Central Atlantic and the Caribbean, however, the level of connectivity between S. aurita in the western Atlantic, and S. aurita in the eastern Atlantic is unclear; it is worth nothing that severe declines have  been observed. There are no stock assessments for this species in the area of the European Regional Assessment, and reported FAO landings are increasing. This species is more commercially important along the North African coast rather than the Mediterranean Coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sardinella aurita is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, where it is widely distributed along both coasts. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. aurita is known from the Mediterranean and Black seas, as well as Madeira and the Canary Islands (Smith 1997). It is found to depths of 350 m.

population:
In the European Regional Assessment region, this species is primarily found in the Mediterranean Sea. A stock assessment for Sardinella aurita in GSA3 (in 2003) indicated its population was stable (O. Kada. pers comm. 2007).  It is locally abundant in some areas, but never common in markets because of low demand for the species. A total of 38 tonnes of Sardinella aurita were reported to ICES from France, United Kingdom, and Portugal from FAO fishing area 27 from the years 2005 to 2011, indicating that it is not abundant in this area. In the eastern Mediterranean, off the coast of Egypt, S. aurita is a component of the commercially-important sardine fishery, which accounted for 40 to 90% of the catch by weight in purse seine fisheries, and included the species S. aurita, Sardina pilchardus, Dussumieria acuta and Sardinella mederensis. Sardinella aurita appears in the catch from early summer to late autumn, and is the dominant sardine taken in the Egypt sardine fishery, accounting for 80 - 90% in quantity (El-Haweet 2001).  Global landings for S. aurita are reported from the following fishing regions: Eastern Central Atlantic, Western Central Atlantic, South Eastern Atlantic, and Mediterranean and Black Sea. The Eastern Central Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic Fishing zones combined reported the substantial majority of landings, and, prior to the early 1970s, reported roughly equal landings hovering near 40,000 tonnes per anum. In the early 1970s, landings reported from the Eastern Central Atlantic began to to increase sharply, with an over 10-fold increase to a peak of 453410 tonnes in 1991, accounting for 85% of all landings. This peak was followed by a steep decline and stabilization in subsequent years to around 270,000 tonnes per anum, with landings roughly equally split between European and African nations. Despite this decrease in landings, S. aurita originating from the Eastern Central Atlantic still accounts for roughly 85% of global landings in this species. This is due to a sharp decrease in landings reported from the Western Central Atlantic. Utilizing mitochondrial DNA control region, a highly variable marker suitable for population-level studies, researchers found that there is virtually no gene flow between the Mediterranean and Eastern Central Atlantic (Chikhi et al. 1997). 

habitat:
This is a marine coastal pelagic species forming schools in coastal waters from inshore to edge of shelf. It prefers clear saline water with a minimum temperature of 24°C. This species is strongly migratory, often rising to surface at night and dispersing. It mainly feeds on zooplankton, especially copepods. Juveniles take phytoplankton (Bianchi et al. 1993). It perhaps breeds throughout the year (from June to September for the Mediterranean Sea, the season starts earlier in the east areas), but with distinct peaks. In some areas there are two main spawning periods. The breeding pattern is extremely complex, with two principal spawning periods in some areas (linked with upwelling regimes off west Africa). Population size and structure of S. aurita is strongly tied to climatic events; recent hydrological changes in the Northern Gulf of Guinea have been implicated in observed increases in catches of S. aurita in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, as well as changes in spatial and seasonal distributions (Binet and Servain 1993). Trematodes were found in intestinal tract (Bigelow et al. 1963). Its preferred climate and habitats are subtropical, neritic, marine environments. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 30 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 11.5 cm to 16.6 cm TL and ranges for males from 14.0 cm to 16.8 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is an epipelagic species mostly distributed along coastal areas. Juveniles tend to stay in nursery areas, but upon maturity they rejoin adult stocks offshore.

threats:
This is a species with relatively minor commercial importance in the European Regional Assessment area, and is primarily caught with seines. In the Mediterranean Sea, it had a commercial importance up to around the 1970s, but since then demand for this species has declined (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures for this species, it is of minor commercial importance in the European Regional Assessment, and is harvested at low levels in Northern Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Sea in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Stocks of S. aurita are considered over exploited in the Eastern Central Atlantic and the Caribbean; however, the level of connectivity between S. aurita in the western Atlantic, and S. aurita in the eastern Atlantic is unclear.

useAndTrade:
Sardinella aurita is of minor commercial importance in the European Regional Assessment, and is of more importance in the Eastern Central Atlantic and Caribbean. In addition to human consumption, this species is utilized as a bait fish and as food for tuna ranched in the Mediterranean.

redListAssessors:
Nedreaas, K., Florin, A., Cook, R., Fernandes, P. & Lorance, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC  Sardinella maderensis is found from southeastern Spain and Gibraltar southward along coastal West Africa to Morocco to including Madeira and Canary Islands, where it is common. It is also found in parts of the Mediterranean Sea, where it may be expanding its range. The center of this species distribution is off of West Africa, where it is a highly valued commercial species which is taken in large quantities with S. aurita. Most stocks in the West African region are considered over-exploited or fully exploited, with effort is increasing in the region. However, any declines in European waters represent the northern-most extent of the range of S. maderensis. Although it is taken in small pelagic fisheries, it has naturally low abundance in this region, it is not the explicit target of commercial fisheries, and there are no management measure in place. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sardinella maderensis is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the Mediterranean Sea south to Namibia. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. maderensis is present in the Mediterranean Sea, where it may be expanding its range. In the northwestern Mediterranean, its presence has recently been confirmed in the Gulf of Valencia off the coast of Spain (Sanz-Brau and Mezquita 2009) and in the Balearic Islands (Mas et al. 2009); it is also known from the southern Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is is more common along the southern and eastern coast, and also occurs in the Aegean Sea and on Turkish coast (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002) and penetrating the Suez Canal (Whitehead 1984) into the northern reaches of the Red Sea. It occurs from 0—80 m depth.

population:
The center of distribution of Sardinella maderensis is in the Eastern Central Atlantic, rather than in the Northeastern Atlantic. In the eastern Mediterranean, off the coast of Egypt, S. maderensis is a component of the commercially-important sardine fishery,which included the species Sardinella aurita, Sardina pilchardus, Dussumiera acuta and Sardinella maderensis. Sardinella maderensis and Dussumieria acuta were relatively rare compared to the other sardine species which are taken in the sardine fishery operating off the coast of Egypt. The mean length and weight of S. maderensis were not taken due to its rarity (El-Haweet 2001). This species rarely appears in purse seines and trammel nets in the east Mediterranean Sea, where it does not appear to occur in large schools (D. Golani pers. comm 2007). The population density varies across the Mediterranean Sea, it is more abundant in the central and west areas. There are no specific data available to indicate population size or trend. This species is not managed by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean.

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that forms schools in coastal waters, preferring waters of 24°C. It is found at depths of up to 80 meters, though it appears to be more common in shallow waters. The preferred climate and habitat are subtropical neritic, marine and estuarine waters. As compared to the similar S. aurita, S. maderensis has more prudent life history characteristics, undergoing relatively small migrations and tolerating, rather than adapting to, climactic variability (Cury and Fontana 1988). It is a relatively sedentary species which inhabits coastal, warm and often brackish waters (Binet et al. 2001). Although it is found in estuaries, it does not appear to reproduce in estuaries (Panfili et al. 2006). It is also found in hypersaline inverse estuaries, and represented nearly half the total biomass in the Sine Saloum estuary of Senegal (Simier et al. 2004). the Mediterranean Sea, it is inshore pelagic and semi-pelagic, it occurs along the coastlines and estuaries. In shallow waters it occurs near the bottom. This species feeds on a variety of small planktonic invertebrates, fish larvae and phytoplankton. It breeds once a year during the warm season (July-September).  The movements of S. aurita and S. maderensis are correlated with the seasonal up-welling. Sardinella maderensis is usually fished during the warm season in low-salinity waters.

threats:
Sardinella maderensis is of considerable commercial importance off West African coasts, where it is targeted by both foreign and domestic commercial fleets as well as domestic artisanal fisheries. However, in the European Regional Assessment, including the Mediterranean Sea, it has only low economic importance and appears to be relatively rare. It is also used as bait, particularly in tuna ranching operations. It is a coastal species that also occurs in estuarine areas, and river pollution may affect certain life stages of this species (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).

conservationAction:
Although this species occurs in the Mediterranean and is a component of small pelagic fisheries, particularly along the southern coast, it is not managed in this region. This species as assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Regional Assessment in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is of low economic important in the Mediterranean Sea, as it is relatively rare.


taxonomicNotes:
Population Structure There are several sub-species of S. sprattus, which are distinguished by small differences, mainly in numbers of post-pelvic scutes; S.sprattus sprattus; S. sprattus phalericus (Mediterranean, Adriatic, Black Sea); S. sprattus balticus (Baltic Sea). The subspecies S. sprattus balticus ranges from southern Skagerrak, and Mecklenburg and Kiel Bays to Kvarken in the Gulf of Bothnia, and to Kornstadt in the Gulf of Finland (FAO). However, no genetic evidence for a subspecies in the Baltic Sea or the occurrence of one subspecies in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea has been found (Debes et al. 2008). Population analysis using the mT Control Region supported four genetically distinct groups of S. sprattus, which fall under two major phylogroups; Phylogroup 1: A Northern Group (Baltic Sea, North Sea and Bay of Biscay), Gulf of Lyon Group; Phylogroup 2: Adriatic Sea Group and Black Sea Group (Bosporus and Black Sea) (Debes et al. 2008). The Strait of Sicily, with water temperatures of 24-25C, acts as a dispersal barrier between eastern and Western Mediterranean.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Sprattus sprattus is a highly commercial species throughout its range. In the European Regional Assessment, this species is present in the North Sea and Baltic Sea, south to Morocco, including the Mediterranean, Adriatic and Black Seas. It is a forage fish, and is also included in the multi-species trophic models, used to provide fisheries management advice in the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Available data (SSB, survey catch rates, etc) from available assessments show no indication of decline over the past 10 years (3 generation lengths). It is listed as Least Concern. However, catches in Norway have fluctuated, but the trend shows a steady decrease since the late 1960s to present. Catches over the past 10 years (2003-2013) in Norway show an approximate 50% decline. As this is an unregulated fishery at the moment, and recent genetic studies show that populations in Norway are distinct from the North Sea, this species may warrant additional management measures in Norway. Additionally, populations in the Black Sea are reported to be unsustainably fished, and little population trend information exists for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.

range:
Sprattus sprattus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from Scandinavia to Morocco. In the northeastern Atlantic, S. sprattus is distributed along the coast of Norway south to the Iberian peninsula and into the Mediterranean and Black seas. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in Adriatic (Dulcic 1998), Sea of Marmara (Yuksek et al. 2006), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), though it does not occur around Israel (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007). Although it is found north of 39° latitude, reproductive populations have only been confirmed for the Gulf of Lyon and the northern Adriatic Sea (Demir 1963; Debes et al. 2008). Sprattus sprattus may be expanding its distribution northward, as other small pelagic fishes are doing (ICES 2012). It is found at depths of 10-150 meters.

population:
The currently accepted delineation of sub-species of Sprattus sprattus is not supported by genetic analysis. Examination of the mTcontrol region gene at the population level reveals two phylogroups, with a geographic break between the eastern and western Mediterranean. The majority (80-90%) of landings are reported from the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone, with remaining landings reported from the Mediterranean and Black Sea.  This species is an important forage fish and is also included in the multi-species trophic models, used to provide fisheries management advice in the Northeast Atlantic region. Due changes in climate, it is expanding its range northwards, towards Norway, and has become more abundant in the northern parts of its range. Although global warming appears to have had a positive effects on Sprat recruitment in the Baltic, too much warming might impair recruitment in southern areas, such as the Black Sea (Rijnsdorp et al. 2010).  This species is is the third most important species landed in the Mediterranean overall, and the most important species in landed the eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. Stock assessments are sporadic and not regionally comprehensive, however all available data suggest that the Atlantic/Western Mediterranean phylogroup is exploited sustainably and is in the process of expansion. Populations in the eastern Mediterranean, particularly in the Black Sea have been over-exploited in the past, leading to stock crashes; however, based on available data these populations appear to have rebounded, biomass is considered intermediate, and exploitation is considered sustainable.Sprat landings have already disappeared in some recent years from fishery statistics of the northwestern Mediterranean (Palomera et al.2007). Recent figures appear to show an increase in landings (in the Mediterranean and Black Seas) over the last ten years (there was a highly significant decline in the 1990s in the Black Sea (Volovik and Agapov 2003). Specific Stock Information Channel The S. sprattus stock in the Channel (divisions VIId,e) has never undergone formal stock evaluation to to a lack of sufficient information. The stock structure in this region is unknown, and divisions VIId,e may not constitute a management unit (ICES Advice 2013). Landings from this region have fluctuated from 1985 to 2012; Stock size and spawning stock biomass appear to be continuously increasing (ICES Advice 2013).  Skagerrak and Kattegat - Sprat in division IIIa is fished with juvenile herring and the exploitation of Sprat has been limited by the restrictions imposed on fisheries for juvenile herring. There is a lack of sufficient information to evaluate fishing mortality and Spawning Stock Biomass of Sprat in this region, however an index of the stock trend indicates a 30% decrease in abundance in the four most recent years (2009-2012). There is concern that unless catches are reduced, a reduction in the production of juveniles is likely. Additionally, Sprat is fished with small-meshed nets, which catch a relatively high amount of small and juvenile fish. TACs agreed upon by the EU and Norway is substantially above catch advice given by ICES. Scientific survey catch rates are fluctuating with no trend from 1985 to present (ICES Advice 2013). Celtic Sea - The stock structure of sprat populations in this area is not clear. ICES recommends a 20% reduction on catches based on the 10-year average (ICES Advice 2013).  Baltic Sea -This is the largest fished stock for this species in the region. Trends of SSB overtime are increasing in the Baltic Sea and the most recent stock assessment shows no indication of decline (ICES Advice 2013). Although at the northern limit of its distribution, Sprat is abundant in the Baltic Sea, and has increased in abundance since the mid 1990s (Rijnsdorp et al. 2010). Sprat is an important prey species for Cod, and there is interest in managing this stock as part of a multi-species fishery. MSY reference points: Fmsy: 0.29; MSY (yeild): 180; Bmsy: 655. Spawning stock biomass has increased from a series low of less than 500t tonnes in the late 1970s, to a high over nearly 2000t tonnes in the late 1990s. In the subsequent 10 years, SSB has decreased to 1000t tonnes. Sprat is considered to be harvested sustainable and at full reproductive capacity in 2012.The Baltic Sea has undergone a regime shift from a cod- to a sprat-dominated system (Köster et al., 2003b; Möllmann et al., 2008), which has been partially attributed to changing environmental conditions due to climate change (Rijnsdorp et al. 2010).  North Sea Although the absolute stock size is unknown, the North Sea SSB appears to have more than doubled in size in the 1980s, egg abundance has increased, and an increase in the standing stock was observed in the 1990s (ICES Advice 2013). This has been attributed to the depletion of the cod stock (Rijnsdorp et al. 2010).This stock is considered to be at full reproductive capacity, with Fishing mortality (F) is below the provisional Fmsy proxy. The overall population in the Mediterranean and Black Seas shows strong fluctuations.Catches are unknown, and information is poor, but biomass estimated at 21,000 tonnes (based on an acoustic survey) in 2005 (STECF 2013).  Gulf of Lion - It had disappeared recently from the Gulf of Lion (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007), the reasons are unknown. Since 2008, Sprattus sprattus has been taken in the Gulf of Lyon, in the exploratory European Pilchard (S. pilchardus) fishery, which is characterized by low CPUE (GFCM 2011). An unusually high abundance of sprat was noted in the 2012 Assessment for the Gulf of Lion, with biomass estimated at 70,263 metric tonnes (GFCM 2011). In the Adriatic Sea, pelagic biomass fluctuations show cycles of 3–5 years that are probably traceable to macro-scale climatic factors (ICES WGSPEC Report 2012). In the Black Sea, Sprat is one of the most important fisheries species in the region. Black Sea Spratt stocks collapsed during the 1990s due to a combination of over-fishing and environmental degradation, drastically reduced the spratt stock, contributing to a major reorganization of that ecosystem and resulting in a trophic cascade (Daskalov et al., 2007).  Spratt abundance was less affected by the introduced Ctenophore M. leydei than other small pelagics, and recovered relatively well compared to other pelagic species - however it is worth noting that landings from 1998-2002 are only 68% of baseline values established before 1989 (Lembo, 1989). Sprat in the black sea is fast growing, with age comprises 4-5 age groups and lengths comprised between 50 and 120 mm, with the highest frequency pertaining to the individuals of 70-100 mm length (GFCM SAC-SCSA Report 2012). SSB trends are relatively stable at approximately 300,000 to 400,000 tonnes in recent years, with catches of  87,000 tonnes reported in 2011. It is still considered to be fished unsustainably (F=0.8, Fmsy=0.64).

habitat:
Sprattus srattus is a small bodied, pelagic, schooling, zooplanktivorous species which is broadly distributed. It is a short-lived species which rarely reaches 5 or more years (Bailey 1980). Adults are generally mature at 2 years (Alheit et al. 1987) It is tolerant of a wide range of salinities and can be abundant in estuaries (Rijnsdorp et al. 2010). It is a key "wasp-waist" species - both an important food source for many top predators, and a significant predator on the zooplankton community. Through egg predation, S. sprattus limits the recruitment success of other species, including the cod, Gadus morhua, (Köster and Möllmann 2000b).  This species is a multiple batch spawner, releasing eggs repeatedly throughout the spawning season. Spawning occurs in both coastal and offshore waters (Whitehead 1985) and timing of peak spawning, relative fecundity, and batch fecundity vary significantly between years and regions (Alheit et al. 1987). In southern European/Mediterranean waters, sprat spawn during winter months (November-April) at water temperatures of 9-14C. Spawning generally takes place at night, in surface waters (Alheit et al. 1987). It shows strong migrations between winter feeding and summer spawning grounds. It moves to the surface at night. It feeds on planktonic crustaceans (Flintegård 1987). Spratt in the North Sea undertake large seasonal migrations towards inshore waters for overwintering along the British coast and in the central North Sea.  In spring, Spratt leave inshore areas and disperse into offshore spawning areas during summer, then return (ICES 1990a). In the Baltic Sea, the northern distributional limit of this species, Spratt have increased in abundance and undergo migrations from basin spawning grounds to coastal feeding grounds (Rijnsdorp et al. 2010)

threats:
This is a species with high commercial importance, and is fished by several types of fishing gear but mostly from trawlers. Juveniles are used as bait and it are also sold as 'brislings' to canneries. Spratt are used in the production of fish meal and as mink food, and less for human consumption (Flintegård 1987).  The genetically distinct populations of the Gulf of Lyon and the Adriatic Sea may be vulnerable to changes in oceanographic parameters, particularly temperature, and to high fishing pressure. Coastal and riverine pollution may also be a threat to this species at certain stages in its life history.

conservationAction:
In the Black Sea, this species has some minimum size regulations: 6 cm (Bulgaria, Ukraine) and 7 cm (Romania). No other specific conservation measures are known to be in place. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution. Sprattus sprattus has been accidentally introduced to the USA from Ireland (FAO). In 2007, this species was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean Regional Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011), as population trends are not well-known. In the Mediterranean, it is common in some areas, but with strong population fluctuations. It is known to have disappeared from the Gulf of Lion, and in the Black Sea, a sharp decline in landings was seen in 1990.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2011 HELCOM Red List Assessment in the Baltic Sea. This species was listed as Near Threatened in the Norwegian Red List in 2006, and then reassessed as Least Concern in 2010 (using a generation length of 2 years). In Norway, catches have fluctuated, but the trend shows a steady decrease since the late 1960s to present. Catches over the past 10 years (2003-2013) show an approximate 50% decline. As this is an unregulated fishery at the moment, and recent genetic studies show that populations in Norway are distinct from the North Sea, this species may warrant additional management measures in Norway.

useAndTrade:
This is a species with high commercial importance, used as bait, fish meal and as mink food, and less for human  consumption (Flintegård 1987). It is utilized fresh, smoked, canned, and  frozen, can be pan-fried and broiled (Frimodt 1995).


taxonomicNotes:
The validity of this species is questionable (K. Carpenter pers. comm. 2013). There is controversy whether this species is a valid species or an ecomorph of E. encrasicolus (T. Munroe pers. comm. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
Engraulis albidus was described from the Mediterranean in 2004. However, the taxonomic status of this species is questioned by some scientists, specifically suggesting that this may be an ecomorph of E. encrasicolus. Further research is needed on its validity. As described, E. albidus inhabits inshore waters, brackish lagoons, and estuaries in the northwestern Mediterranean. Threats to this species are unknown but given its habitat preferences, it may be threatened by coastal development and estuarine degradation. If this is a valid species, it is probably exploited as with other anchovies in the area. In light of the unknown but potential threats from habitat modification and exploitation, lack of population data and uncertainties in the taxonomic standing of this species, Engraulis albidus is listed as Data Deficient.  

range:
Engraulis albidus is known from southern France and the northern Adriatic Sea (Borsa et al. 2004). However, E. albidus was only recently described based on positive identifications using genetic and morphologic markers (Borsa et al. 2004), and, if valid, it may be more widely distributed than is currently known. It is known from depths of less than 50 metres (Borsa et al. 2004).   

population:
This species is an inshore species, in contrast to the offshore species E. encrasicolus. It has only been described based on 29 specimens. There is no additional population information available (Borsa et al. 2004). 

habitat:
Engraulis albidus is a pelagic species which is known from inshore waters, brackish lagoons and estuaries in the northwestern Mediterranean. It is frequently observed in brackish lagoons from the beginning of spring to the end of summer. In autumn, it leaves the lagoons for nearby coastal marine waters. Sexually mature individuals of standard lengths between eight and nine centimetres spawn in lagoons in the summer (Borsa et al. 2004).

threats:
Threats to this species are unknown but, given its habitat preferences, it may be threatened by coastal development and estuarine degradation. Given its distribution and the economic importance of the similar E. encrasicolus, it is likely that E. albidus is experiencing many of the same exploitation pressures as E. encrasicolus.

conservationAction:
This species distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range and fisheries regulations (EU regulations) in place in parts of its range (Adriatic). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for E. albidus, however, E. encrasicolus is a closely managed species of high commercial importance and regulations protecting stocks of E. encrasicolus, such as seasonal closures, total allowable catches, minimum size regulations and spawning ground protections are likely to afford E. albidus some protection.

useAndTrade:
It is not known if this species is commercially exploited. If this is a valid species, it is probably exploited as with other anchovies in the area (T. Munroe pers comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC This species is found in Europe from along the eastern Atlantic, from Norway to South Africa, and in the entire Mediterranean and Black and Azov Seas. It has been recorded at depths ranging from 0 to 400 metres, but typically occurs in waters shallower than 50 metres. With an age at maturity is 1 year and longevity is 3 to 4 years, this species is capable of extremely fast reproductive turnover. This is a highly commercial, relatively high-value species which is targeted throughout its range. This species is considered overexploited in parts of its range, however it is subject to fisheries management efforts including Total Allowable Catches (TACs), minimum size restrictions, fisheries closures, and stock assessments and evaluations. Engraulis encrasicolus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
The European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, from Norway to South Africa, including the offshore islands. It is also known from the western Indian Ocean, including Mauritius (Whitehead et al. 1988). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from Norway to Madeira and the Canary Islands, and throughout the entire Mediterranean, Black and Azov seas (Whitehead et al. 1988). Further genetic studies are necessary to ascertain the presence of E. encrasicolus in other regions in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean (Borsa et al. 2004).  Small pelagic fish in all shelf areas surrounding Europe from the North African upwelling and the Black Sea north to the Baltic Sea and southern Norwegian coasts are shifting their distributions to the north. Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus, E. albidus) and Sardine (Sardina pilchardus) species invaded the North Sea in the mid-1990s, and have since established spawning populations (ICES 2012).

population:
Population structure Unusually strong geographic structure has been noted in this species, which does not correspond with management units. Northeastern Atlantic anchovy are genetically distinct from the Mediterranean E. encrasicolus. In the Northeast Atlantic biological data suggest the presence of two spawning groups, one along the eastern Cantabrian coast and a second off southwest France (Borja et al. 1998). Within the Mediterranean substantial structure was found between the Black Sea and Ionian Sea/Aegean Sea (Borsa et al. 2004). Additionally the sympatric species Engraulis albidus was recently described  in 2004 based on divergence in nuclear markers (Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2008). The current overfishing of most anchovy stocks in the Mediterranean and elsewhere could well lead not only to commercial collapse but also to the biological extinction of some populations. This species is primarily exploited in the Mediterranean, where low biomass has been noted since the 1990s due to a combination of factors whose interactions do not appear to be well understood (fishing mortality, parasites, climate change, and other environmental factors). It is worth noting that 2007 is a historical minimum in reported landings for this species (Sanzet al. 2008). The overall trend in landings reported from the Mediterranean and Black Seas, the Northeast Atlantic, and the Central Eastern Atlantic Fishing zone is of increase. There is no indication of decline in the Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Cadiz, and the Black Sea. In Northeastern Atlantic waters, biomass appears to be low and periodic closures are necessary to maintain biomass in the Bay of Biscay and Iberian waters. Further north, landings of this species have increased in the Celtic Sea and Western English Chanel, likely as a result of warming trends.   Stock-specific information in the Northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean: Northeast Atlantic north of the Bay of Biscay There has been an increase in commercial landings and catches in fishery-independent survey of E. encrasicolus and the sardine Sardina pilchardus in the Celtic Sea and Western Chanel (Beare et al. 2004) which may indicate a north-ward shift in the distribution of these species. Although anchovy are known to live in the English Chanel, they are not known to spawn in this area, and eggs and larvae have not been found in this region. Anchovy in the north of the distribution spawn in discreet locations and are associated with estuarine habitats.  Northeast Atlantic Portuguese waters/ Fishing area IXa Biomass is highly variable and without clear trends, however it is worth noting that the 2013 biomass index for division IXa is 49% below the median historical survey results. In the northern area, the biomass is 34% above the historical median. In 2010, a rise in biomass levels was detected in the Bay of Biscay, whereas in Algarve and Cadiz, a decrease in biomass was recorded for the third year in a row. The set Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for anchovy since 2002 is 8,000 tonnes, however it has not been met in recent years (3,013 t landed in 2009, 3,508 t landed in 2008). The Gulf of Cadiz fishery experienced a marked (43%) decrease in 2008 catches in relation to the year before (from 5,576 t in 2007 to 3,168 t in 2008), a decrease that still continues in 2009 (an 8% decrease which rendered 2,922 t). Mean length and weight at age has remained relatively stable over the last 10 years in this region. Periodic fisheries closures have been necessary to maintain biomass in this region (ICES2011a, ICES2011b). Bay of Biscay This stock is managed with periodic fishery closures. Acoustic surveys in the Bay of Biscay found this species to be the lowest in biomass of ten pelagic species. A decrease in anchovy stocks during the 2000's led to the closure of its fishery from 2005 to 2009. An increase in standing stock biomass, from under 50,000 to over 50,000 led to an end to the moratorium with accompanying catch quotas and continuous monitoring (ICES2011a, ICES2011b). Acoustic surveys (PELGAS09; PELGAS10) in the Bay of Biscay recorded a relatively high abundance of juveniles, individuals under 15.5 cm length, and individuals in the year 1 age class (ICES2011). Spawning-stock biomass has been above the limit reference point since 2006 and above the MSYbmanagement since 2010. The stock is currently considered to be at full reproductive capacity (ICES advice 2013 book 7). Estimates of  SSB in the Bay of Biscay over the past 10 years is fluctuating, with an increase in the last few years (ICES Advice 2013). Gulf of Cadiz Over the past 10 years there is no trend in indices from acoustic and egg surveys. Management efforts resulted in the sustainable exploitation of this stock (ICES Advice 2013). Mediterranean Anchovy is a targeted, high-value species in the Mediterranean and most stocks are considered fully exploited, while a few are over-exploited. Three-fourths of anchovy landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea are reported by Turkey. Anchovy accounts for 77% of the total marine fish catch in that region (FAO 2011). The 2012 General Fisheries Commission of the Mediterranean (GFCM) Stock assessments, which include Northern Spain (GSA06), the Gulf of Lyons (GSA07), the Tunisian coast (GSA 12-13-14), South of Sicily (GSA 16), and the Adriatic Sea (GSA 17, 18) note the continuation of a decreasing trend in biomass since the 1990s. Since the 1990s landings have remained fairly constant for the region, with variable fluctuations from region to region. Due to the poorly-understood impact of environmental factors which influence recruitment success of this species the GFCM has recommended not to increase fishing effort, and in some cases, to decrease fishing effort. The parasite Peroderma cylindricum has been implicated in the decrease in Anchovy abundance off the coast of Tunisia. The following stocks were considered overfished by the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF 2013) Overfished: Northern Alboran Sea, Northern Spain, Legurian and North Tyrrenian Sea, Strait of Sicily,  Fully exploited: Northern and Central Adriatic, Aegean Sea Moderately exploited: eastern Ionian Sea No assessment: Southern Alboran Sea Black Sea Engraulis encrasicolus is the most abundant species in the Black Sea, and is experiencing heavy exploitation in the region (E=0.66 and 0.71 for each season, depending on the region) (Samsun et al. 2004). Historical estimates of SSB from 1972 to 1993, show a decline from 1.2 million metric tonnes to 360,000 tonnes (Bingel and GüCü 2010). A dramatic decrease in landings since 1988 has been attributed to the competing invader Mnemopsis leidyi (Ctenophora). Landings again increased and stabilized after a sudden decline of M. leidyi. Black Sea landings over the last 10 years have fluctuated around an average of 225,000 tonnes (Samsun et al. 2004). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings by fishing region Landings are reported from the following FAO fishing regions: Mediterranean and Black Sea, Northeast Atlantic, and Eastern Central Atlantic. The overall trend in landings is one of continual increase to a peak of 858,792 tonnes in 1988, followed by a steep decline of nearly 50% in the early 1990s, then stabilization in reported landings around 500,000 tonnes. The trend is driven by landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea, which have accounted for 60 to 70% of global landings in recent years. Landings have steadily increased in the Eastern Central Atlantic fishing zone, which has accounted for 25% to 30% of landings in recent years. Landings in the Northeastern Atlantic have declined continuously throughout the time series. Following a steep decline from a peak of 130000 tonnes in the 1960s, landings declined and stabilized around 20,000 tonnes until 2007-2009, which had the lowest recorded values of the time series.

habitat:
Recent studies utilizing nuclear markers have indicated that there are two similar but distinct species of Engraulis in the Mediterranean, the offshore E. encrasicolus, and the nearshore E. albidus (Borsa et al. 2004). Given that there are two species, it is likely that the following habitat and ecology information applies to both E. encrasicolus and E. albidus. Further research is needed. Habitat and Ecology Engraulis encrasicolus is a pelagic and oceanodromous species which occurs mainly along coastal waters, forming large schools. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occupies nearly all the water column, with the core of the population occurring in less than 50 m depth. In winter months it moves deeper in the water column (to around 200 m). Depth range in Mediterranean Sea is from sea level to 285 m, and it is common over the continental shelf.  It tolerates salinities of 5 to 41 ppt and in some areas, enters lagoons, estuaries and lakes, especially during spawning. A study by Lloret et al. (2004) provided evidence of the influence of riverine inputs and wind mixing on the productivity of small pelagic fish such as Engraulis encrasicolus in the Mediterranean Sea. It tends to move further north and into surface waters in summer, retreating and descending in winter. Engraulis encrasicolus feeds on planktonic organisms, chiefly copepods, cirripede, and mollusc larvae, and fish eggs and larvae. (Nizinski in press 2014), (Plounevez and Champalbert 2000). Life History and Reproduction Spawning occurs from April to November in shallow water with peaks usually in the warmest months. In the central Adriatic Sea, the main reproductive activities occurs between April and September (Sinovcic and Zorica 2006). Size at maturity varies, but first spawning has been reported to occurs at sizes greater than 12 to 13 cm. In the Adriatic, size at maturity is reported as 8.2 cm (males and females) (Sinovcic and Zorica 2006), corresponding to the year 1 age class (ICES2011). Eggs are ellipsoidal to oval, floating in the upper 50 m and hatching during 24 to 65 hours. In the Ligurian sea, juveniles occur in shallow waters from September to January (Tunesi et al. 2005). The limits of the spawning season is dependent on temperature and is therefore more restricted in north areas. The sex ratio is 45% female (Koranteng 1993). Growth is rapid with fish reaching a length of 9 to 10 cm, and becoming sexually mature, after 1 year. Maximum age of individuals from southwestern Africa was 3 years (Nizinski in press 2014). Given that this species matures at 1 year of age, with a maximum age of about 3 years, generation length is estimated to be 2 years. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 18 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 10.8 cm to 11.2 cm TL and males from 10.3 cm to 11.4 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
This is a species with high commercial importance. Populations are heavily impacted by exploitation throughout the range and particularly in the Mediterranean. Additionally, stocks are delineated arbitrarily and do not reflect the population structure of this species. Populations in the Mediterranean may be declining due to a combination of factors including exploitation, parasitism and disease, competition from invaders, and unknown environmental disturbances including climate change.

conservationAction:
This species is subject to fisheries management in the Mediterranean, Black Sea, and Northeast Atlantic. Regulatory measures include Total Allowable Catches (TACs), stock assessments, and fisheries closures. In the Black Sea and Azov Sea, there are minimum catch sizes: 6.5 cm (Georgia and Ukraine), 7 cm (Romania), 8 cm (Bulgaria) and 9 cm (Turkey). In the Black Sea, minimum catch size is 10 cm (Unsal 1989). In the Mediterranean Sea, the minimum catch size set by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM)  is 9 cm. In some cases there are national efforts to control the fisheries (e.g., time and area closures).  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Regional Assessment in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is a species with high commercial importance. It is marketed fresh, dried, smoked, canned and frozen, and can be used as fish meal (Frimodt 1995). Small pelagic fish, mostly European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus, 50% of total landings), European pilchard (Sardina pilchardus, 25% of total landings), and sprat (European sprat (Sprattus sprattus) and Black and Caspian sea sprat (Clupeonella cultriventris) make up 50–60 percent of total declared catch in the Mediterranean (FAO FI 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
There are multiple undescribed species in this group which may have been confused with this species (Moore, Polanco, Russell, McEachran pers. comm. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern Bregmaceros atlanticus is a circumglobal species that occurs in tropical and temperate waters. In the Eastern Atlantic, it has been reported from Madeira to South Africa, with several records extending the range of this species into the Mediterranean. It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 700 metres. It is considered rare, and there are no known species-specific threats. Therefore, B. atlanticus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Bregmaceros atlanticus is a circumtropical species that occurs in temperate and tropical waters (Bernardes et al. 2005) and is considered to have the largest geographical distribution among its congeners (Turan et al. 2011).  In the eastern Atlantic, it has been reported from the southern Iberian peninsula to South Africa. It is known from several records in the Mediterranean: Iskenderun Bay, Turkey (Turan et al. 2011), Antalya, Turkey (Yilmaz et al. 2004), Izmir Bay, Turkey (Aydin and Akyol 2013) and off Palmachin, Israel (Goren and Galil 2005). A single specimen has been found from the Straits of Sicily (D'Ancona and Cavinato 1965). It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 700 metres.

population:
It has been hypothesized that recent records of B. atlanticus in the eastern Mediterranean stem from introductions from the Red Sea (although this species is not yet recorded from the Red Sea) or from ballast water (Goren and Galil 2008). This species is found at depths ranging from 0 to 700 metres, with the majority of individuals concentrating at depths of 50 to 100 meters (Clancy et al. 1956).

habitat:
Bregmaceros atlanticus is a small, planktivorous fish living in the open water (neritic-pelagic) (Cohen 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986). There are confirmed records of its capture at 35 m depth (Goren and Galil 2008). Since it was found in the stomach of the lizardfish, Saurida undosqamis which is rarely found deeper than 100 m, it may also inhabit shallow waters as well as deep. This species mainly feeds upon crustaceans, but also feeds on zooplankton and phytoplankton (FAO 2002).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to B. atlanticus. It is likely taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for B. atlanticus. Its distribution likely overlaps with several marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for this species.

redListAssessors:
Nedreaas, K., Florin, A., Fernandes, P., Cook, R. & Lorance, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Boreogadus saida is an abundant circum-arctic species which is found at depths ranging from 40 to 400 metres. It is found in a variety of arctic habitats, such as sea-ice, coastal habitats, brackish lagoons and nearly freshwater. It sometimes occurs in large schools and has been described as one of the most abundant fishes or the arctic. It is an important component of the arctic food web. It reaches a maximum age of seven years, with females achieving sexual maturity at age three. Boreogadus saida is not a major commercial species, however it is the target of a small Russian fishery. The extent to which this species will be impacted by climate change in the arctic is unknown. Therefore, B. saida is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The Polar Cod, Boreogadus saida, is a circumpolar species found throughout the entire north polar basin. In the north Pacific, B. saida is distributed from the Bering Sea to Cape Olyutorski, the Pribilof Islands, and Bristol Bay. In the North Atlantic, it is distributed around Greenland, into the Miramichi River, New Brunswick and Hudson Bay in Canada. In the northeast Atlantic, B. saida is found around northern Iceland and the Jan Mayen Islands, Svalbard and west to the Kara Sea. It is found at depths ranging from 40 to 400 meters (Cohen et al. 1990).

population:
This species increased in biomass in the Barents Sea from 1994 to 2004 (Aschan et al. 2013). Boreogadus saida is difficult to distinguish from another arctic gadid, Arctogadus glacialis (Nelson and Bouchard 2013). Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of this species around Greenland detected two mtDNA lineages, but no strong population differentiation (Pálsson et al. 2009). This species has been described as "probably one of the most abundant fishes of the Arctic" by numerous authors (Moskalenko 1964, Ponomarenko 1968, Falk-Petersen et al. 1986, Lønne and Gulliksen 1989).

habitat:
Boreogadus saida is a circumpolar species, and is found in arctic waters with and without drifting sea-ice (Ponomarenko 1968). Although it is sometimes found in association with sea-ice (Moskalenko 1964), it appears in much higher densities in other, more open habitats (Renaud et al. 2012). Boreogadus saida undergoes diel vertical migrations which are synchronized with the light/dark cycle, and which changes with seasonal lengthening of the photoperiod (Benoît et al. 2010). It occurs in coastal habitats during summer and winter. It can be found in brackish lagoons, in nearly fresh waters in river mouths. It is tolerant of widely fluctuating temperatures, salinities, and turbidities. It feeds primarily on planktonic copepods and amphipods, ice-associated amphipods and epibenthic crustácea (Bradstreet et al. 1986; Lønne and Gulliksen 1989). Although usually dispersed, this species sometimes occurs in large schools, and is an extremely important component of arctic marine food webs. It is an important food component for Ringed Seals (Phoca hispida), Harp Seals (Phocagroen landicus), Narwhal (Monodon monoceros), Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas), Thick-billed Murres (Uria lomvia), Northern Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) and Black-legged Kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) (Bradstreet et al., 1986; Welch et al. 1992). This species generally achieves sexual maturity at age 2 + (males) or 3+ (females) at lengths of 12 to 15 cm fork length (Lear 1979, Craig et al. 1982) and does not live beyond age 7 (Bradstreet et al. 1986). It spawns in winter beneath the ice in Russian waters (Moskalenko 1964, Barenkova et al. 1966, Rass 1968) and spawning and post-spawning B. saida have been observed congregating in regions deeper than 200 meters (Beniot et al. 2008). This species is not highly fecund, and its fecundity is only about 1% of the highly fecund G. morhua (Christiansen et al. 1998).

threats:
Climate change, and resulting changes to the Arctic environment, are likely to affect B. saida. Reductions in ice cover and the northward expansion of boreal Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) due to warming waters (Renaud et al. 2012) may impact the population of this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for B. saida. Its distribution likely overlaps with marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
Boreogadus saida is not a major commercial species. It was formally heavily fished in the USSR and by Norway, Danish and German vessels. In 1970, there were 348,000 tonnes reported to to FAO (combined catches for USSR, Norway, Denmark and Germany), and only there were 27,000 tonnes reported by USSR in 2010. It is targeted by a small Russian fishery (Bradstreet et al. 1986).

redListAssessors:
Fernandes, P., Cook, R., Florin, A., Lorance, P. & Nedreaas, K.


taxonomicNotes:
Gadiculus argenteus is considered a single species, however the sub-species G. a. argentueus is also currently considered valid (Eschmeyer 2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gadiculus argenteus is found in the northeast Atlantic from the Barents Sea to the Straits of Gibraltar and to the south along the Moroccan coast including the Mediterranean Sea. It is found at depths ranging from 100 to 1000 metres. It appears to be abundant in parts of its range. It is a non-targeted species of minor commercial importance which is taken as bycatch in a number of mixed-species trawl fisheries, however there is little species-specific use and trade/fisheries information available. It is primarily sold in local markets or processed into fishmeal. Therefore, G. argenteus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Gadiculus argenteus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the Barents Sea south to Western Sahara. In the northeastern Atlantic, G. argenteus is known from the Barents Sea south along the European coast to the Canary Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea, G. argenteus is known from the Catalan Sea (Cartes et al. 1994, Bozzano et al. 2005, Coll et al. 2006), the whole Spanish Mediterranean Sea (L. Gil de Sola pers. obs. 2014), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2003, 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), and the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), including the east Ionian (Mytilineou et al. 2005), Cretan (Tsimenides et al. 1991), and north Aegean seas (Kallianiotis et al. 2004, Filiz and Bilge 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005). It is found at depths ranging from 100 to 1000 metres.

population:
Gadiculus argenteus is abundant along the upper continental slope of the Norwegian Sea and in the deeper parts of the Barents Sea (Bergstad et al. 1987). At Rockall Trough, in the the North Atlantic, Gordon and Bergstad (1992) found this species to be a dominant component of the 250-metre bathymetric zone, accounting for 47.7% of catches by trawl. In the 500 m bathymetric zone, this species accounted for 6.1% of catches by trawl (Gordon and Bergstad 1992). Norway is which is the only country that reports landings of  G. argenteus, where it is taken as bycatch in the fishery for fishmeal and oil (Nedreaas pers. comm. 2013). The following quantities were reported: 2006: 625t; 2007:4153t; 2008: 1055 t., 2009: 1927t; 2010: 567t; 2011: 366t, 2012: 522 t. Gadiculus argenteus was also found to be a relatively abundant species on the continental margin of the NW Mediterranean, accounting for 5.27% of the biomass composition. According to Gristina et al. (2006), the Mediterranean population was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening (62 hauls). Mean density values from unexploited site were 1,536 in 1997 and 1,966 in 1998, from moderately exploited site were 9,050 in 1997 and 6,093 in 1998 and from heavily exploited site were 3,496 in 1997 and 3,201 in 1998. Mytilineou et al. (2005) mentioned that specimens were collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), with of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 647 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300 to 500 m (44 hauls) and 0.4 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500 to 700 m (52 hauls). Carpentieri et al. (2005) mentioned that this subspecies was sampled during 24 h surveys conducted in May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. Eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every three hours throughout the 24 h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30 to 40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively. Eighteen specimens per hour were caught. Filiz and Bilge (2004) mentioned that 110 specimens with lengths ranging from 6.4 to 10.5 cm TL were collected during March and July 2003 in Sigacik Bay (North Aegean Sea), using a bottom trawl.

habitat:
Gadiculus argenteus is a bentho-pelagic species (López-López et al. 2012). It occurs over mud, muddy sand, gravel, and rock bottoms. It feeds on small crustaceans and worms and is preyed upon by other fish (Cohen et al. 1990). It is a component of the upper slope assemblage, and characterized a relatively narrow bathymetric range of 300 to 800 metres (Fernandez-Arcaya et al. 2013). This species has been observed living up to age 3. It is a minor prey species of European hake (Merluccius merluccius) (Guichet 1995). Gadiculatus argenteus spawns during the winter in the west Mediterranean Sea and in the spring further north (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Some major spawning grounds have been found in the west part of the Mediterranean Sea, on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, in deep water. This species was excluded from a 2013 study by Fernandez-Arcaya et al. of the reproductive biology and recruitment of the deep-sea fish community of the NW continental margin of the Mediterranean because there was no available information concerning sexing of the species. 

threats:
Gadiculus argenteus a species with minor commercial importance. It is mainly and commonly caught through trawls as bycatch in commercial fisheries (A. Srour pers. comm. 2007). When landed in the Atlantic, it is utilized as fish meal. In the Mediterranean Sea it is either discarded or sold in local food trade.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for G. argenteus. Its distribution likely overlaps marine protected areas.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gadiculus argenteus is not targeted and is of minor commercial importance. In the northeast Atlantic, it is taken as bycatch and utilized as fish meal. In the Mediterranean Sea it is also taken as bycatch in a number of mixed-species fisheries, particularly trawl fisheries. It is either discarded or sold in local food trade only, where it does not have a high market value. Additionally, off Spain and Sicily, this species is caught in artisanal fisheries (Nedreaas pers. comm. 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
There is still uncertainty over whether Theragra finnmarchica is indeed a synonym of this species in the European portion of its range.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Gadus chalcogrammus has a small range in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, and is only known from off the Norwegian coast and southern Barents Sea. It is rarely caught. It is listed as Near Threatened in the Norwegian National Red List, based on estimates of very small population size (less than 2000 individuals), and that it may be threatened by catch in mixed-catch fisheries. However, no data are available, as it is difficult to identify and would likely be confused with Cod or Whiting. Given the Norwegian listing and the small range in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, Gadus chalcogrammus is also listed as Near Threatened here. More research is needed to confirm this species taxonomic status (i.e., Theragra finnmarchica), and to determine whether or not it has been introduced to this region.

range:
Gadus chalcogrammus is broadly distributed in the Pacific Ocean along the continental margins from the Yellow Sea in the Northwest Pacific to Puget Sound in the Northeast Pacific (Bailey et al. 1999a). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, G. chalcogrammus is known only from 57 confirmed individuals found off the coast of Norway and in the Barents Sea; these were once considered to be a separate species, Theragra finnmarchica, which is now considered a synonym of G. chalcogrammus (Privalikhin and Norvillo 2010). It is found from 50 to 250 m depth.

population:
This species is very rarely caught in the fishery in Norwegian waters. In 2010 only 57 specimens were collected outside the coast of Norway in the southern Berants Sea. Only adult specimens have been observed. In Norway, this species was estimated to have a population of between 1000—2000 individuals, and was therefore listed as Near Threatened under D1 on the Norwegian National Red List. It is difficult to observe this species, it may also be fished in mixed-catch fisheries. It has also been suggested that species may have been introduced to the region (Ursvik et al. 2007 in Mecklenburg et al. 2011). Theragra finnmarchica is considered a junior synonym of  Gadus chalcogramma based on genetic and morphological similarities (Byrkjedal et al. 2008). The populations of G. chalcogrammus representing the Norwegian Pollock (formerly called Theragra finnmarchica) are relatively rare, and appear to be restricted to coastal regions of Norway. Populations in the Atlantic appear to have been introduced via the Northern Pacific and, based on similarities of the mitochondrial genome, should be considered one species, Gadus chalcogrammus (Ursvik et al. 2007). In general, surveys of genetic markers including allozymes, mtDNA RFLPs, microsatellites, and the pantophysin (PAN I) gene show only weak population structure (summarized in Grant et al. 2010). However, the FAO refers to this species as Theragra chalcogramma, and treats Theragra finnmarchica as a distinct species.

habitat:
This is a generally demersal species which can be found at depths ranging from 30 to over 400 meters. The age of first maturity is around 3-4 years. This species forms spawning aggregations at depths of 50 to 250 m and there are currently about 24 known spawning areas (Grant et al. 2010). This species grows rapidly, and lives to 14–15 years. The young feed mainly on copepods and their eggs.

threats:
This is a major commercial species in many parts of its range, however it is rarely caught in the Northeastern Atlantic.

conservationAction:
Pollock are divided into several management regions: In the Northeast Pacific and Bering Sea, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council assesses populations separately in three areas: The Aleutian Islands, the eastern Bering Sea, and the Gulf of Alaska. Finer spatial resolution of stocks is recognized in the Gulf of Alaska (Dom et al. 2008). Two fishery regions are defined in the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Bering Sea (a western Bering Sea stock in the Gulf of Olyutorski and a northern Bering Sea stock on the Navarin shelf from 171E to the US-Russia convention line). This species is listed as Near Threatened in the Norwegian National Red List.

useAndTrade:
Gadus chalcogrammus is the largest of all commercial demersal fish resources. It is caught primarily by pair trawl and stern trawl, Danish seines and longlines, and gillnets and dragnets (Cohen et al. 1990). However, it is rarely caught in the northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gadus morhua is restricted to the northern Atlantic Ocean and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean. It is found to depths of 600 m. Within the European Regional Assessment Zone this species is managed across 13 stocks. Age of first maturity, longevity and estimates of generation length are variable across the region and have generally decreased over time. This decrease has been attributed to high fishing pressure. Recent estimates of the age at first maturity range from 2 to 7 years, while longevity ranges from 10 to 20 years or more. In 2010, weighted average generation length for the Arctic, Norwegian coastal and North Sea stocks was 6.9 years was used by the Norwegian National Redlist project to assess this species. This value was used to assess this species against Criterion A at the European Regional Level. Population trends for G. morhua were examined over a period of 3 generation lengths or roughly 21 years. Although this species has undergone significant historical population declines, over the last 10 to 20 years available estimates for SSB summed across 8 stocks in the region show relatively stable trends with a recent increase in SSB. This recent increase in SSB as been attributed to the increase in abundance of the largest stock, the Arcto-Norwegian cod. SSB estimates are not available for all G. morhua stocks in the region. The North Sea stock has shown recent signs of recovery from historically low biomass levels.Some stocks, such as Faroe Plateau, Faroe Bank (closed due to low biomass), West of Scotland, Irish Sea (closed due to low biomass), Norwegian Coastal Cod and Kattegat have failed to recover from historical population declines. Overall, G. morhua is well researched and managed throughout its range in the northeast Atlantic. Therefore, Gadus morhua is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Gadus morhua is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean. Gadus morhua is found from Greenland south to Cape Hatteras in the western Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, G. morhua is known from Svalbard and the Barents Sea south to the British Isles and the northern Bay of Biscay, including the region around Bear Island (Cohen et al. 1990). The distribution extends for variable distances to the north, depending upon climate trends. It is found to depths of 600 m.

population:
All of the Northeastern Atlantic stocks, with the exception of the Celtic Sea stock have suffered prolonged periods of decline since 1970 extending into the mid-2000s (ICES 2006). Simplified estimates of the proportion of cod biomass remaining in the North Atlantic range from 0.1 to 1% of virgin biomass across 21 cod stocks (Myers and Worm 2005), however these estimates of virgin biomass are simplistic and may not have taken account of environmental and foodweb constraints ( pers. comm. 2014). However, in the mid 2000s and early 2010s, some Eastern Atlantic stocks have exhibited reversals in this declining trend. The following 13 stocks are recognized in European marine assessment region: Northeastern Arctic Cod, Norwegian Coastal Cod, Iceland, Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic, Kattegat, North Sea (including Eastern Channel and Skagerrak), Irish Sea, Rockall, West of Scotland, Celtic Sea, Faroe Bank, Faroe plateau.Cod stocks in the region range from fully exploited to depleted. Total Biomass estimates for cod stocks (cod-arct; cod-farp; cod-iceg; cod2532; cod7e-k; cod-scrow; cod-347d)  over the last 30 years (1981 to 2011, a time interval where data for all stocks is available) show an overall trend of gradual decrease from 4366872 tonnes in 1981 to a low of 236711 tonnes in 1999.  In the subsequent 12 years, estimates of Total Biomass increased to 5222031 tonnes in 2011. The increase in the total and standing stock biomass of North East Arctic Cod, a single management unit which is distributed along the Norwegian coast and in the oceanic regions of the Barents Sea – Spitsbergen area, drives the recent increase in total biomass in the Northeastern Atlantic. Overall, over the past 10 to 20 years, total SSB summed across all stocks in the region are relatively stable, and recently increasing (ICES Database, ICES Advice 2013).However, it is important to note that in the Northeastern Atlantic, stocks which are outside safe biological limits are Faroe Plateau, Faroe Bank (closed due to low biomass), West of Scotland, Irish Sea (closed due to low biomass), North Sea, Norwegian Coastal Cod and Kattegat.In the Eastern Baltic, the level of recruitment has been stable, but at lower levels over the past 20 years (1990-2010) compared to prior years. In the Eastern Baltic, this species has lost two-thirds of its spawning area due to eutrophication and lack of saline water. However, the SSB has been rising over the past 10 years, and current mortality is below Fmsy.Declines in age and size at maturity in many stocks (in particular: Arcto-Norwegian Cod, S. Labrador, S. Gulf of St Lawrence) have been attributed to genetic responses to the selective pressures of high fishing mortality. Declines in recruitment rates in some stocks have been attributed to declines in age and size at maturity in some stocks.Global/species-level information Global landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions: NE Atlantic, NW Atlantic, Arctic Sea. The overall trend in declared landings is one of continual increase to a peak of 3,939,642 tonnes in 1970 followed by a continual decrease in global declared landings to minimum of 769,317 - a decline of 63% - in 2008. Since 2008, landings have increased slightly, to 1,049,666 tonnes, the majority of which (96%) originate in the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone. Global landings of G. morhua peaked in 1970 at 3,939,642 tonnes; since then, landings have declined by 73%, to 1,049,666 tonnes in 2011. Over the last 30 years (1981-2011), landings have declined by 51%; over the last 20 years, global landings declined by 46% (FishStatJ - accessed July 2013). Landing statistics do not take into account decreasing in fishing effort. FAO also recognizes several sub-species: G. morhua callarias (Baltic Sea), G. morhua kildinensis (restricted to a small lake on an island near the entrance to Kola Bay) and G. morhua morhua natio hiemalis (Kandalaksha Bay) (Cohen 2009).Population and stock structure The Atlantic Cod, G. morhua, is recognized as a single, valid taxonomic unit. However, there is substantial population structure and variability in morphology, ecology and behavior within this species. Additionally, this species have undergone a recent and rapid evolution in response to the fisheries-induced depletion of 99 percent of Canadian populations. This fisheries-induced evolution has been hypthesized to negatively affect the persistence and recovery potential of depleted populations (Kuparinen and Hutchings 2012).There is a significant relationship between gene flow and geographic distance in G. morhua, both across its entire range and at smaller geographic scales. It is proposed that, after an initial colonization period gene flow has slowed considerably among extant populations (Pogson et al. 2001).  On a North-Atlantic wide scale, genetic studies utilizing RFLP, mini- and microsatellite markers support the genetic distinctness of Eastern and Western Atlantic populations of G. morhua. These markers also support the distinctness of populations in the Barents Sea from other populations in the Northeastern Atlantic (Bradbury et al. 2012). In the Northeastern Atlantic, genetic differentiation has been found at various spatial scales. Major populations include the NE Arctic, Norwegian coastal, North Sea, and Baltic cod stocks. Cod in Iceland may be sub-divided into at least two populations, but are managed as a single unit (Jónsdóttir et al. 2007, Reiss et al. 2009). Sub-population structure is evident in the North Sea stock, and additional fine-scale microgeographic structure among fjords throughout the region has also been suggested, however the temporal stability of this structure is poorly understood (Reiss et al. 2009). In contrast to cod stocks in the western Atlantic, Northeastern Atlantic stocks do not share patterns in increase and decline in biomass, and all stocks are in areas where the average annual bottom temperature exceeds 4C (ICES WKDRCS Report 2006).Stock-specific information in the Northeastern Atlantic Arcto-Norwegian Cod There are several similarities between stocks in the Western Atlantic and the Arcto-Norwegian Cod Stock. Of all eastern Atlantic Cod stocks, the Arcto-Norwegian Cod occupies the coldest bottom average temperature, which hovers around 4C (ICES 2005). The effects of temperature variability are generally greater at low than at high temperatures, and changes in mean weight-at-age are generally smaller in stocks found in warmer waters (ICES WKDRC5 Report 2006). There is evidence for a prolonged decrease in the mean age of this stock which has accompanied the intensification of this fishery (Ottersen 2008), and a sharp drop in the proportion of repeat spawners (Ottersen et al. 2006 references in ICES WKDRCS Report 2006). An investigation by Brander found that for 10 of 15 stocks investigated, prolonged periods of decline in biomass were preceded or coincided with declines in mean weight-at-age (in ICES WKDRCS Report 2006).Total biomass estimates for Arcto-Norwegian Cod are available from 1946 onwards; it is worth noting that the current total biomass is the third-highest estimate in this time series and is 88% of the 1946 biomass; Spawning Stock Biomass has increased throughout the time series, with the highest levels recorded in 2011. The age of 50% maturity for this stock is between 6 to 7 years old; spawning stock biomass for this species as a proportion of total biomass has increased over time to a high of 50% in 2011. Fcurrent is below Fmsy, Bcurrent is above Blim. It is worth noting that there is evidence of genetic structure between Norwegian Coastal Cod and the more migratory Arctic Cod stock (summarized in Bradbury et al. 2012) although biomass data may be aggregated in the ICES Stock Assessment Database. Iceland/Greenland Stocks in Iceland/Greenland have contributed an average of 24% to the total biomass, has exhibited a steady decline from 1241870 tonnes in 1981 to a low of 550369 tonnes with fluctuations and some sign of biomass increase from 1995 on-wards, to 944459 tonnes in 2011. In 2013, the Icelandic stock was considered to be at full reproductive capacity; Fcurrent<Fmsy, and fishing mortality has been steadily decreasing since the early 2000s. SSB is increasing, and the stock is considered to be at full reproductive capacity, although productivity is relatively low. Standing Stock Biomass is expected to increase by 14% in 2014 under the current management regime. (ICES Advice 2013).The Inshore Greenland Cod is a data-limited stock, however qualitative evaluations are that Biomass is increasing, and recruitment is good. Cod in Greenland live close to the distributional limit, which renders the population vulnerable to environmental fluctuations. Catches are increasing (ICES Advice 2013). ICES advises that no offshore fishery should take place in order to improve the likelihood of establishing offshore spawning stocks in West and East Greenland (ICES Advice 2013).Baltic Sea/Kattegat It has been hypothesized that for cod in the Baltic Sea, low stock biomass has increased the relative importance of factors governing dynamics and productivity. Predation via pelagic fish on eggs and larvae of cod may be may be sources of high predation mortality. Without changes in environmental conditions favoring better recruitment, it is unlikely that cod in the Baltic Sea will experience any substantial increases in biomass (WKDRCS Report 2006). Cod in Subdivisions 22-24 (Western Baltic Sea) - Fcurrent>Fmsy; Bcurrent>Blim After dropping precipitously in the early 1990s, SSB increased and has undergone fluctuations (in the early 1980s, SSB fluctuates around 50t tonnes; 2012 estimates fluctuate around 40t tonnes, the overall trend is an increase in biomass over the last 21 years. A management plan for this stock was agreed upon by the EU which aims for a reduction in fishing mortality by 10% each year until target mortality is reached; however, current F is still above management goals.Cod in subdivisions 25-32 (Eastern Baltic Sea - Cod2532 in database) - This stock has exhibited precipitous declines in SSB since peaking in the mid 1980s.  slope of linear trend line: -23485; 69% decline from 1981 to 2011: total biomass in 1981: 948216 t; 2011: 657693). Fcurrent<Fmsy; Bcurrent>Blim since 2008 (ICES Advice 2013). Cod in Division IIIa East (Kattegat) - This is a genetically-distinct stock, separate from the North Sea (André et al. in prep.). ICES advises that there should be no directed fisheries and by-catch and discards should be minimized.Cod in Subarea IV (North Sea) and Divisions (VIId) (Eastern Channel) and IIIa West (Skagerrak) - A continuing reduction in Fishing mortality, which began in the late 1990s and has continued until 2013, has led to a slight improvement in the status of this stock over the last few years; The stock SSB has increased from the historical low in 2006 and is predicted to further increase. However, recruitment is still poor. FMSYcurrent> FMSY; Bcurrent>Blim (ICES Advice 2013).Celtic Sea Cod (Cod in Divisions VIIe-k) - Fmsy is at target (0.4), but was well above target in recent years; Bcurrent> Blim in 2012. This cod stock lives at the highest average temperature, with the highest growth rate, condition and surplus production. From 1970-2002, this was the only NE Atlantic stock showing a rising trend in biomass (1.6% annually) despite increases in fishing period over the same period (1.8 annually)(ICES WKDRCS Report 2006).Cod in Division VIIa (Irish Sea) - ICES advises no directed fisheries. Fisheries for this species have been closed since 2003 in response to declines in SSB (ICES Advice 2013).Cod in Division VIb - Rockall - ICES considers this to be a data-limited stock.Cod in Division VIa (West of Scotland) -  This stock is suffering from reduced reproductive capacity and the harvest of this stock is considered unsustainable; Bcurrent is well below Blim, and SSB had steadily declined from about 40t tonnes in  1981 to less than 3t tonnes in 2012. Management measures taken thus far have not recovered the stock and have not constrained catches (ICES Advice 2013).Cod in Subdivision Vb2 (Faroe Bank) - Because of very low stock size, ICES advises that the fishery should be closed. Fishery reopening should not be reconsidered until both survey indices indicate a biomass at or above the period 1996 - 2002.Cod in subdivision Vb1 Faroe Plateau- Bcurrent is slightly above Blim,and has been hovering around Blim since 2005. Fcurrent>Fmsy  ICES recommends a 69% reduction in present fishing mortality. The overall trend in SSB is one of increase to peak of roughly 120t tonnes in the mid 1970s, followed by a decline to the series low of 20t tonnes in 1991; The stock has fluctuated, and is currently near the series low=Blim=20t tonnes (ICES Advice 2013).     

habitat:
Gadus morhua larvae and postlarvae feed on phytoplankton, while juveniles feed predominantly on small crustaceans. An upsurge of cod-like fishes in the North Sea from 1962 onwards has been attributed to a one-month delay in copepod production (Cushing 1984). Older juveniles and adults feed on fishes and benthic organisms such as polychaetes and echinoderms (Cohen et al. 1990) Cod is a top-predator in the ecosystem. There are varying degrees of migratory and sedentary behavior observed in this species. Based on populations studied in the North Atlantic, there is a proportion of G. morhua which did not migrate a significant distance from their release location (Robichaud and Rose 2004).Gadus morhua aggregates to particular geographic localities annually to spawn annually (Brander 1975), many of which are well-known in the Northeastern Atlantic. In the North Atlantic, reproduction generally occurs once per year from December to June, with some temporal variation by sub-population. Reproduction in the western Atlantic occurs near the substrate, and occurs at temperatures near 0-1°C, however temperature varies, and in the North Sea reproduction occurs at higher temperatures. Reproduction is localized, by sub-population. Longevity is reported to be as high as 20 to 25 years. There are occasional reports of hermaphroditism, and average fecundity is 1 million eggs/female (Cohen 1990).An analysis of 22 North Atlantic Cod stocks (Gadus morhua) identified 4 patterns of sexual maturation: maturation early in life and at small size, early in life at large size, late in life at small size, and late in life at large size. These patterns clustered geographically. Recruit production of northernmost stocks was lowest and variability highest, mid-latitude stocks exhibited highest productivity and least variability, while stocks at the southern distribution range also showed low productivity (Köster et al. 2013).In general, Northeastern Atlantic stocks have higher growth rates, mature at younger ages, and have higher surplus production than  Northwestern Atlantic stocks inhabiting colder waters (Dutil and Brander 2003), as temperature ranges in the North western Atlantic are generally less extreme, and have less of an effect on growth and recruitment. In the Western Atlantic there are variations in age of first maturity. Estimates of at 50% maturity range from 2-8 years (Lilly et al. 2003, Olsen et al. 2005, Olsen et al. 2004). In the Western Atlantic, age at 50% maturity for females has decreased over time from 6 years in 1980s to 4.5 to 5 years in the mid-1990s, and age-specific body lengths declined by about 15-25 cm through the 1980s and early 1990s as maturation has shifted towards early ages and smaller body lengths (Olsen et al. 2005).In the Northeastern Atlantic, there is great variability in the age of first maturity (from 2 to 7 years) and age at 50% maturity (from 3 to 7 years), and longevity may be as high as 20 years (ICES 2005).  Average generation length across the region is therefore variable, ranging from 2-7 years, and possibly increasing in the Arctic stock of this species. However, age of first maturity and longevity also appear to have decreased over time. For example, in the Baltic Sea in the 1930s, cod typically matured at 8-11 years, while now they typically mature at 6 (46% mature), and 8 (89% mature) years. In 1987, average age of reproducing adults was 15 years (HELCOM Fact sheet), however, ICES calculates current generation times for the Baltic Sea stocks at 2-5 years (ICES Advice 2013). In 2010, weighted average generation length for the Arctic, Norwegian coastal and North Sea stocks was 6.9 years (Norwegian Red List Assessment). In the Flemish Cap, age at 50% maturity varied from 5-7 during the 1980s, but declined to 4 during the 1990s (ICES 2005).

threats:
By far, the greatest threat to G. morhua is over-exploitation (Rose et al. 2000, Froese and Pauly 2003, Handegard et al.2003, Harvey et al. 2003, Sellers 2003, Cardinale and Svedäng 2004, Suuronen et al. 2007, Urbach and Cotton 2008). Additionally, variability in climate has contributed to variability in recruitment, growth, and natural mortality. Cooling events during the last 3 decades of the 20th century contributed to the rapid decline of Northwest Atlantic stocks, and changes in life-history traits and in the biotic environment are contributing to an unexpectedly slow recovery (Lilly et al. 2008). The ability to “rebuild” cod stocks that have declined to very low levels may be limited, and turning off directed fishing pressure may be insufficient to promote recovery in stocks which have already declined to low levels (WKDRCS 2006). For example, the warming of the North Atlantic during the 1920s and 1930s led to a rapid increase in abundance of G. morhua off West Greenland and northward range expansions. Subsequent cooling events in West Greenland in the 1960s, as well as increases in fishing pressure led to substantial declines in stock biomass and collapse of the stock. Cod have been subjected to changes in climate and fishing intensity for centuries, however detailed information on declines and recoveries comes primarily from the last 30 to 40 years.  The Atlantic Cod has also lost spawning grounds in parts of its range (Baltic Sea) due to oxygen deficiency (ICES Advice 2012).

conservationAction:
All stocks for this species are currently under management plans with annual total allowable catches, temporal and spatial closures, protected areas, and various gear restrictions and rebuilding plans. Reductions in exploitation rate led to the improvement of some cod stocks in the Eastern Atlantic, however it is notable that despite stringent management measures, some cod stocks in the eastern Atlantic remain in poor condition (Fernandes and Cook 2013) Gadus morhua was assessed as Vulnerable (VUA2b + A2c) in the HELCOM 2013 assessment. This assessment resulted from the combined assessments of several sub-populations of the Baltic Sea Cod: Western Baltic Cod (NTA2b), Eastern Baltic Cod (VUA2b +A2c), and Kattegat Cod (CR A2b and A2c). 

useAndTrade:
This is a highly commercial species. It is one of the most important commercial fish species. Thirty-five percent of the 2.23 million tonnes of demersal fishes landed in the NE Atlantic were cod. Norway and Iceland are the primary fishing fleets targeting cod in the NE Atlantic, however it is taken as a bycatch species in almost all demersal and some pelagic fisheries (Reiss et al. 2009). Gadus morhua is caught primarily with bottom otter trawls and pelagic trawls. It is also taken by gillnets, which have replaced handlines and cod traps in parts of its range. Other types of gear used include longlines, Danish Seines, purse seines, twin beam trawls, light trawls, shrimp trawls, and pound nets. Major fishing grounds are Boreo-arctic, mainly around Iceland, in the Barents Sea, off Newfoundland, and West Greenland, in the Norwegian Sea, Off Sptzbergen, and around Bear Island. It is marketed fresh, frozen, and chilled as fillets or whole, salted or sugar-salted, dried and salted, dried and unsalted, in brine, or smoked. It is processed into liver oil, and eggs are marketed as smoked or as frozen roes (FAO)


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Melanogrammus aeglefinus is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean. Melanogrammus aeglefinus principally occurs at depths of up to 600 metres, but is more abundant at depths between 40 and 300 metres. It is a commercially important species which is harvested throughout its range. Trends in the population were evaluated against Criterion A over a 3-generation timeframe of 10-15 years using Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) estimates, which were available for 7 stocks. Summed SSB fluctuates around a relatively stable mean over the last 10 to 15 years, a time period which likely approximates three generation lengths given the variability in age at first maturity in this species. Therefore, M. aeglefinus is listed as Least Concern. This species is managed to varying degrees throughout its range within the European Assessment Zone. This species is managed to varying degrees throughout its range within the European Assessment Zone.

range:
Melanogrammus aeglefinus is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean. In the western North Atlantic, this species is distributed from the Greenland south to Cape May, New Jersey. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is distributed from Svalbard and Barents Sea south to the Bay of Biscay. Melanogrammus aeglefinus principally occurs at depths of up to 600 metres, but is more abundant at depths between 40 and 300 metres (Hedger et al. 2004). Haddock is extending its range northward due to a recent period of increased influx of warm Atlantic seawater to the western coast of Svalbard (Renaud et al. 2011, Cardinale et al. 2012). MRN, ZMO and SRF records show this species as being found along western and northern Norway, east to Novaya Zemlya (Cohen et al. 1990).

population:
Population structure  Despite its commercial importance, relatively limited information is available on the genetic population structure of this species, and it is likely that management units are misaligned with genetic partitions (Reisse et al. 2009). Studies from the Northwest Atlantic using micro-satellite markers have revealed population differentiation between banks (Nantucket Shoals, Grand Banks). The latest ICES benchmark meeting (ICES WKHAD 2014) concluded that the North Sea population and the west of Scotland population are closely linked. In the latest assessment both stocks were merged into a Northern shelf haddock stock (ICES WKHAD 2014). This species is shifting its range northwards due to warming temperatures (Renaud et al. 2012).  FAO landing statistics summary The overall trend in Global FAO landings, from 1950 to 2011, is one of continual increase with major fluctuations to a peak of 961958 tonnes in 1972. Following this peak, landings decrease to a series low of 190719 tonnes in 1994 (80% decrease) From 1994 to 2011, landings gradually increase to 429599 tonnes in 2011 (56% increase) - the highest since the early 1980s. Landings are reported from the following FAO fishing regions: Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic, and Arctic. The trend is largely driven by landings in the Northeast Atlantic, which account for 70 to 95% of declared landings throughout the time series. The trend in the Northeast Atlantic mirrors the overall trend in declared landings. Regional trends in Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB)  Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) estimates were available for 7 stocks in the European region (North Sea, Western Scotland (as of 2014 these have been combined into a single North Shelf Stock), Celtic, Arctic, Faroe Plateau, Iceland, and Rockall). Additional stocks include the Irish Sea Haddock and Faroe Bank Haddock, however there are no catch-at-age based assessments for these stocks as of 2014. Estimates of Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) across the stocks were variable. Overall, there was no evidence of decline in SSB for this species over the past 10-15 years (1999-2012 combined stock SSB estimates). Across the 7 stocks for which SSB estimates were available at the time of the Red List Assessment, the majority shows fluctuating or relatively stable SSB trends over the past 10-15 years. However there have been significant declines in SSB  from 2004-2014 in Faroe Plateau - West of Scotland and Division Vb due to reduced recruitment (ICES advice 2014). The North Shelf stock has also declined within the last 10 years. Stock-specific information: overall trends The dominant stocks in the Northeastern Atlantic are the North Shelf Stock and the Arctic Stock.  Trends in overall biomass have been driven by fluctuations in the North Shelf stock. Prior to 2007, the North Sea stock accounted for 40 to >80% of total biomass.  Biomass in the North Sea declined after 2007, with the lowest biomass in the time series (1963 to 2011) being recorded in 2011 (415673 tonnes), however SSB is driven to a large extent by sporadic large recruitment events. The last large recruitment was observed in 1999. Biomass of the Northeast Arctic stock has increased to 1210131 tonnes since 2007, accounting for over 50% of the total biomass (ICES DATRAS database accessed February 2014).Haddock in Subarea IV (North Sea) and Division IIIa West (Skagerrak) - In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 40% of the total SSB for all stocks. Bcurrent>Blim; Fcurrent<Fmsy. Fishing mortality has declined since the mid-1980s, corresponding to an increase in SSB of this stock. Biomass information is available from 1963-2012. Biomass was at historical lows in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Haddock in Subareas I and II (Northeast Arctic) - In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 40% of the total SSB for all stocks. This stock is considered to be harvested sustainability, and is at full reproductive capacity. Fishing mortality has fluctuated near Fmsy since 1995 (currently, Fcurrent>Fmsy). Bcurrent>Blim. (well managed) Recruitment has been at or above average since 2000. Current SSB (373646 tonnes) is above the average SSB for the time series (141026 tonnes). Haddock in Division Va (Icelandic Haddock): In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 7% of the total SSB for all stocks. This stock is considered to be harvested unsustainably, however Fmsy is currently undefined. Bcurrent>Blim. This species is at the northern boundary of its distribution. Current SSB (82681 tonnes) is below the average of 101127 tonnes from 1979 to 2012. Haddock in Division VIa (West of Scotland): In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 7% of the total SSB for all stocks. This stock is considered to be harvested sustainably, however Bcurrent is barely above Blim. Current SSB (18624 tonnes) is below the average of 40634 tonnes from 1978 - 2012. Haddock in Division VIIa (Irish Sea) -  This is considered a data-limited stock; MSY is undefined; landings have decreased from 1999 until 2012; Recruitment is variable; Relative SSB generally increased, with fluctuations until 2008, decreased in 2010, and increased again into 2012.  Haddock in Division VIb (Rockall) - In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 1% of the total SSB for all stocks. Fcurrent<FMSY; Bcurrent near Blim - however, due to very weak recruitment the SSB of this stock is expected to decrease below Blim. Fishing mortality has declined since peaking in the late 1990s. Haddock in Divisions VIIb-k (Celtic Sea and West of Scotland) In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 1% of the total SSB for all stocks. Fcurrent>FMSY(and has been throughout the time series of early 1990s - 2012); SSB increases continuously throughout the timeseries above MSYBtrigger, and is currently hovering around 60t tonnes. Landings have increased since 2008, however most of the increase in catch is being discarded because fish are under minimum landing size (ICES Advice 2012, book 5). Haddock in Division VIa (West of Scotland) - In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 2% of the total SSB for all stocks.  Fcurrent<Fmsy; Bcurrent at or slightly below Blim. Recruitment is low, and this stock is at increased risk for reduced reproductive capacity. Long-term trends in SSB show declines throughout the time series and current SSB (24804 tonnes) is below the average for the time series (40634 tonnes). Faroe Plateau ecosystem: Division Vb - In 2011, this stock accounted for approximately 1% of the total SSB for all stocks. Fcurrent>Fmsy; Bcurrent<Blim. This stock is suffering from reduced reproductive capacity, recruitment is low. The outlook for 2013 is a continued decline in  SSB. SSB is currently near historical lows (15177 tonnes) and is below the average SSB of 56001 tonnes SSB from 1957-2012.

habitat:
Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) is found on soft bottoms at depths ranging from 10 to 600 metres (Albert 1994), however it is typically found from 10 to 200 m at temperatures between 4°C and 10°C. In the North Sea, the greatest Haddock abundances were found between 75 and 125 metres, and abundances were positively related to temperature and salinity (Hedger et al. 2004). Melanogrammus aeglefinus is a migratory species, which undertakes extensive migrations in the Barents Sea and in Iceland, with more restricted movements occurring in the Northwestern Atlantic. Females are typically found in shallow waters, while males are found offshore. The haddock is an omnivorous fish, feeding mainly on small bottom-living organisms including crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms, worms and fishes. Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) and saithe (Pollachius virens) are major predators of Haddock (ICES Advice 2012).   Maturation schedules differ between spawning cites east and west of the Greenwich meridian (Wright and Tobin 2013).   Maturation schedules also vary by stock (Wright and Tobin 2013). In the Barents Sea the age of 50% maturity for females is 4 (Devine and Heino 2011). In the North Sea age of 50% maturity is 3 (Morgan et al. 2013). Population trends were examined over a 10-15 year period, which approximates 3 generation lengths in this species.

threats:
Melanogrammus aeglefinus is an important commercial fisheries species. It is mainly caught by demersal, and demersal seining. In some areas, high discards are a considerable problem for this species (ICES Advice 2012). In addition to overexpoitation, M. aeglefinus may be impacted by environmental change/europhication and deterioration of nursing grounds in some areas (2013 HELCOM RedList Assessment).

conservationAction:
Melanogrammus aeglefinus is managed by annual Total Allowable Catches (TACs) within specific management areas in the Northeastern Atlantic. However, it is worth noting that there are indications of mismatch between biological and fisheries management units for this species (Reiss et al. 2009). Several specific management plans are in place for Haddock: Haddock in Subarea IV (North Sea) and Division IIIa West (Skagerrak) is managed by the joint EU/Norway Management plan. Management plans are also in place for the East Arctic stock. In 1996, this species was evaluated at the Global Level, and was assessed as Vulnerable A1d+2d. At the National level, it was evaluated as Endangered on the Swedish IUCN Red List. This species was assessed as Near Threatened in the HELCOM Baltic Sea Assessments in 2013 using Criterion B. Spawning of M. aeglefinus is restricted to the Sound, and therefore this species has very restricted area of occupancy (10 to 500km2) and extent of occurrence (<5000 km2) in the HELCOM region. The Icelandic Haddock was evaluated as a moderate conservation concern, and is considered a "Good Alternative" by the Seafood Watch program.

useAndTrade:
This is an important fisheries species. It is marketed fresh, chilled as fillets, frozen, smoked and canned. It is also processed into fish-meal and used in animal feeds. It is taken with bottom trawls, seines, longlines, gillnets, and traps (Cohen et al. 1990).


taxonomicNotes:
In Georgia and Romania (Black Sea), the subspecies M. m. euxinus (Nordmann, 1840) is recorded.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to the northeastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It is highly commercial throughout its range.The stocks for which data are available show variable trends in total biomass, spawning stock biomass and recruitment. In the northern portion of its range in the Northeastern Atlantic, summed biomass estimates across the North Sea, West of Scotland and Celtic Sea over the past 10 years (2002-2012) are fluctuating and relatively stable, and recent stock assessments in the Black Sea show increasing SSB over the past 10 years. The North Sea stock, which accounts for 90% of the total biomass of stocks for which data are available, decreased to a historical low in 2007 and has since shown some sign of recovery. Merlangius merlangus is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, additional biomass estimates are needed for stocks in Rockall, Irish Sea, Kattegat, Skagerrak and Bay of Biscay-West Iberia.

range:
Merlangius merlangus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the southeast Barents Sea south to Portugal, including Iceland, the western Baltic, Belt Sea, Sound and the Kattegat. It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea as the subspecies Merlangius merlangus ssp. euxinus, and in a few areas in the northern Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988) and northern Adriatic Sea. It is present in the north Mediterranean Sea (L. Gil de Sola pers. obs. 2014); however, it is rare in the northwest Mediterranean Sea. Merlangius merlangus is a low-salinity species typically occurring above 50 m depth but it has been found from 10 to 200 m. This species appears to be shifting its distribution northward in response to climate change (ICES 2005).

population:
In the northern portion of its range in the Northeastern Atlantic, biomass estimates are available for three stocks: the North Sea, West of Scotland and Celtic Sea. The North Sea is the largest stock in the region. Summed SSB across all three stocks over the past 10 years (2002-2012) is fluctuating and relatively stable (ICES DATRAS database accessed February 2014). There are no biomass estimated for stocks in Rockall, Irish Sea, Kattegat, Skagerrak and Bay of Biscay-West Iberia. Recent stock assessments in the Black Sea show increasing SSB over the past 10 years. The stocks for which data are available show variable trends in total biomass, spawning stock biomass and recruitment. The largest stock, the North Sea stock accounting for 90% of the total biomass of stocks for which data are available, decreased to a historical low in 2007 and has since shown some sign of recovery. Global FAO landings are declared by the following fishing regions: Northeastern Atlantic; Mediterranean and Black Sea, with the large majority of landings (>90%) originating in the Northeastern Atlantic. The overall trend in global landings for this species is one of sharp and continual increase with fluctuations from 1960 to a series high of 283,616 tonnes declared in 1978. From 1979 to 2004, landings decrease to a series low of 40,325 tonnes. From 2004 to 2010, landings increase slightly to 47,373 tonnes.The overall trend in global landings is driven the by declining trend in landings originating from the Northeastern Atlantic. Landings from the Mediterranean/Black Sea represent an increasing proportion of global landings as landings in the Northeastern Atlantic decline. In 2010, 33% of landings (15,754 tonnes) originated from this fishing region. The overall trend in Mediterranean/Black Sea landings is one of fluctuating increase until 1988 (33,720 tonnes), declining in 2004 (8,609 tonnes) and then from 2004 to 2001 landings increase to 15,754 tonnes (FishStatJ). Stock Specific Information: Biomass data are available from the ICES Fish Stock Summary Database for the following eastern Atlantic stocks, in order of decreasing relative size: North Sea and eastern Channel (whg-47d); Celtic Sea (whg 7e-k); West of Scotland (whg-scow). The largest stock, which has contributed an average of 90% of the total biomass of stocks for which data are available from 1990-2011, is the the North Sea and Eastern Channel stock. Total biomass shows some dramatic fluctuation, but an overall trend of a 36% decrease from 1990 to 2011 (972,777 tonnes in 1990; 621,591 tonnes in 2011; method: % decline from two endpoints). After reaching a historical low of 382,210 tonnes in 2007, total biomass increased by 47% to 621,591 tonnes in 2011. Fishing mortality (F) has declined throughout the time series to a series low of 0.17 in 2011.  Data for the Celtic Sea stock, which represents an average of 7% of the total biomass for available data from 1990 to 2011, are available from 1982 to 2011. This stock has increased in total biomass from 22,646 tonnes in 1982, the series historical low, to 73,218 tonnes in 2011. Fishing mortality (F) in 2011 directed at this stock is also at a historical low of approximately 0.25. Data for the West of Scotland are available from 1981 to 2011. From 1990 to 2011 this stock contributed an average of 3% to the total biomass for all stocks for which data are available. The total biomass of this stock has consistently decreased from 166,351 tonnes 1981 to the historical low of 6,341 tonnes in 2004. Biomass increased to 9,981 tonnes in 2011. The percent decline of this stock, taking the two endpoints in the time series, is 94%. Fishing mortality (F) on this stock reached a peak of nearly 0.9 from 2000-2002, and has since declined to less than 0.1. Celtic Sea and West of Scotland (Division VIa): Fcurrent<Flim; Bcurrent<Blim Spawning stock biomass for this stock is very low, and this stock is suffering from reduced reproductive capacity. SSB has greatly decreased throughout the time series from 1981 (132,288 tonnes) to 2012 (8,526). The status of the stock is predicted to improve slightly in 2013 with lowered fishing mortality, however landings are marginal. Celtic Sea and West of Scotland (Divisions VIIe-k): Fcurrent<Fmsy; Bcurrent>Blim; Spawning stock biomass has been increasing since 2008. Fishing mortality has decreased since 2007. Celtic Sea and West of Scotland, Rockall (Division VIb): This is a data-limited stock. ICES advises a 20% reduction in catches based on the last three year average. Landings in this region are marginal. North Sea and Eastern Chanel (Subarea IV and Division VIId): There are no defined reference points for this stock. SSB has declined continuously from 1990 (317,000 tonnes) to 2008 (60,000 tonnes). From 2008 to 2012, SSB despite a trend in decreasing fishing mortality. There is a change in distribution of the stock, which is now located mainly in the northwestern North Sea (ICES advice 2013, book 6). Baltic Sea, Skagerrak - Kattegat (Division IIIa: This is a data-limited stock. Available survey indices show a lack of internal consistency (ICES Advice 2013, book 6). Bay of Biscay and Atlantic Iberian waters (Subarea VII and Division IXa): This is a data-limited stock. ICES advises that catches should decrease by 20% in relation to the last three years average (ICES advice book 6). Catch could not be quantified due to uncertainties in landings. Mediterranean Sea: This species is only present in a few localities in the Eastern Mediterranean. Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) mentioned that 1,134 specimens with TL ranging from 14.7 and 33.4 cm were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000; Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999; and River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps). Black Sea: Whiting is one of the most abundant species of demersal fishes in the Black Sea. This species is the main predator of the Black Sea sprat, and has been affected by the decline in sprat stocks (Lleonard 2008). In 2012, the estimated F (0.375) exceeded the Fmsy (0.352) and the stock was considered to be exploited unsustainably (GFCM 2012). However, a recent stock assessment (STECF 2011) shows increasing SSB since 1995. Individuals up to age class six are most frequently encountered in fisheries. Stock delineation in the Black Sea is unresolved and landings are reported separately for each country. Whiting is primarily taken as by-catch in mixed fisheries in the region and also by a targeted fishery operating in Turkey. However, catch statistics likely under-represent actual catches in this region and observed discards for this species are very high (GFCM 2012).

habitat:
Merlangius merlangus is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous species that is more commonly found from 30 to 100 m, mainly on mud and gravel bottoms but also on sand and rock. The young are found in shallower waters from five to 30 m depth. This species reaches a maximum length of 70 cm, but is more commonly seen at less than 23.5 cm. This species feeds on shrimps, crabs, molluscs, small fish, polychaetes and cephalopods. Sprat is an important component of the diet of Black Sea Whiting, where it is also associated with spiny dogfish concentrations (GFCM 2012). This fish migrates to the open sea only after its first year of life. Spawning occurs at 20 to 150 meters depth between January and July in the HELCOM area, from January to September in the area between the British Isles and the Bay of Biscay; from January to spring in the Mediterranean, and throughout the year in the Black Sea. Eggs are pelagic and both eggs and juveniles are associated with jellyfish. Upon maturity, small chin barbel which are juveniles characteristics disappear (Prévost 2005). The age of first maturity for this species is reached at three to four years of age (Cohen et al. 1990), although alternate ages of first maturity have been provided at ages of one to four years. For example, in the Irish Sea most females (95%) were found to be sexually mature at age two regardless of length class. This species has maximum longevity of 20 years. Based on current age structure data, the average age of reproducing adults is conservatively estimated to be 2.2 years (ICES WGNSSK 2013), although historical generation length may have been higher (five to six years) based on estimates of age structure under zero fishing and conventional natural mortality of 0.2. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 33.1 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 25.0 cm TL and for males is 24.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
This is a species with high commercial importance. Commercial passive fishing (i.e. netting, long lining) and active fishing (i.e. demersal and pelagic trawling) are the major threats. Furthermore, climate change, with synergistic effects of eutrophication that may lead to oxygen depletion, is a potential threat (HELCOM Red List 2013). Additionally, this species is subject to high discard rates, particularly for individuals of age one and two, in parts of its range (ICES Advice 2013, book 5). Sometimes this species is used in public aquariums. Analysis of level of mercury concentrations in the muscle tissue of this species, caught in Izmir bay (east Aegean Sea) indicate higher concentration values that exceed the limit accepted by World Health Organization (Kontas 2006).

conservationAction:
This species is managed by total allowable catches (TACs) in parts of its range, however there are various mismatches between population structure and current management units in this species, particularly in the North Sea (Reiss et al. 2009). In the HELCOM area, whiting was assessed as Vulnerable under criteria A2bd due to declines in abundance in excess of 30% over three generations, based on a generation time of 6.7 years (declines in abundance based on fishery-independent data from International Bottom Trawl Survey) and on indications of dramatic reductions in Swedish landing statistics (in excess of 99%) over the last 12 years in the Kattegat. Furthermore, IBTS data on whiting in the Kattegat for sizes above 300 mm in total length indicate that the occurrence of adult whiting has become very scarce. It was recommended that the threat category not be downgraded to NT due to immigration from the North Sea, because landings in ICES division IIIa as a whole have decreased drastically since the 1980s (HELCOM 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species was listed as Least Concern (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). In Turkey, management measures are in place limiting minimum size of individuals caught in the Mediterranean and Black Seas to 25 cm. There are also area limitations in place (maximum of three nautical miles from the coastline). In Bulgaria and Ukraine minimum size limits are also in place (12 cm).

useAndTrade:
This is a species with high commercial importance as it can be utilized fresh or cooked (steamed, broiled and baked) and is easily preserved (dried, salted, smoked and frozen) (Frimodt 1995). It is caught primarily with bottom trawls and long-lines, and also hand-lines and occasionally purse seines. In the Celtic Sea, this species is taken in mixed-species fisheries, primarily by otter-trawl (ICES Advice 2013). In the Irish Sea, important fishing grounds for this species consist of mud, hardgrounds and gravel/shingle bottoms (Bergmann et al. 2004). This species is also used as feed for the Black Sea trout.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widely distributed and there are no specific threats to the species. Commercial fisheries of M. poutassou are under ICES advice, with Atlantic stocks evaluated and in good status, but the Mediterranean stock status has not been assessed, even though the species is one of the Priority Species of the General Fisheries Commission of the Mediterranean. Research should be carried on the population size and trend of the species.

range:
In the northeast Atlantic, this species is present from the Barents Sea south through the east Norwegian Sea, around Iceland and Azores and south along the African coast to Cape Bojador. In the northwest Atlantic, it is present in south Greenland and off southeast Canada and the northeast coast of the USA. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the Alicante Gulf (Garcia-Rodriguez et al. 2006), Catalan Sea (Calderon-Aguileira 1991, Bozzano et al. 2005, Bahamon et al. 2006, Coll et al. 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007), Gulf of Lion (Lloret et al. 2001), Ligurian Sea (Minganti et al. 1996), Tyrrhenian Sea (Dremiere et al. 1999, Sbrana et al. 2003, Colloca et al. 2004), Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), Adriatic Sea (Dremiere et al. 1999, Perugini et al. 2007), east Ionian Sea (Madurell et al. 2004, Mytilineou et al. 2005), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000) and the north Aegean Sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005), including Turkish waters. Its depth range is from 150 to 3,000 metres.

population:
This species is reported as commonly caught, but is sometimes not landed in some areas because of its low economic value.  Calderon-Aguileira (1991) mentioned that 145,685 specimens were collected from landing ports of Catalan Sea (Barcelona and Blanes) in the period 1950 to 1987. A subsample of 4,767 specimens were used in order to study the growth of this species by means of otolith: a correlation between higher SST and growth was underline.  Mytilineou et al. (2005) mentioned that this species was collected in the northeast Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 14.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300 to 500 m (44 hauls) and 1.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500 to 700 m (52 hauls).  According to FAO-General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (2007), 69,990 kg were landed in the Catalan Sea from Barcelona fleet in 2005. Although current stocks levels are reported to be healthy (Anonymous 2014), there has been a significant decline in European landing volumes over the last decade. However, it is important to note that FAO data are not directly related to available TAC/Quota or fishing effort. Its overall population trend is unknown. The Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) estimates (ICES 2014) remained fairly stable from 1981 to 1996 and were followed by a substantial increase by 2002, when the species started declining again until 2011, to start increasing again by then. ICES has changed TAC substantially during this time frame.

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, that occurs over the continental slope and shelf to more than 1,000 m but is more common between 300 to 400 m. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is a mesopelagic and benthopelagic species occurring over muddy and sandy substrate extending out to the edge of the continental slope. It is possible that the Mediterranean holds a separate population from the Atlantic populations, Atlantic populations show different sizes (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). There are no current genetic studies known to be in place for this. This species feeds mostly on small crustaceans, but large individuals also prey on small fish and cephalopods. It makes daily vertical migrations, preferring surface waters at night and the bottom during the day. The age at maturity is three years, its longevity 20 years and its maximum size 50 cm (TL). In northeast Atlantic waters, most spawning takes place along the shelf edge and on banks west of the British Isles. Juveniles are also widely distributed, including in the Bay of Biscay and Iberian waters, with the main nursery area believed to be in the Norwegian Sea (ICES 2013).

threats:
The species is exploited mainly by fleets from Norway, Russia, the Faeroe Islands and Iceland; but the Netherlands, Scotland, Denmark, Ireland, Sweden, Germany and Spain also take substantial catches. It is an important by-catch species in Mediterranean fisheries as a result of the French Merluccius merluccius and Spanish Nephrops norvegicus trawling activities (STECF 2014). Commercial fisheries of M. poutassou are under control and Atlantic stocks evaluated and in good status (ICES Advice 2014). Data on Mediterranean stocks are in progress but still not available (GFCM 2012).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There is no minimum size in place on catches for this species in many areas, but some nations have minimum size restrictions in place (e.g., minimum size 15 cm for Spain). Likewise, ICES advises TAC for European countries. It is present in protected areas, such as the Natura 2000 site El Cachucho (Spain). Research should be conducted into the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is targeted both by Atlantic and Mediterranean fisheries, being one of the largest fishery industries in the Northeast Atlantic. It is also a common highly exploited commercial pelagic TAC/Quota species in Irish offshore waters, being mainly utilised for fish meal but increasingly for human consumption. Besides, it is one of the priority species for management purposes at the General Fisheries Commission of the Mediterranean.  FAO Species Fact Sheet indicates countries with the largest catches were Norway (534,196 t) and Russian Federation (182,637 t). The species is caught mainly with trawls, longlines, trammel nets, gillnets, seines, lamparas and handlines, mostly beyond the edge of the continental shelf. The Atlantic stock is evaluated in good status (ICES Advice 2014). In the Mediterranean Sea, landings of the species in 2010 were the fourth most important in weight (2,344.54 t) after Sardina pilchardus (13,271.02 t), Engraulis encrasicolus (9,220.00 t), and Merluccius merluccius (3,758.40 t) (GFCM 2012).

redListContributors:
Blanco, J., Di Natale, A., Molinari, A., Öztürk, B. & Srour, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
Pollachius pollachius is found in the northeastern Atlantic, from Norway, the Faroes and Iceland to the Bay of Biscay. There is no consensus on stock identity within the northeastern Atlantic, and this species is considered a data-limited stock throughout its range (no defined reference points, no biomass info, genetic structure not aligned with management units). Aggregated landings for this species in the Northeastern Atlantic Fishing Region have declined by almost 30% over the past 20 years (or three generation lengths), which may be a reflection of reduced fishing mortality. This is an important recreational species and there have been recorded declines in maximum body size consistently with abundance over the last century. Trawl survey data throughout the region are variable, with no clear trends except for in the Skagerrak and Kattegat region, where there have been declines of 80% in catch rates over the past 30 years, although this is a very small portion of its distribution. However, in the North Sea, which is considered the majority of the range, data indicate stable but variable population trends. It is listed as Least Concern. However, there is concern over populations in Skagerrak and Kattegat, as trawl survey data and estimates of biomass show a drastic decline over the past 30 years.

range:
Pollachius pollachius is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from Norway, the Faroe Islands and Iceland south to the Bay of Biscay. It is found at depths of up to 200 metres (Cohen et al. 1990).

population:
This species is restricted to the northeast Atlantic with its primary distribution from Biscay northwards around the British Isles, in Skagerrak and along the Norwegian coast where it is fairly common up to the Lofoten Islands. It is rare at Faroe and Iceland and in the Baltic. Landings data suggest two distinct centres of distribution: one in the northern North Sea/Skagerrak extending into the Eastern Channel, the Celtic Sea, the Irish Sea and the northern part of the French west coast (ICES 2011). There is no consensus on stock identity within the northeastern Atlantic and this species is considered a data-limited stock throughout its range (no defined reference points, no biomass info, genetic structure not aligned with management units). Global FAO reported aggregated landings from the Northeastern Atlantic Fishing Region peaked in the mid 1970s at roughly 18,000 tonnes and have since gradually declined to current levels below 10,000 tonnes (FAO 2011 FishstatJ database searched February 2014). Reported landings to FAO have declined about 30% over the past 20 years from about 14,000 tonnes in 1992 to about 10,000 tonnes in 2011, which may be a reflection of reduced fishing mortality. This is an important recreational species but there is not directed fishery. Trawl survey data throughout the region are variable, with no clear trends except for in the Skagerrak and Kattegat region, where there are declines of 80% in catch rates over the past 30 years, although this is a very small portion of its distribution. However, in the North Sea, which is considered the majority of the range, it is thought to have stable but variable population trends. An investigation of the population genetic structure of this species along the European Coast found weak but significant genetic differentiation between samples originating from the western English Channel and the Bay of Biscay (Charrier et al. 2006). In a 2009 review of molecular population genetic studies, no mismatches were found between genetic structure and management units in this species (Reiss et al. 2009). However this is based on a review of one paper. Along the Norwegian Skagerrak coast, the abundance of this species exhibits periodic fluctuations of 2.0 to 2.5 years (Fromentin et al. 1997). 

habitat:
Pollachius pollachius is a bentho-pelagic species which is mostly found close to the shore over hard bottoms. It usually occurs at 40 to 100 m. depth, but is found down to depths of 200 metres. The tendency of this species to remain close to rocky shores, hard bottoms or wrecks make it difficult to catch with trawls and poorly suited for monitoring by research surveys (Charrier et al. 2006, ICES 2013). It is a major predator of juvenile Atlantic Cod, Gadus morhua (Salvanes et al. 1995). This species has a maximum length of 130 cm and a maximum published weight of 18.1 kg. However, this species has shown declines of maximum body size consistently with abundance over the last century (Genner et al. 2010). Pollack tend to be solitary except during the spawning period, when they form aggregations which are sometimes targeted for fishing. Growth is rapid, approaching 10 cm per year. Age at first maturity is roughly three years and maximum age is roughly eight years (Cohen 1990). However, this species may be longer lived, similar to Pollachius virens, and have a maximum age of 15 years (ICES WGNEW 2012). A generation length of 4.3 years was used to assess this species by HELCOM (HELCOM 2013), and a generation length of seven years was used in the Swedish National Red List. Generation length is therefore estimated to range between four to seven years.

threats:
This species is mainly caught as bycatch in mixed species fisheries. There is no targeted fishery for this species, other than a recreational fishery. This species may experience recruitment failure in some regions due to eutrophication (Johannessen et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
This is a managed species with Total Allowable Catch limits. However, all stocks are considered data-poor and lack reference points. It is listed as Least Concern in the Norwegian Red List, and Critically Endangered in the Swedish Red List (based on an 80% decline in individuals over the past 20 years, and a generation length of seven years). As there is no confirmed reproduction in the Baltic Sea, and it is estimated that less than 2% of the population occurs there, this species was Not Applicable for Assessment in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013).

useAndTrade:
This is species is caught primarily in recreational fisheries. It is caught with bottom and pelagic trawls, longlines, and gillnets (Cohen et al. 1990). This species is aquacultured by Chile and Spain (Kjesbu et al. 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Pollachius virens is found in the Barents Sea and Spitsbergen to the Celtic Sea, and along southern Iceland. In the Western Atlantic, it is found along southwest Greenland and from Hudson Strait to North Carolina, although it is rare at the extremes of its range. It is a commercially important species which is managed in 4 stocks in the Northeast Atlantic. Longevity is at least 25 years old, and most individuals are sexually mature by age 7. Forms large aggregations. In the Norwegian National Red List a generation length of 7 years was used, and in the Swedish Red List a generation length of 13 years was used. Therefore generation length is estimated to be between 7 and 13 years. Trends in the population were evaluated against Criterion A over a 3-generation timeframe of 20 to 30 years. Biomass of stocks have recovered from historical series lows in the 1990s, and biomass is at similar levels to the 1980s. Pollachius virens is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Pollachius virens is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean. It is found in the Barents Sea and Spitsbergen to the Celtic Sea, and along most of the coast of Iceland. In the Western Atlantic, it is found along southwest Greenland and from Hudson Strait to North Carolina, although it is rare at the extremes of its range (Cohen et al. 1990). It is found at depths of 1-200 m.

population:
This species is managed in 4 stocks in the northeast Atlantic. Summed estimated Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) across all stocks in the region show long-term periodic changes in abundance over the past 30 to 40 years (1970-2010), with no indication of decline (ICES 2013). Over a period of 3 generation lengths, which  roughly 20 to 30 years, stocks have either remained relatively constant or increased in biomass since historical lows in the 1990s (ICES 2013). FAO landings statistics summary Global FAO reported landings from the Northeast Atlantic and the Northwest Atlantic show a continual increase to a peak of 762521 tonnes in 1974, and since 1974, global landings have declined to a series low of 330,595 tonnes in 2001. Since 2001, global landings have increased to 400920 tonnes in 2010. The trend in global landings is driven by the Northeastern Atlantic, which, in 2010 accounted for 97% of all declared landings (FAO 2011).  Stock-specific information  Saithe in North Sea, Skagerrak, (West of Scotland and Rockall) Spawning stock biomass has been above Blim since 1992. Fcurrent<Fmsy. Recruitment has been below average since 2006, and shows a declining trend in recent years - Spawning stock biomass has declined since 2006, however not below historical lows seen in the early 1990s (this is not linked to low recruitment) (ICES advice 2013, book 6). There is a net migration of P. virens towards Icelandic waters and away from Norwegian continental waters (Homrum et al. 2013). Saithe in Iceland This stock is near the northern boundary of the species' distribution. Spawning stock biomass is relatively large (150t tonnes), nearing values seen in 1980. Fishing mortality has steadily declined since peak values in 1995 (ICES advice 2013, book 2). Saithe in Iceland have low emigration rates (<1%) (Jones and Jónsson 1971). Saithe in the Northeast Arctic Reference points are unknown. Spawning stock biomass has declined in recent years (2005-2012) from a peak of 550t tonnes to either 300t tonnes or 150t tonnes (depending on stock assessment scenarios). Since 2008, there has been a large reduction in the proportion of mature fish in age groups 5 to 8, corresponding with a decrease in SSB and TSB. This is the largest stock in the region, followed by the North Sea Shelf. Saithe in Faroe Plateau SSB has greatly decreased since 2005, and is estimated to be slightly above Blim. F has steadily increased from 1961 to 2012. F has been above Fmsy since 1998. There is substantial immigration/emigration to and from the Faroe Islands - 42% of Saithe tagged in Faroese waters were recaptured outside of Faroese waters (Homrum et al. 2013).

habitat:
Pollachius virens is a pelagic fish which is found in both inshore and offshore waters to depths of up to 400 metres, although the majority of individuals are found in depths of less than 200 metres (ICES Journal of Marine Science 2012). It is an important predator species, feeding on young herring, haddock, whiting and Norway pout. This species undergoes both feeding and spawning migrations. Juveniles (age 0 to 2) occur in shallow coastal areas (ICES advice 2013). This species is long-lived (at least 25 years) and forms large aggregations. Saithe begin to mature at age 4 (15% mature) and by age 7, all fish can be regarded as mature (ICES Advice 2013). Pollachius virens has a maximum age of 25 years (Svetnovidov 1986). In the Norwegian Red List a generation length of 7 years was used, and in the Swedish Red List a generation length of 13 years was used. Therefore generation length is estimated to be between 7 and 13 years.

threats:
Pollachius virens is threatened by overexploitation. This is a commercially important species, and is among the most important commercial roundfish species. Since the early 2000s, fishing pressure has generally decreased in the Northeastern Atlantic Fishing Zone (Serchuk et al. 1996, Fernandes and Cook 2013). This species may also be affected by the loss of inshore estuaries, which are susceptible to anthropogenic disturbances, provide nurseries and feeding grounds for juveniles.

conservationAction:
Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations are in place for many P. virens stocks. Additional regulations include the prohibition of discards, minimum mesh size, minimum fish size, bycatch regulations, area closures, and other area and seasonal restrictions (ICES advice 2013 book 3). In both the Norwegian Red List and the Swedish Red List, this species was listed as Least Concern.

useAndTrade:
Pollachius virens is an important commercial species which often replaces cod and haddock in some products. It is taken by purse seine, Danish seine, bottom and pelagic trawl, longline, and by trolling. It is marketed fresh, chilled, frozen, canned, dried-salted, and in brine (Cohen et al. 1990). In the North Sea eco-region, Saithe is primarily taken by directed bottom trawl fisheries, and also as by-catch in cod and haddock fisheries (ICES advice 2013, book 6). This species is often fraudulently sold as smoked Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) (Miller et al. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
In the northeast Atlantic, Raniceps raninus is distributed from Trondheim on the Norwegian coast to the Bay of Biscay, and is also found around the British Isles (Cohen et al. 1990). It is found at depths ranging from zero to 100 metres, but is more common between 10 to 20 metres. This species is relatively widespread in the northeastern Atlantic. It is not of commercial importance and there are no known threats. Therefore, R. raninus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Raniceps raninus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is distributed from Trondheim on the Norwegian coast to the Bay of Biscay, including around the British Isles (Cohen et al. 1990). It is found at depths ranging from zero to 100 metres, but is more common between 10 to 20 metres.

population:
This species is found in scientific survey data for Groundfish in the Celtic Sea/ Bay of Biscay (ICES WGFE 2005), however there is a paucity of information available. Raniceps raninus is considered rare in the North Sea (Jiming 1982).

habitat:
Raniceps raninus lives in coastal waters at shallow depths, generally from 10 to 20 metres, more seldom from 75 to 100 metres on rocky bottoms with seaweeds. It is a solitary and secretive species and undertakes only limited local movements. It spawns from May to September at 50 to 70 metres depth near the shore throughout its entire range. It feeds on sea stars, crustaceans, worms, molluscs and small fishes. This species reaches a maximum size of 27.5 cm total length (TL) (Cohen et al. 1990).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to R. raninus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for R. raninus, however its distribution is likely to overlap marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
This species does not appear to be commercially important.

redListAssessors:
Fernandes, P., Cook, R., Florin, A., Lorance, P., Nielsen, J. & Nedreaas, K.


taxonomicNotes:
Trisopterus capelanus was previously considered the Mediterranean sub-species of T. minutus (T. m. capelanus) and has since been elevated to the status of a fully valid species (Mattiangeli et al. 2000, Delling et al. 2011, Gonzalez et al. 2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
Trisopterus capelanus is restricted to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is one of the most abundant endemic species. There is no known large-scale fishery for T. capelanus, although it is harvested in some regions as a food source and it is a bycatch of trawl and purse seine fisheries. It occurs at depths ranging from zero to 450 meters, but is more abundant at depths of 50 to 150 metres with a preferences for mixed sand and mud bottoms. Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed, so that any change in the levels of exploitation can be noted. Fishing mortality, both direct and indirect, is not thought to be a major threat at this time and there are no other known widespread threats. This entirety of the depth range and the preferred habitat of this species (sandy-muddy bottoms) are accessible to trawling. Trisopterus capelanus has become a major commercial species and has been increasingly exploited since the late 1980s. Once exclusively considered a bycatch species, it is now targeted in parts of its range, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean and the Catalan coast. Mediterranean fisheries are characterized as multi-species fisheries, and in addition to being directly targeted this species is retained as bycatch, particularly in Hake and Red Mullet fisheries, both of which are considered largely overexploited throughout the region. Overexploitation of T. capelanus has been observed as early as 1988, in the Straits of Sicily. In the Adriatic Sea T. capelanus is also experiencing high fishing pressure, which has caused significant reductions in total length (maximum observed size of 21.5 cm, vs. maximum recorded size of 32 cm) and a low proportion of specimens older than three years old catches. This species has a maximum observed age of six years and is likely sexually mature by ages one to two, however age of first maturity has not been confirmed. The overall trend in landings declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is one of gradual increase to a peak of 3,290 tonnes in 2006. From 2006 to 2001, landings declined by 46% to 1,751 tonnes. There is little biological information available and stock assessments are not performed on this species. It appears to be experiencing localized overfishing in parts of its range, however there is not currently enough information available to characterize the status of the population throughout its range. Therefore, T. capelanus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trisopterus capelanus is restricted to the Mediterranean Sea, where it occurs in Spanish waters such as Gulf of Valencia (Salome Morte et al. 2001) and Catalan Sea (Bozzano et al. 2005), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al.1998) and perhaps the Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea (Dremiere et al. 1999), south Adriatic Sea (Dremiere et al. 1999), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000) and Aegean Sea (Mattiangeli et al. 2003) and in particular in the Gulf of Euboikos (Politou and Papaconstantinou 1994), in the Thracian Sea and in the Themaikos Gulf (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005) and in the Turkish waters (Karakulak et al. 2006). It is found at depths of up to 450 m, though the highest abundances are at depths of 50 to 100 m (Mattiangeli et al. 2003).

population:
Trisopterus capelanus is one of the most abundant endemic species in the Mediterranean (Politou and Papaconstantinou 1994). In 1998 this species was considered overexploited in the Straits of Sicily, with spawning stock biomass per recruit (SPR) well below conservative thresholds of 30% of the pristine or unexploited SPR (Ragonese and Bianchini 1998).  This species is considered a primary commercial species off the Catalan coast. Sizes ranged from 11.5 to 29 cm total length (Crec′hriou et al. 2013). It is considered one of the main target species of commercial trawl fisheries in the eastern Adriatic Sea, with annual catch of about 40 tonnes. Despite its importance in this region there is a paucity of biological information available for this species and there are no stock assessments. Total length in the Adriatic Sea ranged from 10.4 to 21.3 cm (mean 14.4) for females. It is worth noting that the maximum length of this species in the Adriatic Sea is 32 cm, which is significantly larger than the maximum length obtained in a study by Šantić et al. (21.5 cm male). Additionally, high fishing pressure may have caused the observed low proportion of specimens older than three years old in the catch. Two-year olds dominated the samples (Šantić et al. 2013).  Off the eastern coast of Greece, females begin to mature at sizes of 11 to 12 cm (Politou and Papaconstantinou 1991).  FAO Landing Statistics The overall trend in landings for “Poor Cod” in the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone is one of gradual increase with some fluctuations from 1970 to 2011. Landings fluctuate between 500 and 1500 tonnes from the early 1970s until the late 1990s, after which landings begin to increase, peaking at 3290 tonnes in 2006 and dropping to 1751 tonnes in 2011 (FAO 2011) but with no clear indication of recent sustained declines.

habitat:
Trisopterus capelanus is found over sand and mud habitats at depths of up to 450 m, though the highest abundances are at depths of 50 to 100 m (Mattiangeli et al. 2003). In the Strait of Sicily this species occurred most commonly on muddy-sandy bottoms between 100 and 300 m (Ragonese and Bianchini 1998). It feeds primarily on crustaceans and demersal fishes (Politou and Papaconstantino 1994) and has been described as an opportunistic feeder (Ragonese and Bianchini 1998). Recruitment occurs year round, but there are seasonal peaks (Lloret and Lleonart 2002). Trisopterus capelanus grows to at least 30 cm (Mattiangeli et al. 2003). This species is relatively short lived (four to six years) (Ragonese and Bianchini 1998).

threats:
Trisopterus capelanus is a commercially important species that is targeted in parts of its range and taken as bycatch in others. It is taken as bycatch in commercial trawlers targeting Hake and Red Mullet (Farrugio et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
Minimum landing size is in place in some national regulations, for example in Spain (11 cm). Trisopterus minutus ssp. capelanus was assessed regionally as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011); as T. m. capelanus is now considered a full species, restricted to the Mediterranean, this equates to a global assessment of Least Concern for T. capelanus. Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed, so that any change in the levels of exploitation can be noted.

useAndTrade:
Since the mid to late 1990s there has been growing interest in harvest of this species in the Mediterranean. Overexploitation of the resource was noted as early as 1998 (Ragonese and Bianchini 1998). This species is now considered a major commercial species off Catalan coast. It is regularly found in northern Mediterranean fish markets (Mattiangeli et al. 1990). In the northeastern Mediterranean Sea, T. capelanus consistently exhibited both marketable and discard fractions in the trawl fisheries (Machias et al. 2001) and purse seine fisheries (Tsagarakis et al. 2012). In the Tyrrhenian Sea, T. capelanus is not valuable, but is an important bycatch species in otter trawl fisheries (Biagi et al. 1992).

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Molinari, A., Öztúrk, B. & Srour, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
Trisopterus esmarkii, the Norway Pout, is distributed from the Southwest Barents Sea, sometimes at Bear Island, South to the English Channel, around Iceland and at the Faeroe Islands. It is caught in the industrial fishery and estimates of SSB from the only available stock assessment in the North Sea fluctuates over the past 30 years due to variable recruitment and short-life span caused by high natural mortality, with no observable trend. Within the last 10 years (three generation lengths) there is also no observable trend. Fishing mortality has been reduced due to implementation of bi-annual recommendations for total allowable catch. Trisopterus esmarkii is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Trisopterus esmarkii is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is distributed from Svalbard and the southwest Barents Sea, south to the English Channel, including Bear Island, around Iceland and at the Faroe Islands (Cohen et al. 1990). It is found at depths ranging from 50 to 300 metres.

population:
Trisopterus esmarkii is a relatively abundant gadoid in the North Sea and Barents Sea. A stock assessment in the North Sea (including Skagerrak and Kattegat) shows SSB for this species in the North Sea as widely fluctuated over the past 30 years (1983–2014) with an apparent increase in biomass from the mid-2000s to 2013. This is a short-lived species. The abundance of this species is closely linked to recruitment, which has varied considerably over the last decade (ICES 2014). Due to the relatively short lifespan of this species, stock dynamics are highly variable. This species is also fished in the industrial fishery (e.g. harvested for fishmeal and oil) throughout the region, but no other stock assessments are available.

habitat:
Norway Pout is a benthopelagic to pelagic species which is typically found over muddy bottoms at depths of 50 to 300 meters, but more commonly between 100 and 200 meters. It feeds primarily on copepods (Bromley et al. 1997), but also consumes decapod larvae, mysids and euphasiids (Gordon 1977). Norway Pout is an important prey species in the North Sea ecosystem  (ICES 2011).  This species spawns in the North Sea at depths of >100 m, with a peak in spawning occurring between March and April, with more northern populations (off the coast of Norway) spawning in late March and continuing through to June. The principal spawning area of Norway pout in the North Sea is in the northwestern region (Nash et al. 2012). This species most likely spawns only once, and natural mortality is significantly correlated with sexual maturity, sex, growth and intra-specific stock density, indicating that this species may die as a direct or indirect result of spawning (Nielsen et al. 2012). Females are generally more abundant than males, with female dominance increasing by age (Albert 1994). Males mature younger than females (age at 50% maturity: males = 1.2 years, females=1.5 years) (Lambert et al. 2009) and longevity is four to five years. Generation length is therefore estimated to be about two to three years.

threats:
Trisopterus esmarkii is the direct target of small-mesh fisheries for fish meal and fish oil (ICES 2007). This species population is also impacted by other commercial species, as it is an important prey species of other commercially important fishes, such as cod, saithe, haddock, mackerel and whiting.

conservationAction:
Harvest control rules based on total allowable catches are in place for Norway Pout and are frequently re-evaluated due to this species' short lifespan (ICES 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is a direct target of small-mesh fisheries for fish meal and fish oil (ICES 2007). It is primarily caught using bottom trawls and Danish seines (Cohen et al. 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Trisopterus luscus is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, T. luscus is distributed from Skagerrak, North Sea, and the British Isles to the Iberian Peninsula. and may also be found in the Mediterranean. It is found at depths ranging from 30 to 100 metres, but moves into shallow waters to spawn. Scientific survey data from 1988 to 2011 in the eastern English Channel show stable capture rates. Landings reported to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) from the Northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean have declined by about 32% over the past 10 years, but T. luscus is commercially important in only some parts of its range (e.g. France, Portugal, Spain). More information is needed to determine the status of this species in Mediterranean Sea. Given the wide distribution and commercial interests that are limited to only a small portion of its range, T. luscus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trisopterus luscus is distributed from Skagerrak, North Sea, and the British Isles to about 25°N along the West African coast and, reportedly, also in the western Mediterranean (Cohen et al. 1990). In the Mediterranean Sea, T. luscus seems to be present in the west part of the basin, but it is not reported in the east basin. There are some old references for Sicily, Naples, the Adriatic Sea, Nice, Algeria and Spanish Mediterranean Sea, but recent records are scarce. In 2003, 30 individuals were examined from the coast of the Alborán Sea (Thiam et al. 2009). It is typically found from 30 to 100 m (Svetovidov 1986).

population:
In a survey covering the Celtic Sea and Bay of Biscay, North of Spain, Portugal, and the Gulf of Cadiz in 2004 showed that T. luscus was taken in all areas. Trisopterus luscus was the third most abundant species off the North Cap of Breton off the French Shelf, accounting for 6.3% by weight in a 1997 survey. It was the 10th most abundant species on the south Cap of Breton, off the Spanish Shelf, accounting for 2.5% by weight in the same survey. The Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) for this species, from the International Bottom Trawl Survey, has decreased continually from 1983 to 2004. From 1983-1990: 10802; 1991 to 1995: 6800; 1996 to 2000: 3912; 2001 to 2004: 2196 (ICES 2005). FAO landing statistics Pouting (=Bib) is reported from the following FAO fishing regions: Northeast Atlantic (80-90% of all landings), Eastern Central Atlantic (0-10% of all landings), Mediterranean (very little). The overall trend in global landings from 1950 - 2011, driven by landings in the Northeast Atlantic, is one of continual increase to a peak of 28439 tonnes in 1978, from 1978 onwards, landings decline, with minor fluctuation, to the most recent reported landings of 13079 tonnes in 2011 (54% decline). Given the short lifespan of T. luscus (no more than 3 to 4 years, typically), three generation lengths is likely to be less than 10 years; over this time frame, landings have declined in the Northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean by 32%, from 18289 tonnes in 2001 to 12379 tonnes in 2011 (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 May). Although effort data are not available, the market price in Portugal is relatively low (< 2 €/kg) and declined between 2006 and 2009 (DataPescas 2009).

habitat:
Trisopterus luscus has an affinity for the lusitanian biogeographic region, and is considered a warm generalist, being found at mean temperatures of 9.7 degrees. It reaches a maximum length of 46 cm (ICES 2007). This is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous gregarious fish. Immature fish often occur in large schools, and is associated with wrecks and reefs. It mostly lives on the outer shelf, but moves inshore to depths of 50 m or less for spawning. This species shows a strong preference for shallow waters from depths of 30 m to 100 m, and there is evidence of habitat segregation between juveniles and adults (Tanner et al. 2008). This species uses estuaries as nurseries (Cabral et al. 2001). This species feeds on benthic crustaceans but also on small fish, molluscs, and polychaetes (Svetovidov 1986). Trisopterus luscus is included in the estuarine sand, coastal coarse sand, middle shelf (70 to 120 m), and outer shelf assemblages in the Bay of Biscay. In the Celtic Sea, T. luscus was characteristic of the Western Channel Assemblage (ICES 2005). The length-at-maturity of this species on the Galician shelf of NW Spain was 19.2 cm. Age at maturity is 1 year (Puente 1988). Spawning females were observed throughout the year (Alonso-Fernández et al. 2008). This species rarely grows to more than 40 cm in length and 4 years of age (Labarta and Ferreiro 1982). This species visits Norwegian waters, but it is not known if it is breeding in Norwegian waters (Nedreaas pers comm 2013).

threats:
Trisopterus luscus is of importance to the artisanal fleets of a number of countries, namely France, Portugal, and Spain. The highest recorded landings occurred on the Galician shelf in 1979, (27036t) landings have since declined to (12460t). There has been a substantial decrease in catches of T. luscus on the Galician shelf of North-western Spain (Alzonso-Fernández et al. 2008). This species uses estuaries as nursery areas; Declines in abundance of T. luscus in the Tagus estuary were attributed to deteriorating environmental quality within the estuary (Cabral et al. 2001). Landings data from France, Spain, Portugal (27) and Morocco (34) are between 10,000 and 50,000t. This species is mainly caught as bycatch, used as food fish (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Sometimes this species is used in public aquariums. In the Mediterranean Sea, annual landings statistics (tons) for this species (1996 to 2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 313 (1996), 388 (1997), 402 (1998), 380 (1999), 275 (2000), 194 (2001), 58 (2002), 142 (2003), 159 (2004), 155 (2005). The above figures are based on landings in Spain and Morocco. However records for Trisopterus luscus are often mixed with other species and some records from Tangers (Morocco) could be from the Atlantic (A. Srour pers. comm. 2007). It is impossible to determine population trends for this species in the Mediterranean Sea (if the species really occurs there) only based on these figures.

conservationAction:
As of 2009, age and maturity determinations have not been carried out on a regular basis for T. luscus in ICES areas. In Spain, landings are not typically reported at the species level, and this species is often inaccurately identified (ICES 2009). Portugal performs stock assessments of T. luscus, however these have not yet been located. No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution. Trisopterus luscus was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).  More information is needed to determine the status of this species in Mediterranean Sea.

useAndTrade:
Trisopterus luscus is a commercial species. It is used as food fish (Muus and Nielsen 1999). This species is harvested commercially on the Galician shelf by Spanish inshore artisanal fleet (Alonso-Fernández et al. 2008). It is particularly important to Portugal, Spain, and France.

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Molinari, A., Srour, A. & Öztúrk, B.


taxonomicNotes:
Mediterranean populations were once considered a sub-speciesTrisopterus minutus capelanus and have since been elevated to the status of a fully valid species, T. capelanus (Mattiangeli et al. 2000, Delling et al. 2011, Gonzalez et al. 2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Trisopterus minutus is distributed in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, T. minutus is found from the Trondheim Fjord, Norway and the Faeroe Islands to the Iberian Peninsula. Trisopterus minutus is of little or no commercial importance, is considered to be common, and has stable capture rates in scientific surveys in at least one portion of its range. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, T. minutus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Trisopterus minutus has the widest distribution of the genus Trisopterus. It is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the Trondheim Fjord, Norway and the Faeroe Islands to the southern coast of Morocco. Mediterranean populations were once considered a sub-species Trisopterus minutus capelanus and have since been elevated to the status of a fully valid species, T. capelanus (Mattiangeli et al. 2000, Delling et al. 2011, Gonzalez et al. 2012). It is found at depths ranging from 0–440 meters.

population:
This species is very common throughout its range (Lorance pers. comm. 2012). Scientific surveys over the past 10 years from the Baltic and Kattegat show no trend (International Bottom Trawl Survey and Baltic International Trawl survey data provided by Florin pers. comm. 2013). Population structure: Single locus minisatellite data suggest reproductive isolation of the Faroe Bank population (Mattiangeli et al. 2002). FAO landing statistics summary: Trisopterus minutus is declared from the FAO fishing regions: Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean - however Mediterranean landings represent the distinct species T. capelanus. The overall trend in landings, driven by the northeastern Atlantic which accounts for over 95% of global landings, is one of increase with fluctuations to a peak of 3290 tonnes in 2005. Landings have since decreased to 1751 tonnes. Other population information: A study of demersal fish populations around the coasts of the UK and northwestern Europe found Poor Cod to be one of the most abundant demersal fish species (Rogers et al. 1998). Trisopterus minutus appears to have increased in abundance in the North Sea from 1909 to the present (Rijnsdorp et al. 1996). In the 1970s, this species was the second-most abundant gadoid taken in the Severn estuary (Claridge and Potter 1984).

habitat:
Trisopterus minutus occurs in small schools over muddy or sandy bottoms at depths of 15 to 200 m, though it can be found as deep as 400 m (Cohen et al. 1990). Its diet consists of crustaceans and small fish (Svetovidov 1986). Maturity is reached at one year of age, and spawning takes place from winter to spring.

threats:
Trisopterus minutus is considered locally abundant and it is not heavily fished (Cohen et al. 1990). However, studies of Turkish trawlers found that the equipment did not allow juveniles to escape, but took both adult and immature individuals (Ozbilgin et al. 2005). The harvesting of this species is not considered to be a major threat, as it is of minor commercial importance, and harvesting does not occur throughout its entire range. It has also been described as one of the most abundant demersal species throughout most of its range.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. Trisopterus minutus is listed as Least Concern in the Norwegian, Swedish and HELCOM Red List Assessments. Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.

useAndTrade:
Trisopterus minutus is it is not heavily fished (Cohen et al. 1990) and is considered of minor commercial importance.

redListContributors:
Herdson, D., De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J. & Livingston, F.


taxonomicNotes:
DNA analysis showed a high probability for genetic subdivisions of stocks of Tusk in the North Atlantic due to spatial differentiation (Knutsen et al. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Brosme brosme is relatively widespread in the northeast Atlantic. It is found in small shoals on rough, rock, gravel, or pebble bottoms, and occasionally found over mud generally far from the shore. It is fished  and managed throughout the region. Catches in the last 10 years have been stable, and CPUE from Norwegian Fleets have been stable and/or increasing. Longer time series are available over the past 30 years (3 generation lengths), that show the same trend. Brosme brosme is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Brosme brosme is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northwest Atlantic, it is known from off the shore of New Jersey to the Strait of Belle Isle and on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. This species is rare at the southern tip of Greenland. In the northeast Atlantic, it is found from Ireland and the United Kingdom north to Iceland, the northern North Sea, and along the coast of Scandinavia to the Murmansk Coast and Spitzbergen (Cohen et al. 1990). This species can be found in waters at depths of 18 to 1000 m, but is most often found at depths between 150 to 450 m (Cohen et al. 1990).

population:
Over the last 10 years (1999-2012), overall catches have been stable over the region. Both groundfish surveys and CPUE data from the Faroes reveal fluctuations over the past 30 years, but with no clear trend. Norwegian fleets in the west of Scotland, Faroes, and North Sea show a slight increase in CPUE over the past 10 years (ICES 2012). Longer time series are available over the past 30 years (3 generation lengths), that show the same trend (K. Nedreaas pers. comm. 2013). It is not known if these fluctuations are because of strengthened fishing restrictions or if populations are fluctuating.   The first report of B. brosme landings in 1950 reported a global harvest of 12,500 tonnes (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed 2013 September). Over the next 15 years, global Tusk landings increased to just over 40,000 tonnes. There was an overall decrease over the next decade to about 28,000 tonnes. After a record high of 55000 tonnes in 1980, B. brosme landings stayed relatively stable for about 12 years, averaging approximately 47000-48000 tonnes annually. A strong declining trend in tusk landing between 1992 and 1997 indicates a probable depletion of the stock(s) between those years (Lorance and Dupouy 1998). By 2004, B. brosme landings had dropped to just under 20,000 tonnes, and then fluctuated between 2000-2010 (FAO FishstatJ). Decreased landings of the North American fisheries in the late 1980s were likely due to the change from longlining to otter trawls, as B. brosme is not a good trawl fish since it frequents rough bottoms (Cohen et al. 1990). The aggregated catch statistics for B. brosme, globally, is 2,5611 tonnes (Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission 2011). In the northeast Atlantic in 2011, Norway and Iceland landed 14,835 and 5,847 tonnes, respectively, and the Faroe Islands landed 5121 tonnes (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed 2013 September).

habitat:
Brosme brosme is found in small shoals on rough, rock, gravel, or pebble bottoms, occasionally found over mud. It generally keeps far from the shore, near the bottom, mostly between 150 and 450 m in the northeastern Atlantic, and between 18 and 550 m in the northwestern Atlantic (Cohen et al. 1990). It is generally restricted to the upper slope and deep continental waters (Cohen et al. 1990).This species spends the majority of its time solitary or in small groups (Frimodt 1995). Brosme brosme feeds on invertebrates including crustaceans and shellfishes as well as benthic fishes (such as flatfishes and gurnard) It is most often preyed upon by seals (Frimodt 1995).There does not appear to be any on- or offshore migrations with this species of fish, but it does undergo local migrations of greater and lesser depths (Cohen et al. 1990). Brosme brosme tolerates temperatures of between 0-10 degrees Celsius (Cohen et al. 1990). Brosme brosme may spawn throughout their range, but important spawning grounds are located between Scotland and Iceland. In the eastern Atlantic, they are located on the edge of the Shetland Islands, Faeroes and Iceland slopes, from 200 to 500 m depth, and in the northern part of the North Sea, along the 100-200 m isobaths (Cohen et al. 1990). Tusk spawn in the spring and early summer on both the western and eastern sides of the Atlantic (April-July). Tusk are amongst the most prolific of fishes, with an average sized female (50 cm) capable of producing up to 2 million eggs in one reproductive episode (Cohen et al. 1990).The larval and early juvenile stages of young tusk occur in the upper pelagic area until reaching approximately 5 cm in length before settling. However, growth rate is slow and the length at first maturity is reached at approximately 8 years, at 50 cm of length. At age 6 the fish is about 22 cm. At age 7 size ranges from 26 to 37 cm. At age 8 size ranges from 36 to 48 cm. At age 15 from 60 to 80 cm. It lives for a maximum of about 20 years and may reach lengths of up to 120 cm (Cohen et al. 1990).

threats:
This species is an important commerical species, and is targeted in Norwegian long-line fisheries.  Brosme brosme tolerates temperatures of between 0 and 10 degrees C (Cohen et al. 1990). The warming trend of the world's oceans certainly affects the range and area of occupay, restricting habitat accessibility and latitudinally restricting them to the more northerly areas of their range. Furthermore, although much has been done to curb the use of deep sea trawls in many fishing areas, they are still used in some areas legally and even in other areas illegally. Trawling destroys much of the benthic fauna and flora it is dragged across, including corals, sponges, seafans and hydroids (Koslow et al. 2001). Tusk depend on many of theses benthic creatures for suitable habitat (Roberts 2002). Deep sea fishing is very destructive to these fragile ecosystems (Roberts 2002).

conservationAction:
ICES advice for the Iceland is to fish at MSY, and for almost all other areas there should be no expansion of any fisheries for this species (ICES Advice 2013).  For 2013, the ICES recommended the following assessment units and landings for Brosme brosme: (1) Subareas I and II -20% reduction in catches (last 3 years’ average to 9040 t). (2) Division Va Subarea XIV - Fishing at FMSY (6700t). (3) Mid-Atlantic Ridge - Fisheries should not be allowed to expand and measures should be considered to limit occasional high levels of bycatch. (4) Division VIb - 20% reduction in catches (350 t). (5) DivisionsIIIa, Vb, VIa, and XIIb and Subareas IV, VII, VIII, and IX - No more than a 20% increase in catches to 8500t (ICES Advice 2012). This species was assessed as Least Concern on the Norwegian National Redlist, using CPUE from long lining and generation length of 11 years.

useAndTrade:
Brosme brosme is a commercially fished species. It may be sold fresh, frozen as fillets or dried salted. It may be eaten steamed, fried, broiled, boiled, microwaved and baked (Frimodt 1995). Brosme brosme is caught with otter trawls and on hard bottoms, with longlines. Longline and handline fisheries off Iceland, Norway and the Faroe Islands harvesting ling (Molva molva) and B. brosme have a very long history, however contemporary fisheries use highly efficient, mechanized vessels fishing over a wide geographical area in the northern parts of the Northeast Atlantic. International landings of tusk from ICES Division Vb (Faroe Islands) more than tripled from the 1950s to the early-1980s but sharply declined thereafter. Since 1986, catch rates of B. brosme by large (>100 GRT) Faroese longline vessels have declined by more than 50% (Large et al. 2003). 		 	 	 		   


redListCategoryRationale:
Ciliata mustela is found in the northeast Atlantic, from Lisbon north to Finnmark, around the British Isles, in the Skagerrak and Kattegat and Iceland. It is found in shallow depths of intertidal areas to depths of between 17 to 22 m. There are no known major species-specific threats to C. mustela, although it may be impacted by coastal development. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ciliata mustela is restricted to the northeast Atlantic Ocean, where it is distributed from Lisbon (Portugal) north to Finnmark (Norway), around the British Isles, in the Skagerrak and Kattegat and Iceland (Cohen et al. 1990). This species of fish is found in shallow depths of intertidal areas near the coastline within its geographical distribution. It rarely exceeds depths greater than depths that green algae grows, usually between 17 to 22 m (Cohen 1990).

population:
Ciliata mustela is a common inshore species. There has been no change in catch rates for this species in the Swedish Scientific Survey data over the past 10 years (1988 to 2009) (Florin pers. comm. 2013). It is reported to be a common fish in the rocky intertidal zone of Europe's coasts (Cohen et al. 1990). However, according to a study conducted in 1996, the northeast Atlantic population of C. mustela has experienced a marked decline since the early 20th century. In 1906, the standardized mean scientific survey catch rate for C. mustela was 11.2, whereas in the 1990s it was 0.2 in Area 6 (Rijnsdorp et al. 1996). In a study published in 1996, that measured the relative densities of fishes on the southern and eastern coasts of England, the mean catch rate for the five-beard rockling was 0.106, 0.146 and 0.129 along the northeast, eastern and southern coasts, respectively (Rogers and Millner 1996).

habitat:
Ciliata mustela is an intertidal species, almost always keeping close to the shore and not known to frequent depths greater than the distribution of green algae (Cohen et al. 1990). Although this species prefers rocky bottoms, it is also known to frequent sandy, muddy or shell/gravel bottoms. The diet consists of crustaceans, amphipods, crabs, shrimp, copepods, ostracods and isopods, and it may also sometimes eat algae, polychaetes, gastropods and sometimes even other small fish (Cohen et al. 1990). Both males and females reach maturity at about one year. Females may lay from 9,000 to 30,000 eggs in one reproductive cycle, depending on the size of the female fish. Spawning occurs in deeper waters off the West Irish coast from about February to May. Both eggs and larvae are pelagic (Cohen et al. 1990). Males and females grow at different rates. At one year, females measure approximately 14 cm long while males measure 11 to 13 cm long. At two years, females measure 20 cm and males 17 cm. The average lifespan for C. mustela is about three years and it can grow in length of up to 25 cm (Cohen et al. 1990). This fish tolerates temperature ranges of eight to 24 degrees Celsius (Moreira et al. 1992).

threats:
This species is not commercially important (Cohen 1990). Ciliata mustela live in a very narrowly defined area of the water column, mostly encompassing the rocky intertidal areas of shores and beaches (Cohen et al. 1990). Coastal development and eutrophication could threaten the habitat of this species. Additionally, the use of electrical frequencies used by brown shrimp trawlers causes this fish to swim and behave abnormally, swimming vigorously and in jerky motions across the bottoms, possibly increasing its risk of being caught as bycatch by the shrimping boats (ICES SGELECTRA Report 2011). This species may be undergoing range retraction due to climate change (Costa et al. 2002).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Least Concern in the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) Regional Red List Assessment for the Baltic Sea. There are currently no known conservation measures in place for this species.

useAndTrade:
This species not commercially important (Cohen et al. 1990).


