# European_Red_List_2017_December

range:
Occurs in central Portugal (Serra da Estrela), almost all of Spain (except the northern coast and northwest part), in the southeast of France (from the Eastern Pyrenees to Auvergne and the Alps) and in the bordering part of the Italian Alps. Its elevational range is 100-2,500m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Black Satyr can be found on grassy vegetation, rocky slopes and in scrub. The caterpillars feed on various grasses, such as fescues (Festuca spp.), meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.) and bromes (Bromus spp.). They hibernate and then pupate on the ground at the end of the spring in May to June. The Black Satyr is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), heath and scrub (14%).


range:
This species occurs in the south of Europe: north of Spain (central Pyrenees), south of France (from the Dordogne southwards and eastwards), the southern Alps of Switzerland, Austria and Italy, also in the Apennines and Calabria and from Croatia to Bulgaria and Greece. 400-1,800m. It is also found in Morocco and from Kazakhstan and Central Asia to Transbaikalia and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In the mountains, the Great Sooty Satyr is mostly found in open, dry, rocky places with grassy vegetation. At lower altitudes, the butterflies occur in open clearings in woods, or at wood edges. They can often be seen drinking nectar on thistles and scabious (Knautia spp.). The female lays its eggs low down on dry grass stems. The caterpillars hibernate when still quite small and pupate in May or June. Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina) is the most important foodplant, but other fescues (Festuca spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.) and bromes (Bromus spp.) are probably also used. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (12%), screes (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), phrygana (8%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals. It is absent from the EU-27.

range:
This species occurs in the southeast of Russia and the Crimea (Ukraine), maybe also in the east of Ukraine. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This species can be found on steppes, dry grassy slopes, stony and rocky places, clearings and glades in mountain forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). On the Crimea hostplants are Festuca spp. and other Poaceae (http://babochki-kryma.narod.ru/main.htm). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This migrant species can be seen all over Europe. Numbers vary a lot from year to year, depending on the weather. Sea level to ca. 2,500 m. It is also found in Siberia, Asia Minor, Central Asia, North Africa, North America and New Zealand. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a migrant species that cannot survive winters in the northern half of Europe or in the mountains. Each spring and summer these areas have to be recolonized. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Malta, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Red Admiral is a wide-ranging, migratory butterfly that in temperate areas can only survive the winter where it is exceptionally mild, though the area with successfull overwintering seems to be moving north in the last decade. Each year, butterflies from southern Europe fly northwards and in good years Red Admirals can be seen practically everywhere. They are often seen in gardens and parks. The butterflies need a lot of nectar. They also feed on rotting fruit and at harvest time are often seen in orchards. They are also attracted to the resin oozing from trees. The Red Admiral is a distinctive and beautiful butterfly, the unusual, contrasting colours prevent it from being confused with any other species. It lays its eggs on Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) in sunny, but not all too dry places. The caterpillars live alone or in small groups in small tent-like shelters made by spinning leaves together. The caterpillars of the Red Admiral are variable in appearance, ranging from yellow with black spots to plain dark-brown to black. They also pupate in a little tent of spun leaves. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


range:
This migrant butterfly can be seen all over Europe. Numbers can vary greatly from year to year depending on the weather. Sea level-3,000 m. This butterfly has a global distribution. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a migrant species from Africa colonizing Europe each year. The numbers in Europe largely depend on the magnitude of the migration.

habitat:
The Painted Lady is a visitor from the south, that is difficult to confuse with other butterflies. The black triangle on the tip of the forewing distinguishes it from the proper fritillaries. It is a migrant and cannot survive the winter in temperate climates. Each year, Western Europe is recolonized by butterflies from the south of Spain and Africa. In good years, the Painted Lady can be seen nearly everywhere, but otherwise seems to be absent. It often basks in the sun on the ground or on vegetation with its wings wide open, taking off into a powerful, gliding flight when approached. It visits a variety of flowers for nectar. The Painted Lady lays its eggs on very different foodplants in Europe. It prefers various thistles (Cirsium spp., Carduus spp. and Onopordum spp.), but also uses mallows (Malva spp.) especially in the south and Viper’s Bugloss (Echium vulgare) and Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica). The eggs are laid singly on the upperside of the leaves, the caterpillars feeding in a shelter of loosely spun leaves. They pupate on the foodplant. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), urban parks and large gardens (5%), fallow land, waste places (5%), scrub and grassland (5%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (5%).


range:
This is an American species, with a small European distribution in the southwest of Europe. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
This species is local in the southwestern part of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Spain - Canary Islands (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The American Painted Lady can be found on any place with a rich abundance of flowers. The eggs are deposited on a wide range of plants, such as several genera of Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Boraginaceae, Urticaceae, Balsaminaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Except for February and November, they are on the wings throughout the year on the island of Tenerife. Probably, the adult butterflies can have a diapause in the cold winter months that might be interrupted when temperatures occasionally rise (Tolman & Lewington, 2008). Habitats: scrub and grassland (50%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (50%).


range:
This species is restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands.

habitat:
The Indian Red Admiral is a butterfly species typical of laurel forests, but it is also found in man-made types of habitat, such as gardens and parks. The female deposits the eggs singly on Urtica morifolia and Parietaria sp. Plants growing in shaded conditions are preferred to those growing in the sun. The caterpillars stays in a shelter made by a rolled-up leaf of its foodplant, where it also pupates. The Indian Red Admiral can be seen throughout the year because it has no diapause and produces many generations a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (50%), scrub and grassland (50%).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs scattered on Cyprus and on the Greek islands Samos, Rhodes, Simi and Kastellorizo. Mostly at lower altitudes than 500 m. Main distribution in Turkey, the Middle East, India and Africa. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The African Ringlet occurs in short scrub, rocky areas with low vegetation and dry riverbeds. It uses grasses as foodplants. The main flight periods are in April and September/October. In Cyprus, it has two generations a year. On the Greek islands, it probably has several generations a year. Habitats: phrygana (100%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The European extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km². Furthermore the species is declining in part of its European range (European part of Turkey). Therefore, it is classified as Near Threatened in Europe. As the Greek population is reported stable and this is the only country in the EU27 where it occurs, the species is considered as Least Concern in the EU27 member states.

range:
This species occurs in the north of Greece near Thessaloniki and on some Greek islands. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends through Turkey to Jordan and the north of Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The False Apollo can be found in the early spring in sheltered places in olive groves, vineyards, on rocky slopes with bushes and in open woodland. They are also seen in damp places, such as stream margins. They use various birthworts (Aristolochia spp.) as larval foodplants, such as Birthwort (A. clematitis) and on Samos and Lesbos, A. bodamae. Unlike other Papilionidae, the caterpillars cannot be seen on the foodplants, as they live hidden in a spun leaf. The False Apollo has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage in the ground. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).

threats:
This species is threatened by agricultural activities and land claims. The intensification of agriculture caused the disappearance of the foodplants over large areas. Abandonment leads to shrub invasion and finally to the loss of suitable habitat. Furthermore fires can destroy habitat patches.

conservationAction:
Research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Protected areas should be established and management plans executed. The effects of conservation measures should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
The subspecies I. p. feisthameli is sometimes considered as a separate species.

range:
This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Ireland, Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Estonia. 0-1,500 m. The subspecies I. p. feisthameli occurs in Spain and the south of France. It is sometimes considered as a separate species. Its range extends to North Africa and to Turkey and the Middle East across Kazakhstan to the Altai, Southwest. Siberia and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxemburg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Romania, Serbia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This large, conspicuous butterfly with its elegant gliding flight, is very impressive. It occurs in warm, dry places with scrub and rough vegetation. The males of the Scarce Swallowtail congregate on hilltops, dancing in the air and waiting for the females, a type of behaviour known as “hill-topping”. They visit thistles and other flowers rich in nectar. The eggs are laid on the leaves of small bushes or trees of Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and other Rosaceae. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. When fully-grown, they pupate, suspended in a silken girdle in the foodplant. Depending on its position in the range and on the altitude, the Scarce Swallowtail has one to three generations a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (9%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (9%), urban parks and large gardens (6%).


range:
This species occurs in the southeast of France and just in the adjacent Alps of Northwestern Italy, extreme south of Italy (Aspromonte) and east of Sicily, the Balkans, Croatia (coastal area), Albania and large parts of Greece including several Greek islands. Mostly between 300-1,500 m. Its range extends to Turkey and the Middle East, Middle Asia to Iran and Afghanistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern Swallowtail is mostly found on warm, dry calcareous slopes with a flower-rich vegetation and low-growing bushes. They prefer slopes that are steep and rocky. They are especially active during the hottests hours of the day. Different foodplants are known, all of them umbellifers. Ptychotis saxifraga is the most important one in the western part of its range, but eggs are also laid on Opopanax chironium, Seseli montanum and Trinia glauca. In the Eastern part, the caterpillars feed mostly on various fennels (Ferula spp.) and also on Opopanax hispidus, Burnet saxifrage (Pimpinella saxifraga), Scaligeria cretica and Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). The caterpillars eat the flowers and ripening seeds. They seem to prefer plants growing in very sparse vegetation near bare patches. The Southern Swallowtail has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: phrygana (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), heath and scrub (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific action is needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


redListCategoryRationale:
In previous assessments (Collins and Morris 1985), Papilio hospiton was listed as Endangered, based on a population decline caused by habitat destruction, commercial collecting and destruction of its foodplants. Aubert et al. (1996) found that the species was in fact not declining, although elimination of the foodplants could lead to a potential decline of the butterfly. As long as traditional land use characterized by overgrazing and controlled burning continues, the foodplants are however not in danger. Following the present Red List criteria, this species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not declined by more than 25% in the last ten years, its European extent of Occurrence (EOO) is larger than 20,000 km² and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals.

range:
Only occurs on Corsica and Sardinia. Its elevational range is between 400-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Corsican Swallowtail is a butterfly of open, grassy slopes, often with some scattered rocks and bushes and of slopes with low-growing scrub. Just as the Swallowtail, P. machaon, these butterflies show hill-topping behaviour, the males assembling on hilltops or other prominent features in the landscape, waiting for the females to arrive. In Corsica, they are found on three different foodplants, Giant Fennel (Ferula communis), Ruta corsica and Peucedanum paniculatum, different populations being strictly bound to one type of foodplant. However, in Sardinia, the caterpillars are only found on Giant Fennel (Ferula communis). The Corsican Swallowtail has one generation a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. On Corsica reported to do well after forest fires. Habitats: heath and scrub (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4, Bern Convention Annex 2 and CITES Appendix I. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. In France and Italy, not all populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.


range:
This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Ireland and Denmark. In England, it is only present in Norfolk. In the Netherlands, it occurs mostly in South-Limburg, it is rarer northwards. 0-3,000 m. It is also found in rest of the Palearctic and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Romania, Serbia, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Swallowtail is a species of flower-rich meadows and small-scale farmland. The males and females meet at hilltops or above high trees, showing a type of behaviour known as “hill-topping”, with the butterflies dancing up and down in the air. The Swallowtail needs a lot of nectar. In the south of the range, they also occur in parks and gardens. Eggs are laid on various umbellifers, including Wild Carrot (Daucus carota) and Rutaceae. The British population in the Norfolk Broads only uses Milk-Parsley (Peucedanum palustre) as a foodplant. The fully-grown larvae are very conspicuous, bright green with black stripes and orange spots. When disturbed they can suddenly show a Y-shaped, orange scent-gland or osmeterium, just behind its head, producing a strong, unpleasant smell. The caterpillars from autumn generations leave the foodplant to pupate on the ground and hibernation takes place as a pupa. The caterpillars of the summer generations pupate low down on the larval foodplant. Depending on the altitude of the breeding ground and its position in the distribution range, the Swallowtail produces one to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), fallow land, waste places (8%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).

conservationAction:
In the United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


redListCategoryRationale:
Both at the European and EU27 member states level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species, in many lowland sites, have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This species occurs in most of the large mountainous areas in Europe: Spain, south of France, Switzerland, Austria, south of Germany as far as the Mosel, Italy, the Balkans and Greece, south of Norway, Sweden and Finland. 1,000-2,400 m, sometimes at lower altitudes. Its range extends to the Tian-Shan and Siberia and Mongolia; also from the Northern Urals to Transcaucasia, Turkey and the Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belarus, Latvia and Romania. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bulgaria, France, Norway, Spain and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Apollo occurs in mountainous areas on steep, sunny slopes with sparse vegetation. In Europe, there are many different sub-species, forms and aberrations, because of the very divided nature of the distribution area and as a consequence, large isolation of populations. Separated by mountains, the populations develop independently of one another, so that quite marked differences arise. However, their ecology is similar. The butterflies are fond of visiting thistles and other flowering plants. The female lays its eggs singly or in small groups on or near the foodplant stonecrop (Sedum spp.). The eggs develop but the tiny caterpillar hibernates inside the eggshell or as newly hatched larva in its close vicinity. In spring it starts feeding on the buds of the foodplant. The caterpillars of later instars also eat the leaves. When it is time to pupate, the caterpillars look for a safe place between the stones, where they then spin a flimsy cocoon in which to change into a pupa. The Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (11%), screes (9%), coniferous woodland (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).

threats:
This species is declining in areas of low altitude. These lowland populations suffer from fragmentation and isolation. Large and strong populations are still found in the high parts of the Alps and other high mountain ranges. The species is attractive to collectors, especially the subspecies of small lowland populations, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4, Bern Convention Annex 2 and CITES Appendix II. In Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. The species is legally protected in many countries. In spite of this legal protection, there is often no special attention to the habitat management. As a consequence, many small lowland populations are declining. The production and implementation of species action plans are urgently needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, a decline of more than 25% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. In the EU27 countries, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat.

range:
Scattered, local populations in the Pyrenees, Central Massif, the Alps, mountainous areas in Italy, Sicily, the Balkans and Greece, Germany (also in Harz Mts. and Rhön), Norway, Sweden, Finland and Baltic States. 0-2,300 m. Its range extends across the Caucasus to the Middle East and eastwards across Iran, Afghanistan and Middle Asia to West Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Latvia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Clouded Apollo occurs in mountainous regions on damp to moderately dry grassland, usually with woodland or scrub in the neighbourhood. The butterflies can often be seen visiting red or purple flowers for the nectar they need. The foodplant is Corydalis, that at the time of egg laying is not yet above ground. The eggs are laid on its dried stems, on grass blades, or on other plants not too far from the foodplants. The egg hibernates. In spring, as soon as it has hatched, the small caterpillar starts its search for a suitable foodplant. When fully-grown, it pupates in a closely spun cocoon of fine threads, situated above the ground in the leaves of the foodplant. The Clouded Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (19%), mesophile grasslands (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), mixed woodland (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%).

threats:
This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and woodland. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
In Europe, it only occurs in the Alps and Northern Urals: in France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria (as far as in Steirmark). It is very rare in Liechtenstein and in the south of Germany. 1,200-2,800 m, most populations 1,800-2,200 m. It is also found in the Caucasus, the Altai and Siberia to the Far East and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Apollo occurs in the mountains, especially in damp places, such as beside streams and where it gets flooded from time to time. Such spots are the habitat of Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (Saxifraga aizoides). However, the Small Apollo living in the Mercantour in the south-west of the Alps, use Roseroot (Rhodiola roseum) as foodplant. The eggs are either laid on or in the vicinity of the foodplant. The very small caterpillar sometimes passes the winter in the egg, sometimes outside it. The fully-grown caterpillars are black with a row of orange-red or yellow spots along each side. At the beginning of the summer, they spin a flimsy cocoon in which to pupate, either low down on the larval plant, or on the ground. The Small Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (37%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), water-fringe vegetation (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (12%).

threats:
The species is threatened by changes in the management of (sub)-alpine meadows. It might get threatened in future by climate change.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species is present on the southern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, northwest of the Caucasus. Up to 1,800 m (Tshikolovets 2003, Baytas 2007). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is not clear if there are populations in the part of Southern Russia considered to be European.

habitat:
The Caucasian Festoon occurs in moist bushy clearing and other open places in deciduous and mixed forests and on wet meadows on hills. female lays its eggsThe female lays its eggs mostly on a birthwort species (Aristolochia iberica). The species has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage (Tshikolovets 2003, Baytas 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
There are no main threats known in Europe.


range:
This species occurs in the Balkans: from Croatia, Bosnia, southeast of Serbia and southeast of Romania to the north of Greece. This species occurs also on some Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends to Israel, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Festoon occurs in warm, usually dry, places such as in dry grassland with scattered bushes, in scrub, near hedges, on agricultural land, vineyards and olive groves. It is also found in river valleys. Choosing plants growing near bushes or trees, the female lays its eggs mostly on Birthwort (Aristolochia clematitis), but also on other birthworts. The Eastern Festoon has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), mesophile grasslands (10%), mixed woodland (10%), phrygana (10%), heath and scrub (10%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in Croatia. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
Occurs only locally on Crete. Its elevational range is 0-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This Festoon is often seen in dry, open scrub, but also on agricultural land, in olive groves and vineyards and sometimes in damp places. The Birthwort Aristolochia cretica, which only grows on Crete and perhaps also A. sempervirens, are used as host plants. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).


range:
This species occurs in the southeast of France (from Hérault and further eastwards, abundant in Camargue), Italy (including Sicily) and large parts of Southeastern Europe (from Austria to Greece and Romania). 0-1,700m, usually at lower altitudes than 900 m. Its range extends to Southern Urals and Northwest Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Germany and Switzerland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, France, Serbia, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The caterpillars of the Southern Festoon live on various birthworts, such as Aristolochia clematitis, A. rotunda, A. pallida and A. pistolochia. Because their foodplants grow in different habitats and because the caterpillars also have different foodplants in different areas, this spring butterfly can be found in quite different habitats. In the western part of its range, it can be seen in open places along rivers with the foodplant A. rotunda. In the mountains, the butterflies can be seen in dry, sunny, rocky places, where A. pallida and A. pistolochia grow. In Austria, it is in vineyards on sunny slopes, where A. clematitis grows as a weed, that the Southern Festoon is seen. In Greece, the butterfly occurs in damp areas, as well as on dry slopes, according to the species of birthwort used as foodplant. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the underside of the leaves, where the caterpillars are usually also found. The caterpillars have a striking appearance. Mostly beige with black spots, it has some orange tubercles on each segment, each ending in a black, spiny tuft. The Southern Festoon has one generation a year and hibernates as pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs over almost all Portugal and Spain (except extreme north of Portugal and the northern and western coasts of Spain) and France (Mediterranean coastal areas and from eastern Pyrenees and Cevennes to the Alps). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Andorra. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Spanish Festoon can be found on scrub and dry, grassy vegetation. The butterflies are often found in rocky areas, where they can be seen, wings wide open, basking on stones. The female lays its eggs singly or in small groups on birthworts (Aristolochia spp.). The caterpillars feed on these poisonous plants, pupating for the winter. It can sometimes take two to three years before the butterfly emerges from the pupa. With the exception of a few sites in southern Spain, where it produces two generations, this species has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), mesophile grasslands (6%), inland sand-dunes (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%).


range:
In large parts of Europe to 69° N, it is widespread and common. It is absent from parts of southern Spain and southern Portugal, the Balearic Islands, Malta, Crete and Rhodes. 0-2,100 m. Further in the whole Palearctic except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Romania, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In Western Europe, the first Orange-tip gives us the feeling that spring has arrived. However, high in the mountains, these butterflies only appear in the middle of the summer. The Orange-tip occurs in damp to quite wet grasslands at the edge of woods, or near thickets. The eggs are laid singly on flowerheads of different crucifers and their bright-orange colour makes them easy to find. At first, the caterpillars feed on the flowerbuds of the foodplant and later on the fruits. They live alone, which accords with their cannibalistic nature. When ready to pupate, they move into rough vegetation, climbing up a little twig and turning into a light-brown pupa, suspended from the plant by a silken girdle. The Orange-tip hibernates in this stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), urban parks and large gardens (5%).


range:
This species occurs in the south of Italy, east of Sicily, FYR of Macedonia, on Greek mainland and Corfu. 350-1,300 m. It is also present from Turkey to the Middle East and the south of Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Orange-tip is a butterfly of open, grassy scrub, such as very open maquis and is often found on steep, rocky, south-facing limestone slopes. In Sicily, the butterflies are mostly seen on ancient lava beds. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of woads (Isatis spp.), mainly on I. tinctoria. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds. Pupation takes place on withered stalks. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), heath and scrub (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%).


range:
Occurs in central Portugal, Spain (except the extreme Northeast), southeast of France (from Pyrenees to the Alps), adjacent part of Italian Alps and central Italy. Its elevational range is 0-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This butterfly inhabits warm, dry places with flower-rich, grassy vegetation and scattered bushes. Eggs are laid one by one on the flowerbuds of various crucifers, such as the buckler mustards Biscutella laevigata and B. auriculata, London Rocket (Sisymbrium irio) and Hedge Mustard (S. officinale). The caterpillars feed mainly on ovaries, but at times are also cannibalistic. This species hibernates as a pupa and has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), phrygana (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (8%), inland sand-dunes (8%).


range:
This species occurs locally in the the south of the Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria and on Greek mainland. 0-1,800 m. Also present from Israel and Syria to the Middle East, Iran and Turkey to Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Gruner’s Orange-tip lives on dry, open grasslands, on rocky, often calcareous slopes, scrub and clearings in dry woodland. The eggs are laid on Aethionema species, including Burnt Candytuft (A. saxatile) and A. orbiculatum, the caterpillars eating both the leaves and ripening seeds. It has one generation a year and the pupa hibernates. Habitats: screes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).


range:
This species is widespread and common in large parts of Europe up to 64° N. It is absent from north and central Norway, Sweden and Finland, the British islands, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, the Ionian islands, Crete and the Cyclades. 500-2,000 m. It is also present in the entire Palearctic Region, except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. The species shows strong natural fluctuations, and can be absent in some years and almost a pest in others. It is reported extinct from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, France, Latvia, Norway and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Black-veined White can be found on many different types of vegetation in a variety of landscapes, but seems to prefer habitats in the neighbourhood of woods or scrub. It is, however, quite a mobile butterfly, that can be encountered everywhere. The numbers of this butterfly species can fluctuate greatly and the reasons for this are not well understood. It may build up huge populations at unusual places, such as hedges along motorways, but can also disappear from large areas for many years. They can often be seen drinking on such nectar plants as thistles. The eggs are laid in large clusters of often sixty or more, on the leaves of trees and bushes of the rose family (Rosaceae), such as hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), Cherry (Prunus spp.), Apple (Malus spp.), also in orchards. The caterpillars spend their time in a communal silken nest until they pupate, the nest in which they hibernate being more substantial. When they are ready to pupate, they disperse over the foodplant, the yellow pupa with black spots, suspended in a silken girdle. The Black-veined White has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), mixed woodland (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), mesophile grasslands (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), heath and scrub (6%).


range:
This species occurs in all Africa south of Sahara, and from the Canary Islands through Egypt to India and China. 0-500 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
This is a migratory species from Africa, occurring only on a few Atlantic islands.

habitat:
The African Migrant was first reported in 1965 from Tenerife where it established populations in the coastal areas and colonized the other islands. It can be seen on all kinds of places with a high abundance of flowers, also parks and gardens. The eggs are laid on the leaves of Cassia didymobotrya, which is an introduced ornamental plant from Africa, but also other introduced Cassia species are used. This butterfly has no diapause stage, therefore is produces eight to nine generations a year and is on the wing throughout the year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This African migrant is not threatened in Europe.


taxonomicNotes:
The Berger’s Clouded Yellow and the Pale Clouded Yellow (C. hyale) are so similar that it is not possible to identify them with certainty

range:
This species occurs in Southern and Central Europe, as far as the southeast of Belgium and up to 54° N in Poland. It is a migrant in the south of Britain, north of Germany and the Netherlands. It is absent from Sardinia, the south of Greece, the east of Thrace and European Turkey. 0-2,100 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Berger’s Clouded Yellow is a butterfly of dry, open grasslands on calcareous soils. In the northern part of its distribution range, it often occurs on the south-facing slopes of hills or mountains. The Berger’s Clouded Yellow is much more sensitive to cold than the Pale Clouded Yellow (C. hyale), the caterpillars growing less quickly and even undergoing periods of inactivity in bad weather. Eggs are mostly laid on Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa), also on Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia). Hibernation takes place on the foodplant, or on the ground in the litter layer. For pupation the caterpillar attaches itself to a foodplant, turning into a light-green pupa, suspended by a silken girdle. This species has two or three generations a year. The Berger’s Clouded Yellow and the Pale Clouded Yellow are so similar that it is not possible to identify them with certainty. Habitat helps a little, Berger’s Clouded Yellow being almost only seen on calcareous grasslands with Horseshoe Vetch, whereas the Pale Clouded Yellow prefers lucerne fields. However, during migration, C. hyale can turn up almost everywhere. These species are easy to distinguish as caterpillars. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), improved grasslands (10%), fallow land, waste places (8%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).

conservationAction:
In Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs scattered in Western and Central Greece. 550-2,000 m, above 1,100 m in the Peloponnesus. It is furthermore present through Turkey to Syria, Northwestern Iran and the Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is local in part of Europe.

habitat:
The Greek Clouded Yellow is found on dry grasslands with scattered bushes and in open coniferous woodland. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of its larval foodplant, Astracantha rumelica and the milk-vetch Astragalus parnassi, that are often abundant in the habitats. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a young caterpillar, finishing its growth and pupating in spring. Habitats: coniferous woodland (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%).


range:
This species occurs locally in mountainous areas in the Balkans: southwest of Serbia, central and south Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR of Macedonia, southeast of Bulgaria and north of Greece. 1,200-2150 m. It is furthermore found in the northwestern part of Turkey and the Caucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Balkan Clouded Yellow is found above 1,700 m (but also reported from one spot of 1,100 m in Bosnia and Herzegovina) on open, rocky slopes with low vegetation. At lower altitudes, the butterflies can be seen in woodland clearings. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of Hairy Broom (Chamaecytisus hirsutus) and C. eriocarpus. There are often large numbers of larval foodplants in the habitats. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), heath and scrub (20%).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe and the EU27 countries, a population decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Vulnerable.

range:
This species occurs from the southeast of Czech Republic and east of Austria eastwards to Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. 300-1,000 m. It is furthermore present through Turkey, north of Iran, West Siberia and the Altai Mountains across the south of Siberia to Transbaikalia, Mongolia and Northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Romania and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lesser Clouded Yellow is found on open, dry, steppe-like grassland and rocky slopes. Its main foodplant is the Milk-vetch (Astragalus austriacus), but Milk-vetch (A. glycyphyllos) and vetches (Vicia spp.) are also used. This species has three to four generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (58%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), phrygana (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%).

threats:
The main threats are agricultural changes, afforestation and built development. In the western part of the European range, populations have got scattered and are now isolated. Furthermore, the species shows strong fluctuations.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. Management plans must be made for the remaining sites in the western part of the range. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species is resident in the south of Europe, in some years also further north. It is migrant in the Baltic States, the south of Scandinavia, north of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Britain and Ireland. When resident 0-1,600 m; migrants up to 3200 m. It is also found in North Africa and across Turkey and the Middle East, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to W Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a migrant species that cannot survive winters in the northern half of Europe or in the mountains. Because of the strong annual fluctuations, no trends can be detected.

habitat:
In warm summers, the Clouded Yellow can be seen practically over the whole of Europe, often on fields of clover or lucerne, or other flower-rich vegetations. It lays its eggs one by one, on the leaves of such leguminous plants as Lucerne (Medicago sativa), clovers (Trifolium spp.) and vetches (Vicia spp.). It pupates, suspended in a silken girdle on the foodplant. In the south, where it can survive the winter, the Clouded Yellow passes the winter as a caterpillar. In the north, because it cannot tolerate the cold, it only appears as a summer migrant, recolonizing from the south. This species has four to six generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), mesophile grasslands (8%), improved grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%), phrygana (5%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (5%), scrub and grassland (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).


range:
This species occurs in Eastern and Southeastern Europe: from East Austria and Czech Republic south-eastwards to the north of Greece. However, because of its mobility, it is not clear where it is permanent or a temporary resident or vagrant. 0-1,900 m. It is found across the Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Turkey to West China and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range, but has large annual fluctuations. In recent decades the species has expanded in western and northern direction. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Pale Clouded Yellow is a very mobile species and can therefore be seen in all kinds of places. This, originally Asian species greatly extended its range during the 1970s and 1980s. Fifty years ago it was known in Europe only from the Black Sea coast. Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is its most important larval foodplant. The caterpillars can also be found on other leguminous plants. This species has several generations a year, three to five have been reported from Bulgaria and Romania. It passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), improved grasslands (10%), fallow land, waste places (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%).


range:
This species occurs north of 66° N in Norway, Sweden and Finland. 0-900 m. It is furthermore present on the tundras of Eurasia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Northern Clouded Yellow occurs in the mountains of Lapland above the birch zone, on open, grassy meadows and stony slopes. The butterflies fly very quickly and are difficult to approach. Eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the larval foodplants, or on neighbouring plants. Alpine Milk-vetch (Astragalus alpinus) is the most important foodplant, but other milk-vetches (Astragalus spp.) may also be used. The caterpillars feed on the flowers, leaves and stems, sometimes taking two years to complete their life-cycle. Hibernation can take place as a caterpillar or a pupa. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (16%), heath and scrub (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).

threats:
The main threat is overgrazing by reindeers, especially in Finland. Astragalus plants are eaten first by these herbivores. Due to its limited distribution, it might get threatened in the long term by climate change.

conservationAction:
Research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This is a central European species: south of Sweden, south of Finland, the Baltic States, Denmark, southeast of Belgium, France, Pyrenees, Switzerland, Austria as far as the Northern Balkans, further in Spain (Granada and Palencia). It is absent from the south of Italy, the west and southwest of the Balkans, Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In the north of its distribution range, this species is a migrant. 0-1,800 m. It is furthermore present through Siberia to Mongolia and Northwest China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range and can colonize areas temporaryly. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Italy (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Pale Clouded Yellow is mostly found on fields of clover or lucerne, but also on meadows that are grazed at low intensity where many leguminous plants are growing. It prefers open landscapes with few trees or bushes. Eggs are laid singly on many species of Leguminosae. The caterpillar feeds on young leaves and overwinters as half-grown caterpillar. It pupates, suspended in a girdle from a stalk on the foodplant. The Pale Clouded Yellow has two or three generations a year, depending on geographical location and altitude of the flight area. In the northern part of of its range, it is a migrant species, but in most of Central Europe it is a resident. The adult Pale Clouded Yellow is very hard to distinguish from Berger's Clouded Yellow (Colias alfacariensis), while the caterpillars are very different. The latter species is only found on calcareous grasslands with Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa). Although the Pale Clouded Yellow has a preference for clover and lucerne fields, when migrating, it can turn up almost anywhere. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (18%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), improved grasslands (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species shows a strong decline in most of its range, but especially in the western part. It is reported to have disappeared recently from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Slovenia. The situation in Russia, holding an important part of the present distribution, is unclear. A decline of 50-80% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Endangered at the European level. In the EU27 countries, a decline of more than 80% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Critically Endangered at the Eu27 level.

range:
This Eastern species occurs very locally in sparse populations. Lithuania, Poland, southeast of Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary and Romania. In the flood plain of the Danube. 0-500 m. Its range extends to West Siberia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The species has declined strongly over most of its range. It is reported extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Croatia, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Danube Clouded Yellow occurs in dry, warm grassland where its foodplant, the broom Chamaecytisus ratisbonensis is always abundant. However, the amount of shelter from bushes can vary considerably. The female lays its eggs on the foodplant, the caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer. It has two to three generations a year. The species shows serious declines, especially at the western edge of its range. Within the last years it disappeared most probably from Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Serbia. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), mesophile grasslands (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), coniferous woodland (8%), mixed woodland (8%).

threats:
This species is threatened both by intensification of use and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands, its main habitat. Furthermore, especially for the westernmost parts, climate change is considered as one of the most important reasons for its decline, even though it cannot fully explain the situation. It is certain that in some cases land-use changes even under AgriEnvironmental Schemes have led to drastic declines (see also Konvicka et al., 2008). In general, loss of habitat and habitat connectivity, unfavarouble grassland management (wrong timing or intensity) and climate change (less continental climate) must be considered (Dolek, M. & Hager, A. 2008). Abandonment is probably the largest threat to the populations in Eastern Europe.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is urgently needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Important habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). In Hungary the species only occurs in protected areas.


range:
In Europe, it only occurs in central and northern Europe: the Jura and Vosges, the Alps, Switzerland, south and east of Germany, Scandinavia except Denmark, the Baltic States and further to the east. 100-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the boreal and temperate zones of Eurasia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Poland and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Italy, Latvia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Moorland Clouded Yellow occurs at the edges of raised bogs and also on blanket bogs. At high altitudes, it is found in drier habitats. Eggs are laid singly on Bog Whortleberry (Vaccinium uliginosum). At first, the caterpillars only eat the upper layers of the leaf, producing “windows”, but later, the whole leaf is eaten. The caterpillars hibernate among the dry leaves of the litter layer and the next spring feed and grow further, before finally pupating on a branch of the foodplant. It has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (35%), blanket bogs (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), coniferous woodland (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


redListCategoryRationale:
Although the estimated decline of this species is less than 30%, a decline of more than 30% would be within the uncertainty limits. It is therefore classified as Near Threatened in the world, Europe and the EU-27.

range:
The Mountain Clouded Yellow occurs in Europe in mountainous areas: Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees and Alps. It occurs between 900-2,500 m elevation in the Alps and 1,500-2,800 m in Spain. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Mountain Clouded Yellow has its breeding ground in flower-rich alpine meadows. Although they are quick, strong flyers, they do not migrate and do not leave their habitat as C. hyale or C. croceus do. Various leguminous plants are used as larval foodplants, including Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa), White Clover (Trifolium repens), Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) and vetches (Vicia spp.). This butterfly species usually has one generation a year, but in some years there is a partial second generation. The caterpillars hibernate after their second moult. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (87%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%).

threats:
This species shows a decline in part of its European range, but direct threats are unknown. As it is a species from alpine meadows, it could become threatened by changes in agricultural practices or climate change.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
In Europe, it occurs in Arctic Fennoscandia, polar Urals and Novaya Zemlya. It is also found in Taimyr, Yamal Peninsula, North America and Greenland (Tolman & Lewington 2008). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Russia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Pale Arctic Clouded Yellow is found in Lapland in the mountains and in lowland areas. They occur in marshy habitats in the birch zone, marshes on mountain slopes and on dry to wet alpine grasslands. The butterflies appear early in the year, as soon as the birches burst into leaf. Its foodplants are Alpine Milk-vetch (Astragalus alpinus), Yellow Alpine Milk-vetch (A. frigidus) and possibly also Vaccinium species. This species has one generation a year and mostly hibernates as a chrysalis, but sometimes as a caterpillar. Sometimes, it remains a pupa for a second winter. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale. Climate change could be a possible long term threat.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No direct conservation actions are neededat a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
In Europe, this species is only reported from scattered records in the southeast of Spain (from Cadiz to Alicante). It is furthermore present from North Africa and the Middle East across Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan to the south of Turkmenia, Uzbekistan and Pakistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The Desert Orange-tip occurs on fallow land, on dry flower-rich vegetation and on stony slopes. There are several overlapping generations each year, so that butterflies can be seen from spring to autumn. In summer and autumn they are more numerous and can sometimes be seen further inland. The caterpillars live on the leaves of Caper (Capparis spinosa). The Desert Orange-tip passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).


range:
This species occurs in Italy (Tuscany and south) and further eastwards: Dalmatia, Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southeast of Romania, Greece (including Crete and other Greek islands) and on Cyprus. 0-1,600 m. Further in North Africa, from Southern and Eastern Europe to West Siberia, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, across Asia Minor and the Middle East to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Dappled White is a species of warm, dry places. It occurs on flower-rich grasslands and waste ground, along hedges and the edges of woods; it also visits parks and gardens. Various crucifers are used as larval foodplant, such as a Charlock (Sisymbrium arvensis), Woad (Isatis tinctoria), buckler mustards (Biscutella spp.), Evergreen Candytuft (Iberis sempervirens) and Crested Bunias (Bunias erucago). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds. This butterfly species has two generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. It may remain in diapause as a pupa for two or more years. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This is one of the few European butterfly species where the population size is probably less than 10,000 individuals. The area of occupancy (AOO) is 700 km² based on 10 x 10 km squares. The species occurs in six locations. Furthermore, a decline of 6-10% in 10 years is reported. This species is therefore considered as Vulnerable.

range:
This species was first discovered in 1982, in Spain near Baza (Granada). Later, the species was also found in Huesca and western Catalonia. It occurs between 150-1,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
The Spanish Greenish Black-tip is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Spain. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The population size is estimated to be smaller than 10,000 butterflies.

habitat:
The Spanish Greenish Black-tip is found in semiarid grasslands or scrub (vegetation types Santolino-Gypsophiletum struthium and Rhamno-Cocciferetum pistacietosum) on calcareous or gypsum substrate. The caterpillars feed on Eruca vesicaria and Boleum asperum, eating the leaves as well as the ripening seeds. The species has one generation a year, with a partial second generation, and hibernates as a pupa.

threats:
This species has a very restricted range in Europe and the population size is small. Regarding its limited distribution it might become threatened in the longer term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) there is no information on possible changes to its climate envelope.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat..

range:
This species occurs in Portugal and south and central Spain, in isolated populations as far as the northwest (Burgos, Galiza). 0-1,000 m, sometimes to 1350 m. It is also present in North Africa, Chad, Middle East, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In Portugal, it is well distributed in the southern half of Portugal, with populations in the Douro basin (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Green-striped White occurs in flower-rich places, between bushes, on waste ground and on abandoned agricultural land. It occurs locally, but can be numerous in its flight area. The butterfly flies quickly and close to the ground. The caterpillars eat the ripening seeds of different crucifers, such as Diplotaxis, Erucastrum and Sisymbrium ssp. The Green-striped White has two generations a year in spring and passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), fallow land, waste places (25%).


range:
This species occurs in the Canary Islands, from Morocco and Algeria through North Africa, Iraq, Iran to the north of India. Sea level to 2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The butterflies of the Greenish Black-tip are found on dry, grassy vegetation on calcareous soil and in rocky areas. On the Canary Island, the caterpillars feed on Reseda lancerotae and Carrichtera annua, eating the leaves as well as the ripening seeds. The Greenish Black-tip has several generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).


range:
This species occurs all over Spain and Portugal, in France (in eastern Pyrenees and the French Alps including foothills) and Italy (central Alps, Liguria and Northern Apennines). 0-2,000 m. It is also present in Northwest Africa, Libya and Egypt. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Western Dappled White flies in dry flower-rich grassland, road verges, waste ground, abandoned agricultural land and at the edges of woodland and scrub with crucifers. The eggs are laid singly on the flowerbuds of crucifers, such as Charlock (Sinapis arvensis), Buckler Mustard (Biscutella laevigata), radishes (Raphanus spp.) and candytufts (Iberis spp.). The larvae feed on flowers and developing seeds. This butterfly has two generations and hibernates in the pupal stage. It may remain in diapause as a pupa for several years. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), fallow land, waste places (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).


taxonomicNotes:
Euchloe eversi was considered a subspecies of the Green-striped White (E. belemia). Based on studies in molecular biology, it has been separated from the nominate species (Back et al. 2008), but recent studies put this conclusion again under discussion (Suarez et al. 2009).

range:
Restricted to the Canary Island of Tenerife. Its elevational range is above 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The species occurs in the Canades des Teide at altitudes of 2,000 m and higher. The larval foodplant is Descurainia bourgeana. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
Euchloe grancanariensis was formerly considered a subspecies of the Green-striped White (E. belemia).

range:
Restricted to the Canary Island of Gran Canaria. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This species occurs on dry open grassland with some bushes of Euphorbia species. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Restricted to the Canary Island of Fuerteventura. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Canary Green-striped White occurs in places that have been abandoned after cultivation. The larval foodplant, Sisymbrium erysomoides, must be available in sufficient quantity. It has two generations a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
Occurs only on Corsica and Sardinia and is the only Dappled White that can be found on these islands. On Corsica, it is quite rare, but more abundant on Sardinia, especially on the coast and at low altitudes. Its elevational range is 0-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Corsican Dappled White is a species of dry, grassy vegetation and of dry scrub. The Candytuft (Iberis pinnata), the Hoary Mustard (Hirschfeldia incana) and mustards (Sinapis spp.) are used as foodplants. It has two generations a year, in early spring and late spring, but as the second generation is only partial, only small numbers of butterflies can be seen in May and June. It hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%).


range:
This species occurs locally in the the south of the Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria (Pirin Mts.) and Greece. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Lebanon, Syria and in the north of Iraq. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Eastern Greenish Black-tip is mostly found on steep, rocky, limestone slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and in open, dry scrub. The butterflies often settle on the ground, or on rocks, with their wings half-open, but when it is very hot, they cool off in the shadow of rock crevices. Their flight is rapid, rather like that of skippers. The stock Matthiola tessela is its foodplant. It is not clear how many generations this species has a year, but it is probably two. Habitats: phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), screes (25%).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are needed for this species. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.


range:
Occurs in the western Alps (in border region of France, Switzerland and Italy). In Spain restricted to the mountain areas in the North, but the exact distribution is poorly known. Its elevational range is above 450 m, mostly 1,200-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Mountain Dappled White is locally common in flower-rich alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and on rocky slopes. The males fly quickly, whereas the females are rarely seen in flight. They lay their eggs singly on the flowerheads of various crucifers, such as Barbarea spp., buckler mustards (Biscutella spp.), candytufts (Iberis spp.) and rockets (Sisymbrium spp.). The caterpillars are solitary and usually eat the ovaries of the plants, but they can also be cannibalistic. They pupate on rocks or in low-growing vegetation and pass the winter in this stage, sometimes remaining a pupa for more than one winter. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%).


range:
This species occurs in the south of Portugal (very rare), Spain (southern half and locally in the north including surroundings of Burgos, Aragon), France (near Cahors, Provence and the Alps) and the northwest of Italy. 0- 1,200 m, sometimes to 2,400 m. It is also found in Morocco and Algeria. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This butterfly owes its specific name to the River Tagus in Portugal, along the banks of which it was first found. The Portuguese Dappled White is found on warm, dry rocky places with patches of flower-rich grassy vegetation, in dry scrub and on abandoned agricultural land. As foodplant several species of candytufts (Iberis spp.) are used. The caterpillars eat the ovaries and flowers. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), fallow land, waste places (12%), inland sand-dunes (12%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%).


taxonomicNotes:
The Canary Brimstone used to be considered a subspecies of the Cleopatra (G. cleopatra).

redListCategoryRationale:
The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this endemic butterfly is less than 5,000 km² (but larger than 100 km²), the number of locations is fewer than ten and it has a continuing decline. Therefore it is classified as Vulnerable at the global, European and the EU27 level.

range:
The Canary Brimstone occurs in the Canary Islands at elevations between 1,000-1,500 m, sometimes up to 2,000 m. In winter it also occurs at lower elevations. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Population declines have been estimated at 10%.

habitat:
This butterfly can be seen in laurel forests on the north sides of the mountains, but also in other types of forests; they are very mobile and can be seen far away from their reproduction sites. The caterpillars feed on Rhamnus glandulosa and R. crenulata. It is not known how many generations a year are on the wing. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This is a European endemic with a restricted range. The survival of the species is bound to its habitat, the laurel forest, which is still threatened although a part is legally protected. The main threats for laurel forests on the Canary Islands are tourist resorts and illegal building destroying part of the habitats, especially alongside roads or near settlements. Fires are another significant threat. Accidentally and intentionally set for livestock grazing, crop planting, timber and real estate speculation are also impacting the laurel forest.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the south of Europe: the Iberian Peninsula (except the northwest), France (southern half), Italy (except central Apennines), Dalmatian coast and Greece. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,600 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa, Turkey and the Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Malta (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Cleopatra is found in open woodland, woodland edges and open bushy places and maquis. The males are easily recognized in flight by the orange patches on their forewings; the female looks very much like G. rhamni. They are strong flyers that sometimes roam outside their breeding area. The eggs are laid on the young leaves of various buckthorns, such as Buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus), Mediterranean Buckthorn (R. alaternus) and Alpine Buckthorn (R. alpinus). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and pupate on the twigs of the foodplant. The Cleopatra hibernates as an adult butterfly and therefore can be seen flying for most of the year. It has probably only one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (13%), heath and scrub (9%), phrygana (9%).


range:
This species occurs in Southeastern Europe in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria and Greece (including several Greek islands). 0-2,000 m, mostly lower than 1,500 m. Across Turkey and Transcaucasia to the Pamirs- Alai and the Himalaya. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Serbia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Powdered Brimstone caterpillars feed on the prickly Christ’s Thorne (Paliurus spina-christi) and on various buckthorns, such as Rhamnus alpinus), R. sibthorpianus and R. lycioides. The butterflies are therefore often seen on bushy vegetation, namely in warm, dry places and on rocky slopes. However, in their search for nectar, they also fly in other places. It has one generation a year and, like other brimstones, hibernates as a butterfly. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%), screes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The survival of the species is bound to the management of its remaining habitat, the laurel forest, which is still threatened although most of it is legally protected. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 500 km², it has fewer than 5 locations and a continuing decline (Van Swaay & Warren, 1999). Therefore classified as Endangered, in the EU27 countries as well as in Europe and globally.

range:
The Madeiran Brimstone is restricted to the island of Madeira at elevations between 500-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. This butterfly has low population densities. It is declining on Madeira.

habitat:
The Madeiran Brimstone occurs only in the dense primary laurel forest at middle altitudes. The larval foodplant is Rhamnus glandulosa (Rhamnaceae). The number of generations per year is unknown. Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).

threats:
The species is restricted to primary vegetation, susceptible to human interference. The most direct threat comes from habitat loss because of reclamation and change to agricultural land.

conservationAction:
More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species is widespread and common throughout most of Europe. It is absent from Scotland, north of Norway, Finland, Atlantic islands, the Balearic islands and Crete. 0-2,500 m. Also present from North Africa to the Caucasus, West and South Siberia to Transbaikalia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
For many, the Brimstone is the first sign of spring. The butterflies hibernate in heaps of twigs or grass tussocks and on any warm day, even in January, the males appear. The females, that are paler in colour, are seen a little later. The eggs are laid one by one on the young branches and leaves of buckthorns (Rhamnus spp.). The caterpillars feed on the young leaves. They pupate, suspended from the underside of a twig or nerve of a leaf. In summer, when the butterflies emerge, they do not mate but instead may become inactive for quite long periods before they hibernate. Courtship and mating do not take place until next spring. The Brimstone has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mixed woodland (13%), heath and scrub (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), mesophile grasslands (5%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%).


range:
This species occurs in the southeast of France (from Ardèche as far as the Alps and Provence) and in the Balkans from the southwest of Serbia as far as Bulgaria, the south of Greece and Crimea. 50-1,200 m, sometimes to 1,900 m. It is also found through Turkey to Transcaucasia and the Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Wood White occurs on dry grassland, often whit scattered trees or bushes and in open woods. It is found on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. The habitats of the Eastern Wood White are drier and warmer than those of the Wood White (L. sinapis) and Real´s Wood White (L. reali). The eggs are laid on the leaves of Meadow Vetchling (Lathyrus pratensis), Yellow Vetchling (L. aphaca) and birdsfoot-trefoils (Lotus spp.), mostly on plants growing in the shade. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of the foodplant. The Eastern Wood White has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (26%), cliffs and rocky shores (6%), heath and scrub (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), phrygana (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, a decline of 27% would be within uncertainty limits for this species' population decline, as the Russian situation outbalances the declines in the West. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. In the EU27 countries, a decline of 50-80% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore it is considered as Endangered.

range:
This is an Eastern European species: occurs in Czech Republic, Slovakia, east of Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Hungary and Romania. The occurence in Bulgaria needs verification. In most countries, it is rare or very rare. 250-1,400 m. It occurs across Siberia to the Magadan and Ussuri regions; Mongolia, Korea, the north of China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is very rare and local in the western part of its range, where the situation is unclear in many countries. It seems to be more common in Eastern Europe, but it is never abundant and is mostly declining. It might be confused with other Leptidea species. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Serbia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Romania and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Apart from its greater size and slightly falcate forewings the species can be separated from the other Wood Whites (Leptidea spp) by the conspicuous gliding flight displayed by the males. Fenton's Wood White can be seen on damp, grassy vegetation at the sunny edges of woods, in grassy woodland clearings and on regenerating woodland on grassland. They occur almost exclusively in deciduous woods. This butterfly has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (40%), mesophile grasslands (15%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), mixed woodland (10%).

threats:
The main threat is changes of woodland management.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. None of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Austria and the Czech Republic.


taxonomicNotes:
Real´s Wood White has recently been separated from the Wood White (L. sinapis). However, in the field the species cannot be distinguished from each other.

range:
Its range is still unclear because of its recent splitting from L. sinapis, but is possibly within the range of L. sinapis. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Republic of Ireland and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Real´s Wood White has recently been separated from the Wood White (L. sinapis). However, in the field the species cannot be distinguished from each other. Their distribution is not yet entirely clear. Their life cycles are similar. However, L. reali is not known to have more than 2 generations, and is not present as far south as L. sinapis in Europe. In the southern part of its range it is limited to humid to wet meadows and clearings, but becomes more ubiquitous in middle Europe where L. sinapis seems to prefer dryer habitats (Verovnik & Glogovcan 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
More research to the exact distribution and ecology of this species is neede. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
At present, the Wood White is divided into two species, the Wood White (L. sinapis) and Real´s Wood White (L. reali) which are indistinguishable in the field.

range:
This species occurs in the whole of Europe and eastwards across the Caucasus, Turkey, the Middle East, Middle Asia, Kazakhstan and South Siberia to the Baikal region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
At present, the Wood White is divided into two species, the Wood White (L. sinapis) and Real´s Wood White (L. reali) which are indistinguishable in the field. Their distribution is not yet entirely clear. Their life cycles are similar. These fragile butterflies occur on damp, warm grassland near bushes and scrub. They lay their thin, spindle-shaped eggs on different species of Lathyrus, Vicia and birdsfoot-trefoil (Lotus spp.). Cream turning to bright yellow as they mature, they are easy to find. The pupa is pale green and the winter is spent in this stage. In the northern part of its range, it has one generation a year, in the central part it has two generations a year and in the southern part sometimes three. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
More research to the distribution and ecology is needed after the species has been split. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.


range:
Scattered occurrence in the Balkans from Croatia to the southwest of Bulgaria and central Greece. Its elevational range is 0-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Balkan Green-veined White is very similar to the Green-veined White and the choice of biotope is almost the same. The butterflies are often found on vegetation along hedges and at the edges of woodland and also in woodland clearings. Eggs are laid on various crucifers. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (66%), coniferous woodland (16%), mixed woodland (16%).


range:
This species is widespread and common to 66° N. Vagrants seen far northwards. 0-2,600 m. It is also present in North Africa, Turkey to Middle Asia, West and South Siberia, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions, Mongolia, China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Hungary, Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Serbia, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large White almost can be found in almost all habitat types. It lays its eggs singly or in small clusters on the underside of the leaves of the hostplants, which are mainly broad-leaved crucifers, like Brassica spp., Crambe spp., Lunaria spp. and Cakile spp., including various cultivated brassicas, that offer enough food for the gregarious caterpillars. On such a nutritious diet, the caterpillar grows very quickly, reaching the pupal stage in three to six weeks. The white pupa is suspended in a silken girdle from the foodplant. The Large White has several generations a year, the number depending on the geographical location and latitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (9%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mesophile grasslands (7%), improved grasslands (6%).


taxonomicNotes:
The butterfly of the Mountain Green-veined White strongly resembles that of the Green-veined White (P. napi).

range:
This species occurs in Europe in mountainous areas: Jura, the Alps (as far as Provence), the Pyrenees, Tatra and Carpathian Mts. 800-2,700 m. It is also found in high-montane areas and tundras of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The eggs, caterpillars and pupae are also almost indistinguishable. In some places, such as in the Alps and the Jura Mountains, these species occur together. The Mountain Green-veined White is found in flower-rich grasslands along river banks and at woodland edges. Buckler Mustard (Biscutella laevigata), pennycresses (Thlaspi spp.) and bittercresses (Cardamine spp.) are used as foodplants. The female, heavily dusted on its upperside with yellow or grey, lays its eggs singly on the flowers or leaves of the larval foodplant. It shows a preference for smaller plants growing on poor ground. It has one or two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. In areas, where this species occurs together with the Green-veined White, like in the Southeast Alps, one may often find hybrids of both species. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), coniferous woodland (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), mixed woodland (8%), heath and scrub (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in: Hungary, Czech Republic. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has an area of occupancy (AOO) of approximately 350 km² and an extent of occurrence (EOO) of less than 5,000 km² (but larger than 100 km²). The species is extinct on one of the three islands where it used to occur and reported to decline on the others. The number of locations is less than or equal to 5. It is therefore classified as Endangered in the EU27 countries, Europe and the world.

range:
The Canary Islands Large White is restricted to the Canary Islands. This species is widespread and locally common on La Palma. On Tenerife, it is restricted to the northern coastal region. It is probably extinct on Gomera. Its elevational range is 200-1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Canary Islands Large White occurs in wet and shaded, rocky gullies in laurel forests and wet cliffs. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of Crambe strigosa, a plant species endemic to wet places in laurel forests and on the introduced species Tropaelum majus. The caterpillars live in much the same way as those of the Large White (Pieris brassicae). They are gregarious but disperse in the late larval instars. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
Destruction of primary, natural habitat appears to be largely responsible for the decline in many areas and possibly for its extinction on some islands. The habitat is endangered because of anthropogenic pressure (Wiemers, 1995). Like with Pieris wollastoni, the introduction of the alien parasites Cotesia glomerata (Lozan et al. 2007) might be a possible cause of the decline, as the former population of Pieris cheiranthi on La Gomera also became extinct in the 1970s.


range:
This species occurs scattered in the south of Europe: Spain very locally (Cuenca, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees), France (eastern Pyrenees and Hautes Alpes), central Italy, the eastern Alps (Italy, Austria, Slovenia) and further through southwest Hungary to most Balkan countries. 0-2,000 m. It is also found through Turkey to Iran and Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Mountain Small White likes warm and dry places and is found on dry, nutrient-poor grasslands, in rocky places, in open scrub and in large clearings in woods. The flight areas are usually on calcareous soil. The males can sometimes be seen in large groups on damp ground. Compared to other whites, this butterfly has a slow flight. The main larval foodplant is Burnt Candytuft (Aethionema saxatile), but A. orbiculatum and Woad (Isatis tinctoria) are also used. The eggs are laid singly. The pupa is normally fixed to stones and rocks. There are two or three generations a year and the pupa of the autumn generation hibernates. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (18%), screes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


range:
This species occurs in the Southern Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece (including on several Greek islands). 0-1250 m. It is also found in Transcaucasia, Kopet-Dagh, Syria to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
Krueper’s Small White occurs in warm, dry places on calcareous, rocky slopes with scattered low, herbaceous vegetation. Eggs are laid on the sepals of Golden Alyssum (Alyssum saxatile) and A. montanum. The caterpillars feed on the ovaries. It hibernates as a pupa and has two or more generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).


range:
This species occurs in Southern and Eastern Europe: Portugal, Spain (very locally, more abundant in Catalonia), France (southeast and locally in western France and near Paris), south of Switzerland (locally), Italy (including Sicily), Austria, Slovakia and further south-eastwards in the Balkans. The species recently expanded into the south of Germany. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco and from Turkey to Syria. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern Small White, which looks very like the Small White (P. rapae), occurs on both calcareous and non-calcareous dry, grassy vegetation, in open scrub and open woodland. The most important larval foodplants are the candytufts Evergreen Candytuft (Iberis sempervirens) and I. saxatilis, although other crucifers, such as Alyssoides utriculata and mustards (Sinapis spp.) are also used. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the uppersides of the leaves. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. It has two to three generations a year, pupating on plant stalks and stones. It overwinters as a pupa and the butterflies emerge in spring. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


range:
This species is widespread and common in nearly all Europe, except Sardinia, the Shetland Islands and the Atlantic islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also present through the entire Palearctic Region except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Green-veined White occurs in many different habitats and landscapes with varying amounts of shelter. It can be found on all types of grasslands and heathlands in open or more closed landscapes. However, a too dry habitat is not favourable. This butterfly is very variable in appearance, having several forms and sub-species. The eggs are laid singly or in small numbers on many, mostly wild, crucifers. It pupates on a stalk and overwinters in this stage. The Green-veined White has several generations a year, the number depending on the geographical location and altitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (9%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), towns, villages, industrial sites (6%).


taxonomicNotes:
In Britain, this butterfly species and the Large White (P. brassicae) are commonly called cabbage whites.

range:
This species is widespread and common all over Europe. 0-3,000 m. It is also present in the entire Palearctic Region with the exception of the extreme North and South. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Malta and Republic of Ireland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small White is found in any type of habitat where its larval foodplants grow, such as gardens, parks, grasslands, heathland and woodland. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of a wide variety of crucifers, including cultivated brassicas and also on Reseda species, such as Wild Mignonette (R. lutea). The caterpillars grow very rapidly, sometimes pupating after two weeks. The pupa hangs in a silken girdle, normally on vertical surfaces and hibernates in this stage. The Small White has several generations a year, depending on the geographical position and altitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (10%), towns, villages, industrial sites (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), improved grasslands (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).


taxonomicNotes:
This species is considered as a subspecies of Pieris brassicae by some authors.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. It has not been reported since the 1970s despite several visits of lepidopterists to its former habitat. An adequate survey is needed to define if the species is extinct or not. It is therefore assessed as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct).

population:
The Madeiran Large White is an extremely local species, restricted to the island of Madeira. In the 1970s, it was considered rare. There are some reports from the 1980s, in which lepidopterists reported it to be widely distributed, but searches for this species in the early 1990s were unsuccessful. As the species has not been seen on this relatively small island for at least 20 years, it is believed to probably be extinct.

habitat:
This butterfly was mostly found in north-exposed valleys in the Laurisilva forests on Madeira. They occurred in many habitat types where the larval hostplant grows in abundance and where many nectar-rich plants, such as thistles and knapweed, were available as a source of nectar. The females deposited the eggs in batches on the leaves of diverse genera and species of crucifers, such as Caper (Capparis spinosa) and Tropaelum majus. The caterpillars lived in small groups, dispersing in the later instars, when they were ready to pupate. Hibernation took place in the pupal stage. This butterfly produced several generation a year and could be found from March until late October. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The causes for the decline of Pieris wollastoni are unknown, but Gardiner (2003) proposed the introduction of diseases and Lozan et al. (2008) the introduction of the alien parasitoid Cotesia glomerata as possible causes.

conservationAction:
A well coordinated search for the species should be conducted to make sure that there is not a population left somewhere on the island. If a remaining population is found, immediate research on the ecology and conservation should be carried out.


range:
This species occurs in Europe in the Pyrenees and Alps. 1,500-3400m in the Alps, in the Spanish Pyrenees above 2,000 m. It is also found in tundras and mountains (up to the desert zone) throughout the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Peak White is found high in the mountains in flower-rich grasslands. The eggs are laid singly on Alpine Bittercress (Cardamine bellidifolia ssp. alpina), Hutchinsia alpina, Erysimum helveticum and Reseda glauca, especially on those growing on open stony patches. The caterpillars mostly eat the lower leaves and hide under stones when the weather is bad. In the Alps, the Peak White usually has only one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. However, in warm summers or at lower altitudes, a partial second generation is sometimes produced that passes the winter as a caterpillar. In the Spanish Pyrenees, two generations a year are usual and it hibernates either as a pupa or a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (72%), screes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mixed woodland (9%).


range:
This species occurs very locally in Southeastern Europe: Albania, east and south of Bulgaria, northeast of Greece and on Cyprus. Low altitudes to 1,500 m. It is also present through Turkey, Middle Asia and Kazakhstan to South Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in FYR of Macedonia (but rediscovered in 2007) and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Bath White is a rare butterfly. It is often found on stony places, such as gravelly riverbanks and dry riverbeds and similar sites with rounded stones. It also occurs on damp or dry grassy places and in open scrub. The butterflies are strong flyers, showing some migrant behaviour and can thus be found outside usual habitat. Cleome ornithopodioides is probably the most important larval foodplant, the caterpillars feeding on the leaves, flowers and ripening seeds. The fully-grown caterpillars make their way to the ground to pupate on stones. This species has two generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (27%), screes (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%).


taxonomicNotes:
This butterfly (known as P. daplidice for the last 250 years) was recently separated into two species: P. daplidice and P. edusa Fabricius, 1777 (Geiger et al. 1988), but the latter is currently considered to be a subspecies of the former (Porter et al. 1997; Honey and Scoble 2001). Nominotypical daplidice occurs throughout northwest Africa, the Iberian peninsula, Corsica, Sardinia and northwest Europe (occurs occasionally in the UK as an infrequent migrant/vagrant). P. daplidice edusa occurs in northwest France, and Italy eastwards, with a hybrid zone in northwest Italy. The taxa were separated by electrophoretic analysis and cannot be separated with any degree of certainty on external morphology.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years and does not meet any of the criteria.

range:
P. daplidice occurs west of a line from Northwest Europe through West Switzerland and West Italy. 0- 2,500 m. The exact border to P. edusa is not always clearly defined. Furthermore, both species are highly mobile. In the Netherlands, it looks like old records (before 1960) are mostly from P. daplidice, whereas more recent records seem to belong to P. edusa. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (P. daplidice), which mainly occurs in the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Bath White (P. edusa), which is distributed over the rest of Europe. However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field. Their life cycles are also very similar. The adult butterflies are very variable in appearance, not only in their markings, but also in their size. They are very mobile, fast flying and migrate northwards and westwards in warm years. They occur in warm, stony places; often disturbed ground, such as road verges, abandoned agricultural land or quarries. The females lay their eggs on such crucifers as mustards (Sinapis spp.), Alyssum spp. and also on mignonettes (Reseda ssp.). The caterpillars feed mainly on the flowers and seeds. Pupation takes place on the stalk of the foodplant. The Bath White has two or more generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).


taxonomicNotes:
The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (P. daplidice) and the Eastern Bath White (P. edusa). However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field.

range:
P. edusa occurs east of a line from Northwest Europe through West Switzerland and West Italy. The exact border to P. daplidice is not always clearly defined. Furthermore, both species are highly mobile. In the Netherlands, it looks like old records (before 1960) are mostly from P. daplidice, whereas more recent records seem to belong to P. edusa. Its range extends also further east to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (P. daplidice), which mainly occurs in the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Bath White (P. edusa), which is distributed over the rest of Europe. However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field. Their life cycles are also very similar. The adult butterflies are very variable in appearance, not only in their markings, but also in their size. They are very mobile, fast flying and migrate northwards and westwards in warm years. They occur in warm, stony places; often disturbed ground, such as road verges, abandoned agricultural land or quarries. The females lay their eggs on such crucifers as mustards (Sinapis spp.), Alyssum spp. and also on mignonettes (Reseda ssp.). The caterpillars feed mainly on the flowers and seeds. Pupation takes place on the stalk of the foodplant. The Eastern Bath White has two or more generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of >98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used GRAS-scenario. This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO2 emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models and (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach, as the species might be endangered in the long run by climate change.

range:
This species occurs locally, but sometimes abundantly, in southeastern and central Spain (from the southeastern and eastern coasts through to Burgos and Salamanca). It is also found in Russia and Ukraine. 0-1,000 m, sometimes to 1,400 m. It is present from North Africa through Southern Europe to Eastern Kazakhstan, the Middle East and the north of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Sooty Orange-tip is mostly seen in dry, flower-rich places, waste ground and abandoned agricultural land. Crucifers, such as London Rocket (Sisymbrium irio), the buckler mustard Biscutella auriculata, Hoary Mustard (Hirschfeldia incana) and radishes (Raphanus spp.), are usually abundant in its habitat. They are used by the butterflies for their nectar and as larval foodplants. The butterflies have a quick, zigzagging flight. The Sooty Orange-tip hibernates as a pupa. This pupal stage may last for one, two, or three years. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), fallow land, waste places (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), improved grasslands (10%), water-fringe vegetation (10%).

threats:
In the long term, this species might become threatened due to climate change.

conservationAction:
The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.


range:
This species is present in the Lower Volga, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and West China (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly species is mostly seen in deserts, semi-deserts and dry meadows on plains, in river valleys and at foothills. The larval foodplant is unknown. The species produces one generation a year and overwinters as a pupa (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution across central and southern Europe and its abundance in most of its range. There is no evidence of decline, nor any specific threats.

range:
Aeshna affinis is distributed from Europe eastwards to Mongolia. In Europe its main range is found in the south although it is relatively uncommon in the Iberian Peninsula and parts of Italy. It favours warm summers and in Europe it occurs more northerly in the east of its range probably as result of the higher summer temperatures in that region. The recent increase in summer temperature has led to an expansion of its European range to the north which led to the species becoming established in The Netherlands, northern Germany and being recorded for the first time in Denmark in 2006.

population:
The species is rare north of the Alps and the Loire but widespread in South Europe. In the southern parts of the Ukraine it is common but in other parts such as the Iberian Peninsula it is scarce. The number of specimens varies strongly per site, ranging from some specimens to 1,000.

habitat:
The species exclusively reproduces at standing waters. It prefers shallow, well-vegetated waters sheltered from the wind and exposed to the sun. Many of the habitats dry up partially during summer and become covered with vegetation often including rushes (Juncus), sedges (Carex) or low reed (Phragmites). In Italy, it was also found in rice fields in the past.

threats:
The species is currently not threatened. It is able to reproduce in waters that dry up in summer as long as the habitat contains water until the end of spring.

conservationAction:
There is no indication of a strong decline anywhere in its range and conservation measures are not necessary.


taxonomicNotes:
In Nearctic the species is replaced by its sister species Aeshna septentrionalis (Burmeister, 1839). By some authors this species is considered to be a subspecies of A. caerulea.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is widespread and common in the northern part of its range. In Central Europe it is limited to the Alps, where it is not rare, and to some other mountain ranges to the east where it is generally uncommon. There are no indications for a strong decline in the northern, main part of its range. In Central Europe it is showing a decline but this is less than 30% in the past ten years and not expected to be 30% in the next decade. This species is likely to be impacted by climate change, which might result in a rapid decline and local extinctions in parts of Central Europe. However, the Central European populations make up only a very small part of its European range and a decline in this region would not impact its conservation status on a European scale. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Aeshna caerula ranges from Scotland to Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. It has a boreal-alpine distribution being common and widespread in the Taiga and Tundra areas and having a patchy distribution in mountains further south. It is one of the most northerly species in the world extending to the North Cape. In Europe its lowland areal goes south to Scotland, the south of Sweden, northern Latvia and the northern parts of Russia. In the Siberian part of its range its lowland distribution reaches further south to the area of lake Baikal. In central Europe the species is confined to mountains and it is reasonably widespread in the Alps, seemingly scarce and localised in the Sudety mountains from the northern Czech Republic to southern Poland and in the Carpathians in northern and eastern Slovakia. It is scarce in the western parts of the Bohemian Forest (Šumava). In Slovakia it occurs close to the Ukraine border and it is likely to be present in this country as well. The species has been mentioned for the Bihar mountains in Romania but this record has never been confirmed and although the occurrence of this species in Romania is not unlikely it is here regarded as doubtful. A record from Gomelskaya oblast in the south of Belarus was published without further information and is also considered doubtful and assumed incorrect. If true it would constitute the southernmost lowland record in Europe (Buczyński et al. 2006). In its Central European range it does not occur below 800 m and almost all records are from 1,000 m or above.In some central European countries the species is limited to a small number of populations making it vulnerable for local extinction. In Poland, Czech Republic as well as in Slovakia it has a very patchy distribution. In France Aeshna caerulea is known with certainty only from four localities from the Haute-Savoie department (municipalities of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Vallorcine and Samoëns), within a range of 1,700-2,200 m. In Italy the species was only known from three localities until 2006. The record above Passo Rolle (Dolomiti) has been confirmed but the two other localities, the Lago di Chiesa in Valmalenco (1,600 m, Lombardy) and a pond in Val Vallaga (2,000 m Alto Adige) are in need of confirmation. From 2006 onwards, six new localities were found in Alto Adige (Libella Group, pers comm.). In Slovenia, the species is only known from one record, and so far, no populations have been found. In Germany the species is limited to Baden-Württemberg (one population in the Black Forest) and two regions in the south of Bayern.

population:
The species is common in the northern part of its range where it is one of the most common dragonfly species. To the south of its lowland range it is already getting scarcer being more confined to higher areas and occurring in smaller numbers. The species is scarcer in the central European mountain range, where many populations are isolated and small, although larger population with several thousands of specimens have also been found there.

habitat:
Aeshna caerulea is adapted to live in areas with long, strong winters and short summers with a low air temperature. This enables the species to live in areas where most other dragonflies are unable to live. It seems that in warmer areas it is out-competed by other dragonflies such as Aeshna juncea. In colder areas its range of habitats seems to be broader probably due to the reduced pressure of other species. In the north of Europe, in its lowland range, the species is present in standing waters and sometimes in slowly running waters. Here it can be found in bog pools and sedge swamps in moors, heaths and tundra’s. Above the tree line it is mostly found in peaty pools. In its central European, mountainous part of its range the species is exclusively found in standing waters above 800 m. Here it is found in permanent waters of mostly 5 to 80 m2 surface and with a water depth of generally 20 cm or less. The vegetation consists of Sphagnum, sedges (Carex) and Cottongrass (Eriophorum). The water is frozen for a large part of the year. The water temperature can however rise quickly during day-time in spring and summer to temperatures above 20 degrees Celsius.

threats:
In the north of its range the species is mainly found in areas with low environmental pressure. Most of the populations in the central European mountains are also located in areas with relatively little human impact. However, populations in farmland or in touristic areas are threatened by the impacts of cattle trampling the vegetation and tourist activities (introduction of fish, boats). The distribution of the species is largely determined by its need for a cold climate reducing the competition of other species. Climate change is likely impacting the distribution of this species already. The impact is likely to be most severe in its Central European range where there are more isolated occurrences. Especially the populations in the western parts of the Tatra, Sudety mountains and the Bohemian Forest are threatened as there are relatively few populations which mostly lie at altitudes which are already on the verge of its climatological possibilities.

conservationAction:
Especially the central European populations should be protected from the impact of grazing by cattle and from tourist activities. There is no need for conservation measures for the northern populations. The main threat is probably climate change. Except from increasing the amount of available habitat there is little which can be done to counterbalance the impact of climate change.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). Most of its European range is found in Russia and although very little is known on the distribution of dragonflies in this country it seems to be reasonably widespread and not rare in the north and across the Ural to the south. The species is therefore assessed as being of Least Concern on European scale. The distribution of the species within the 27 member states of the European Union is small as it is confined to the southern quarter of Finland and ca. 10 localities in Lithuania and Latvia. There are however no reasons to assume that it experiences a strong decline in this region at present. Ongoing large-scale logging might result in a decline in the next ten years and for this reason the species is assessed as Near Threatened in the EU 27 region.

range:
Aeshna crenata occurs from northeast Europe east to Kamchatka, Sakhalin and North Korea. The majority of its range lies in Russia. It occurs mostly in areas with a temperate climate but is locally present north of the Polar Circle. In Europe it is known from scattered localities in the southern quarter of Finland (10 to 15 localities), from c. ten localities in Northeast Lithuania, one locality in southeast Latvia, one locality in northern Belarus and it is not rare in northern Russia (e.g., Bernard 2002, 2003; Buczyński et al. 2006; Mauersberger 2000; Valtonen 1988; Peter 1997). The area of distribution bends south in the Ural and the species is reasonably common in the southern parts of this mountain range (Yanybaeva et al. 2006). From the Ural on the species range continues into temperate Asia. Over 90% of its European range lies in Russia, an area for which only poor data is available.

population:
The species seems to be common in large parts of temperate Asia. In the European part of its range it seems to be scarce in the west. Most of its European range lies in Russia and for this area poor information on its presence and abundance is available but it seems to be common in northern Russia. Based on limited information it seems that densities in suitable habitat normally vary from tens to several hundreds of specimens.

habitat:
In Finland and the Baltic states Aeshna crenata is mostly found at pools and small to medium sized forest lakes which are acid and poor in nutrients. In most cases the banks are covered with a vegetation of peat moss (Sphagnum) and sedges (Carex) and mature forest is found in the direct vicinity. In the northern and eastern parts of European Russia, the habitat spectrum is larger comprising also river valleys, larger lakes and dead river arms with vegetation of Water Horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile) and sedges (Carex).

threats:
Most European populations are found in areas with relatively little human pressure. The most important threat is probably large scale logging of forest.

conservationAction:
Additional fieldwork is needed in Lithuania and Latvia in order to find additional populations. The range of the species in the European part of Russia is very poorly known. Fieldwork in the whole northern part of Russia is needed. Based on this an assessment should be made of the conservation status of this species in these countries. It should be determined whether or not this species is sufficiently present in protected areas. If not then newly protected areas should be identified.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Aeshna cyanea is common in a large part of Europe and is found in a wide variety of habitats which are not under pressure. The species is therefore considered as being of Least Concern.

range:
Aeshna cyanea has a western Palaearctic distribution and almost its whole range lies within Europe. It is most abundant in central Europe. It does not occur in Ireland and is rare in Scotland. In Fennoscandia it is found in the southern thirds of Finland and Sweden and in the southern fringe of Norway. The species is expanding its range towards the north. To the east it occurs to the Ural but it is absent from most of the Siberian lowland. The species becomes scarcer to the south of Europe being absent from many of the Mediterranean islands. It is highly localised in northern Africa with only a few sites. The species is mainly confined to mountain areas in the Balkan Peninsula. In the Ukraine, it is distributed mostly in the northwest, north and centre of the country. The species is found in the mountains of north Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and the Caucasus and reaches east to the mountains of north Iran.

population:
The species is abundant throughout most of its range and it exists frequently in large populations. Despite those large populations, adults are seen in small numbers at the waterbodies because they have a territorial behaviour.The populations are stable overall and even increasing in Fennoscandia.

habitat:
Aeshna cyanea is mostly found in standing and running waters with a slow current. It has a clear preference for small and at least partly shaded waters. When it occurs at larger water bodies it shows a clear preference for those parts which are visually demarked from the main part of the water, for instance by some higher vegetation. The species needs waters where at least parts of the bottom are free of emerging vegetation. These situations can be found in pools which are still in the early stages of succession or more often in pools where leaves from nearby trees and bushes cover a part of the bottom. It is often the only dragonfly to be present in small, largely shaded forest pools often with no substrate other than leaf litter and in this situation larvae can occur in very high densities. In Central Europe it is also one of the most common dragonflies at garden ponds. The species is able to resist weeks of desiccation.Adult males are highly territorial and often only a small fraction of the actual adult population is found at the waterside. For this reason many adults are found in nearby forest were they often hunt low by the ground in the shade of trees or bushes.

threats:
The species is common in most of its range and occurs in habitats that are not threatened in any way.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is moderately common to common in large parts of Central and Northern Europe. Its habitats are not under specific threats and there is no indication for a decline. Some isolated occurrences in the Mediterranean part of Europe might be threatened by climate change. These populations are however of marginal importance compared to its main range. The species is therefore assessed as being of Least Concern.

range:
Aeshna grandis is a largely European species that is found east to the lake Baikal area. Its European range is largely confined to Central and Northern Europe. Its continuous range goes south to the Massif Central, the Alps and the mountains of Romania. Isolated populations are present in the Pyrenees (Spain and France) and Montenegro. In the south of its range, already in the south of Germany, the species becomes largely confined to mountainous areas. It is reasonably common in much of its Central European range but becomes almost omnipresent and abundant in the north and northeast of its range. In the west and south, the species clearly favours forested areas and is lacking in the open landscapes of Hungary. In the Ukraine, it is mostly distributed in the north, becomes more rare in the south and is absent in the Black Sea region.

population:
The species is widespread in most of its Central and Northern European range and becomes scarcer and more confined to mountains towards the south. In the south of its range populations are often more isolated and relatively small. Although widespread in much of Central Europe the numbers are often low and at most reproduction habitats only several to a few dozens of emerging adults can be found each year. The species is more common in the north and northeast of its range and the numbers of specimens emerging from a single habitat is often higher there.

habitat:
In the northern part of its range it is found in a wide variety of standing and slowly flowing waters. The species is found at a large variety of habitats such as larger pools, lakes, canals, oxbows and fenlands. It is also found in water storage areas, ponds, ditches and peat excavations. Most habitats have in common that they are situated in forested areas and have a rich bank side or submerged vegetation. In the south and west of its European range, the species is absent from habitats in the early stages of succession and seems to need more mature habitats. The numbers of emerging adults found at a single site is generally low which led to the suggestion that several suitable habitats at close distance from each other are needed to have a vital population. This seems to be true for most of Central Europe, however in Eastern Europe the situation might be different. In Central Europe the majority of populations is found in man made habitats, but again this might be different in the east of its range.

threats:
There are no specific threats to this species. Some of the isolated occurrences in the south, like those in the Pyrenees and Montenegro, might be threatened by climate change.

conservationAction:
There are no current conservation measures needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Aeshna isoceles has a large European range and is found in the southern two-thirds of Europe although it is rare or absent in large parts of this area. Regionally the species seems to have declined. However there are also areas, for instance the Netherlands and Britain, where the species has shown an increase in the last decade. Overall there is no indication for a strong decline in Europe and there are no reasons to assume that such a decline would take place in the next decades. For this reason the species is assessed of being of Least Concern.This said it must be stated that good information on parts of Eastern Europe, and especially on Russia, is lacking. In some of these areas conversion of land to arable land or improvements of agricultural land may lead to the destruction of habitats on a large scale.

range:
Aeshna isoceles is a largely European species occurring east through Turkey, the Levant to the Caucasus and the border of the Caspian Sea in Iran. The species is rare in North Africa and confined to the northern Maghreb. Except for isolated populations in Norfolk and Suffolk it is absent in Ireland and Great Britain. To the north it is found to the southern tip of Sweden, Gotland and Latvia. Although it is distributed over a large part of Europe it is rare to absent in large areas. This pattern seems to be largely explained by its preference for warmer areas combined with its preferences for extensive reed marshes or beds of Water Soldier (Stratiotes aloides). Due to this it is absent from mountain areas and large parts of the north (too cold) while it is rare for instance in the Iberian Peninsula and large parts of Germany, probably due to the lack of extensive reed marshes.

population:
The species has a large European range although it is in many areas rare to absent. In areas where it does occur it can be very abundant and is often found in high numbers. Regionally the species seems to have declined in the recent past. Good indication for this is known from Belgium and some parts of Germany (De Knijf et al. 2006, Ott and Piper 1998). On the other hand a strong increase has been seen in areas such as Britain, northeast France and the Netherlands.

habitat:
Aeshna isoceles prefers extensive bank vegetation of reed, bullrush (Typha) or Water Soldier (Stratiotes aloides). Throughout its range it reproduces at reed beds at standing or sometimes slowly flowing waters like channels, marshes, ponds, and lakes. In the north of its range it is often abundant at vegetations of Water Soldier (Stratiotes aloides), which occurs in standing water of good quality, mostly in low peat areas. Preferred are sunny habitats, that have some shelter from the wind and are never largely shaded.

threats:
There is no indication for a major decline throughout its range. However, due to the patchiness of its distribution there are many areas with isolated occurrences and regionally the species is often threatened. In areas where it is mainly found in vegetation with Water Soldier (Stratiotes aloides) the species is mainly threatened by a decline of this plant due to decrease of water quality. Especially the increase of phosphate in the water seems to induce major decline of this plant. Also mismanagement of vegetation of Water Soldier is a threat. Without management these vegetations will ultimately disappear and dredging the plants of Water Soldier every two or three years is needed to maintain the vegetation. However mismanagement might lead to the removal of all Water soldier vegetation in an area at once, which has a negative impact on the species. The species is less susceptible for the water quality in areas where the species mainly occurs in vegetation with reed. Here alteration of the habitat or a too intensive use of the banks is a threat.Especially in Central and Western Europe much suitable habitat went lost in the last century due to the conversion of marshland to farmland or to the further improvement of farmland. This issue has become less pressing in Central Europe, however it is not unlikely that large amounts of suitable habitat are being converted in order to improve farmland in eastern Europe.

conservationAction:
The species is not threatened on a European level. The species is however rare in some regions and has shown locally a strong decline. At these locations, management plans for the conservation and restoration of habitats are needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Aeshna juncea is widespread and common in a large part of Europe and no strong decline is expected to occur. For these reasons the species is assessed as Least Concern.Isolated occurrences in central Europe and especially in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkan are likely to be affected by Climate Change. Aeshna juncea deserves attention in these areas.

range:
Aeshna juncea has the largest range of all Aeshna species occurring in the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe it is widespread and common in the north. Towards the south it becomes scarcer and in southern central Europe it is largely confined to higher altitudes. In Ukraine it is not numerous, distributed mostly in the northwest and north. It is fairly common and widespread in the Alps and the Pyrenees but is scarce and known only from scattered localities in the mountains of the Balkans and of the Iberian Peninsula.

population:
The species is fairly common in most of its range and often abundant when found, especially in mountain areas (alpine areas). It is rare in Iberia, but locally common in the Pyrenees.

habitat:
Aeshna juncea is confined to standing, largely unshaded habitats. Throughout its range bogs seem to be the preferred habitat. The species favours cooler climates and can be found in a wider range of habitats in Scandinavia and at high altitudes (>1,000 m) in central Europe including slow flowing waters. At lower altitudes in Central Europe the vast majority of the populations is found in bogs with Sphagnum and sedges or rushes. More rarely and in lower numbers it is found in other habitats such as quarries, garden ponds, dune pools, fens or low peat areas with fields of Water Soldier. In the southwest of its range it is largely confined to nature reserves and it is found mostly in natural or semi-natural habitats.

threats:
In the past, the populations in Central and Southern Europe have decreased due to habitat destruction such as deforestation and agricultural expansion. Most southwestern populations are found in nature reserves. Nutrification had a negative impact on the species but it seems less susceptible to this than many other species occurring in bogs. The most important future threat is likely to be climate change resulting in the alteration of peat bogs. This will certainly impact the more isolated populations in South and southcentral Europe such as the populations on the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans.

conservationAction:
The species is safe in much of its northern and central European range. Isolated occurrences in central Europe and in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans require attention. Fieldwork is needed in Iberia and the Balkans in order to identify the main populations. Based on that, areas can be selected for which management plans are required. Monitoring of isolated populations is needed in order to have an early warning of the impact of climate change.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Aeshna mixta is a widespread and common species in Europe and is expanding its range northwards. It is classed as Least Concern.

range:
Aeshna mixta has a wide range occurring from Europe to the north of Asia eastwards to Japan although it is absent from most of Siberia. The species is also found in the northern parts of the Maghreb. The species is common across a large part of Europe but is in Fennoscandia limited to the south of Sweden and the utmost south of Norway and Finland. It reaches its highest abundance in central Europe. In the last two decades it has been steadily expanding its range towards the north, increasing in Britain, reaching Ireland in 2000 (Nelson and Thompson 2003) and Finland in 2003 (Karjalainen 2007). In Sweden, it has been expanding 300 km towards the north in the last ten years. In Ukraine, the species is widespread and common in all the country; in the south huge migrations occur at the end of the summer.

population:
Aeshna mixta is common and widespread in most of its range. In Central Europe it is the most common larger dragonfly in the autumn.

habitat:
The species reproduces mainly in standing, largely unshaded waters but is also found at slowly flowing waterbodies. It occurs in a wide range of waters, although seldom in acidic waters and can occur in brackish habitats. It is mainly found at larger waters with abundant riparian vegetation and large populations are found both in natural and artificial habitats.

threats:
The species is among the most common European dragonflies and is currently not threatened.

conservationAction:
Specific conservation measures for this species are not needed.


taxonomicNotes:
In some literature the name A. osiliensis Mierzejewski 1913 is used for the European populations of A. serrata around the Baltic Sea. The characters separating these two taxa are however weak and here A. osiliensis is regarded as a synonym of A. serrata.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Although the habitat of this species in Northeast Europe and its distribution in Southeast Europe are poorly known it is not likely that the species is currently threatened. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern on European scale.

range:
The main range of this species is found in the open and half open steppes of the temperate parts of Asia from where it occurs east to Kamchatka (Dumont 2005). In the west it is known from single records from Armenia and from lake Van in Turkey. In the south of the Ural it is common at steppe and forest-steppe lakes (Yanybaeva et al. 2006). It is likely that it is occurring in parts of southern Russia, however information on this area is poor. There are two old records from the eastern parts of the Ukraine and one recent record but all these records need to be validated. Suitable habitat might be present and given the fact that this region is poorly explored it seems not unlikely that populations of the species are present here. An isolated occurrence of the species is found around the Baltic Sea. Here the species is found at one Russian island, the coast of Estonia, Finland and Sweden, only in the latter country it is also found in inland localities. Recently a male was found in the north of Denmark. It is unknown if the records in Denmark refer to just a vagrant or whether there is a local population. There is one record from the Komi Republic in northern Russia. This record has however not been verified and is here regarded as doubtful (Peters 1997).

population:
In the southern Ural the species was found to be common (Yanybaeva et al. 2006). The paucity of records west of the Ural seems to suggest that it is here much more scarce or absent. Although the species has a small range along the Baltic sea it is often common and abundant when found.

habitat:
Aeshna serrata is found in larger standing waters and is, compared to the closely related A. crenata, more found in open landscapes. In the southern Ural the species is found in steppe and forest steppe lakes' (Dumont et al. 2005). In the interior parts of Sweden, it occurs at open eutrophic lakes and pools with extensive beds of reed (Phragmites sp., Typha spp.). In the surroundings of the Baltic Sea the species seems to have a preference for brackish waters. The species is found at vegetation of reeds on the banks of the Baltic sea and at nearby wetlands.

threats:
At the moment no specific threats are known. Little is known on the situation in the southern Ural but presumably the species is not strongly threatened there. The Baltic population is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism on the coast of Estonia and Finland could be a threat to the species. It is not unlikely that the majority of the Baltic population breeds in the Baltic Sea or in habitats strongly influenced by the Baltic Sea. Changes in the water quality of the Baltic Sea could therefore potentially be a threat to this species.In Sweden, populations are included in protected bird areas. Flooding the area for bird protection measures has negative impacts on the reed bed habitat.

conservationAction:
Relatively little is known on the biology and the main habitat of this species adjacent to the Baltic Sea. Information on this is needed to better understand its conservation status. The range of this species in southern Russia outside the Ural and eastern Ukraine is unknown. Information on this would help to understand the conservation status of this species.


taxonomicNotes:
The nominate subspecies occurs in Northern America. In Europe and Asia A. subarctica elisabethae is found. Two types of A. subarctica elisabethae occur in Europe which mainly differ in the amount of yellow pattern in the thorax. It seems that in cooler climates the darker type prevails while in the lowland of central Europe the paler type is more common. These types can be found together and are at least partly determined by climatological circumstances and are therefore not considered to be subspecies.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). There are no indications of a strong decline in Northeast and the north of Central Europe. There are some indications that it is declining in parts of its central European range and it is not unlikely that a rapid decline will be seen in this part of its range over the next ten years. Its Central European distribution is very small compared to its distribution in the north of Europe and a decline in this part of Europe will not impact strongly on its conservation status in Europe. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Aeshna subarctica elisabethae occurs in the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, the species is largely confined to the northeast. It is probably common in large parts of the north of European Russia from where its range continues to Finland, Sweden and Norway. The species is also moderately represented in the Baltic states, northern Poland and probably in northern Belarus although only a handful of records are available. Its lowland area continues from there to northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. More to the south it is known from more isolated occurrences at higher altitudes in Belgium, France, southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, southern Poland. An isolated record is known from Bulgaria. The occurrence of this species in the Balkans was never confirmed and this record is considered to be doubtful.

population:
Its specific habitat requirements make the species uncommon and sparse in large parts of its range. Densities at suitable sites can however be high.

habitat:
The species is confined to moors and bogs with vegetation of Sphagnum. These are most often natural waters in large moors but can also be habitats created by peat extraction. Its specific habitat requirements make that it is confined to higher altitudes in central Europe. The majority of the populations are found in bogs with floating peatmoss, which serves as larval habitat. Less often the species is found in habitats where the peatmoss is part of the bankside vegetation or is lying on the bottom.

threats:
Most populations are found in areas with relatively little human activity or in nature reserves and this species is therefore safe from large-scale habitat destruction. In areas where only small pieces of moors and peatbog still exist the ceasing of peat extractions is an increasing problem. In these places the aquatic habitats might fall dry as a result of natural succession of the vegetation. The same effect could be caused by climate change in southcentral Europe.

conservationAction:
In its central European lowland range, large-scale restoration of peat moors will help the long-term survival of this species in the region. In areas with isolated populations the species might be threatened by natural succession of the vegetation. The creation of pits in peat bogs may offer in these cases new reproductive habitats. In the future this species might be strongly impacted by climate change especially in central Europe. Monitoring of populations, especially those ones that are isolated is therefore advisable.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). The species has shown a considerable decline at least in western Europe and this decline is still continuing. It could be approaching Criterion A2. This is the only European dragonfly species which is almost completely dependent on a specific plant species (Stratiodes aloides). This species is therefore assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
This species is confined to the western part of the Palaearctic and is found from the Netherlands in the west to the Central Siberian lowland. Its European range is largely confined to parts of Northeast Europe. It is relatively widespread in the northern parts of European Russia, Poland and the Baltic states. In the Ukraine it is only found in the northeast while in Finland and Sweden it is confined to the southern half. In West Europe it is found in the Netherlands, parts of Denmark and the north of Germany. More isolated occurrences are known from Austria, Hungary and Croatia.

population:
Although this species has a relatively wide range, it is only locally common. Densities at the reproduction sites can be high.

habitat:
In the European part of its range, Aeshna viridis is almost completely confined to habitats with large fields or Water Soldier. These fields are found in standing or slowly flowing, largely unshaded waters with a mesotrophic to moderately eutrophic status. Natural habitats where this species can occur are lakes or oxbows. In Western Europe occurrences in more natural habitats have become rare and there it is mainly found in man-made waters like large ditches and channels in low peat areas.

threats:
Aeshna viridis is almost completely dependent on the presence of fields of WaterSoldier. This species quickly disappears when water becomes polluted, especially when the amount of phosphate rises. The decrease of water-quality due to poor water management is the main threat for this species on European scale. At least in Western Europe relatively many populations are found in agricultural areas. Here the increase of maize production is a specific threat. All throughout its range, but especially in Western Europe this species occurs in man-made waters like ditches and channels. In these habitats natural succession of the vegetation will eventually end with the Water-soldier being replaced by other plants. The species is dependent on open areas around the smaller reproduction sites and overgrowth with trees and shrubs could outshade the species and eliminate the population.

conservationAction:
This species is listed in the Habitats Directive and the Bern Convention.Especially for populations dependent on man-made habitats management plans are needed. For many areas in the Netherlands these are already in place (De Jong et al. 2001). Especially the isolated populations in Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Austria deserve attention.In some areas, management in which the vegetation of Water Soldier is removed every few years is needed in order to maintain the habitat. This management should however be done in a rotation model in such a way that there is always habitat available.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Anax ephippiger is a wide-ranging and abundant species with no evidence of decline. In Europe it will probably benefit from climate change. It is assessed as Least Concern on European scale.

range:
Anax ephippiger has a very wide range, including large parts of Africa extending over Arabia eastwards to India where it typically occurs in arid and semiarid areas. It shows very strong migratory behaviour and is sometimes found migrating in enormous numbers and huge distances. The species reproduces in fluctuating numbers in southern Europe. Yearly these migration waves from Africa and Arabia reach Europe but the numbers of individuals arriving vary strongly from year to year. This migration rarely reached central and north Europe and in these years it can turn up anywhere in Europe even reaching as far as Iceland (Tuxen 1976). The most notable of these influxes took place in 1995 when the species was found all over the continent (Burbach and Winterholler 1998). In Central Europe specimens arriving in spring might successfully reproduce resulting in emergence in late summer of the same year. The most northern cases of reproduction are from the south of Germany and western Poland (Burbach and Winterholler 1997, Bernard and Musiał 1995). Larvae are however not capable of surviving the winter in Central Europe.

population:
In its main range, from Africa to India, it is one of the most common and widespread species present. In southern Europe, the species is scarce although it can be found in large numbers. In the remainder of Europe, it is rare and in many countries it is only known from migrants (only one or two individuals). The numbers of emerging individuals can be however large at reproduction sites (Corbet 2000).

habitat:
The biology of the species is strongly adapted to breeding in seasonal habitats. In its main range migrating individuals travel with rain bearing winds which lead them to areas with rain. Here the species lays eggs, often at the end of the winter, in standing waters created by the rainfall (Corbet 1999, Dumont and Desmet 1990, Dumont 1977). The larvae have a rapid growth completing their development in two to three months allowing them to emerge before the habitat dries out. Like in its main range the European breeding sites also consist mainly of standing, shallow and often seasonal waters. Due to the seasonality of the water the amount of vegetation is often very limited. The low water table and the lack of vegetation make that the temperature of the water is high allowing a rapid growth of the larvae. As can be expected for a species living mainly in seasonal waters the larvae tolerate high salinity. Most reproduction sites in Europe are found in coastal wetlands.

threats:
Large scale development of coastal Mediterranean wetlands is a threat for this species.

conservationAction:
This species is relatively save and probably will benefit from climate change. Preventing development of coastal Mediterranean wetlands is of importance to this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). Listed as Vulnerable because the species is known from less than 15 localities and probably less than 1,000 mature individuals occur in the region. It is suspected that a population decline, estimated to be more than 10%, would be met over the next 10 years. This species could meet the Endangered category in the near future.

range:
Anax immaculifrons is an Oriental/Indomalayan species distributed from China through West Bengal, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan with its main distribution in southern Asia (India, Sri Lanka) and its western limit along the Levantine and Aegean Coast (Boudot et al. 2009). Only since the 1990th it became clear that the species is less rare along the Mediterranean than hitherto believed. Populations have been found in the lower mountains all along the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. In Europe the species is marginally present and confined to Cyprus (four locations) and to the Greek islands of Karpathos (5 locations), Ikaria (1 location) and Rhodos (>3 locations).

population:
This species generally occurs in low densities. All European records refer to one to five individuals. It is likely that in Europe at most several dozens of specimens are present at a single site.

habitat:
Unlike other Anax species, in the eastern Mediterranean the species avoids open stagnant waters and is found at permanent, often partly shaded, rocky streams of a few meters wide. The larvae are found at still sections of brooks or in rock pools.

threats:
An increased extraction of water or pollution of water in Europe can easily lead to the destruction of habitats. The species in Europe is depended on permanent running water. An increased intake of water for tourism or agricultural purposes can cause desiccation of stream habitats. Climate change is an important threat.

conservationAction:
The middle large streams were this species is occurring have a rich aquatic fauna and are under threat throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. In order to secure this species for Europe it is needed that on all of the European islands were it occurs (Cyprus, Karpathos, Ikaria and Rhodos) one or more locations become protected and are included in a nature reserve. Fieldwork in order to map the distribution of the species on the islands is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Anax imperator is common and widespread in the southern two-thirds of Europe with no indication of declines across its range. It is Least Concern on European and pan-Europe level.

range:
Anax imperator is common in large parts of Africa and western Eurasia. In Europe, it is only absent from the northern parts Finland, Norway and Sweden. The species has considerably expanded its range northwards in recent decades. It is common and widespread across the Mediterranean region.

population:
This species is widespread and abundant.

habitat:
The species is found at standing or slightly running waters, often large and well-vegetated. Adults are strong fliers and can frequently be seen away from waterbodies.

threats:
Its habitat, large standing waters, is not under any specific threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA). EU 27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA). A common species in Central and North America which occurs very rarely as wanderer in Europe. The species does not reproduce in Europe and is therefore assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Anax junius is a common species in central and north America which has crossed the Atlantic up to Europe. The only European records are those of six individuals on the Isles of Scilly and in Cornwall in September 1998 and a male caught on the French coast near Nantes in September 2003 (Meurgey and Perron, 2004; Pellow, 1999). The British records coincided with an Atlantic depression with strong westernly winds.

population:
This species occurs in large numbers in its Central and North American range. It does however not reproduce in Europe and only a handful of specimens have been observed.

habitat:
In Central and North America it is found at standing, marshy waters including temporary or slightly brackish ones.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is wide ranging in the southern two-thirds of Europe and is common in large parts of its range. Its habitats are not under any specific threat and the species is therefore assessed as Least Concern on European scale.

range:
Anax parthenope ranges from Europe and North Africa over the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to China and Japan. In the east of its Asian range the subspecies A. p. julius occurs, which might proof to be a distinct species. The species is common in large areas of the Mediterranean and Southeast Europe but is absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. In Central Europe it is scarcer, occurring more northerly in the east due to the warmer summers in that part of Europe. The species has expanded its range to the north since the 1990s. The first successful reproduction in Great Britain was found in 1999 (Parr et al. 2004) and in the Netherlands in 2006 (Bouwman et al.. 2008). Recently a young female was found near Omsk constituting by far the most northern record of the species on the Siberian plain (Kosterin 2007). These records suggest that the northwards expansion of the species is taking place over very wide range.

population:
The species is common in its Mediterranean and Southeast European range although observed numbers are generally low. A. parthenope is rare in large parts of Central Europe and many records at the northern limit of its range pertain to wandering individuals.

habitat:
The species occurs at standing, often large and sometimes brackish waterbodies, more rarely at slowly running waters.

threats:
The habitat of the species is not under any specific threat.


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly, confused with and regarded as a subpopulation of Boyeria irene (Fonscolombe, 1838), but both species are clearly distinct (Boudot 1989, Peters 1991).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN). EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN). Boyeria cretensis is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece. Its present known extent of occurrence is about 2,120 km² (polygon method) and the species is presently known only from 21 places spread over 11 streamlets. Overall, there are no more than 2,500 mature individuals left in these populations. A future population and range decline is expected due to climate change and rapid habitat destruction due to water exploitation. All lotic (flowing water) habitats in Crete are endangered given the present climate trend and related increased water captation (capturing water at its source) developed as a reaction. Therefore this species is listed as Endangered.

range:
Boyeria cretensis is endemic to the island of Crete (Greece). Most individuals are found in small subpopulations isolated by high mountain systems and dry areas: a first aggregate of five river systems is known west of the Lefka Ori mountains in the westernmost part of Crete, another of 11 river systems lies between the Lefka Ori and the Psiloritis (Mount Idi) mountains and north of the latter in Central Crete, whereas one single isolated locality was found east of the Dikti mountains in the easternmost part of Crete (Battin 1989, Boudot et al. 2009, Lopau 2000, Schneider and Müller 2006).

population:
The species occurs generally in small populations, but a population of more than 110 adults has been recorded in one place. It is known that the species is extinct in the type locality and it is believed to be extinct in four other localities.

habitat:
The species is highly specific in its habitat, being associated with the upper courses of permanent shady brooks with moderate current and rock pools. The distribution of this endemic dragonfly is restricted to rivulets with permanent water and pronounced gallery vegetation in a narrow belt between 50 and 600 m above sea level belonging to the thermo-Mediterranean and meso-Mediterranean zone of Crete.

threats:
B. cretensis has presumably declined as a result of rapid habitat destruction and degradation, human exploitation of water, water pollution, eutrophication and forest destruction. B. cretensis is threatened due to its very restricted distribution, its low number of known localities (26 places on 17 streamlets) and its high level of stenotopy (adapted to a specific environment). The current agricultural policy favours the decrease of B. cretensis by allowing for and favouring the cultivation and irrigation of olive trees, the change of water regime of streams and streamlets and the destruction of their gallery vegetation. Many populations are small and relatively isolated. Climatic change alone will also have a negative impact on breeding sites in the future, but this is already exacerbated by the increased water demand for agriculture and urbanized areas.

conservationAction:
Control of water use and preservation of gallery forest are required. The extractions of water from springs and headwaters should be absolutely prohibited, whereas this kind of alteration is clearly increasing throughout Greece as a response to climate change. Erection of natural reserves involving the upper course of Cretan brooks is necessary. Mapping of populations is also needed, as current records are limited (only 21 from 1980 onwards). The establishment of protected areas is necessary.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). This species is common at nearly all rivers in South and Southwest France and probably so in most parts of Iberia. It is more scattered in mainland Italy, and in Sicily it is either very rare or just a vagrant. Over its whole range, there is no indication of a strong decline, although there has been a strong and large scale degradation of water quality and streams structure during the last 150 years. The category of Least Concern is given.

range:
Boyeria irene is a West Mediterranean endemic that extends north along the Atlantic area of France up to Brittany and Normandy. More to the east, it extends up to Franche Comté in France whereas a permanent isolated population is known for a long time in central Switzerland in the Lucerne lake and its tributaries. Scarce vagrant specimens have been recorded on the southernmost borders of Germany at the confines of Switzerland and Austria as well as in the southernmost part of the Vosges mountains in France. Such behaviour may be favoured by the current climate warming. In Italy, it is distributed in the western Mediterranean part. The species also occurs in northern Africa, where it is confined to the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.

population:
This species is widespread over nearly all rivers in southern France and is probably also widespread in most parts of Iberia and the western part of Italy (except Sicily, where there is only one record). However, its habit of being most active at dusk may cause it to be often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers.

habitat:
B. irene is found in streams and rivers with a shaded environment. It sometimes occurs in large lakes, particularly in Switzerland and the French pre-alpine area.

threats:
Pollution and destruction of habitat are the main threats. Drought in connection to global warming, over-irrigation and related lowering of underground water tables results in the desiccation of rivers and local extinction.

conservationAction:
It is necessary to control water pollution, control over-irrigation for agricultural purposes, and to control water extraction for urban and industrial needs.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). After a decline in the 1980s and 1990s B. pratense is showing an increase within its western European range since the 1990s. The species is fairly common and widespread in some areas with no known major threats. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Brachytron pratense is largely confined to Europe. It is absent from North Africa and occurs east to the Ural but does not reach Siberia. The only occurrences outside Europe are found in Turkey, Iran, Azerbaijan, and Georgia where the species occurs over a wide area but is generally rare. The main range of the species is found in Central Europe. In the north it occurs to the south of Scandinavia and Finland. In Southern Europe it becomes rare being largely absent from the Iberian Peninsula and the hottest and dryest parts of Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. It is present in most of Ukraine.

population:
The species is common and abundant throughout most of its range. In south Europe many populations are small and isolated. It can occur in low numbers but it can be fairly abundant at its breeding localities.The species declined in large parts of western Europe in the 1970s and 1980s. Since the 1990s the species seems to be recovering there and it has, at least regionally, shown a strong increase. A decline is expected to take place in the south of Europe, were the species is much more rare and often occurs in isolated population.

habitat:
Most populations are found at standing or slow-flowing waters and it is in these habitats that it reaches its highest numbers. The species is also found close to the shore of the Baltic Sea. The species needs abundant vegetation and is most often found at sites with reed (Phragmites), bulrush (Typha), bur-reed (Sparganium), club-rush (Schoenoplectus) and in some parts of its range in vegetations of Water Soldier (Stratiotes aloides). Suitable vegetation can be found in lakes, pools, oxbows, canals, marshes, (fish)ponds and less often in bogs, dune ponds and ponds in parks.

threats:
In the 1970s and 1980s the species declined in large parts of western Europe due to poor water management and nitrification. The impact of these threats is declining. Another threat to the species is the introduction of grass carps which often leads to the destruction of the aquatic and bankside vegetation. In South Europe the species is likely to be threatened by climate change and locally by poor water management.

conservationAction:
The species is safe in most of its Central European range. The species is much more rare in the south of its range and here isolated populations deserve attention. For populations on the Iberian Peninsula, in Italy and the countries of the Balkans fieldwork is needed to retrieve information on the distribution and the conservation status of populations. Monitoring is needed in order to gather information on the impact of climate change.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near threatened (NT). C. microstigma is still fairly common in the southern parts of the Balkan Peninsula but is rare further north. The species inhabits fast-flowing and shaded waters, a habitat type threatened by water captures, droughts, development of tourism, human settlements and climate change. As a result of this it is likely that the species is showing a continuing decline in its European range. This decline will however probably be less than 30% in a period of ten years. For these reasons the species is assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
Caliaeschna microstigma is a largely Southwest Asian species which occurs as far east as Afghanistan. The species occurs in the Caucasus but from there it does not reach into Europe. Its European range is limited to Cyprus, Greece and its islands and the Balkan Peninsula (Boudot et al. 2009). It is widespread in Bulgaria but does not reach Romania. Along the Adriatic it is found as far north as Croatia. In addition to this there are some old records from the Neretva river in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

population:
The species is often fairly abundant when found.

habitat:
Caliaeschna microstigma occurs in stony brooks and small rivers which are at least partly shaded. The habitats are fast running with sections of stiller water where the larvae are present (Breuer and Douma-Petridou 2000). The species is mostly found in hilly or mountainous regions but most European populations are found below 500 m.

threats:
Habitat destruction due to building activities or more intensive agricultural use of areas are important threats. Removal of trees or forest on the banks of brooks and rivers will lead to local extinction of the species. In the future the increased demand for water and the increase of prolonged dry periods due to climate change will be the main threat.

conservationAction:
The countries in Southeast Europe should map the distribution of the species and assess the percentage of populations found in protected areas. Based on this it must be judged if additional protected areas are needed. Legislation for the use of water from brooks needs to be made or further implemented in many of those countries. Monitoring is needed to better understand the ecology of this species and the impact of conservation management.


taxonomicNotes:
The infra rank taxa occasi (Italy, France) and asturica (Spain) are no more accepted as true subspecies but regarded only as local forms (Maibach 1987).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis is widespread and common where it occurs in the Mediterranean region. Populations are small and scattered in the northern part of its range but the species seems to show a tendency to expand northwards due to global warming. In some places, forest closure led to the disappearance of the species, but then forest clearing produced a reverse effect. Overall, there is no current evidence of decline and the species is assessed as Least Concern in its whole European range.

range:
Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis is a west Mediterranean endemic, that is widespread over the south of Europe, including the Mediterranean islands, and the north of Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).

population:
This species is common wherever it is found in the Mediteranean area. Scattered small populations or isolated specimens have been recorded recently far north from its traditional range (e.g., the French Jura Plateau), probably as a result of climate warming.

habitat:
The species favours streams and rivers with clear and well oxygenated waters with generaly a swift current speed. It likes lightly wooded banks but when the temperatures are low the adults are frequently found under the full sun.

threats:
The species is impacted by a wide range of threats such as: destruction of habitats, water pollution, desiccation of rivers due to irrigation or due to prolonged dry periods, tree-cutting, changes in river and banks structure as well as dam construction.

conservationAction:
Control of pollution and of water use for agricultural, urban and industrial purpose, as well as protection and management of sunny riverine forest are needed for the conservation of the present populations.


taxonomicNotes:
A number of subspecies and forms have been described in the C. splendens group. Their validity is sometimes doubtful and the overall systematic and genetic of this collective taxon is far from being elucidated, although genetic research currently develops rapidly.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). C. splendens is a widespread and common species throughout most of Europe. Exception is the Iberian Peninsula, where it is replaced by C. xanthostoma, and the northern part of Scandinavia and Finland. As for other widespread and common species it is considered as Least Concern.

range:
Calopteryx splendens is common in a large part of Europe, but is not present in the Iberian Peninsula. It is not found in the northern half of Fennoscandia. The species ranges eastwards into Central Asia.

population:
The species is common and abundant in most of Europe although it declined in the 1960s and 70s in large parts of western Europe as a consequence of intensive stream management as well as water pollution. The populations have been recovering since the 1990s and the current population trend is stable.

habitat:
The species favours brooks and rivers but is largely absent from torrents and shaded waters. It can also occur in flowing ditches and channels.

threats:
Chemical water pollution is the main threat to this species but is not causing the populations to decline at the moment.As the infrarank forms of this species are still under debate, threats in certain areas of its range may be more serious as they may affect a subspecies or form with a strongly more restricted range than the whole collective species.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures needed except for further taxonomic research to define the infraranks.


taxonomicNotes:
In addition to the nominal subspecies, which spread over most of Europe, this taxon is differentiated into two additional subspecies, Calopteryx virgo meridionalis Selys, 1873, in the western Mediterranean area and C. v. festiva (Brullé, 1832) in the eastern Mediterranean countries and the South of mainland Italy.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Calopteryx virgo is a common and widespread species in most of Europe, where it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is widespread and generally common all over Europe. It is absent from northwest Fennoscandia and parts of the Iberian peninsula. In the Ukraine it occurs mostly in the north. The nominal subspecies inhabits the cold and temperate climatic areas, whereas the subspecies C. v. meridionalis is confined to the western Mediterranean area and the French Atlantic districts.

population:
C. virgo is generally common over its whole range and regularly occurring in hilly and mountainous areas, in streams with high oxygen levels. In lowlands, it is present mainly in forest areas and much more rare in agricultural landscape.

habitat:
This species reproduces in flowing waters and prefers small and medium-sized cooler running waters which are at least partly shaded.

threats:
Regionally large scale logging or forest closure by natural succession are threats to this species but they do not seem to impact the species on European scale.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures needed.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is sometimes regarded as a subspecies of C. splendens. It has been reported to be in introgression (genetic movement from one species gene pool to another) by Calopteryx splendens in places where both species meet. This phenomena is believed to induce a natural regression of C. xanthostoma by genetic assimilation and may eventually result in its disappearance on the long term. (Weeker et al. 2001, Dumont et al. 2005)

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is currently not threatened and the populations from Iberia and southwest France seem to be more or less stable. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Calopteryx xanthostoma is a southwest European endemic abundant in the south and the southwest of France and in most of Iberia. In the latter area, it becomes more scarce towards the south. In Italy, it is recorded with certainty from Liguria only; records from Sicily may be due to a confusion with some infrarank forms of C. splendens without or with a very narrow hyaline fringe at wings tip (C. s. caprai, C. s. balcanica). Records from North Africa were old and unclear and were most probably erroneous. In the contact area between C. xanthostoma and C. splendens, both taxa are reported to hybridize, for example in Liguria and between the Loire and Garonne in France, with decrease of C. xanthostoma in favour of C. splendens through genetic assimilation. This and genetic distance analysis between both taxa suggest that C. xanthostoma is a relict taxa that survived the Pleistocene glaciations in the west Mediterranean refugium but is presently challenged by post glacial invaders, with introgression and replacement processes.

population:
This species is fairly common and abundant in its main area.

habitat:
This species favours open and moderately shaded running waters. It avoids cold torrents, high mountains and deep shade, but is found in slow-flowing areas in large water courses where C. splendens also occurs (for example, lowland rivers and canals).

threats:
Destruction of habitat through gravel pitting and tourism infrastructures as well as water pollution by human activities are the main threat for this endemic species. The drying up of streams during the summer is now occurring throughout its range as a result of climate change, over irrigation and human consumption in urbanized areas, so that a strong regression of the species is to be expected in the future if drought periods increase in time and frequency.

conservationAction:
Control of stream structure, pollution and water use are needed to preserve this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Until recently C. georgiferyi was considered a subspecies of Ceriagrion tenellum but both male and female show distinct morphological characters and it is now considered to be a full species (Schneider 1986, Kalkman 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR). EU 27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR). C. georgifreyi has a restricted distribution and is in Europe limited to the Greek islands of Kerkyra, Thasos and Zakynthos. Information on the current status of the three known populations is not available. Based on the habitat requirements of the species and the strong pressure on aquatic habitats on each of the three mentioned islands it is inferred that the species has shown a strong decline and is very likely to continue declining. In addition to this the Area of Occupancy is probably less than 10 km2 and only three locations are known with no possibilities for exchange between these populations. Based on the above the species is assessed as Critically Endangered.

range:
Ceriagrion georgifreyi has a relatively small range and occurs along a narrow coastal strip in the northern half of Israel, West Syria, southern Turkey and three Greek islands. Records of Ceriagrion from Lesvos and from continental Greece published as C. tenellum may refer to C. georgifreyi. No voucher specimens are available for these records and new fieldwork needs to be undertaken to establish the identity of these populations. A record of C. georgifreyi from Niksar in north Turkey was reported by Schneider (1986) based on a series from the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. This population belongs to the northern limit of the species and may tentatively be recognized as valid, although a label error or a problem of homonymy in the locality name cannot be ruled out. In Europe the species is only known from three Greek islands. From each of these islands only a single record is available: Kerkyra (1971), Thasos (1997) and Zakynthos (1998) (Kalkman 2005).

population:
In Europe the species is only known from three Greek islands were only a small number of specimens were collected. Information on the actual size of these populations is lacking. In Turkey the species is generally found in low densities in relatively small habitats. It is therefore likely that the European populations are small to very small.

habitat:
The species is poorly known and there are no detailed accounts on the habitats where the species is found. The habitat is described as small and shallow, both standing and slowly running waters (Kalkman et al. 2004). The habitat where breeding is assumed is heavily vegetated with spike-rush (Eleocharis) and lesser water-parsnip (Berula erecta). In Hope (2007) it is stated that 'It is found in small muddy brooks and larger brooks'. Based on the above and unpublished records the habitat can best be described as brooks, small runnels and seepages with rich aquatic vegetation.

threats:
The reproduction sites occupied by the species are generally small and easily destroyed by agricultural practises and building activities. Climate change resulting in the desiccation of the habitats is the main present and future threat, which will affect the species over its whole range. Presently only three European localities are known for this species. Information on these sites is very poor but probably all of them are very small. All of these sites can probably be destroyed by a single small event such as the construction of a house, increased intake of water or a very dry year. In order to prevent this species from becoming extinct immediate action is needed.

conservationAction:
The exact locality and status of the European populations are unknown and information on the habitat requirements of the species is scant. Habitat destruction can therefore easily cause the extinction of this species on any of the three islands where it occurs. The foremost conservation measure is therefore identifying the current locations and disclosing this information to the local authorities and conservation officers. Based on more adequate habitat information it must be seen if local conservation measures are possible to counterbalance the impact of climate change.Several records of unidentified specimens of Ceriagrion are known from Lesvos and from continental Greece. These localities should be revisited and the identity of the species should be confirmed.This species could easily become extinct in Europe in the next decade. Immediate action is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is not considered threatened on European scale as it has a relatively large range and is regionally showing an increase. Most of the populations in northern Italy, the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea and those on Crete and Ios are isolated and are likely to be threatened. Mapping of the remaining populations followed by conservation action is needed in that part of Europe. On European scale the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Over three-quarters of the distribution of Ceriagrion tenellum lies in Europe. The species is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including northwest Africa), extending into northwest Europe. Its most northern populations are found in the south of Great Britain, the Netherlands and western Germany. The species is widespread in Italy but is rare and local on the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea where it is found in a small coastal fringe in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. It is absent from mainland Greece but is found on Crete and nearby Ios.The species is largely absent in a corridor running west to east in northern France and southern Belgium. This corridor splits the European area of the species in two. At least in the Netherlands and Flanders the species is showing a strong increase and is expanding its range. This is likely to happen in other parts of its northern range also and expansion of the species from northern France into the corridor is likely. Several records of unidentified specimens of Ceriagrion are known from Lesvos and from continental Greece and might belong to C. tenellum.

population:
The species is generally widespread and populations are scattered and often found in small and localised waters. The species is often abundant when found and at least in the north of its range, where it is found in bogs, it often occurs in high densities.

habitat:
As already remarked, the European distribution of the species is split in two by a corridor running west to east in northern France and southern Belgium where the species is largely absent. South of this corridor the species is mainly found at seepages, small brooks or seepage fed standing waters with rich aquatic vegetation although it is regionally also found in bogs (eg. Brittany and Haute-Saône). In the north of France the species is rare although suitable habitats seem to be present. This suggests that climatic conditions are here limiting the distribution of the species. The occurrence of the species further north seems to be facilitated by the use of a different type of habitat. In northern Belgium, the Netherlands, and adjacent Germany and in Great Britain the species is mainly found in bogs with Sphagnum. In this area the species has shown an increase in the last decade and the species is increasingly found in other types of habitats such as small brooks.

threats:
C. tenellum is in most of its range not threatened and there are no indications of a decline. The situation is different for the population in northern Italy and those on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Here the species is limited to often small and isolated populations. It is likely that many of these have been impacted by habitat destructions due to agricultural practises and building activities. Moreover, these populations will likely be impacted by climate change. Prolonged dry and hot periods might result in desiccation of streams or the diminish of seepages.The populations in Baden-Württemberg (Germany) and Switzerland are relatively small and isolated. Most of these lie in nature reserves and there are no indications for a continuing decline.

conservationAction:
In northern Italy and on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea the species can serve as indicator for habitat quality of brooks and seepages. The distribution of the species in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania should be carefully mapped and for each country an assessment should be made of the conservation status of the populations. Based on this, local measurements should be proposed and information should be disclosed to the local authorities and conservation officers. The need of local measurements to counterbalance the impact of climate change should be considered.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). The range of this species has been reduced in Europe
since the beginning of the 20th century. C. armatum is
presently very rare in the northern parts of west and Central Europe. The
populations are however stable in Fennoscandia and probably in northeast Europe.The species is in many places confined to small pockets of habitat, is highly sensitive to habitat alteration and is a good candidate for further decline due to climate change. As there are probably stable populations in Russia, the species is classified as Least Concern in Europe. At the level of the EU 27, the species might approach a decline of 30% in the next ten years and could qualify for Criterion A. Therefore it is classified as Near Threatened.

range:
The species has a wide range from west Europe to Kamchatka in the east. The species has isolated populations in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and Denmark, and a more continuous range in northeast Europe including the south of Scandinavia and Finland, eastern Poland and northern Ukraine. By far the largest number of populations is found in southern Fennoscandia and northeast Europe. The species is absent from the south of the Ukraine and the south of Russia although populations are known from the southern Caucasus countries (Georgia, Armenia). It is extinct in the United Kingdom.

population:
In the west of its range, the species is very local and has been extirpated from large parts of its initial range. It is presently very rare to rare in the Netherlands, north Germany, Poland (probably extinct in most of the country), uncommon in southern Scandinavia but fairly common in parts of Finland and Russia.

habitat:
This species has a very specialized habitat and is mainly met in fields of sedges (Carex), Water Horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile) and reeds bordering shallow mesotrophic and weakly eutrophic pools and lakes. The density of the vegetation should be moderate, neither too low nor too high a density, in order to provide both shelter and space to move.

threats:
Water pollution and significant eutrophication, fish farming, natural succession of the vegetation leading to the closure of the habitat are the main threat for this species. Dessication due to climate change is a present and future threat to this boreal species.

conservationAction:
Water quality should be preserved, fish farming restricted and the natural vegetation maintained, restored or managed in the most favourable places.


taxonomicNotes:
The various subspecies formerly described are no more regarded as valid as they are merely based on the high variability of the species (Schmidt 1959, Conesa Garcia 1995).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). Listed as Near Threatened, because although the species is irregularly distributed throughout the west Mediterranean its Area of Occupancy is less than 5,000 km2 in Europe. Also a progressive degradation of its habitats is obvious in many areas and is expected to continue at an even larger scale due to over-irrigation, pollution, decreasing rainfall, wetland drainage and increasing drought periods, thus making the species close to qualifying for Vulnerable. A future decrease of the species is expected due to global warming and small rivers drainage due to human activities so that it is assessed as Near Threatened in its European range.

range:
Coenagrion caerulescens is a west Mediterranean endemic species.

population:
The species is widespread in Sicily and Spain but is much more scattered in Portugal and the southernmost two thirds of mainland Italy. It is very rare in France, although strong populations exist there.

habitat:
C. caerulescens reproduces in sunny rivers, brooks, spring and seepages with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation. It is replaced by the close relative C. scitulum in standing and slowly flowing waters.

threats:
Water pollution and harnessing for human use, destruction of wetlands due to draining, over-irrigation, and droughts in connection to global warming, are the main threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Necessary conservation measurements are the control of water pollution and preservation and management of the habitats where the species occurs.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). EU 27 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE). According to the current available published information, the species is not threatened in Europe at the moment. Due to the gap of about 2,000 km separating the Uralian isolate from the main range of the species, no recolonisation can be expected in case of extinction. In the light of current evidence, the species is assessed as Data Deficient, but is probably of Least Concern as it seems to be abundant at the sites where it is found.It does not occur within the EU 27.

range:
Coenagrion ecornutum is an Asiatic species which ranges from Japan and Korea to the West Altai and shows a relict isolate in the south Ural (Yanybaeva 1999b; Kosterin 2005; Yanybaeva et al. 2006). The European part of this isolate seems restricted to parts of the Bashkortostan Republic and is about 2,000 km apart from the main range of the species.

population:
Coenagron ecornutum is stated to be quite abundant at the four localities published.

habitat:
Coenagrion ecornutum reproduces mostly in standing waters, in the European part it is known mainly from lakes but has been recorded in running waters as well.

threats:
The potential threats to this species are not known.

conservationAction:
The presence of this species in Europe is poorly known and specific information on its habitat choice and potential threats is lacking. A field survey is needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Coenagrion hastulatum prefers acidic waters, it is mostly abundant and no immediate threat exists on a European scale. High temperatures might represent a major threat, contributing to the disappearance of breeding habitats in the south and the southwest of its range. Although it is locally or regionally threatened in south and western Europe, it is assessed as Least Concern on European scale.

range:
Coenagrion hastulatum occurs from southwest France and Scotland to east Siberia. It is abundant in northern and eastern Europe but is restricted to mountainous regions in the west and the south of its range. Southwestern and southernmost populations from the Balkans, the Pyrenees range and the Massif Central are confined to high elevation peat bogs and acid swamps and pools, are post-glacial relicts and are clearly disjunct of the main range of the species. Besides, the species is regularly scattered over most of the Alps and other mountains in Central Europe, where it is locally common in acid habitats.

population:
The species is abundant in the core of its range and irregularly abundant in the west and south. In the west, it shows locally a very high density in acid pools and swamps and sometimes in true peat bogs.

habitat:
C. hastulatum prefers acid swamps, pools and peat bogs. However, it inhabits a larger habitat spectrum, including also other water bodies with rich and abundant vegetation.

threats:
There is no strong threat in the north and east of its range. Present and future global warming and multiple drought periods represent a major threat to breeding habitats throughout west and south Europe. There, some localities are also in risk of degradation by livestock. In Germany, the species is locally declining due to agriculture induced eutrophication and emissions (e.g. pork breeding). A decline in the Biosphere Reserve Palatinate Forest (Germany) was shown as a consequence of climatic changes and lack of water (Ott 2007).

conservationAction:
On a European scale, no specific conservation measures are needed. However, in the south and southwest of its range, monitoring of the species in the best breeding habitats is recommended and new habitats should be created whenever older ones disappear through natural succession or abnormal drought periods. Where livestock presents a threat to the species, those habitats should be preserved.


taxonomicNotes:
The European population has been regarded by some authors as a distinct subspecies (Lohmann 1992, Kiauta & Kiauta 1991), but subsequent studies showed that threre is no evidence for this.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). This Siberian species is one of the rarest damselflies of Europe with only few and often small populations. As a result of intensive research in the Austrian Tirol (valley of the Lech river), the whole area inhabited by this species in Europe has proved to be very small (presently <14 reproducing localities over an EOO of about 470 km² and an AOO of 10 km²). Drought periods in connection to climate change may seriously alter available habitats (desication of shallow pools). The species is classified Vulnerable.

range:
A species with a disjunct area. A very large and continuous population occurs in Siberia up to Japan, a first disjunct population occurs in the surroundings of the north Ural (Ob river delta) and a second one is located more to the west in the Austrian Tirol (valley of the Lech river) (Kosterin 2005, Landmann et al. 2005, Müller 2000, Raab et al. 2006). The single German population (lake Zwingsee near Inzell, Bavaria) is now extinct due to habitat management and fish farming. The fragmented area of the species is attributed to post-glacial climate oscillations, the species having immigrated towards the west of Europe during the Atlantic period - post-glacial climatic optimum. Subsequent climate cooling coupled to high habitat specialization led to the fragmentation of the primary range of the species over large areas.

population:
The species is known from 14 reproducing localities in Austria, but populations show very contrasting density from a place to another and from year to year. Some localities show about 800 to 5,000 exuviae per year, depending on the year. This species is assuredly one of the rarest Odonata in Europe.

habitat:
In Europe, the species is confined to shallow and more or less peaty pools and small lakes with clear oligotrophic water and zones of slow shallow running and seepage water.

threats:
At the moment, the populations are stable and the species is not threatened. Potential future threats include water pollution, changes of habitat structure and water regime, eutrophication, introduction of fishes, climate change and collection even at low rate by entomologists. In the west Palearctic, this species is very sensitive to capture by humans. Drought periods in relation to climate change may lead to a serious decrease of the species in Europe.

conservationAction:
Precautionary conservation measures are needed such as control of water pollution and water regime, and restoration of some water bodies as well as restricted capture by entomologists, except for true scientific research, with control of localities by officers. Coenagrion hylas (ssp. C. hylas freyi) is listed in Annex II of the EC Habitats Directive and is included in Annex II of the Bern Convention. The Austrian localities are included in a Natura 2000 area and in the subsequent "Tiroler Lech" Naturpark.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). Coenagrion intermedium is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece. Its present known extent of occurrence is about 3,800 km² (polygone method) and the species is presently known from only 13 places spread over only 9 streamlets and one streamfed pond (10 localities) and is confined to upper courses of brooks with shady habitats and moderate current speed. A future population and range decline is expected due to climate change and rapid habitat destruction due to water exploitation. All lotic habitats in Crete are endangered given the present climate trend and related increased water caption. Given these threats and the low number of locations, the species is assessed Vulnerable.

range:
Coenagrion intermedium is endemic to Crete (Greece) (Battin 1989, 1993; Boudot et al. 2009). Most of its populations are isolated by high mountain systems and dry areas.

population:
According to Jödicke (2005), the species is widespread and common on Crete.

habitat:
Jödicke (2005) mentions Coenagrion intermedium from both running and standing waters. The former is probably the most important habitat as running waters are more common on the island. The species was found at brooks near the coast but also in those stretches more inland. It is absent from brooks without vegetation. The species has a preference for stretches of brooks with a slow current. Larvae have been collected from between submerged tree roots.

threats:
C. intermedium has presumably declined as a result of rapid habitat destruction and degradation, human exploitation of water, water pollution, eutrophication and forest destruction. C. intermedium is threatened due to its restricted distribution and its few numbers of known localities (currently 13 places on nine streams). The current agricultural policy leads to the decrease of C. intermedium by allowing for and favouring the cultivation and irrigation of olive trees, the change of water regime of streams and streamlets and the destruction of bank side vegetation. Climatic change will also have a negative impact on breeding sites in the future, but this is already exacerbated by the increased water demand for agriculture and urbanized areas.

conservationAction:
Control of water use and gallery forest preservation are required. The capture of springs and headwaters should be absolutely prohibited, whereas this kind of alteration clearly increases throughout Greece as a reaction to climate change. Erection of natural reserves involving the upper course of Cretan brooks is necessary. Mapping of populations is also needed, as current records are limited (only 13 from 1980 onwards).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is limited to areas with a boreal climate but has a large range in North and Northeastern Europe where suitable habitat is common and the species is widespread and often abundant. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Coenagrion johanssoni ranges from Scandinavia, where it is not uncommon in peaty areas, to the Baltic states, where it is rare, and to north and east Siberia.

population:
The species is widespread over almost all of Fennoscandia and northern Russia in peaty habitats. Moderate-sized populations are generally observed, but adults are easily overlooked due to their small size.

habitat:
C. johanssoni occurs in pools and lakes bounded with Sphagnum bogs, transition mires, in peaty swamps, and fens.

threats:
The species is moderately common to widespread and is not threatened in Europe.

conservationAction:
There is no need for specific conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Coenagrion lunulatum is threatened mostly due to climate change in its western and southern range. However, the species has a relatively wide range in northeast Europe and is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Coenagrion lunulatum ranges from western Europe (Ireland and France) to central and northern Europe and further to North Japan. In the west and the south its range is fragmented in isolated aggregates of post-glacial relict populations confined to both cold lowlands (Ireland) and mountainous areas (France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia). In the Ukraine, it is very rare in the northwest and extremely rare in the central part.

population:
C. lunulatum is very rare in its relict areas in the west and western Central Europe. It becomes more common further east and north of continental Europe and in Fennoscandia.

habitat:
C. lunulatum is mostly a spring and early summer species which reproduces in pools bound by Sphagnum bogs and transition mires, in swamps, marshes, lakes, and in field and forest pools and lakes.

threats:
C. lunulatum is highly endangered by global warming and multiple abnormal drought periods in its western and southern range, where it is disconnected from its main area and is present only as post-glacial relict populations. Several good localities in the Massif Central in France have been found completely dry during the torrid summer 2003 and it is not known if the species re-established subsequently. Also in northern Germany it is endangered by changes in the water table and partly drying out of the waters. However, the species is widely scattered to widespread over large areas and in innumerable potential localities in the core of its range, so that it is not threatened at the European scale.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are needed in the core of its range. Climate change might lead to a further decline of the isolated populations in the west and southwest of its range. Increasing the amount of habitat by restoration or maybe by the creation of new habitats might be successful in maintaining the presence of the species. In Germany, it is classed as Critically Endangered in the national Red List.


taxonomicNotes:
The Italian populations are sometimes regarded as a distinct subspecies, Coenagrion mercuriale castellanii, but the differences between the two taxa are poorly significant and remain to be assessed on a statistical basis. In addition, C. m. castellani has been erroneously reported from the Maghreb as a good species. This is due to a confusion with either C. scitulum or C. caerulescens or both and is definitely incorrect.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). This is mainly an Atlanto-Mediterranean species which decreases in density and frequency in other climatic areas. Therefore, its main distribution centre ranges from France to northern Africa. In the Mediterranean region, it is expected that future summer drying of small brooks in connection to global warming and more frequent long summer drought periods will result in a significant decrease of the species over large areas in the next decades. The category Near Threatened is recommended for the overall range area based on projected future population decline approaching 30% over the next ten years as agricultural expansion continues; there is a risk of a very rapid decline within the next five years. Populations in individual countries will clearly merit a higher status (e.g., the species is threatened in Germany and Italy).

range:
Coenagrion mercuriale occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. More than 1,550 localities have been recorded in Europe for this species, among which at least 70 are probably lost. In Italy, only five recent records were published after 1990 and the species has clearly declined both in the southern areas and in Sicily (where it may be extinct) due to small streams drying up. Possibly, 50% of the known locations in Italy have become extinct.

population:
In Europe, the species is rather common in France. It is more scattered in southern Iberia, rare in Germany, very rare in the United Kingdom, Belgium, Liechtenstein, extinct in southern Switzerland, Luxembourg, Austria and the Netherlands. About half of the Italian records are old and may refer to populations that are now extinct; the species is currently rare in Italy. Moreover, it is extinct or erroneously recorded in Slovenia, erroneously recorded from Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Macedonia, the Republic of Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania and the Caucasus.

habitat:
C. mercuriale is found in small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous. Also, the species lives in man-made irrigation channels, which are permanently wet.

threats:
The main threats include river straightening (channelisation), water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices lead to the extirpation of the species. Drought in relation to global warming, forest closure and plantation of trees on river banks, poor management of bank side vegetation and the large scale of clearance of the ditches are also major threats.Flourishing populations still occur in many countries but their survival is definitely incompatible with modern intensive agricultural practices and forest closure. Although the species remains widespread in France, most of the populations at the periphery of its main area have been destroyed and a continuous decline is observed in any area where agriculture shifts from grasslands to irrigated ploughed fields, the worst situation being reached with maize (a crop that is irrigated throughout the summer months) and rice cultivation.

conservationAction:
This species is included in Annex II and IV of the European Habitats Directive. Main conservation measures inlcude the management of water courses, control of water pollution, management that keeps the vegetation open. Intensification of agriculture should be avoided. Examples of restoration took place in some restricted places in the UK, Belgium and northeast France.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). C. ornatum has a specialised habitat, is highly localised and showed a strong decrease in the west of Europe. It is not rare in the east and southeast, where its status is presently not well documented. This species is fragmented in large parts of Europe and a rapid decline could take place in a relatively short period.In the western part of its range C. ornatum is very scarce and has declined at a higher rate than in other parts of its range (perhaps even as high as 25% decline there). The species has limited ability to disperse and may be more susceptible to habitat loss than more mobile species. Climate changes and human factors (e.g., expansion of settlements, intensification of agriculture) may destroy its specialised habitats. It is projected that declines will be seen in the species' range (area of occupancy and extent of occurrence) and population size in the near future. It is difficult to be certain about the scale of these declines, but given the ongoing threats to its available habitat it is projected that C. ornatum may decline by 10-30% over the next 10 years (nearly meeting VU A3c). Thus this species is listed as Near Threatened.

range:
Coenagrion ornatum ranges from West and Central Europe, where it is very rare after a strong decrease, to East and Southeast Europe, where it is probably more widespread. Most localities in the west and the north are presently disjunct from its main area, but it is unclear if this multiple fragmentation is natural or resulting from human activities.

population:
Small to moderate-sized populations are generally reported. The species is very rare in the west but its present status in the east and southeast of Europe is poorly documented.

habitat:
Coenagrion ornatum is a specialized species confined to seepage waters with a thin water film and small sunny brooks, streamlets and ditches with organic mud and dense hygrophilous herbaceous vegetation (Scirpus, Iris pseudacorus, Mentha aquatica, Nasturtium officinale, Sparganium spp.).

threats:
Draining operations for intensive agriculture, habitat drying up and destruction due to rainfall deficit, drought periods, water extraction and over-irrigation with lowering of the watertable, hard cleaning and correction of brooks and ditches, abandonment of soft cleaning of ditches in traditional agricultural landscape and trampling by livestock are responsible for the continuous extinction of this highly specialized species in large parts of Europe.

conservationAction:
C. ornatum is included in Annex II of the European Habitats Directive and thus all its habitats should be preserved from any kind of alteration. In some areas, the continuation of soft cleaning of ditches in traditional agricultural landscape contribute to the conservation of the species, but the application of hard cleaning technologies to brooks and ditches as well as the developement of draining procedures to wet soils and grasslands destroy the habitat of this specialised species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Coenagrion puella is a very common species in Europe. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Coenagrion puella is a very common and widespread species which extends from western Europe to the Maghreb and Central Asia. Its northern limit extends from Scotland to south Norway, Sweden and Finland. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range upon about 100 km to the north since 1970, which was attributed to global warming (Hickling et al. 2005).

population:
C. puella is one of the most common damselflies in Europe, where it generally shows populations with high density.

habitat:
In the European part of its range this species shows high density populations in standing waters but occurs also in small numbers in streams, rivers and ditches.

threats:
The species is not threatened at the European scale.

conservationAction:
The species does not need specific conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). C. pulchellum is fairly common to common in most of temperate Europe and inhabits a wide range of water bodies with rich vegetation. It is assessed Least Concern.

range:
Coenagrion pulchellum is widespread from West Europe to West Siberia. In the north it extends to central Fennoscandia. In the British Isles, and locally in Fennoscandia, it was found to have expanded its range to the north since 1970 (Hickling et al. 2005, Flenner and Sahlen 2008) which was attributed to global warming. In the south it reaches the north of Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Balkans and Anatolia.

population:
Coenagrion pulchellum is an abundant species. In the south of France, Spain, Italy, the Balkans and Anatolia its range becomes fragmented and it turns rare to very rare.In several regions in western Europe (Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium), a declining population trend has been noted over the last decades.

habitat:
Coenagrion pulchellum is mostly linked to standing waters with a rich riparian vegetation. It is also found in slow-flowing waters.

threats:
The species is not threatened at the European scale. Drying up of habitats due to rainfall deficit in connection to global warming is a future threat with regards to the survival of the species in the south of its range.

conservationAction:
The species does not need specific conservation measures on a European scale. Monitoring the trend of the populations in western Europe and research of the threats causing the decline are needed and appropriate conservation measures need to be developed on the base of those findings.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Coenagrion scitulum is scattered throughout its range and shows flourishing populations in some countries. Due to climate change the species is clearly increasing in the north, however it might decline in parts of the south. Due to its widespread range and its potential to gain new territories in the north, it is assessed as Least Concern in Europe.

range:
Coenagrion scitulum extends from the west of Europe to the Maghreb and to Iran. It is rather common in western and central France and in most of Iberia, but is generally more scattered elsewhere. It is extinct in the British Isles. It is extending its range north and increases in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany (e.g. Rheinland-Pfalz, Hessen), where several populations already occur. The latest expansion northwards seems to have been initiated during the last 15 years with the first records in Lorraine in northeast France (1995), Luxembourg (1996), Belgium (1998), Switzerland (2001), the Netherlands (2003), Germany: Nordrhein-Westfalen (2002), Bayern (2006).

population:
This species is fairly common when found.

habitat:
The species occurs at sunny standing or slowly flowing waters with rich aquatic vegetation of Myriophyllum and Ceratophyllum, as well as grassy pools and swamps.

threats:
There are no major threats for this species. Some threats may include water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming. It is expected that the species range will shift to the north as a result of global warming.

conservationAction:
Control of agricultural practices and water use are recommended conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Male abdomen 25-25mm and hind wing 18-21 mm. Female abdomen 22-28mm and hind wing 18-22mm. Vertex and occiput black, marked with pyriform postocular pale blue spots, in between present a similar coloured streak but not connecting two spots. Segment 8 to 10 with fine spines on hind femora and tibae. Abdomen bright glossy azure blue with a small subapical cordate black spot. Superior anal appendages 1/3rd of abdomen segment 10.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Enallagma cyathigerum is a widespread and common European species and its habitats are not threatened. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Enallagma cyathigerum is one of the most widespread damselflies in the world. Its range covers Europe, Asia, northwest Africa and northern America. The species is widespread and common in the European part of its range occurring to the far north of Scandinavia. It becomes scarcer towards the Mediterranean being absent from many of the islands and being rare in the low and dry regions of Spain, Italy and Greece. In India the species is found in Manipur (Lamjao, Bishenpur), Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal. Besides India these are also found in Europe,Central Asia,Tibet, North America and British Isles.

population:
The species is common and widespread in its European range and only in the south populations are more scattered. The sizes of the populations are generally high. It can occur in very high densities in central and northern Europe.

habitat:
E. cyathigerum commonly occurs at standing and slow-flowing waters. The species is especially common at sites with the lack of fish such as acid bogs or at sites where the vegetation provides shelter from fishes. The species can occur in slightly brackish waters. It is one of several species which commonly reproduces in the Baltic Sea.The species inhabits stagnent water bodies and also amongsts marshy habitats. It breeds in ponds and marshes.


taxonomicNotes:
Until 2004 E. lindenii was placed in the genus Cercion although already Heidemann & Seidenbusch (1993) suggested that the species should be placed in Erythromma based on larval characters. It was not until Weekers & Dumont (2004) confirmed this idea with a DNA-study that this was widely accepted.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Erythromma lindenii is widespread and common in its range and seems to expand to the north, at least in western Europe. The species is therefore assessed as being of Least Concern.

range:
Erythromma lindenii has its main distribution in the European part of the Mediterranean and in western Europe. It is also present in northern Africa. The species is very common and widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and France. More to the north it becomes scarcer. The core of its range reaches its northern limit in the Netherlands and the southern half of Germany. It has an isolated occurrence in mid-eastern Germany and western Poland. In Eastern Europe it is largely confined to low elevations and areas near the Mediterranean Sea and the species is rare in coastal Romania. The species which is red listed in Ukraine is sometimes rather numerous in delta parts of large rivers in the southern part of the country. The species was also recently found in Crimea (G. Prokopov, unpublished data, identified by L. Khrokalo; V. Savchuk, unpublished data). The species has expanded its range to the north from the 1990s onwards. This has been noted in Belgium, the Netherlands, and central and northern Germany (Bouwman et al. 2008, De Knijf et al. 2006, Hunger et al. 2006).

population:
E. lindenii is common and widespread in most of its range and often occurs in high densities. The species is more rare and localised, but still abundant in the north of its range.

habitat:
Erythromma lindenii is found in running waters such as larger brooks, connected oxbows, rivers, channels and in larger standing waters like lakes, (fish)ponds and gravel pits. Reproduction waters are generally largely unshaded, large, oxygen rich and clear. The species is less common at swift running waters, and in rivers and brooks with a strong current it is often confined to areas where the force of the water is less strong. In most cases there is rich aquatic vegetation but the vegetation on the banks is often poorly developed or even absent. In fish free waters the aquatic vegetation is of less importance suggesting that the vegetation is mainly important to avoid predation. The standing waters where the species occurs are often impacted by wind causing waves or are fed by seepage. This makes that the abiotic condition of the waters resemble those of running waters. Throughout its range the species is confined to lower altitudes and most of the records are from below 500 m.

threats:
The species is at the moment not threatened.

conservationAction:
No specific action for this species is needed in most of its range as it is common and shows an increase in parts of its northern range. In the east of its range, especially in Romania where it is rare and in the Ukraine where it is in decline, it is needed to map the current distribution in order to judge if conservation measures are needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Erythromma najas is common in a large part of Europe and at the moment there are no indications of a decline. The species is assessed as being of Least Concern.

range:
Erythromma najas is a widespread species ranging from west Europe to Japan. Its main European range lies in Central and northeastern Europe where the species is common and widespread in the lowlands. It reaches north to the central parts of Fennoscandia. It becomes less common to the south of central Europe but is still fairly widespread in parts of southern France and the north of Italy. E. najas is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, very rare in Italy and known from scattered records in the Balkans only. The situation in Romania and the Ukraine is not clear but it is likely to be common in the north.

population:
The species is common and often abundant in central and northeastern Europe. The density of populations is high in large parts of its range. In the south of its range populations are more scattered, smaller and often isolated.

habitat:
Erythromma najas occurs at largely unshaded, standing or slow-flowing waters. Frequently, an important characteristic of the habitat is the presence of aquatic vegetation with floating leaves (Nuphar lutea, Nymphaea alba or Potamogeton natans). The species occurs in eutrophic as well as mesotrophic waters. In smaller abundance the species inhabits distrophic waters.

threats:
The species is not considered threatened in most of its range. It is however likely to be impacted by climate change in the south of its range. Drought and poor water management are the most important threats for highly isolated populations in the south. The only population in the south of Italy (Lago Monticchio) may be impacted by tourist developments as these two lakes are not in a pristine environment and are surrounded by a road.

conservationAction:
In most of its range specific actions are not needed. The isolated populations in Italy and in the southern parts of the Balkans are threatened. It is advisable to map these populations in order to assess their conservation status.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Erythromma viridulum is widespread and common in most of southern and central Europe and there are no indications of a decline. Therefore the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The main range of Erythromma viridulum lies in southern and central Europe. In North Africa the species is limited to the Maghreb. In the east it occurs in the Ukraine, the southern parts of Russia, and in the eastern Mediterranean up to Turkmenistan. Since the 1980s it has expanded its range over 100-500 km to the north. It was first found in Belarus in the end of the 1990s (Tishchikov and Tishchikov 2000), in 1999 in the United Kingdom (Dewick and Gerussi 2000), in 2001 in Denmark, and in 2000 in Sweden.

population:
The species is often abundant when found.

habitat:
Erythromma viridulum is found in largely unshaded, standing or slow-flowing, sunny waters with aquatic vegetation, including brackish waters. It is especially common at waters with rich aquatic vegetation where the males can be seen perching on algal mats, hornworts (Ceratophyllum), water-milfoils (Myriophylum) and other plants.

threats:
The species is not considered threatened.

conservationAction:
The species is common in large parts of its range and is expanding northwards. No conservation action is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). EU 27 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE). The discovery of Ischnura aralensis in Europe is very recent (Yanibaeva et al. 2006) and only little is known about its true range. Although the species is split in several disjunct sub-populations in Central Asia due to both natural and human-induced drought, the European populations seems to stay in a wetter area and may be possibly much more widespread than currently known. It is assessed as Data Deficient at the European scale.The species does not occur within the EU 27.

range:
Ischnura aralensis is a Central Asia species which occurs throughout Kazakstan (Asia) and Bashkortostan (Easternmost European Russia) under rather isolated subpopulations, due to the current dry period (exacerbated by water use by humans). It is expected that it was much more widespread in the region under a continuous range during the wetter periods of the Holocene 9,000-3,000 BP (Yanibaeva et al. 2006).

population:
Ischnura aralensis was found to be fairly abundant in its known localities.

habitat:
Ischnura aralensis is found in lakes in the lower parts of the southern Ural mountains.

threats:
Drought periods, either natural or due to human influence constitute the main threat of the species in its Asian range, which turned probably extinct in the Aral Sea area and some Central Asia localities due to the drying up of the Aral Sea, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya (a consequence of unadapted cotton culture). Presently, the species is probably not threatened in its five known European Uralian localities.

conservationAction:
The species is probably currently not threatened and information on threats is poor but probably no conservation measures are needed.


taxonomicNotes:
A wealth of subspecies have been described in this collective species, of which I. e. elegans (Vander Linden, 1820), I. e. ebneri Schmidt, 1938 and I. e. pontica Schmidt, 1938 are presently widely accepted. However, their respective distribution is poorly understood so that all will be assessed together here. The females are polymorphic (three female morphs exist) and show a number of forms, some of which being genetically determined and others related to age.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). I. elegans is a widespread and very common species which is not threatened in Europe and is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ischnura elegans occurs from Ireland and Spain to Japan, including the whole of Europe except the most northern and southwestern parts. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range for about 140 km to the north since 1970, that was attributed to global warming (Hickling et al. 2005).

population:
Ischnura elegans is a widespread and one of the most common and abundant damselflies in Europe.

habitat:
This species reproduces in standing and slow-flowing running waters. It is very common on eutrophic and mesotrophic sites, but avoids acid waters. It is rather tolerant to salinity.

threats:
I. elegans is able to colonize a wide range of habitats and is not threatened.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment:Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). Ischnura fountaineae is known from only one small lake of less than 1 km2 in Europe. No numeric evaluation is available but the total number of imagoes is certainly less than 250 per generation, so that the species fits the D criteria for the Endangered (EN) category. However, an immigration from Tunisia, where the species is well implanted, is possible and would be able to regenerate the local population, so that the category is downgraded from 1 category and the final assessment is Vulnerable (VU).

range:
Ischnura fountaineae ranges from North Africa and the Middle East to Central Asia and favour arid environments. In Europe it is present only in Pantelleria, an Italian volcanic island with a rather warm sulphurous crater lake situated 72 km east of Tunisia and 101 km southwest of Sicily and reaching about 89 km2 in area. (Boudot et al. 2009, Lohmann 1989, Utzeri and d'Antonio 2005)

population:
The species is abundant on its location on Pantelleria.

habitat:
The larvae of Ischnura fountaineae are known to be very tolerant to high salinity and the species favours hot arid areas. This is well exemplified in the Pantelleria population, which is confined to a hot (50°C) sulphurous crater lake showing gas emissions and surrounded by sulphurous springs and a sparse belt of rushes (Juncus sp.).

threats:
Touristic frequentation and livestock trampling are probably the main threats for this unique population. Climate change and pollution are potential future threats.

conservationAction:
The Pantelleria lake should be preserved from trampling by livestock and tourist activities.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC).  Ischnura genei is endemic to some islands in the west Mediterranean, but within its range it is widespread and common. The population trend seems to be stable and is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ischnura genei is endemic to Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Malta and two small islands of the Archipelago Toscano (Capraia and Giglio). It is absent from the mainland.

habitat:
The species breeds in all kinds of standing waters and sometimes in slow flowing rivers and ditches.

threats:
The species is presently not threatened.

conservationAction:
A protection of standing waters in all the Mediterranean islands is recommended.


taxonomicNotes:
Ischnura graellsii seems to be progressively replaced by I. elegans through unidirectional hybridization in North Spain (Monetti et al. 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Ischnura graellsii is widespread and fairly common in the European part of its range, without indications of decline. The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ischnura graellsii is present in Iberia and northern Africa, where it is widespread and abundant.

population:
The species is very common within its distribution range.

habitat:
I. graellsii is found at all types of running and standing waters.


taxonomicNotes:
In the past, this species was placed in a distinct monotypic genus (Anomalagrion Selys, 1857)

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment:Vulnerable (VU). I. hastata is a highly dispersive species which presumably reached the Azores in the past through storm winds. Although it cannot be excluded it was accidentaly introduced together with exotic animals and/or plants, or transported in water tanks by ancient sailors (Cordero et al. 2005). The European EOO of I. hastata is small (not more than 2,310 km²) and its AOO is around 20 km² or slighly more. It shows a scattered distribution over nearly all islands of the archipelago and was most probably primarily common at every place it was living. However, the situation appears to have changed dramatically during the last decades, during which increased cattle breeding led to a strong water eutrophication and consumption. This resulted in a significant decrease of the species and local extinction. A long-lasting monitoring should be urgently established to follow future population trend with accuracy.Listed as Vulnerable because its Extent of Occurrence is less than 20,000 km², its Area of Occupancy is around 20 km² or slighly more, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in the Extent of Occurrence, Area of Occupancy, extent and quality of its habitat, the number of mature individuals, and a decrease in number of locations.

range:
Ischnura hastata is a widespread American species which presumably reached the Azores thanks to storms winds. The species is known to be a strong disperser in spite (or thanks to) of its small size, and was caught by nets attached to planes 300 m above the ground.

population:
The species is said to be widespread and common in the Azores and has been recorded from about 20 localities on every islands of the archipelago, except on Graciosa. In Santa Maria it is very rare, as suitable habitats are almost non existent. One locality has been lost during the last decenniums due to cattle breeding and related water pollution and consumption. Only females have been found in the Azores and it was demonstrated that reproduction proceeds via parthenogenesis (Cordero et al. 2005). This is the single case of parthenogenesis which is known in Odonata until now. Population size might be over 2,000 reproductive females in ponds of 100 m diameter in favourable localities.

habitat:
The species is common on oligotrophic unpolluted standing waters but disappears with eutrophication due to cattle breeding (Lorenzo-Carballa 2009)

threats:
The species is more and more threatened in the Azores through water eutrophication and consumption, which occur at an accelerated rate due to increasing farming (cattle breeding). Eutrophication extirpates the species, which subsists in abundance only in oligotrophic ponds. Water use for cattle drinking lowers water levels and produces ponds without emergent vegetation, where female damselflies cannot lay eggs.Obviously, this remarkable species is very sensitive to water pollution, and despite the high density that some ponds might show, it becomes rapidly more and more at risk. The species became extinct in at least one pond (Lagoa do Capitão) in Pico since the visit by Belle in 1988 (Belle and van Tol 1990), and is now very rare in Lagoa do Caiado (where it was common in 2003). The density of cattle in the islands is very high and the demand for water increases rapidly, that, together with the proliferation of cyanobacteria due to nutrient inputs to pastures through dejections, accelerate eutrophication (Lorenzo-Carballa 2009).

conservationAction:
Control of cattle displacement and any measures to mitigate eutrophication are needed. Several localities are situated in nature reserves and should be in practice protected.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Ischnura pumilio is widespread over the whole of Europe, except Scandinavia, and do not show any decline. It is a pioneer species of which the strong fluctuations of populations are a natural component of its biology. It is assessed as Least Concern in Europe.

range:
Ischnura pumilio is a powerful colonizer which spreads from the Azores to Mongolia over the whole of Europe (except most of Scandinavia), the Maghreb, the Levant and West Asia.

population:
This species is widely spread as scattered populations, mostly confined to newly created or ephemeral waterbodies over its whole range. In these kinds of habitats, populations are generally first abundant, then will decrease progressively with colonization by vegetation and animals. Besides, it subsists as small populations in swamps, peat bogs, springs, brooks, and ditches.

habitat:
Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation can bear huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs, brooks, and ditches. Populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession. I. pumilio is a species which benefits from climatic changes, as it “likes” waters with changing water tables (Ott 2008).

threats:
Rainfall deficit can cause the species extinction over wide areas in the south of its range. Change in the management of rice cultivation and water management led to a decline in Italy.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Ischnura saharensis is known in Europe from 20 localities scattered over not more than 7,200 km2. There is no sign of decline but its AOO seems to be small (appr. 20 km²). Based on this its status would be either Near Threatened or even Vulnerable (D2). However because the species seems to have no clear threats and a significant immigration from Morocco is expected, this status should be downgraded to Least Concern.

range:
Ischnura saharensis is mainly a North African species that extends in Europe only to the Canary Islands (where it was recorded initially as I. senegalensis), and presumably to the Madeira archipelago (sub. I. maderae and I. senegalensis).

population:
The insular European populations of Ischnura saharensis are widely scattered and the species is not rare in the Canary Islands.

habitat:
Ischnura saharensis is very mobile and new rain pools in desert areas are quickly colonised (Dumont 2007). The species is well adapted to arid environments and is known to disperse easily and successfully colonize ephemeral water bodies appearing during the rain season (Boudot 2008). Its larval period is short and adults appear before the pools, ponds and lakes will be dried up.

threats:
There is no present threat for this species, which is a rapid colonizer of any new water body, but an increased desertification of the Canary Islands would lead to a severe decline.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable - VU B2ab(ii,iii,iv)Nehalennia speciosa has shown a strong and continuing decline in Europe. Although it disappeared from much of its European range and became isolated in many regions it still has a large range in northeast Europe. There are numerous populations in the eastern range of its distribution, for example in Russia, and the species is therefore assessed as Near Threatened at European level.In the European member states, it is estimated that the species has undergone a decline of around 30 % in the number of populations and sites, but most of this decline took place longer than 10 years ago and it is not suspected that this decline will continue in the next decade at such a high rate. The species is found at less than 1,000 very small sites in Europe and it is therefore assumed that the AOO is <2,000 km². The sites are severely fragmented and there is a noted decline in area of occupancy, area of habitat and the number of sites. For this reason the species is assessed as Vulnerable for the European member states.

range:
Nehalennia speciosa has a wide, partly fragmented, range from west Europe over northern Asia to Japan. The westernmost records are from Belgium and the Netherlands while in the north the species occurs to the southern parts of Sweden and Finland. Its southern limits are found in north Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, northern Romania and western and northern Ukraine. There are two old records known from the south of Ukraine: Crimea and Kherson (the latter seems to be doubtful) (Bernard and Wildermut 2005). The species has severely declined and went extinct in the Netherlands (last record 1912), Belgium (1960), Luxembourg (1960), Romania (1953), Slovakia (1960), and France (19th century). In most of the countries with recent records the species has declined and in several countries only isolated populations remain, e.g. Italy with five populations (T. Fiorenza and I. Pecile pers comm.) and Denmark with two populations.

population:
At many localities suitable habitat is often of limited size and less than a few hectars large. The species however occurs often in high numbers and many populations count several hundreds to several thousand individuals.

habitat:
Nehalennia speciosa occurs in pools, bogs, fens and marshes and is most often found in shallow borders of acidic, nutrient-poor water bodies and wet depressions of bogs and fens. The habitat is largely unshaded but almost always lies in woodland of, in most cases, Pine (Pinus) or Spruce (Picea). The species is confined to specifically structured vegetation with uniform growth of narrow-leaved plants spaced densely enough to provide protection, but loosely enough to allow free movement. Slender Sedge (Carex lasiocarpa) and Bog-sedge (C. limosa) form at most European locations the dominant vegetation. Other plants, which can form a dominant part of the vegetation, include Beaked Sedge (C. rostrata), Tufted Sedge (C. elata), Purple Moor-grass (Molinia caerulea) and Water Horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile). A crucial factor for the species microhabitat is the low depth of the water. This allows the water to warm up fast, favouring a fast development of the larvae, and makes the habitat unsuitable for predators like fish. N. speciosa is one of the few European dragonfly species that still mainly occur at primary (not altered by humans) habitats.

threats:
At many European localities the species went extinct due to habitat destruction caused by drainage and land reclamation. From the 1960s onwards pollution by nitrate became a dominant factor in the decline of the species. This resulted in the alteration of the vegetation due to which the needed vegetation structure disappeared. Pollution by nitrate is still an important factor but seems to have become less intensive. A relatively new factor is prolonged spells of hot and dry weather resulting in the desiccation of the habitats. Local threats are degradation of habitats by livestock and tourism.

conservationAction:
The species has a very specific habitat choice and a limited dispersal ability. Many of the remaining European localities are isolated and local extinction at these places will be definite. Actions to be undertaken for this species are:- Mapping the distribution of the remaining populations by checking all suitable locations. - Eliminating direct local threats like impact by livestock and tourism.- Downgrading the local impact of pollution by nitrate and desiccation. This can be done by creating forest surrounding the locality, which will shield areas from pollution by nitrate from adjacent farmland (but mind the impact on the hydrology).There is little experience with creating suitable habitat for this species. Given the specific habitat choice this is probably not easy. However a recent experiment with this in Niedersachsen in 2005 resulted in successful reproduction in 2008 (Clausnitzer 2009) showing that it is possible to create new habitats for the species. In areas where there are only small and isolated populations left, experiments like the one mentioned for Niedersachsen are needed in order to find ways to secure populations in the long term.This species is severely threatened in large parts of its northern European range and should be legally protected at European and national level where not in place already.


taxonomicNotes:
Until recently this species was regarded as subspecies of Pyrrhosoma nymphula. Kalkman & Lopau (2006) illustrated the differences between the two taxa and confirmed that they should be treated as valid species.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR). EU 27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR). P. elisabethae is known from less than 10 locations, several of which are confirmed to have become extinct or are only based on old records (more than 20 years old). All locations are confined to the Greek island of Kérkira, Peloponnese and northwest Greece and southern Albania (area of occupancy is less than 10 km²). The population is split into three main areas that are fragmented. Habitat requirements are poorly known but up to date it was found in the immediate vicinity of well-vegetated streams. Such habitats are heavily influenced by the climatic changes and development of tourism and human settlements. It is clear that this is one of the most threatened damselfly species in Europe.The species meets the threshold requirements for Critically Endangered under criterion B. It is also projected that the population is likely to decline by 30-50% over the next 10 years (VU A4c).

range:
Pyrrhosoma elisabethae is endemic to the southern Balkans. It is known from eight localities from Peloponnese, Kérkira and southern Albania (Kalkman and Lopau 2006) and from one record in northwest Greece (Muranyi 2007).

population:
Most localities have been visited only once or twice and information on the size of the populations is scarce. The limited information suggest that the species occurs in low to very low densities and some of the known populations might have less than a hundred adult individuals per year.

habitat:
Information on habitat requirements is poor. The following notes on the habitat are available:- Corfu: a ditch and along a slow flowing river in the coastal plains- Peloponnese: brooklets with clear, cool water and rich vegetation and a well-vegetated brook Based on this and on some pictures of the habitat it can be concluded that the species mainly occurs in brooks and sometimes in rivers with abundant aquatic vegetation. It is likely that the species cannot survive in habitats that fall dry during hot summers. It is not clear if the species can reproduce in standing waters.

threats:
The management of brooks in Albania and Greece is very poor. The natural situation of brooks is, in many cases, destroyed for irrigation purposes and concrete channels often replace brooks. Further threats are water pollution and too intensive management (e.g. the clearing of all riparian vegetation). In recent years climate change has become one of the main threats and during recent hot and dry summers several brooks in Greece where found to be dry. Information on this for the sites where the species occurs is lacking, it is however likely that at least some of its populations were affected by the dry periods. Two known populations were visited in 2007: one population was found extinct and at the other site the habitat was degraded and only one male was found.

conservationAction:
This is one of the most threatened European dragonflies and conservation actions are needed immediately. First action to be undertaken is to visit all known localities to establish if the species survives, to gather detailed information on its habitat and to map local threats. Based on this information locations can be selected where the species might occur for further fieldwork. For the known populations a species action plan needs to be created. This needs to be done on population level and in close co-operation with local authorities and landowners. It is mandatory that several of the locations should be included in nature reserves.


taxonomicNotes:
No valid subspecies is known, as P. elysabethae match definitely the full species rank (Kalkman & Lopau, 2006)

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Pyrrhosoma nymphula is a common species in most of Europe and there are no indications for a decline. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pyrrhosoma nymphula is a western Palaearctic species that is widespread over a large part of Europe. It is absent from northernmost Fennoscandia and from most of the Mediterranean islands. The species is getting less common to the east of its range and is absent from parts of European Russia and most of the eastern Ukraine. To the southeast it extends to the Caucasus and the north of Iran. In North Africa it is only found in the north of Morocco.

population:
This species is in large parts of Europe one of the most common damselflies and occurs frequently in large populations.

habitat:
In most of Europe the species is found both in standing and slow flowing waters. In eastern and northern Europe, the species is less common in standing waters and mostly reproduces at running waters. In most cases habitats have rich aquatic vegetation. The species is mostly absent from temporary habitats.

threats:
The species is not threatened in most of its European range. In the Mediterranean it might be impacted by climate change and combined with general habitat degradation, this might locally lead to extinction.

conservationAction:
The species is not considered threatened and no specific conservation actions are required.


taxonomicNotes:
Sicilian populations have more extended yellow marks and have been described as a distinct subspecies, C. bidentata sicilica Fraser, 1929. Populations from Calabria have been ascribed to this subspecies, but they show smaller yellow spots and an obvious variability, so that they are intermediate between this subspecies and the nominal one. The populations in the southern Balkans are distinct from C. b. sicilica but have larger yellow spots than the nominal subspecies. The overall systematic organisation of the various members of this taxon remains presently unclear (Boudot, 2001; Boudot et al., 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). The species has a very wide extent of occurrence, but its specialized habitat means its area of occupancy is much smaller. Due to its sensitivity to habitat changes and the possibility of declining permanency of sources in its range, it is assessed as Near Threatened. However, the Sicilian subspecies, C. b. sicilica, is very rare and might be endangered.In the Balkans and eastern Carpathians, C. bidentata is sometimes found in strong populations. Further genetic work is required to determine the taxonomic status of the different populations.

range:
Cordulegaster bidentata is endemic to Europe occurring in western, south, southeast and central Europe. The eastern limit of the species are the Carpathians in the west of the Ukraine.

population:
This species is much more localised than Cordulegaster boltonii but is moderately scattered in central and western Europe. It shows very variable densities from one locality to another, ranging from only one visible (reproducing) individual to obviously flourishing populations.Adults are often hidden and are quite difficult to find. Their larval sites are sometimes difficult to access or recognize, particularly in mountainous areas. As a result, this is a poorly known species that is often overlooked by odonatologists and was in the past erroneously considered to be extinct in some countries. There is no recent record referring to the Sicilian subspecies (Cordulegaster bidentata sicilica) in Sicily, which was always very rare - the last record from Sicily was in 1981 (Galletti and Pavesi 1985, Verschuren 1989). Only few records of C. b. sicilica may correspond to identified breeding sites.

habitat:
The larvae are confined to the sources and upper courses of brooks. The species is thus highly specialized and reproduces mainly in headwater streams, with the best habitats in tufa springs and calcareous small brooks. Its reproducing habitat is often difficult to find. In some areas it seems to have been extirpated in acidified brooks as a result of acid rains, but in other areas it is still recorded in streams with a pH <4.

threats:
The major threats to this species are drought as a result of global warming, particularly in the south of its range, and water extraction for human use and irrigation. Some populations are threatened by water acidification due to acid rains or conifer plantations and forest closure whereas other populations show not to be affected by this. In the south of France, former flourishing populations are known to be extinct as a result of rainfall deficit and recent very hot summers and related spring exhaustion. In north Greece and other Mediterranean countries, some populations were extinct as a result of water capture directly at the source for irrigation.

conservationAction:
Necessary conservation measures include the preservation of good quality water resources, particularly in headwaters, and the preservation and restoration of broadleaved open forests. A better knowledge of the breeding sites of the Sicilian subspecies is in need.


taxonomicNotes:
Four subspecies are described: Cordulegaster boltonii boltonii, which occurs throughout most of the species' distribution, from Iberia to its northern range; C. b. immaculifrons in southern France and Iberia; C. b. iberica in Iberia; and C. b. algirica in southern Spain and the Maghreb. The subspecies may need further revision on light of current genetic investigations, so only the species-level assessment is done here.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Cordulegaster boltonii is widespread and fairly common throughout most of Europe, without indications of a strong decline. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern on a European scale. However, populations and subspecies from the south of its range may suffer some decline due to drought periods in the future.

range:
Cordulegaster boltonii occurs in a large part of Europe. The core of the range extends from western Europe up to Fennoscandia and western Poland. A broad marginal zone covers eastern Europe up to the Ural where it is severely fragmented. Its southeastern limit is uncertain due to a frequent confusion with C. heros in the literature, but the species reaches at least eastern Slovakia and northern Ukraine. A further record of C. boltonii from the Urals may be well this species. The species is lacking from the Balkans, where it is replaced by C. heros.

population:
The species is common and fairly abundant within the core of its range.

habitat:
The species is found in flowing waters, streams and sometimes small rivers, including mountain torrents. It often occurs in forest but also in open moors and heaths.

threats:
None, though water pollution may be an issue in some locations. Droughts are posing a threat to the southern populations. The species has been eliminated from some sites due to channelisation, technical maintenance of running waters. In Poland, in the past chemical, industrial pollution was eliminating some populations in the 1970s.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures needed at present.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is considered a subspecies of Cordulegaster helladica, but given the closeness of the two taxa, genetic investigations are in work to provide new taxonomic information.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN). EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN). This subspecies is endemic to three distinct Cyclades Islands in Greece and is found over a range of only about 117 km². It is known from 15 locations and its range is severely fragmented in three islands between which no easy gene exchange nor recolonization is possible. Some localities have recently been found to be dry and deserted. Habitat loss caused by water withdrawal and forest fires is the main threat to the species. Therefore this species is listed as Endangered.

range:
This subspecies is endemic to only three of the Cyclades Islands: Andros, Tinos and Naxos (Boudot et al. 2009).

population:
Nineteen localities over 15 brooks have been reported from Naxos, Tinos and Andros Islands in Greece. Some of these have recently been found to be dry.

habitat:
The species is found in mountain brooks (headwaters) and spring areas.

threats:
The main threats are drought periods in relation to climate change, water harnessing for human use and forest fires. Another threat posed might be over-collection.

conservationAction:
Conservation actions on forest preservation and control of water use are needed.


taxonomicNotes:
In addition to the nominotypical one, two subspecies have been described, namely C. h. buchholzi (Lohmann, 1993) and C. h. kastalia (Lohmann, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN). EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN). Cordulegaster helladica helladica is endemic for southern Greece and is scattered over about 50 locations within an area spreading from the Peloponnese to Euboe Island (Boudot 2001) (Area of Occupancy c. 60 km²). Some populations are flourishing, but others are small or have become extinct. The species is deemed to be severely fragmented and it is expected to show a continuing decline due to increasing demand for water for irrigation combined with a reduced precipitation due to climate change.

range:
Cordulegaster helladica is endemic to the southernmost part of northern Greece and the Peloponnese Peninsula. This collective taxon involves three weakly differentiated subspecies, namely Cordulegaster helladica helladica from the whole Peloponnese and Euboea island, C. h. buchholzi from Naxos, Tinos and Andros islands and C. h. kastalia from the Delphi archeological site only.

population:
A number of populations are still flourishing but some of the south Peloponnese populations are now extinct due to desiccation of springs.

habitat:
The preferred habitat of the species are mountain brooks (headwaters) and spring areas.

threats:
The main threats are water harnessing for human use as well as forest fires. Several springs in the Taygetos mountains in South Peloponnese where good populations were known ten years ago have been found to be dry in July 2008 (J.P. Boudot, pers. comm.) due to forest fires and/or rainfall deficit, depending on the locality. Many new irrigation devices starting from tiny springs and headwater courses have been recently installed throughout Greece to compensate the present rainfall deficit. Even olive trees and vineyards are now sometimes irrigated (J.P. Boudot, pers. comm. 2008) - in both north and south Greece that is problematic to many species confined to these habitats.

conservationAction:
Forest conservation and control of water use are needed. Any installation of irrigation device in springs and headwater courses should be prohibited, but these are increasing throughout Greece.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is considered a subspecies of Cordulegaster helladica but genetic investigations are in work to get new informations about the systematic position of the various members of C. helladica.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR). EU 27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR). This subspecies is known only from a single and very touristic place of about 100 m². Dessication of the Kastalian spring (karst regime) due to increased water demand and the land use in the higher mountains, cleaning-out of the only known spring and brook location, and over collection by entomologists are the main threats. Thus this subspecies qualifies as Critically Endangered.

range:
This subspecies is known from only one locality; the sacred Kastalian spring in the ancient Delphi archaeological site (Boudot et al. 2009).

population:
The population of this species is very low - about ten adults have been observed during single visits.

habitat:
The subspecies reproduces in the structures of the ancient Kastalian spring, where females were seen during egg deposition and where exuviae (moulted skins) were collected, and possibly in the downstream brooklet, which has only few water.

threats:
The main threat is cleaning-out of the sacred Kastalian spring at Delphi, the single known locality of C. h. kastalia. The population is so small that collection could be a threat.

conservationAction:
At Delphi, a good understanding of the water pathway in the karst-type mountain is required. The area of the Kastalian spring is now efficiently closed and collecting is no longer a threat, but a water caption device has been installed in the downstream brook for olive tree irrigation, so that the brook was dry at mid elevation in July 2008. Any large scale cleaning-out of the spring and brook should be prohibited but giving restricted access for the purpose of monitoring is needed.


taxonomicNotes:
The two subspecies described, C. h. heros Theischinger, 1979 and C. heros pelionensis Theischinger,1979 differ only by the shape or the lack of the black band on the frons and will not be assessed separately.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT) - approaching B2b(ii,iv). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT) - approaching B2b(ii,iv). The distribution of the endemic C. heros is restricted from central to southeastern Europe. A better knowledge of its distribution in for instance Romania is urgently needed. It is locally common but apparently scattered because of its specific habitat (shaded brooks, streams and medium-sized rivers with gritty bottom). This species is threatened mainly by habitat loss, dessication of rivers increased by climate change, which results in streams drying up as a consequence of rainfall deficit and increase of water extraction and spring capture for irrigation purpose. Forest destruction through logging and forest fires also contribute to stream dessication. At the European scale, the species is assessed Near Threatened because of its scattered distribution and specialization and its likely reduction in the near future.

range:
Cordulegaster heros is a central and southeastern European endemic taxon ranging from Austria and Slovakia to a large part of the Balkans. The species was only described in 1979 and only in the last two decades its distribution started to become clear (Adamović et al. 1992, Bedjanic and Salamun 2003, Blaskovic et al. 2003, Bulankova and David 2003, Kotarac 1997, Uboni et al. 2007, Janský and David 2008). Its eastern limit in Romania is unknown and it might even go as far east as the Ukraine. It is locally common but scattered because of its specific habitat, mostly shaded rivulets in mountainous areas. In the south of its range, this species is currently decreasing due to climate change, rainfall deficit, spring capture and desiccation of streams.

population:
The species is not uncommon within its range and occurs in small to rather large-sized populations.

habitat:
C. heros is found at shaded streams in mountains and hills, with sandy and rocky beds (Lang et al. 2001).

threats:
Increased drought periods and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change is already a present threat in parts of the southern Balkans, including Romania, so that some previously known localities are now extinct. Some localities have been destroyed due to water capture directly at springs. Wood-logging, forest fire and forest destruction are other threats contributing to stream dessication.

conservationAction:
C. heros is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Habitats Directive; that implies that their habitat should not be altered. This is clearly not respected in some countries, i.e. in Greece where wild spring capture and water extraction regularly increase for irrigation purpose to compensate rainfall deficit.


taxonomicNotes:
The overall taxonomy of C. insignis is much more complex than previously believed. Many local forms of this polytypic species in North and Central Turkey as well as in some Aegean islands do not fit the so-called "specific" criteria of the populations from the type locality and other parts of the southwestern part of the Taurus range. All subspecies previously described should be reconsidered on a statistical basis and with the help of the new genetic tools available in modern systematic. This is in progress but is still not finished. However, the European members of C. insignis seem to pertain anywhere to the nominal subspecies, although Romanian specimens have been described as C. i. montandoni (now considered a synonym).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN). EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN). The West Asian C. insignis shows its western range limit in the east of Europe, where it is scatterred within four countries, including some Aegean islands. 23 localities are known over about 135,000 km2. The European populations of C. insignis are more threatened than the Asian ones. Climatic changes and rapid development of tourism and infrastructure are likely to cause a decline in abundance through habitat loss and degradation. Due to its fragmented range and specialized biology and confinement to spring areas, headwater brooks and, more rarely, middle-sized running water, the AOO of this species is far below 500 km2. Therefore it qualifies as Endangered.

range:
In Europe, Cordulegaster insignis is recorded from some eastern Greek islands (Samothraki and Thassos) and from easternmost parts of Bulgaria, Romania as well as the European part of Turkey (Thracian Turkey and Göckçeada island) (Boudot et al. 2009).

population:
Population size seems to be small in Europe, where the species is only scattered as local isolated populations. The species is more common in the Asian part of its range.

habitat:
Small shaded brooks, streams and tiny streamlets with rocky and sandy beds, ditches along roads, spring areas with seepage waters. As in several Cordulegaster species, the larvae seems to be able to resist short drought periods by moving into depth in moist sediments.

threats:
Habitat destruction (forest fires, water extraction, etc.) is the main threat to the species. Drought and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change led already to the extinction of the species in critical localities.

conservationAction:
Control of water use by humans and preservation of forests are needed, but no current conservation actions are in place.


taxonomicNotes:
Cordulegaster picta includes two forms, a yellow form which resemble C. heros and some forms of C. insignis and C. helladica in colour pattern, and a black form which resemble C. bidentata in colour pattern. The black form seems to be localized in the western Rhodopes mountains (between Greece and Bulgaria). There is no subspecific differentiation between the two forms. The examination of the abdominal appendages is needed for a correct identification of all these taxa.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). There are no specific data on current population trends but the total European population is certainly less than 10,000 adults per generation. Climatic changes and rapid development of tourism, followed by development of infrastructures are likely to cause a decline in abundance (through habitat changes and degradation). Due to increasing drought conditions, forest fire and water extraction, it is projected that the populations are likely to decline by at least 10% over the next ten years (VU C1). It is unlikely that any immigration from Anatolia would be able to rescue the European ones in case of strong decrease.

range:
Cordulegaster picta ranges mostly from the South Caucasus countries (Azerbaijan) to northeast Greece over the whole of Turkey (Boudot et al. 2009; Donath 1987; Lopau 1999, 2000, 2005; Lopau and Wendler 1995). A recent record from Montenegro changes the western limit of the species from about 300 km to the northwest (Gligorovic et al. 2008).

population:
Populations can be large but from most populations precise data is lacking.

habitat:
The species reproduces in running waters ranging from tiny shaded streamlets to middle-sized rivers in hilly to mountainous areas.

threats:
Increased drought periods and drying up of habitats due to rainfall deficit and over irrigation as a result of climate change is the most important threat for this species. Woodlogging, forest fire and forest destruction are other threats contributing to stream desiccation.


taxonomicNotes:
Many records of this taxon have been published under the closely related C. boltonii, but both taxa are structurally well distinct, although colour pattern is almost similar. Ongoing genetic investigations confirms the full species rank for this taxon.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). Cordulegaster trinacriae is endemic to southern Italy (Boudot 2001, Boudot et al. 2009). Its extent of occurrence covers approximately 48,000 km², but due to its restricted larval habitat and its linear distribution patterns, its known area of occupancy is around 60 km². Increased research will probably lead to the discovery of many more localities. In Sicily, the species area is fragmented due to deforestation and destruction of spring and stream habitats (Gerecke 1991) and on this island conservation measures are particularly needed. The species is common in its area of distribution in mainland Italy and its range seems to be continuous with many flourishing populations in nature reserves. However, deforestation and complete or partial water extraction at springs for human use are ongoing in several areas which will likely lead to a decline in the future. This species is listed as Near Threatened as an ongoing decline is expected although this will be less than 30% in the next 10 years.

range:
Cordulegaster trinacriae is endemic to Sicily and southern Italy (Campania, Calabria and Basilicata); its northern limit is in Lazio where the species contacts or overlaps with C. b. boltonii. The northern limit of the species is still unclear (Boudot 2001, Boudot et al. 2009, Utzeri and d'Antonio 2005).

population:
About 60 localities have been reported for this species, some of which have been published under the closely related C. boltonii. Within its area of distribution it seems to be common and sometimes abundant on mainland Italy but it seems scarce on Sicily. However, some ancient localities have been obviously destroyed due to urbanization and water caption for human needs.

habitat:
The species is found in running waters from mountain brooks to large rivers.

threats:
This species has been extirpated from some of its localities due to habitat destruction through deforestation and water extraction for human use. Global warming may lead to a strong reduction of the species in the future. The species occurs often in larger brooks and rivers. This fact decreases its vulnerability to desiccation due to climate change compared to other Cordulegaster species from southeast Europe.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. There are currently no conservation measures targeting this species, but there is a need to preserve forests and control the water use.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). C. aenea is common and widespread in most of Central and Northern Europe and does not show a decline. The species is assessed as being of Least Concern on European scale.

range:
Cordulia aenea is a north Eurasian species ranging from West Europe eastwards to Kamchatka and Japan. The specimens from the eastern part of its range have been described as subspecies C. a. amurensis, which is sometimes regarded as a full species (Jödicke et al. 2005). The species is widespread and common in the northern two-thirds of Europe. In the Mediterranean southern third of Europe it is scarce and largely limited to mountain lakes and bogs.

population:
The species is common across its range and often abundant when present.

habitat:
The species is found in standing or, more rarely, slow-flowing waters. Western and southern populations are found mainly at woodland lakes, bogs and heaths. In northern and eastern Europe the species has a wider habitat spectrum. It is also found in man-made habitats such as fishponds, oxbows and gravel pits. The species is only found at permanent, not too shallow waters and is absent from temporary waters.

threats:
This species does not face major threats.

conservationAction:
Cordulia aenea is common and not threatened in most of its European range. Isolated occurrences in southern Europe might need attention. Fieldwork and monitoring in order to map the occurrences and to assess their conservation status is needed in southern Italy and the southern parts of the Balkan Peninsula. Local action such as conservation and restoration of habitats might be needed in those areas.


taxonomicNotes:
All the Siberian populations previously described as subspecies (E. b. sibirica Selys, 1887, E. b. altaica Belyshev, 1951) are now regarded as synonym of the nominotypical form, so that E. bimaculata extends over an enormous range going from western France to the Far East of Russia and Japan.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Epitheca bimaculata is irregularly distributed and regionally shows flourishing populations in Europe. In the west, it shows a fragmented area and disappeared from several regions and is missing in the north and the south. It is much more common in the east than in the west of Europe and is not threatened on a European scale. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Epitheca bimaculata is an Eurasian species ranging over an enormous area from the west of France to east Siberia and Japan. It has a scattered and patchy distribution in the west and the south of its range. It is extinct in the Netherlands and has not been recorded for a long time in Italy and Bosnia and Herzegovina although this might be due to lack of fieldwork. It is missing in the north and the very south of the continent.

population:
This is a relatively poorly known species, which was for a long time believed to be threatened with extinction in the west of Europe. In the last two decades it was found that its scarceness can at least partly be explained due to the behaviour of the imagos which spent most of their time in the forest and are scarcely met. However, based on exuviae collection at emergence, it was recorded in many areas where it was not expected to occur and some populations were found to be large (1,000-5,000). Population density ranges from one single exuviae to more than 5,000 for apparently similar habitats.

habitat:
The main habitat are oligotrophic to eutrophic lakes, frequently with abundant submerged and floating vegetation, but partly or completely surrounded by trees or bushes in Europe. Also found in pools, oxbows, old abandoned gravel pits and fishponds.

threats:
The extreme variation in population density for apparent similar habitats is far from being elucidated, so that it is difficult to decide which parameters are favourable and which are unfavourable for the species. However, intensive aquaculture and any strong human impact on a water body such as calibration with abrupt banks and mowing grass to have clean banks for fishermen or picnicking people are clearly unfavourable. The species disappeared from large parts of Germany due to transformation of "wild" lakes and ponds into "clean" waterbodies for fishermen and Sunday picnics.In the southern part of its range, it could be threatened in the future by droughts due to climate change.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). The species is nearly endemic to Europe where it is fairly common in large parts of the Iberian Peninsula and France. However it might show a continuing decline due to the pressure on its habitat, (large scale water quality degradation and stream structure transformations), global warming and subsequent frequent summer drought and desiccation of streams. The species is therefore assessed as Near Threatened (approaching criteria A3bc).

range:
Oxygastra curtsii is largely confined to southwestern Europe. The species is very rare in North Africa, occurring in Morocco in three localities only. Its European EOO exceeds 1 million km² and over 1,500 localities have been recorded and its total AOO exceeds most likely 2,000 km². Its main area of distribution is found in the Iberian Peninsula and France. In Italy it is known from only 20 streams and lakes and records from only three localities have been published since 1990 but this is most likely due to the lack of surveys. The species has declined in the northern margin of its range and has been lost from the UK and the Netherlands, although it probably has always been very rare in these countries. In Germany and Luxembourg it remains confined to only one river at the border between these two countries.

population:
In Europe, this species is very rare in Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and uncommon in Italy, northeastern and eastern France, rather common to common in the southwestern half and the Mediterranean fringe of France (Grand and Boudot 2006). The species is scattered with a rather low density over the whole Iberian Peninsula, but is much more present in the west than previously believed. It is Regionally Extinct in the United Kingdom (last recorded in 1957) and the Netherlands (1982).

habitat:
The species reproduces in slow flowing streams and by exception in standing waters such as lakes, pools and ponds.

threats:
A general decrease is to be expected almost anywhere in the future (but much less in a large part of the southwestern half of France and western Iberia than elsewhere, due to both mountainous features and a lower agricultural pressure), owing to extensive water quality degradation and large scale stream transformations (alteration of structure and functioning, including canal construction), removal of trees bordering the streams (Salix, Alnus), global warming and subsequent frequent summer droughts and stream drying up.

conservationAction:
This species is listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive and in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure, riverine Alnus and Salix are required. For Germany a conservation action plan has been published (Ott et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Somatochlora alpestris is a habitat specialist, in the south of its range occurring in small populations. The species is widespread and common in parts of Fennoscandia and probably Russia with no indication of decline and therefore assessed as Least Concern. The isolated populations in Central Europe face some threats and should receive national attention.

range:
Somatochlora alpestris is a typical boreoalpine species showing a fragmented area extending from eastern France to northern Fennoscandia, Siberia and northern Japan. Populations in Central Europe are confined to mountain ranges above 600 m a.s.l. only and are disconnected from the populations of Fennoscandia, northwest Russia and Siberia, which occurs down to sea level. The species is scattered throughout the Alps as well as in the Central European mountains ranging from the Vosges in France to the Harz in Germany and to the Carpathians in southwest Ukraine.

population:
Adults of S. alpestris are easily overlooked and the total number which can be observed in a locality does not reflect the total number of exuviae which can be found during the emergence period. Based on exuviae, the population sizes are varying from one locality to another and are dependent on the micro-habitats that fit larvae requirement. The species is fairly common in the Alps and Fennoscandia, but occurs in small isolated populations in the rest of Central Europe.

habitat:
S. alpestris favours small water bodies in Sphagnum bogs and transition mires. It also occurs in peat excavations. Adults show great sensitivity to summer weather conditions and are decimated by summer snowfalls exceeding 3 - 4 days. The species is tolerant to deep freezing and desiccation.

threats:
In the northern part of its range, S. alpestris does not face any threats. In the southern part of its range, the species is threatened at lower altitudes. The pollution and destruction of peat bogs, peaty swamps and moorlands due to livestock excrements with eutrophication and trampling is a strong threat in the mountains of Central Europe. Tourism development may destroy some localities in the Alpine region. In addition, the natural succession of peaty habitats to dry lands may lead to the extinction of the species. Therefore, the abandonment of artisanal small scale peat extraction activities lead to peat bog closure in favour of "dry" heath, grasslands and forests. Climate change can reinforce this process.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are needed for the northern part of its range. In the south of its range, the protection of breeding habitats is needed and locally habitats should be preserved from access by livestock. The creation of water holes and small excavations in Sphagnum peat bogs is likely to create favourable micro habitats for this species and should be recommended whenever peat bogs become dry through natural succession or abnormal drought periods.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Somatochlora artica is widespread over West, Central and Northern Europe and is found in a wide range of altitudes. In the south it is confined to mountain regions as isolated lowland localities so that its range is fragmented there. The species is common, widespread and not threatened in large parts of northern Europe. Therefore the species is assessed as Least Concern on EU27 and European scale. However in Central and South Europe the species is scarce to rare occuring in isolated and often small populations. Here habitat loss due to climate change could lead to a rapid decline and the species is therefore of regional conservation concern.

range:
It ranges from southwest France, Ireland and Scotland to North Japan. Somatochlora arctica is common in Fennoscandia and the Alps but is scarce to rare in other parts of Central and Eastern Europe. It occurs in some isolated areas in southwest Bulgaria and the Pyrenees.

population:
The species is often difficult to find as the habitats may look unsuitable for dragonflies. Populations of adults of S. arctica are mostly small to medium large.

habitat:
S. arctica favours Sphagnum peat bogs and transition mires where the larvae are found at places with a very small amount of open water. These situations can be found at depressions, water holes, margins of small pools, peat excavations, moorlands and tundra. In its southern range it has a preference for higher altitudes.

threats:
No threats are present in the Fennoscandian and northern Russian part of its range. However, the species is threatened in Central and southern Europe. The destruction of peat bogs due to access by livestock, industrial peat extraction, forests and peaty waterbody management are a threat in lowlands and low elevation mountains and probably led to the destruction of habitats in the past. More recently, desiccation of several habitats has been reported under the influence of climate change (Ott 2006). Natural succession of the vegetation can lead to the reduction of available habitats.

conservationAction:
No measures are needed in the Fennoscandian and northern Russian part of its range. The protection of breeding habitats is needed throughout Central Europe and habitats should be preserved from access by livestock. The creation of water holes and small excavations in Sphagnum peat bogs is likely to create favourable micro-habitats for this species and should be recommended whenever peat bogs become dry. In several EU member states it is Red Listed (e.g., Germany: CR; Austria: VU; Poland: VU; Denmark: CR).


taxonomicNotes:
Marinov & Seidenbusch (2007) place this taxon in a new monotypic genus, Corduliochlora. We refrain from using Corduliochlora as long as no overall phylogenetic study of the Corduliidae has been undertaken.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). Currently there are no threats from traditional human activities in the area. However, future intensification of agriculture and of conifer plantations in connection to the extension of the European Union represent notable threats for the next 10 years. In addition, current climate warming with increased frequency, length and intensity of drought periods constitute a very strong threat for the species. The adult population size is probably less than 10,000 adults, and a decrease of 10% is expected during the next 10 years, due to more modern economic development, forest management and climate warming. Thus this species is listed as Vulnerable.

range:
Somatochlora borisi is a recently discovered species. Based on current knowledge of the species (Marinov 2001, Grebe et al. 2005, Boudot et al. 2004, Lopau 2005, Fleck et al. 2007) it is a strict endemic of the eastern Balkans occurring in the area that crosses the borders of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey. All 17 known inhabited stream systems fall within a 13,750 km² area within both the Eastern Rhodopes and the northern and southern foot-slopes of the Istranca range, the latter being an eastern continuity of the Rhodopes range. This area has a hot and humid climate and has much forest cover, which is used both for wood production and traditional extensive rearing of goats and sheep. A number of valleys, when not planted with conifers, are well preserved and have a great entomological and botanical richness.

population:
Seventeen stream systems are presently known to be inhabited by this species. Based on exuviae collections, counting and extrapolation during and after emergence of adults, the species seems relatively abundant in some places (100-500), and relatively reduced in others (less than 50). A rough extrapolation estimates less than 10,000 adults per year.

habitat:
The main habitat are forest rivers at places with low current and below 300 m above sea level. Larvae are able to survive the drought summer period in disconnected residual pools in river beds. However, the species does not reproduce in standing water.

threats:
Most of the forest areas where this species occurs are currently extensively used for traditional rearing of goats and sheep, which result in a number of clearing areas. However, intensive conifer plantations have been grown in the past and such monospecific forest areas seem to be unfavourable for S. borisi. Monospecific plantations of Robinia pseudacacia are now developed on abandoned agricultural fields, which may reduce the availability of maturation and foraging areas. Additional conifer plantations, water pollution and stream drying in relation to global warming and abnormal summer drought may be a threat for this species in the future. As early as end July 2008, Greek localities visited showed only disconnected residual pools with no flowing water at all. With drought periods increasing in intensity, length and frequency, the species is at risk of extinction.

conservationAction:
Necessary conservation actions are the control of water pollution, removal of conifer plantations and restoration of deciduous forests combined with the creation or maintenance of non-wooded sunny areas, particularly in the bottom of valleys. Conservation of clear riparian forests, traditionally induced by extensive rearing of goats and sheep, is required, as well as conservation of riverine trees. Two rivers inhabited by this species are included in the Greek national Dadia Protected Area buffer zone.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). No immediate threat is evident on the European scale and the species is therefore assessed as Least Concern. In the south, increased frequency, intensity and length of drought periods are expected in the future so the species might be more threatened in parts of its range.

range:
Somatochlora flavomaculata extends from France and southern Fennoscandia to Siberia and Mongolia. In the south only scattered populations are recorded from Italy and the Balkans.

population:
S. flavomaculata is fairly common in Fennoscandia and northeast Europe and is scattered in the western and southern parts of its range. It occurs locally in large populations, however southern and western populations are frequently small. Since the 1980s an increase in abundance has been observed in the north and in the east.

habitat:
The species generally prefers peaty water bodies with abundant vegetation. It occurs in fens, wet meadows, ponds, ditches, and edges of Sphagnum peat bogs. It is rarely found in slow-running waters.

threats:
There are no major threats to this species in northern and eastern part of its range where populations are increasing. In western and southern Europe the species is much more scarce and declined strongly in the 1960s to 1980s due to intensive land use (e.g. drainage). This decline seems to have stopped and recently an increase has been noted in part of this range. Increased drought periods related to climate change may lead to the drying up of additional marshes and to the extinction of several southern populations in the future. In Fennoscandia, climate change might favour this species development.

conservationAction:
In most part of its range no conservation measures are needed at present. In some member states, the species is included in national Red Lists (Germany: EN; Austria: EN). Therefore, local conservation measures such as restoration of marshy areas are recommended.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). EU 27 regional assessment (not present): Not Evaluated (NE). Somatochlora graeseri is reputed to occur in a large part of the Ural on both the Asiatic and European side. Its range is isolated from its main range in Eastern Asia by a large gap and migration between these two areas is not likely. Detailed information on its abundance and its habitat choice in the Ural is lacking and therefore the species is assessed as Data Deficient although the species is likely not to be threatened.

range:
Somatochlora graeseri is a Siberian species extending from North Japan to the western border of central Siberia and shows a relict disjunct area over the whole Ural range (Yanybaeva 1999a, Kosterin 2005, Yanybaeva et al. 2006).

population:
Somatochlora graeseri is said to be abundant in the Bashkirian Nature Reserve and has been recorded in the Balaya River headwaters as well (both in the Bashkortostan Republic). No precise information has been published about this species within the European part of the Ural Mountains.

habitat:
In the south Ural, Somatochlora graeseri inhabits oxbows in the forest zone but seems to be absent from lakes.

threats:
Somatochlora graeseri is probably not threatened in the Ural Mountains.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in the Bashkirian Nature Reserve. No specific conservation measures are recommended at the moment. However more information on distribution and habitat is needed.


taxonomicNotes:
There is some debate over whether Somatochlora meridionalis is a valid species or only a subspecies of S. metallica. In this assessment, both taxa will be treated as full species. Some old records dealing with S. metallica in the Balkans may refer to S. meridionalis.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). S. meridionalis has the center of its distribution in the Balkans, where it is locally fairly common. It is found in running water which is often deeply shaded with sunny places. Exact data on population size, trends and area of occupancy (AOO) are lacking but it is clear that its preferred habitat is impacted by climatic changes and human activities. In September 2003 and July 2008, several known localities were either dry or reduced to pools in river beds without any running water (J.P. Boudot, pers. obs.). However, as it has a relatively wide range in southeast Europe, it is presently assessed as Least Concern, with the caveat that the species is a likely candidate for Near Threatened with more data on range and threats. A reassessment should be carried out when more data is available.It is important to resolve problems with literature data from the Balkans, as all old records referring to S. metallica may refer to S. meridionalis.

range:
Somatochlora meridionalis occurs in southeast Europe, Italy, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Czech Republic and some scatterred localities in Asian Turkey. Southeast France is the westernmost limit of its range and its type locality is in Italy. Its distribution in the Balkans is not yet clear due to confusion with S. metallica (Boudot et al. 2009, Wildermuth 2008).

habitat:
This species is mostly found in shaded running waters and occasionally reproduces in standing waters.

threats:
Habitat destruction due to over-irrigation, rainfall deficit, forest fires, human settlement are the main threats to the species. Increased drought and drying up of brooks as a result of climate change is already a threat, as the species has its main range in the Mediterranean countries.

conservationAction:
Control of water use for agriculture and urbanized areas and prevention from water pollution are necessary conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
There is some debate over whether Somatochlora meridionalis is a valid species or only a subspecies of S. metallica. In this assessment, both taxa will be treated as full species. Some old records dealing with S. metallica in the Balkans may be indeed S. meridionalis.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). S. metallica is widespread and often common in northern and eastern Europe. It is not threatened on European scale and is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Somatochlora metallica ranges from northeast Spain and France to northern Fennoscandia and central Siberia. In the south of its range the species is restricted to mountain lakes in some countries of former Yugoslavia, west Bulgaria and Romania. Two old records from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania may refer to Somatochlora meridionalis and have to be checked.It is important to resolve problems with literature data from the Balkans, as all old records referring to S. metallica may be indeed S. meridionalis.

population:
The species is common throughout most of northern Europe where the populations are often large. It is rare in southern Europe where it is mostly confined to mountains.

habitat:
It occurs in standing and flowing waters, avoiding fast currents.

threats:
There are no specific threats to this species on European scale. Habitat destruction and desiccation due to climate change may lead to a decrease in its southernmost localities.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). There is not enough information available on population trend, size or its distribution and therefore the species is classified Data Deficient.

range:
Somatochlora sahlbergi is a northern holarctic species, distributed from the extreme north of Norway, Sweden, and Finland to the Russian Far East, including Kamchatka, and to Alaska. More to the south, the species is known from five disjunct localities within a mountain area (800 - 2,000 m) ranging from the Altaï Mountains to the southwest of east Siberia. Most localities fall within the so-called "treeline area": tundra and mountain birch or dwarf pine forest above the Taiga.

population:
In Europe, Somatochlora sahlbergi is one of the most elusive Odonata, as its range corresponds to the most cloudy and rainy area of Fennoscandia and northwest Russia. It has been scarcely observed, less than 25 records of single specimens or small populations are available. Larvae have been found in the Kevo area in several peaty pools showing more than 50 cm water depth and bordered with sedges according to Butler (1992). This kind of habitat is omnipresent in the subarctic birch belt and the tundra, so that the species is probably more widespread than believed, although not common.

habitat:
In Europe, Somatochlora sahlbergi reproduces north of 67° N only. It favours both peaty pools with emergent vegetation of sedges, Myrica gale, and pools in Sphagnum peat bogs, within the tundra and the open stunted subarctic mountain birch forest belt (Betula pubescens tortuosa). It is often found in areas with permafrost. Little is otherwise known about its ecology.

threats:
A part of the European area of the species is under the influence of the atmospheric pollution issued from Russian industry at the north Kola Peninsula (acid deposition and heavy metals). As not much information is available about this species, it is not sure whether this poses a threat. It is also not clear how climate change would affect the species.

conservationAction:
More research on population numbers and range and the biology and ecology as well as possible threats is needed. Appropriate conservation measures should be applied thereafter.


taxonomicNotes:
Epallage fatime is the only European representative of the Oriental family Euphaeidae. This family holds 69 species most of which are limited to the tropical parts of Asia.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). The species has very likely experienced a decline in the European part of its range due to its small AOO and continuing decline in the extent and quality of the habitat. The species is mainly threatened by canalisation and pollution of its habitat. There is however no indication that this decline has been very strong. At present and in the future the species will probably be impacted by desiccation of brooks due to climate change and it is not unlikely that this will result in a strong decline in the next decade. For this reason the species is assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
Epallage fatime has a largely southwest Asian distribution. The easternmost records are from Afghanistan and Pakistan. From there it occurs widespread in the hills and lower mountains of Iran and Turkey to the mainland of Southeast Europe. It is absent from the Arabian Peninsula and the more arid parts of Iran, Iraq and Syria. It reaches south along a small fringe of the eastern Mediterranean occurring in western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian Territories. The species is not uncommon in Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and occurs in the Russian parts of the Caucasus but is absent further north. In Europe Epallage fatime is confined to Cyprus, some Greek islands and the southeast mainland of Europe. It is not rare in mainland Greece, European Turkey and the southeast of Bulgaria. Only one record is known from Macedonia but it is likely that some populations are present there. There is one published record from Hungary. This records is however very unlikely and is here considered invalid.

population:
Epallage fatime has a limited range in Europe but seems to be relatively common in the areas where it occurs. It is often abundant when found and often several dozens of specimens are present in a stretch of one hundred meters.

habitat:
Epallage fatime occurs in areas with hills and lower mountains. It is exclusively found in running waters and seems to be limited to habitats with a stony substrate. Most often it is found in brooks and smaller rivers although it also occurs in small numbers in larger rivers. Larvae live under stones at places with high current. The legs are placed in an outstretched position and the abdomen and legs are flattened, both are probably adaptations to living in a strong current. In addition to this they are the only European species with sausage shaped lamellae and gills on the sides of their abdomen, both adaptations for the intake of oxygen. Based on this it has been suggested that they would be able to survive in stagnant water in times when current of the water stops due to desiccation. There is however no proof for this and the species seems to be lacking from habitats where there is no year-round current. Adults are found near the water resting on stones or, preferably, on higher vegetation near the water.

threats:
Agricultural practices along or nearby brooks resulting in pollution and canalisation of the habitat have probably had the most severe impact on this species in Europe. However many habitats where this species occurs lie in mountainous areas and are therefore relatively save from large scale agricultural practices. The main present and future threat seems to be climate change. Not only will this result in the desiccation of the habitat during spells of hot weather but this will also increase the use of the limited water resources for agricultural practices. Many new irrigation devices starting from tiny springs and headwater courses have been recently installed throughout Greece to compensate the present rainfall deficit.

conservationAction:
This species has a limited European range and an evaluation should be made of the number of populations within reserves. Legalisation for the use of natural water resources for agricultural practices should be made.


taxonomicNotes:
The Asiatic Gomphus ubadschii Schmidt 1953, considered as a subspecies of G. flavipes during a long time is now placed at the full species rank.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The habitat requirements of G. flavipes, slow-flowing large rivers, makes it localised, but not rare. After a past strong regression in the west, the populations are now increasing. Due to huge populations in every appropriate river in central and eastern Europe, the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gomphus flavipes is an Eurasian species ranging from the Atlantic coast of France to east Siberia where it is confined to large lowland river systems (e.g., Rhine, Rhône, Loire, Po, Elbe, Danube). The species showed a strong decline in West Europe in the 20th century but has shown a strong increase since the 1990s (e.g., Bouwman et al. 2008, Brockhaus and Fisher 2005, Hunger et al. 2006).

population:
The species went extinct in large parts of western Europe due to a decline in the 20th century. The species has increased strongly since the 1990s and it has re-colonised most of its former range. This increase in records is partly due to increased research but is mostly due to a genuine increase. This increase is probably due to a combination of climate change, a decrease of stream pollution and better river management.

habitat:
Gomphus flavipes is confined to large lowland rivers with sandy to silty bottom with organic sediment; the larger the river, the stronger the population. However, it is now increasingly found in tributaries and has probably a more diffuse distribution. For example, in the plain of the Po River it is scatterred over the network of channels used to rice field management.

threats:
Currently, no major threats are known for this species. Only at the margins of its extent, the species might have been more susceptible to threats such as pollution in the past.

conservationAction:
G. flavipes is included in the European Habitats Directive. There are no conservation measures needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). This species is endemic to southwestern Europe and has a disjunct distribution. Habitat degradation is expected to result in an overall decrease of at least 10% per decade in the future although good data on its decline are lacking. The Near Threatened category is recommended.

range:
This species is endemic from the southwest of Europe, where it occurs in France, Spain and Portugal. This species is known from an area of about 140,000 km² in France and is scattered over 372,000 km² in Iberia (and mostly over 172,000 km², the other 200,000 km² bearing only two localities). In Iberia, the species remains rare despite its recent discovery at several sites in Portugal (Malkmus 2002, Lohr 2005) and Valencia in 2006 (Boudot et al. 2009).

population:
The species is endemic to Spain, Portugal and France. In south and west France, the species is rather common in eight departments only, rare in 12, and extinct in four. It is scattered and very rare in Spain and Portugal. The species is rather common only over 51,000 km² in France, from the lower Rhone river to the Charente-Maritime department via the southern edge of the Massif Central. It is rare to extinct elsewhere in France and in the west of central France it is much more scarce than one century ago, due to pollution and river management. In these areas the species is threatened with extinction or already extinct. Strong variations in densities are noticed from year to year.

habitat:
The preferred habitat of this species are slow-flowing streams.

threats:
Its main problems with respect to its survival lies in water pollution and stream structure changes, and also in summer drought, which occurred more and more frequently and durably in recent years, with drying of many rivers and relative increase in pollution. Good populations in France occur in three riverine systems. In Iberia there are no records of large populations.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Control of water quality throughout the species' range and the establishment of reserves is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Gomphus pulchellus is fairly common in France, Belgium, part of The Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, as well as in the southwestern half of Iberia. It has been expanding during the last half of the century in most of its northern and eastern range. It is not threatened and is assessed as Least Concern in the region.

range:
Gomphus pulchellus is an European endemic species ranging from the whole of Iberia to the western half of Germany, western Austria and Switzerland. Isolated records from Italy refer to vagrants, the records from Croatia and Slovakia might be erroneous or vagrants.

population:
The species is generally common throughout its range.

habitat:
Gomphus pulchellus reproduces in all kinds of slow and moderately flowing and standing waters, avoiding strong currents. It reproduces also in some peat bogs up to 1,500 m above sea level. It is most common in slow lowland rivers and their backwaters and abandoned gravel pits. The larvae occupy sandy patches, which may be covered with coarse detritus. The adults are found sometimes far from their breeding habitats.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are currently needed.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is very similar to Gomphus vulgatissimus and is sometimes considered as a mere subspecies of the latter, with which it can be easily confused. Both taxa either overlap and hybridize or are related through clinal variation, so that the demarcation limit between them cannot be traced with certainty. Due to this, information on distribution in parts of the Balkan Peninsula is unclear.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). The main bastion of G. schneiderii in Europe is the Greek Peloponnese Peninsula. In the other parts of its European range the species is scattered and seems mostly local. Although it is not presently threatened, stream desiccation due to climate change and increasing over-irrigation may make it much more rare within the next decades. Therefore the species is assessed as Near Threatened in its European range, approaching A4c. More information on population numbers, trends and taxonomy is needed.

range:
Gomphus schneiderii ranges from the southern Balkans to Iran. Its northern limit is unclear and conflicting due overlapping, hybridization or clinal variation with G. vulgatissimus from Montenegro to European Turkey. The species is known to be common in Greece.

population:
Gomphus schneiderii is widespread in the Peloponnese, but is more scattered in north and northeast Greece. Records from European Turkey, northeastern Greece, Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are very scarce and refer mostly to mixed populations with G. vulgatissimus.

habitat:
Gomphus schneiderii reproduces mostly in slow rivers and streams with sandy and silty bottoms. It also breeds occasionally in large lakes.

threats:
Water pollution, stream desiccation and related rainfall deficit, regulation of rivers and gravel pitting directly in the river bed are the main threats for this species.

conservationAction:
Control of water pollution and conservation of natural river dynamics and structure are necessary conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
The nominotypical form of this collective taxon, G. s. simillimus, is a West European endemic. The Moroccan and West Algerian populations constitute a slightly distinct and somewhat heterogeneous subspecies, G. s. maroccanus Lieftinck, 1966.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). Gomphus simillimus is currently not threatened in Europe but, as for other stream species, it is highly sensitive to water pollution, direct gravel extraction in river beds, dredging, regulations of rivers and streams, suppression of riverine trees and over-irrigation. Although it remains rather common in some areas in western and southern France, it is not common in Iberia. It is estimated that the species declines with maybe more than 10% in a period of ten years. The species is assessed as Near Threatened based on its current distribution and the degradation of the hydrographic network throughout its range.

range:
Gomphus simillimus is a West European Atlanto-Mediterranean endemic ranging from south Iberia to northeast France eastwards to the upper Rhine river between Germany and Switzerland. The occurrence of this species in Slovakia and Czech Republic needs confirmation.

population:
The species is irregularly abundant in the southwestern half of France and is rare and very scattered in the rest of the country. It is scarce in Iberia, where it remains very scattered.

habitat:
In Europe, this species reproduces mostly in slow-flowing large rivers and small streams, and rarely in abandoned gravel pits near to rivers and oxbow pools with phreatic waters.

threats:
This species is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, regulation of rivers and streams, construction of dams, suppression of riparian trees, etc. Drainage, over-irrigation and stream dessication as a result of climate change and related rainfall deficit constitute other threats.

conservationAction:
Actions need to be taken towards the conservation of natural dynamics of running waters, conservation of natural structure of streams and rivers, as well as control of pollution.


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly considered as a subspecies of Gomphus flavipes under the invalid homonym Gomphus flavipes lineatus (Bartenef, 1929).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). It is not clear if this species is present in Europe and fieldwork is needed to establish its presence. The species is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Gomphus ubadschii replaces G. flavipes in Anatolia and further east to Syria, Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia. There is no proof that this taxon occurs within the European territory. There is an old record from Lemnos island in the Aegean (Werner, 1938) which could either refer to Gomphus flavipes or to G. ubadschii (Boudot et al. 2009). The species is known from the foothills of the Caucasus and might therefore occur in the southeastern parts of Europe.

population:
No data are available. A single old record of G. flavipes from Lemnos was ascribed to G. ubadschii by some authors without valid arguments.

habitat:
G. ubdaschii is found in rivers throughout its range.

threats:
The occurence of this species in Europe is doubtful and hence no information on threats is available.

conservationAction:
The occurrence of this species in Europe is doubtful.


taxonomicNotes:
The demarcation limit between G. schneiderii and G. vulgatissmus is poorly defined, as both can be easily confused due to overlap, hybridisation and/or clinal variation. This generates conflicting reports.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Gomphus vulgatissimus is a widespread species ranging from the Atlantic to southwestern Siberia and the populations are increasing. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gomphus vulgatissimus is present from northern Iberia to southwest Siberia. Little information is available about this Siberian distribution. To the north it reaches the southern half of Fennoscandia. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range upon about 100 km to the north since 1970, which is attributed to global warming. In the south it extends to the northern half of Greece, whereas in the southern half there is an overlap with G. schneiderii where hybridisation is possible.

population:
The species remains generally common and is increasing in most of its range.

habitat:
Gomphus vulgatissimus is typical from small to large rivers with sandy to silty or clayey sediments but is also found in streamlets and ditches. It reproduces also in standing waters when these are well oxygenated (lakes and river backwaters or gravel pits furnished with phreatic water). It avoids fast flowing rocky-bottomed waters. The larvae burrow in fine sand and silt preferably covered with organic detritus.

threats:
This species does not face any threats at the moment. In the past, chemical pollution and channelisation together, have been reducing populations, but the general population trend is now increasing.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are necessary at present.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). Assessing the conservation status of L. tetraphylla is difficult as part of these records might pertain to wandering individuals and some populations might be temporary. The numbers of European sites with large viable populations is less than fifty and might be less than 25. In total the European population probably counts less than 10,000 adults annually and subpopulations are estimated to be smaller than 1,000. In several localities, which were known to hold viable populations, water pollution and the increased demand for water has resulted in a decrease of available habitats and in some cases in the loss of the population. Examples of this are the Koronia Lake in northern Greece and the Stimfalia Lake in the Peloponnese, which were found almost dry during July 2008 (pers. comm. J.-P. Boudot). The higher demand for water combined with climate change is inferred to lead to a reduction in number of populations and population size of over 30 % in the next ten years. For this reason the species is assessed as Vulnerable.

range:
Lindenia tetraphylla is found in Mediterranean, Arabia and southwest and Central Asia (Schorr et al. 1998). The easternmost populations are found in Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. In the Mediterranean, it is mainly found in the east with populations known from the Levant, Turkey, the Balkan Peninsula, Italy (mainland and Sardinia) (Boudot et al. 2009). The westernmost populations are found in Spain (probably extinct) and the Maghreb (Tunisia) where it was found in 2000 after a century without records (Kunz and Kunz 2001). All European records are confined to the Mediterranean. The species has found to be strongly migratory in Arabia and for that reason a part of the records in Europe could pertain to wandering specimens.

population:
The number of populations in Europe is low and probably many populations are relatively small although it is sometimes fairly abundant.

habitat:
In Europe Lindenia tetraphylla is mostly found at lakes and more rarely at slowly flowing, larger waters (Schorr et al. 1998). Detailed information on larval requirements of the species is lacking. The species has been found to occur at large beds of reed at several lakes in Croatia and Italy but has in Tunisia been noted from a lake with hardly any vegetation and was found at two barrage lakes with no or little vegetation at the Turkish island of Gökçeada (Hacet and Aktac 2006).

threats:
European populations are mainly found at lakes. Pollution of the water by wastewater or due to nearby agricultural practices are important threats to this species. Over-exploitation of water due to the increased water demand in combination with climate change are important present and future threats. At some sites in Italy over-collections is a problem.

conservationAction:
The presence of this species in Europe is dependent on a relatively small number of larger water bodies. Fieldwork in order to confirm the presence and estimate the abundance of this species at lakes where this species has been recorded is needed. Based on this the local conservation status of the waterbodies needs to be determined. In many cases these waters will also have a high conservation value for fish, mollusc and waterbirds. In these cases action plans based for these groups could well be combined. The species is included in the EU Habitats Directive.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN). EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN). Onychogomphus costae is an endemic Ibero-Maghrebian species. In Europe it has been recorded from 21 streams (presently 17) in Spain and Portugal. Flourishing populations are now scarce in Spain (at most two from a total of 18 recent records). Many other populations have either declined or are only incidental records, or are already extinct due to pollution, excessive water use, lowering of groundwater tables and subsequent drying up of rivers.There is now little or no genetic exchange between the Iberian and Maghrebian populations, and in addition the Spanish populations seem rather sedentary. Based on the quality of habitat a strong decline of over 30% is likely in a period of ten years due to the increased pressure on river systems. The species fits Endangered based on its fragmented distribution and its area of occupany being less than 500 km².

range:
Onychogomphus costae is an endemic Ibero-Maghrebian species. In Europe its EOO extends presently over 250,000km2 although its AOO is much smaller as it is known from only 23 localities in Spain and south Portugal. Eight populations are presently considered extinct.

population:
The species is most often found in low numers but can be locally abundant.

habitat:
Its preferred habitat are larger, slowly flowing waters in a hot environment. In North Africa, it is found in naturally salted waters up to 4g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).

threats:
The main threats are use of water by humans (drainage, over-irrigation, pollution, etc.), stream management, dam construction, and drought due to ongoing climate change.

conservationAction:
Conservation of natural dynamics of running waters, control of pollution, conservation of natural structure of streams and rivers, are necessary conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Onychogomphus forcipatus is a taxon which includes three well differentiated taxa traditionally regarded as subspecies : the nominotypical one, Onychogomphus forcipatus forcipatus (Linnaeus, 1758), a West Mediterranean endemic, Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus (Vander Linden, 1823) and an Asiatic endemic, Onychogomphus forcipatus albotibialis Schmidt, 1954. They show a structural differentiation, do not overlap significantly and don't seem to produce intermediate or hybrid populations in their contact areas. Hence, they all appear to merit a full species rank, but genetic analysis should bring confirmation before definitive conclusion. All are widespread in their respective range. These three major taxa will be assessed separately here.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). In Europe, Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis is restricted to some East Aegean Islands and to Cyprus. There, it is still widespread and fairly common, although the use of water by humans is more and more problematic in relation to current rainfall deficit and climate change. The species would meet the Near Threatened status, but immigration from nearby Turkey is expected to reinforce local populations. However this will not help when suitable habitat ceases to exist. The taxon is therefore assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis is an Asiatic taxon widespread mostly over the whole of Anatolia, Iran and south Turkmenistan. European localities occur in the Greek and Turkish East Aegean islands as well as in Cyprus, all these countries constituting the western limit of the taxon.

population:
Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis is common throughout its European range.

habitat:
In its European range, Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis reproduces in running waters, but in Turkey it is known to reproduce also in large lakes

threats:
Stream desiccation due to over-irrigation, construction of dams, rainfall deficit and climate change as well as water pollution are the main threats for this taxon.

conservationAction:
Control of water use and pollution are needed to maintain the European populations of Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis.


taxonomicNotes:
Onychogomphus forcipatus (Linnaeus, 1758) is a collective taxon which includes three well differentiated taxa traditionally regarded as subspecies : the nominotypical one, Onychogomphus forcipatus forcipatus (Linnaeus, 1758), a West Mediterranean endemic, Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus (Vander Linden, 1823) and an Asiatic endemic, Onychogomphus forcipatus albotibialis Schmidt, 1954. They show a definite structural differentiation, don't overlap significantly and don't seem to produce intermediate or hybrid populations in their contact areas. Hence, they all appear to merit a full species rank, but genetic analysis should bring confirmation before definitive conclusion. All are widespread in their respective range. These three major taxa will be assessed separately here.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Onychogomphus f. forcipatus is widespread and common despite the increasing pressure on river systems in Europe and is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Onychogomphus f. forcipatus ranges from the west and north of Europe to the south of the Balkans and western Siberia. It is missing from the northern half of Scandinavia. The populations from Sicily are clearly disjunct from the main range.

population:
Onychogomphus f. forcipatus is common throughout Europe and occurs generally in medium to high densities.

habitat:
Onychogomphus (f.) forcipatus is found mostly in unshaded rivers and streams. It is rarely found at large well oxygenated lakes and river backwaters.

threats:
The main threat is posed by habitat modifications such as construction of dams, pollution and gravel mining in the main river bed.

conservationAction:
No specific action on European scale is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus extends over the whole West Mediterranean, except Islands. It is widespread and fairly common, although the use of water by humans is more and more problematic in relation to current rainfall deficit and climate change. The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus is a West Mediterranean endemic which ranges from South West Europe to the Maghreb. It is lacking from the Mediterranean islands, although it extends over almost the whole mainland Italy (except the ultimate NE), it is surprisingly replaced by Onychogomphus f. forcipatus in Sicily.

population:
Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus is common throughout its range.

habitat:
Onychogomphus (f.) unguiculatus is found mostly in unshaded rivers and streams. It is rarely found at large well oxygenated lakes and river backwaters.

threats:
Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus is presently not threatened at the European scale.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). In its main range, Onychogomphus uncatus is widespread and there is no evidence of decline. Therefore, the species is assessed as Least Concern at the European scale.

range:
Onychogomphus uncatus is an Atlanto-West Mediterranean endemic which ranges from southwest Europe to the Maghreb. It is lacking from most Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. Additional disjunct but flourishing and long-lasting populations occurred formerly on the Rhine river on the Switzerland/Germany border. There it is almost extinct as the species was not found since 1991 in spite of thorough fieldwork (last record 1991 in Germany, 1979 in Switzerland) (Sternberg and Buchwald 2000, Wildermuth et al. 2005, Hunger et al. 2006). Isolated records from Belgium (1975, 1979), Vaud province in Switzerland and Doubs Department in France refer only to vagrant individuals.

population:
Onychogomphus uncatus is fairly common in most of the region.

habitat:
Onychogomphus uncatus is typically found in fast-flowing streams with a preference for partially shaded environments.

threats:
The main threats are stream desiccation and pollution due to climate change and human activities and the elimination of the riparian vegetation resulting in the destruction of bank structure.

conservationAction:
No measures on European scale are needed. This species would benefit from a better regulation of water use for agriculture and urban needs and from conservation of riparian forests.


taxonomicNotes:
In the east of its range it is replaced by O. obscurus, which is sometimes regarded to be a subspecies of O. cecilia.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species has a wide range, is fairly common and does not show a decline at the moment. The species is assessed as being of Least Concern.

range:
Ophiogomphus cecilia occurs from west Europe east to lake Baikal. The species is widespread in Central and northeast Europe but is scarce to moderately represented in western parts of its range. Old records from the Iberian Peninsula are recognized as incorrect (Ferreira et al. 2006). The species has declined strongly during the first three-quarters of the last century in parts of its range and became extinct in several regions. In west and south Europe it is limited to the Loire basin in France, the Po river in Italy and scattered populations in the Balkan Peninsula. Since the 1990s, the species has shown an increase in at least the Netherlands and Germany, in both countries it became rare in the last century. This increase is probably a result of an increased water quality and a more natural management of river systems.

population:
The species is fairly common in most of its European range. The densities vary strongly from site to site but it is frequently locally abundant.

habitat:
The adults are found in running waters that are at least partly unshaded. It is found in rivers and brooks in the lowland with a sandy bottom. The species is largely absent from stony mountain brooks or rivers with a strong current or in muddy rivers.

threats:
There are no serious threats to the species in the core of its range at present. Most of the decline in the last century was probably due to water pollution and large-scale channelisation of rivers and brooks. In the south, the species is presently threatened by increased use of river water for irrigation (for example in the Po floodplain) and canalisation of water courses which causes high fluctuations of water levels and seasonal drying. In some river systems waves caused by large boats might lead to an increased mortality of emerging adults.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are needed on a European scale; the species is already protected under the EU Habitats Directive (Annex II). Local measures should be applied for those populations that are under threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Paragomphus genei is an African species which reaches the south of Europe only, but is locally abundant where it occurs. In the recent years the knowledge on distribution has increased in Sardinia and in the south west of the Iberian Peninsula. No threats are presently known and therefore the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The African Paragomphus genei shows only scattered localities in southern Europe and its European records are limited to southwest Iberia, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily and the south of Calabria in mainland Italy.

population:
The African species is restricted to south Europe, where it can be locally common.

habitat:
The species is found at standing waters, both small (e.g. cattle ponds) and large lakes, and running waters like permanent rivers and intermittent rivers with residual pools.

threats:
Habitat destruction due to pollution and desiccation due to water extraction are the main threats.

conservationAction:
Recommended conservation measures are the preservation of water quality and control of water use for agriculture and urbanized areas. The maintenance of cattle ponds even if they are not used for agricultural purposes anymore, would benefit the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Lestes barbarus is a widespread and fairly common species throughout its European range. The species tends to expand to the north. It is considered Least Concern on the European scale.

range:
Lestes barbarus ranges from the Maghreb to the northwest of India, Mongolia and the south of Siberia. To the north it extends over southern, western and central Europe. It is a strong wanderer that shows more isolated and sometimes short-lived populations up to southeast England (since 2002) and north to Lithuania. In the northern half of Europe, it may be absent for many years and then it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years. It shows a northern expansion since the mid 1990s.

population:
Lestes barbarus is widespread and fairly common in the main part of its range.

habitat:
Lestes barbarus inhabits sunny standing waters. The species favours temporary water conditions, which are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune and meadow pools, shallow depressions and delta brackish hydrosystems. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring to autumn but usually hatch after winter, when the temporary pools are filled. Then the larval period is very short (1-2 months) so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation. This is a perfect adaptation to the Mediterranean and related climates, where the rain season is restricted from autumn to early spring.

threats:
This species does not face major threats at present at European level. Destruction of habitat by agriculture and tourism infrastructure is a general threat all along the Mediterranean coast.

conservationAction:
The species is naturally fluctuating in relation to the prevailing weather conditions and this is not the sign of a true decline. Therefore, no conservation measures are needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Lestes dryas is widespread throughout most of Europe and there is no sign of decline, so it is assessed as Least Concern on the European scale.

range:
Lestes dryas is an holarctic species which inhabits mostly the northern part of Eurasia and America. It is widespread in Europe although it became more scattered in the Mediterranean area. The species also occurs in North Africa as a last glacial relict.

population:
In the west of its range, Lestes dryas is common mostly in the mountainous areas. It is more regularly found at any altitude in the centre and the east of Europe.

habitat:
Lestes dryas is a specialist of temporary water conditions, including waterbodies that typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. These conditions can also occur at the margins of permanent waterbodies. Sites usually have dense growth of rushes and sedges. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring or summer to autumn but hatch usually after winter, a period where the temporary pools are filled. Then the larval period is very short (6-10 weeks) so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation.

threats:
This species is not threatened on the European scale.

conservationAction:
No special measures are required, as the species is widespread.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN). Lestes macrostigma exhibits a fragmented distribution in Europe and shows strong variations in population density between successive years. It is generally rare and unstable, although it has several flourishing localities in the Ukraine and Great Hungarian Plain and the related East Austrian lowlands. Climate change and change in management practices may impact the species. In Europe its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km², although in EU27 its current AOO is certainly less than 500 km². The species meets the Vulnerable category in Europe (and Endangered in EU27) because of its small AOO, extreme annual fluctuations and a continuous decline in the quality of its habitat.

range:
Lestes macrostigma ranges from West Europe to Mongolia. It has a scattered distribution and shows strong fluctuations in numbers from year to year. It occurs mostly in coastal areas and in the Central European Pannonian Basin (Hungary and eastern Austria, Neusiedlersee area).

population:
Lestes macrostigma shows strong fluctuations from year to year. Flourishing and fairly stable popluations are known from the south of France, east Austria and Hungary. Although the Neusiedlersee area is rather well protected, only 23 Hungarian 10X10 km UTM squares out of a total of 44 have been recorded from 1960 onwards (Devai 1994), so that it is probable that the species experienced a decrease in this country during the 20th century.

habitat:
Lestes macrostigma is mostly confined to shallow brackish waters with rushes, sedges and Salicornia spp. in coastal wetlands. It is also known from inland basins with low rainfall and strong evaporation favouring continental brackish waters (Central and Eastern Europe with a continental climate). Some populations from Corsica were claimed to reproduce in fresh waters, but this should be confirmed through chemical analysis.

threats:
The species has a very scattered range and shows isolated populations. The main threat is the conversion of natural brackish ponds into commercial salt exploitations. Besides, the natural instability of this species is an intrinsic threat.

conservationAction:
In some localities, water regime is managed for salt production, that may eliminate the species, therefore these activities should be regulated. Prevention of development in coastal areas for tourism and industry and protected areas should be established.


taxonomicNotes:
Until recently Lestes parvidens was considered a subspecies of Lestes viridis. Both L. viridis and L. parvidens should be placed in a separate genus, Chalcolestes Kennedy, 1920, on the background of genetical analysis (Dumont, pers. comm.).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD). The species is common and widespread in large parts of Southeast Europe and is assessed Least Concern at European level. Its range in Italy and the Balkans is not precisely known and more research is needed. The species is considered DD for EU27.

range:
The exact range of Lestes parvidens is not precisely known because of its similarity with L. viridis and its former inclusion in the latter as a subspecies. All older literature data from the Balkans referred to L. viridis, but Olias et al. (2007) showed that a large part of these records pertain to L. parvidens. Lestes parvidens ranges from Corsica, Italy to southern Ukraine, the Balkans, Asia Minor, and the Levant. Lestes parvidens and L. viridis overlap in large parts of Italy and the Balkans and their precise distribution in this area is not yet clear.

population:
Due to the long-lasting confusion between Lestes parvidens and L. viridis, the respective distribution of these two taxa is not precisely known in the Balkans and the characteristics of their populations can not be assessed. In the Ukraine, it is quite common in large river deltas. The size and trend of the Italian populations is unknown.

habitat:
Lestes parvidens shows the same biology and ecology as L. viridis and reproduces both in standing and slow-flowing waters surrounded by trees and bushes with soft bark and wood. The eggs are inserted in these bushes and trees from spring to autumn but hatch usually after winter.

threats:
Drying up of rivers and standing waters due to over-irrigation and increased drought periods as a result of climate change is the main threat to this species.

conservationAction:
Water extraction for agriculture and urban use must be controlled.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Lestes sponsa is widespread and common in Europe and no significant decline has been recorded on the European scale. However, a decrease is presently observed in several parts of western Europe, so that a careful monitoring of this species should be recommended in the future in this part of its range. The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lestes sponsa ranges from western Europe to Japan and is very common across almost the whole of Europe. The southern border of its range extends from northern Spain to the central Balkans. In the British Isles, it was found to have expanded its range upon about 140 km to the north since 1970, that was attributed to global warming. Its northern limit goes presently from northern Scotland to the north of the Bothnian Bay and north Russia.

population:
This species is widespread, represented by large populations, and is one of the most common damselflies. A decline has been observed in some western areas (e.g. northwestern Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium).

habitat:
This species inhabits a wide range of standing waters with emergent vegetation. It may also be numerous at newly created shallow localities, but it is not specifically a pioneer species. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring to end summer but hatch usually after winter.

threats:
The species is not threatened on the European scale.


taxonomicNotes:
Two subspecies are currently recognized, namely Lestes v. virens (Charpentier, 1825) in the west Mediterranean area, and L. virens vestalis Rambur, 1842 in the rest of Europe. The distinction of these two spp. is sometimes not possible in parts of France. The precise identity of the Anatolian member of L. virens is still unclear. This species is assessed without any subspecies distinction.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Lestes virens is widespread throughout Europe, with no evidence of decline. Although some decrease may be expected in the south of its range in the future due to climate change, the populations are expanding in the north. The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lestes virens ranges from west France and Iberia to Asia. Its northern limit includes the south of Sweden and the Baltic States.

population:
This species is generally widespread and locally abundant, although locally it is rare in some European provinces. It has been expanding its range to the north in the last decade.

habitat:
Lestes virens is found in a variety of standing waters, either seasonal or permanent e.g. lakes, ponds, marshes and acid peat bogs. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from late spring to autumn but hatch usually after winter, when all water bodies are filled. Then the larval period is short (2-3 months), so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation. This allows the species to successfully colonize temporary pools.

threats:
The species is not threatened on the European scale but locally it may be eradicated from fish ponds if they are maintained too intensively. As any other Lestes, it is very sensitive to fish predation, so that it maintains high populations only in water bodies with microhabitats preserved from fish access. On a local scale, the species can be sensitive to agricultural land and water pollution.Climate change is causing the decline of some west Mediterranean populations (strong rainfall deficit in autumn and winter will give dry pools in spring, so that larvae will not develop) but leads to more favourable habitat situations in northern Europe at the same time.

conservationAction:
The species does not need specific conservation measures on the European scale.


taxonomicNotes:
Until ten years ago L. parvidens was considered a subspecies of L. viridis, but there is now a wide consensus that both taxa should be considered separate species. Both L. viridis and L. parvidens should be placed in a separate genus, Chalcolestes Kennedy, 1920, on the background of genetical analysis (Dumont, pers. comm.).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Lestes viridis is widespread and common in Europe. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lestes viridis ranges from western and Central Europe to the Maghreb. A slight range expansion towards Denmark and northeastern Poland has been observed. The species is common in its European range, although its status in the Balkans and eastern Europe is still unclear due to confusion between this taxon and L. parvidens.

population:
Lestes viridis is widespread and fairly common over a wide range of habitats, occurring in large populations.

habitat:
Lestes viridis reproduces in any kind of standing and slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes with soft bark and wood. The species has a strong dependence on this kind of vegetation as it is needed for egg laying and its reproductive ecology. Unlike other Lestes, it does not occur in ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans), although its biology would allow it to reproduce in temporary habitat.

threats:
The species is presently not threatened on the European scale.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are presently required.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Sympecma fusca is a wide-ranging and abundant species showing no indications of decline. The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Sympecma fusca is largely confined to the Western Palaearctic and more than half of its area of distribution lies in Europe. The species is widespread and regionally common in southern and central Europe. S. fusca is expanding its range northwards in the Netherlands and Sweden since the 1990s. The species is almost absent from European Russia. Its distribution in Belarus is poorly known.

population:
The species is generally common in its range and is often abundant. In some countries such as Hungary it is one of the most common damselflies.

habitat:
Sympecma fusca occurs at standing or slow-flowing waters with abundant vegetation and the presence of dead, floating plants in spring. The latter must have a soft tissue as they are used for oviposition. A wide variety of habitats are used, such as bogs, marshes, large lakes and gravel pits. The species mates and lays eggs in early spring, emerges in summer and hibernates as adult. This has consequences for the preferred habitat. The habitat needs to have a warm local climate allowing the adult to be active already in the period from February to April. Larvae need to develop fast in a period of only several weeks to three months and thus need relatively warm water with a high abundance of prey allowing a fast growth. After emergence the adults need place to feed after which they disperse to their wintering site. The wintering site is often at several kilometres distance from the reproduction site. Wintering often takes place in dead herbs or grasses of half a meter to a meter high near or in open forest.

threats:
For unclear reasons the species showed a decline in at least the northwestern part of its range in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s the species had become rare in large parts of Central and western Europe and was deemed threatened on several national Red Lists such as those of Germany, The Netherlands and Belgium. Since then, the species has shown a strong increase and presently it is not believed to be under threat in any of the European states. At the moment there are no threats which are specifically impacting on this species.

conservationAction:
Currently no specific actions are needed.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is known under different names, which were, until recently, frequently used. Jödicke (1997) showed that the name S. paedisca has priority over the names annulata, braueri and striata. The latter three names are still sometimes used for subspecies occurring in the southeast of its range. These subspecies are largely based on the reduced dark pattern on the thorax. This character is however merely correlated with the hot climate of Central Asia where specimens become gradually paler over a large area. Due to this it is not possible to distinguish clearly definable subspecies and the subspecies should be considered invalid.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Sympecma paedisca is not common in a large part of East Europe and there are no indications for a decline. In the Netherlands and northern Germany, the species has declined severely in the 20th century, this decline has however largely ceased and locally the species is increasing again. In the Alps, the species has declined and is probably still declining. Without measurements taken in this region it is likely the species will be lost from some parts of this area. The species is assessed as Least Concern but conservation measures are needed in the west of its range to prevent local extinction.

range:
Sympecma paedisca has a huge range occurring from western Europe to Japan. Most of its range lies in the temperate zone and the species is largely lacking from the boreal region. In Europe the species is rather common and widespread in the northeast only. This area includes northern and eastern Poland, the Baltic States, Belarus, northern Ukraine and Russia. In western Europe, it is limited to a small band running from the Netherlands across northern Germany. The species has a relict distribution in the Alps (in Italy in Piedmont region) and the mountains in the west of the Czech Republic. Sympecma paedisca went through a severe decline in both western Europe and the Alps. Recently it is increasing in the Netherlands, Germany and expanding its range in Finland and probably Sweden.

population:
Sympecma paedisca is widespread and often common in parts of eastern Europe. In the west of its range, it is scarce and localised. The localities where it occurs are, however, often formed by large systems such as lakes or large fenlands. Due to this fact, most populations are relatively large and not seldom the species is found in high numbers.

habitat:
Sympecma paedisca is found in a remarkably wide variety of habitats. In Europe, it occurs in mesotrophic to moderately eutrophic standing, or seldom slowly flowing, waters. These range from large lakes, fenlands, peat bogs to gravel pits. The habitat always has an abundant bank side and aquatic vegetation. As in S. fusca, the adults hibernate during winter and mate and lay eggs in early spring. Emergence of the larva takes place in the second half of the summer after which most adults leave the vicinity of the reproduction site to hibernate at localities often at several kilometres distance of their larval habitat. Different habitat types can be suitable for wintering as long as there is a vegetation of knee-high herbs or grasses on several sides bordered by higher bushes or trees. The low vegetation is used in autumn for foraging and as hideout in winter whereas the surrounding higher vegetation provides shelter from the wind. In the Netherlands it was noted that the adults prefer relatively dry conditions during winter probably as moisture increases the chances on fungus diseases.

threats:
There are no threats known in eastern Europe. As for many dragonflies, habitat destruction played a major role in its decline in West Europe during most of the 20th century. The degradation of habitat quality seems to have become the key factor in its decline in the last decades. Eutrophication resulting in a decrease of the quality and quantity of aquatic and floating vegetation played a role in large parts of West Europe. In the Netherlands and in northern Germany, the abandonment of traditional management might have been a key factor. The ceasing of the extraction of peat and the decrease in land area where reed is mowed, resulted in a dramatic drop of the amount of aquatic and floating vegetation and the increase of woodland in traditionally more open fenland (Ketelaar et al. 2007). At least in the Netherlands the extraction of peat in order to restore the amount of aquatic and floating vegetation resulted in a subsequent increase of S. paedisca.

conservationAction:
This species is included on the EU Habitats Directive Annex IV and for this reason it is likely that for many reproduction sites management plans will be made in the near future. Especially for isolated occurrences as found in West Europe and the Alps management plans are needed. In Italy, the distribution of the species is poorly known making it presently impossible for this country to give this species the protection required according the EU legislation. The habitats used by S. paedisca in West Europe for reproduction are almost always of high biodiversity value and often these habitats have a very rich dragonfly fauna. The species is therefore a strong indicator of habitat quality.


taxonomicNotes:
Untill recently this species was known as Brachythemis leucosticta. Dijkstra & Matushkina (2009) showed that this species should be seperated into B. leucosticta, occuring in the southern half of Africa, and B. impartita, occuring in the northern parts of Africa and Mediterranean Europe. All European records are believed to belong to B. impartita.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Being ecologically very flexible, Brachthemis leucosticta is abundant wherever it has established populations. In recent decades it has expanded northward in Italy (Sicily,Sardinia) and the Iberian Peninsula. It is not considered threatened at present and is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Brachythemis leucosticta is one of the most abundant and widespread species of tropical Africa. The species is fairly common in the Maghreb, along the Nile in Egypt and in the Levant. The species seems to be increasing in Turkey were it is still uncommon and limited to the south. In Europe, it is found in Cyprus (first recorded in 2006, Cottle 2007), Sicily, Sardinia and the south of Portugal and Spain. It has been expanding its European range in the last two decades (Boudot et al. 2009). It is likely that an increase of temperature in the next decade will enable the species to extend its range further north to mainland Italy, for instance.

population:
The species is often common when found and is probably increasing in most of its European range due to climate change.

habitat:
The species breeds in a wide range of stagnant water bodies, from larger lakes to small pools, where it flies low over bare and open ground. It occurs often in large numbers, perching close to one another on the ground. It shows migratory tendencies and easily occupies newly created waters.

threats:
This species is not under any specific threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 assessment: Least Concern (LC). Crocothemis erythraea is common and widespread in a large part of Europe, is expanding its range northwards and the species is not under any specific threat. Therefore it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Crocothemis erythraea is one of the most common and widespread species of Africa, western Asia and southern Europe. It is common and widespread in the southern half of Europe (Boudot et al. 2009) and in the south of Ukraine (Dyatlova 2006). In the last two decades it has been strongly expanding its range in the north being now indigenous to many areas were it previously did not occur (Ott 2007).

population:
The species is common in most of its range and is steadily expanding its range northwards.

habitat:
The species occurs at a wide range of running and standing, unshaded waters including rice paddies and brackish lagoons. In the north part of its range it is mostly found at not too shallow, well vegetated waters.

threats:
The species is not under any specific threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 assessment: Least Concern (LC). Diplacodes lefebvrii has a relatively small European range being confined to southern Iberia, Cyprus and Rhodos. However the species does not seem to be under specific threat and it might benefit from climate change. The species is therefore assessed as being of Least Concern.

range:
Diplacodes lefebvrii is a very widespread and common species in especially the non-forested parts of Africa. It is found from the Indian subcontinent to southwest Asia and Arabia. In the Mediterranean it is fairly common on the south and east coast. Its European range is confined to Cyprus, the Greek island of Rhodes and the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. Its range in Europe seems limited by climatological circumstances and the species might benefit from climate change.

population:
Within its distribution area the species can be locally common.

habitat:
The species inhabits standing, unshaded waters. In Europe it is always found at low altitudes often in coastal waters in dunes or coastal wetlands at the marshy edges of pools and lakes. In Cyprus, it was found at a dam lake with a vegetation of Phragmites spp. and Typha spp. (Lopau and Adena 2002).

conservationAction:
The species is not theatened and its conservation does not have priority. However information on its distribution and habitat is scant.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). Leucorrhinia albifrons has experienced a very strong decline in its western and parts of its Central European range in the last century. The rate of decrease has become less although it is likely that the decline is still taking place. The species is rare in western Europe and populations are isolated. A further decline in this part of its range will lead to the extinction of this species in a large region and thus strongly narrow its Extent of Occurrence. The species is therefore assessed as Near Threatened at EU 27 level.However, the species occurs in numerous localities in Russia and is therefore classified as Least Concern on European level.

range:
Leucorrhinia albifrons is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to Scandinavia and to southwestern France. The species is scarce to fairly common in eastern and northeastern Europe (including southern Scandinavia). It has strongly declined in Germany, the Netherlands (one population left), Austria, Switzerland, France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Ukraine (two localities). The species is rare in these countries and most remaining populations are isolated.

population:
The species is fairly common in northern Poland, the Baltic states, Russia, Sweden and Finland. However, it is very rare and has strongly declined to the west and south of this area. The populations seem to be stable at a low level in parts of western Europe, but are still declining in other areas (e.g. France).The northern and eastern populations are frequently large, but the western and southern populations are relatively small.

habitat:
L. albifrons is found in acid peaty lakes and pools and mesothrophic to weakly eutrophic lakes. The species has a preference for habitats that are largely unshaded but surrounded by forest. The species can co-exist with fish, however, it is either found in acidic waters, which are non-suitable for fish, or in habitats with abundant floating and emergent vegetation, which gives shelter to predation by fish.

threats:
The major decline in western Europe was largely caused by the large-scale conversion of peat bog systems for agricultural purposes (mainly first half of the 20th century) and the eutrophication of mesothrophic lakes (mainly second half of the 20th century). Other smaller or more regional threats are/were pollution by pesticides, fish farming, drainage of and/or tree plantations in peaty areas, development of tourism infrastructure. It seems that the major decline of this species largely ceased but it is likely that the species is still declining in parts of its range.

conservationAction:
The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be mapped and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has decreased. Most of the remaining threats are more local and need local action. In a large part of its range only isolated populations are found. It is needed to increase the amount of available habitat at these locations in order to secure the presence of this species in the long term.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT). Leucorrhinia caudalis has experienced a very strong decline in its Western and parts of its Central European range in the last century. The rate of decrease has become less although and in some parts of its range it is showing an increase. The species is rare in Western Europe and populations are isolated. A further decline in this part of its range will lead to the extinction of this species in large region and thus strongly narrowing its Extent of Occurrence. The species is therefore assessed as Near Threatened in the EU 27 member states.On a European scale, the species has numerous populations, and is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Leucorrhina caudalis is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to western Europe. The species is scarce to fairly common in northeastern and eastern Europe including parts of southern Fennoscandia. The species experienced a strong decline in western and parts of Central Europe. It is now rare in this part of its range and many populations are isolated.

population:
The species is very rare in western and parts of central Europe and has strongly declined. However, it is moderately represented to the northeast of these areas. The species is nowhere really common and at many sites only small numbers are found but abundance can be high at suitable habitats.

habitat:
Leucorrhinia caudalis is most frequently found at oligotrophic to weakly eutrophic lakes or bogs in forest with a rich vegetation of aquatic plants and often with floating leaves. In west and Central Europe the species is often found in oxbows, fishponds, peat excavations, gravel pits or quarries. Unlike the other Leucorrhinia species it often occurs in waters that are rich in fish.

threats:
The decrease in the number of suitable habitats due to intensive water management, eutrophication and pollution was the main threat to this species. It seems that the major decline of this species largely ceased and in some parts of its range it seems to be slowly increasing being able to colonize oxbows, peat excavations, old quarries, and gravel pits.

conservationAction:
The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be mapped and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has decreased. Most of the remaining threats are more local and need a local actions. In a large part of its range only isolated populations are found. It is needed to increase the amount of available habitat at these locations in order to secure the presence of this species in the long term.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). L. dubia is widespread and common in large parts of northeast Europe and there are no indications of a decline. The species shows fragmented distribution in the south and west of its range. It is likely that a continuing decline is taking place in the latter area, which in the future might increase even more due to climate change. At present, the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Leucorrhinia dubia is a northern Palearctic species, ranging eastwards to Siberia. The species is common in north Europe and it is fairly common in suitable habitats in the northern part of central Europe. It is scarcer in the south of Europe where it is confined to mountains such as the Alps (common), the Massif Central and the Pyrenees. There are only four known locations in the Balkans: one in Bulgaria, two in Montenegro and one in Serbia.

population:
L. dubia is common in large parts of northern Europe and often occurs in high densities. Although in northwest Germany, the species is declining.

habitat:
The species occurs most often in acidic forest waters with a Sphagnum vegetation. It is found in fish free waters or avoid fish by living in the Sphagnum vegetation (larvae).

threats:
In the northeastern part of its range, the species is not threatened but the species has declined in parts of Central Europe due to habitat destruction and eutrophication of bogs and lakes. These threats are now less significant as eutrophication ceased and many habitats are found in reserves or in areas where there is relatively little human impact. In the south of its range the species is more rare and often exists in isolated populations. Here the species is regionally threatened by infrastucture developments for tourism in the mountains and locally by the introduction of fish as well as groundwater extraction. In northwestern Germany, the population decline is probably caused by eutrophication due to atmospheric input. Climate change also affects these southern populations. L. dubia is affected negatively in the southern part of its range by climatic changes, e.g. in the German federal states Rhineland-Palatnate and Bavaria (Ott 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation measures are only needed in the southern part of its range. Monitoring of these populations and their trend is therefore advisable. When needed local management plans should be made.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Although L. pectoralis showed a strong decline in western Europe in the last century, the species is still widespread and fairly common in Europe. The decline of the species largely stopped and there are locally signs of recovery. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Leucorrhina pectoralis is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to western Europe. The species is scarce to fairly common in northeastern and Central Europe including southern and central Fennoscandia. Compared to its congeners it has a relatively southern distribution being found across the Alps, in northern Italy and in a large part of the Balkans.

population:
L. pectoralis is fairly common in north and eastern Europe where the populations are frequently large. The species experienced a strong decline in at least western and parts of Central Europe. It is now rare in this part of its range and many populations are isolated and relatively small.

habitat:
Compared to other Leucorrhinia species, it is found in a relatively wide array of habitat types such as borders of bogs, forest lakes and pools (sometimes acidic), fenlands, marshy ditches, oxbows and even sluggish rivers or canals. Its habitats are often largely unshaded, permanent, at most weakly eutrophic waters with rich vegetation thus avoiding fish predation. Its optimal habitat varies very much from region to region.

threats:
L. pectoralis has suffered from large-scale conversion of fenlands and peat systems for agricultural use and from eutrophication. In the Netherlands and Germany, the species is regionally showing signs of recovery. Hence, the species does not face major threats at the moment.

conservationAction:
The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be monitored and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. However distribution information in parts of the Balkan is still scant. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has dropped. Any remaining threats are more local and need local activities.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). The species is fairly common in northern Europe and large parts of central Europe and there are no signs that a strong decline is taking place in that part of its range. Population in the south of its Central European range have shown a strong decline in the past. On the European level the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
L. rubicunda is fairly common and widespread in northern and Central Europe. Its continuous area of distribution reaches south to northern Belgium, central Germany and the mountains of northern Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and the northern Ukraine. The species occurs further south in the Ural area where it is still common in the south of this mountain range (Yanybaeva et al. 2006). The species becomes rare to the south of its Central European range and its southernmost populations are found in the northern parts of the Alps. The species decreased in Central Europe and has probably become extinct in the North of France. In the Alps less than 20 populations are known which are confined to Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, most of which are isolated and small.

population:
The species is fairly common to common in the north and parts of Central Europe and is often abundant.

habitat:
The species occurs frequently in acidic waters with a vegetation of Sphagnum although its habitat spectrum is wider. Most populations are found in forest areas.

threats:
This species does not face threats in northern and eastern Europe. In the last century L. rubicunda declined in Central Europe due to habitat destruction such as large-scale transformation of peatland for agricultural purposes and the large-scale introduction of drainage systems. These kinds of habitat destruction have now largely ceased. In the south, present day threats are increased ground water extractions, vegetation succession leading to the decline of open water and desiccation due to periods of hot weather. Especially the latter might increase due to climate change and might be a threat for the remaining populations in the south.

conservationAction:
This species seems to be relatively safe in most of its range and there are no conservation measures needed. At the western and southern margins of its range, e.g. in the Alps, restoration projects of peat marshes and bogs are required.


taxonomicNotes:
In some literature, this species has been assigned to the genera Platetrum or Ladona (Schmidt 1987) but presently most authors use the Libellula as genus name.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). This species is widespread and abundant in most of Europe and is not under any specific threat. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Libellula depressa is a largely western Palaearctic species which is widespread in Europe and ranges east to Central Asia. The species is common and widespread in most European countries but is absent from Ireland and confined to the southern third of Fennoscandia.

population:
It is one of the most common and widespread species of Europe, except for the far north.

habitat:
Libellula depressa is found in largely unshaded, standing and slow-flowing waters, often occurs in small, shallow, sunny water bodies and biotopes in early succession stages. The species is often one of the first to colonize new man-made waters.

threats:
The habitats of Libellula depressa are not under any specific threat.


taxonomicNotes:
The southwest Asian Libellula pontica was until recently considered to be a subspecies of L. fulva. In some literature, this species has been assigned to the genus Ladona. Here it is assessed as Libellula.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). L. fulva is widespread in southern and central Europe, but is in many regions scarce to absent. The species has locally declined in the last century but is currently stable and locally increasing. Therefore, it is considered of Least Concern on European scale although it deserves attention in some regions.

range:
Libellula fulva has a wide range in southern and Central Europe and occurs east to the Caspian sea and the Caucasus. In many regions the species is scarce to absent and almost completely absent from the Iberian Peninsula. At least in the 1970s and 1980s a decline was noted in large parts of its western European range but in the last two decades the species seems to be stable in most regions and in some areas an increase has been noted, especially in the northeast.

population:
The species is moderately represented to fairly common across its range. The populations are often large.

habitat:
The species is most often found at sunny, standing and at slow-flowing waters, and often near forest. It prefers mesotrophic to eutrophic non-acidic waters. It is mainly present at places with extensive, high and dense riparian vegetation such as beds of reed (Phragmites), reedmace (Typha) or sedges. In some areas it is found in large wetlands such as low peat marshes or coastal wetlands. Less often it is present at channels or at deeper waters in quarries.

threats:
In the north and east of its range, the species does not face any threats.The local decline in the 1970s and 1980s was probably caused by large scale habitat destruction, water pollution and poor management of wetlands. In these areas, the types of habitat where L. fulva is found are nowadays often part of protected areas and improved legislation has in many countries resulted in a strong improvement of the water quality. Due to this the decline of the species largely stopped. Currently the species is mainly threatened on a local scale by poor management of wetlands. An increased demand for water in the Mediterranean might result in an increase of groundwater extraction which will impact the species.

conservationAction:
No specific action on European scale is needed. In southern parts of its range, it is advisable to monitor the populations and to assess the regional conservation status.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Libellula quadrimaculata is common and not threatened in Europe.

range:
Libellula quadrimaculata has a wide range and occurs from Europe and Morocco to Kamchatka and Japan. The species is widespread and common in most of Europe but becomes scarcer towards the south and is absent from most of the Mediterranean islands.

population:
This species is one of the most common dragonflies in Europe and occurs in large populations.

habitat:
This dragonfly is widespread and generally abundant in any kind of standing and most slow-flowing waters often with well developed vegetation. Its habitat preferences vary over the region.

threats:
Presently, there are no threats to this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). O. albistylum has a fairly large European range and is found in habitats which are not under threat. In recent decades it expanded its range northwards. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Orthetrum albistylum ranges from western Europe eastwards to Japan and mainly occupies the warmer parts of the temperate region of Europe and Asia. The species is reasonably widespread in eastern Europe where it occurs northwards to central Poland but has a small range in west Europe where it is largely confined to the southern two-thirds of France and northern Italy.The northern distribution within Europe seems to be determined to a large extent by the summer temperatures. An expansion of its range most probably due to the increased summer temperatures was noted in Switzerland, Poland and the German states of Baden-Württemberg and Bayern (Buczyński et al. 2002, Hunger et al. 2006, Monnerat 2005, Weihrauch et al. 2003).

population:
The species has a patchy distribution but is generally not uncommon within its European range. The populations are frequently large.

habitat:
The species is mostly found in largely unshaded, warm standing or slow-flowing waters. It frequently occurs at man-made waters like channels, quarries and ponds. The species is also often found at marshes, pools and oxbows in river systems.

threats:
The species does not face any major threats.

conservationAction:
The ecology of this species is still not well understood and more research is needed. No further conservation measures are needed at the moment.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Orthetrum brunneum is generally common in southern Europe and there are no reasons to assume that it is declining. The species is less abundant in Central Europe and has expanded its range northwards in the last two decades and this process is continuing. It inhabits a wide variety of habitats and in addition its pioneer behaviour allows it to rapidly colonize man-made aquatic habitats. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Orthetrum brunneum ranges from western Europe and the Maghreb to Central Asia and northeast China (Jödicke et al. 1997). It is common and widespread in large parts of southern Europe. It is scarcer in Central Europe but has in recent years expanded its range northwards up to Lithuania and Latvia (Bernard and Ivinskis 2004, Kalņinš 2008).

population:
This species is generally abundant in Mediterranean Europe. It is less abundant in Central Europe where its occurrence is naturally variable in the aspects of extent and abundance.

habitat:
The species is found at sunny brooks, slow-flowing rivers, and ditches, seepages and spring areas, pools, and gravel pits. It is mostly found at sites in early successional stages. It behaves as a pioneer species, which appears promptly at new, often man-made, habitats and often disappears as soon as the vegetation gets higher.

threats:
There are no major threats to this species at present. The species benefits from climate change and newly created habitats in the north of its range but may decline in parts of its southern range due to desiccation of streams.

conservationAction:
No specific actions are needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Orthetrum cancellatum is common and widespread across Europe and is not under any specific threat.

range:
Orthetrum cancellatum is a widespread European species which occurs eastwards over central Asia to the northern parts of China. It is found all over the European continent including the Mediterranean islands but is absent from the north of Britain and the northern half of Fennoscandia.

population:
This is one of the most common European species and frequently occurs in large populations.

habitat:
The species is found in largely unshaded standing or slow-flowing waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 assessment: Least Concern (LC). Orthertrum chrysostigma has a relatively small European range but it is common and not under pressure.

range:
Orthertrum chrysostigma is a very widespread and common species on the African continent and in Arabia. It is common in the Levant and from there reaches the southern coast of Turkey, Cyprus and the Greek Islands of Rhodes, Lesbos and Crete (two records only). In West Europe it is found in parts of Portugal and Spain where it reaches north as far as the Ebro delta. The species is likely to benefit from climate change and should be expected to colonise the south of France, Sicily and Sardinia.

population:
The species has a limited range in Europe but is often common when found.

habitat:
The species is found at both running and standing waters with a strong preference for those which are sunny and shallow.


taxonomicNotes:
Two subspecies of O. coerulescens are currently recognised: O. c. anceps (North Africa, Sardinia, the southern Balkans, southern Ukraine, and the Middle East) and O. c. coerulescens (northern, western and Central Europe). Males with intermediate characteristics were recorded in the Mediterranean region, Hungary and in the Balkans, where the two subspecies overlap (Askew 2004, Mauersberger 1994).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). Orthetrum coerulescens is widespread and locally abundant in Europe, with no evidence of decline. Therefore, the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Orthetrum coerulescens is a largely western Palaearctic species which is widespread in Europe and the Maghreb and extends to northwest India in the east (Mauersberger 1994) and southern Fennoscandia in the north. It is largely absent from the Baltic states and countries east of Poland.

population:
The species is widespread within its range and often abundant.

habitat:
The species is mostly found at largely unshaded, permanent, small, moderately overgrown, running waters like brooks, runnels or ditches. It inhabits also standing waters, springs, seepages near pools or heathland. The habitat preferences seem to vary across its range, for example, lakes in the north, peat bogs in the west, and intermittent rivers in the Mediterranean.

threats:
This species is currently not under threat, but is impacted by the increased demand for irrigation or drinking water. Groundwater extraction can lead to a decrease of the amount of seepage water. In the south and partly in the centre of its range the species is affected by climate change due to the desiccation of brooks and runnels. The abandonment of traditional use of ditches such as mowing and cleaning, leads to the species decline.

conservationAction:
The species does not require specific conservation actions at the moment. It is however one of several species inhabiting running waters that may be impacted in the long term by climate change and the increasing demand for water.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU). EU 27 assessment: Vulnerable (VU). The species is presumed to have increased in North Africa but records seem to indicate that it declined in the European part of its range. This can partially be explained by a lack of recent data from some regions (Sicily for instance). More research on its present distribution, population size and habitat is needed. It is inferred that this decline has been 30% or more in the last decade. The species is rare in Europe and might show a continuing decline in the next decades. Based on the number of populations presently known (less than 25) the number of mature individuals is probably less than 10,000, therefore the species is assessed as Vulnerable.

range:
Orthetrum nitidinerve is endemic to the Maghreb and southwest Europe. The species seems to be most common in the Maghreb, while in Europe it is found in Sicily, Sardinia, near Naples (Italy), Portugal and Spain with the exception of the more humid northwest (Boudot et al. 2009). Relatively few records from 1980 onwards are known for its European range suggesting that the species has declined.

population:
The species is rare in the European part of its range and only small numbers are seen.

habitat:
The species is found in standing but mostly flowing waters in rather arid areas. All records of O. nitidinerve from Tunisia presented by Jödicke et al. (2000) refer to running waters.

threats:
Regulation of rivers, water extraction and water pollution are the main threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Information on habitat, distribution and trends is scant. Therefore, fieldwork is needed to clarify the distribution and habitat requirements of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 assessment: Least Concern (LC). Orthertrum sabina has a very wide global range and only marginally occurs in Europe (Cyprus, Kos, Samos, Rhodos). In total, less than 20 European localities are known. It occupies a broad range of habitats and there is no indication that it may be declining and the species is therefore assessed as Least Concern in Europe.

range:
Orthertrum sabina is a very widespread and common oriental species, whose range extends to Australia and China. The westernmost populations are found in the Maghreb and along the Turkish Mediterranean coast. Its European distribution is limited to Cyprus and the Greek islands of Samos, Kos and Rhodos where less than 20 localities are known.

population:
The species is common and often abundant at the Turkish coast. Most European records (Cyprus, Kos, Samos and Rhodos) pertain to less than 10 individuals.

habitat:
The species inhabits all kind of unshaded standing and slow-flowing waters. It is found at channels, runnels, ponds and easily inhabits man made waters like ditches.


taxonomicNotes:
This small Orthetrum is mainly Asian in distribution and is replaced in Africa by its sister taxon Orthetrum kollmannspergeri Buchholz, 1959. All North African records of O. taeniolatum therefore need re-examination (Dumont & Veschuren 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC). EU 27 assessment: Least Concern (LC). Orthertrum taeniolatum is mainly an Asian species which just reaches Europe and occurs on the islands of Cyprus, Rhodos and Lesbos. The species is fairly common on these islands and there are no specific threats to its habitat. The species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Orthetrum taeniolatum is found in the Indian peninsula and Southwest Asia. It extends from the Indian subcontinent to the Middle East and reaches the Mediterranean coast in Israel, Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, and some Greek islands. Records south of Jordan and Israel need re-examination as these might belong to Orthetrum kollmannspergeri (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005, Dumont and Verschuren 2005). In Europe it is confined to Cyprus and the Greek islands of Rhodos and Lesbos (Boudot et al. 2009, Lopau and Adena 2002). The species might benefit from climate change.

population:
The species is generally common within its range. It is fairly common on the three European islands of Cyprus, Rhodos and Lesbos.

habitat:
O. taeniolatum is found at unshaded standing and slow-flowing waters.


