# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Hungarian Oak Quercus frainetto is found in deciduous forests throughout the eastern Mediterranean and southeast Europe. The population has suffered some declines in parts of its range as a result of exploitation and land degradation, but it remains a common widespread species; the threats it is facing are unlikely to cause widespread decline in the near future. Quercus frainetto woods are listed under the EU Habitats Directive and the species is present in a number of protected areas. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, stable population, and protective measures currently in place.

range:
Hungarian Oak ( Quercus frainetto ) is native to the Mediterranean and southeast Europe (RBG Kew 2012). Outside of Europe it is found in Asian Turkey (RBG Kew 2012). It is not native in Slovenia (Martinčič 2007), and is very probably not native in Hungary (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is present and native in Slovakia and the Czech Republic (Marhold and Hindák n.d., Danihelka et al. 2012). The species represents a relict occurrence on the northern limits of its distribution in southern Slovakia (Požgaj and Horváthová 1986).

population:
The total population size is unknown. It is common in Greece, although it has suffered declines (Fotelli et al. 2000). The population has declined and become fragmented in peninsular Italy (Abbate et al. 1990). It rarely occurs in Central Europe (V. Feráková and I. Hodálová pers. comm. 2013). It is widespread in Albania (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
This is a hardy deciduous tree which produces acorns. It has low tolerance to drought and high temperatures and requires well watered soils. It is found in deciduous forests of southeast Europe, but rarely occurs in Central Europe. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9280 " Quercus frainetto woods".

threats:
Agricultural practices in peninsular Italy have affected the distribution of this species, which was once continuous but is now fragmented due to long term human disturbance of the vegetation. The trees are also susceptible to changes in climatic conditions and are sensitive to drought and frost (Abbate et al. 1990). In Greece it has been threatened by extensive exploitation for wood and site degradation (Grigoriadis and Zagas 2005). Hybridization with Quercus virgiliana (and potentially other oak species) is an additional threat (V. Feráková and I. Hodálová pers. comm. 2013).

conservationAction:
This tree is listed as Data Deficient in Hungary due to uncertainties about its native/non-native status (Király 2007). It was listed as Data Deficient in Slovakia in 1999 (Čeřovský et al. 1999), but then reassessed as Vulnerable in 2001 (Feráková et al. 2001). It has again been listed as Vulnerable [VU A2e; B2a(i)b(iii)] on the recent update of the Slovakian Red List ( Eliáš et al. in prep.). It is a protected species in Slovakia, where it is also cultivated. The species hasn't been formally assessed in Greece, but can be considered Least Concern (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). It is found scattered in Natura 2000 woodland sites in Greece (Dimopoulos et al. 2006). Quercus frainetto woods are listed under the EU Habitats Directive (code 9280) (Bergmeier et al. 2010). There have been activities in Greece to extend the rotation in oak coppice forest for availability for carbon sequestration and wood production (Grigoriadis and Zagas 2005).

useAndTrade:
Hungarian Oak seeds can be eaten once the bitter tannins are leached out, by drying and grinding into a powder to use as a thickening agent or to mix with cereals for making bread; the roasted seed is a coffee substitute (Plants for a Future 2012). Any galls produced on the tree are strongly astringent and can be used in the treatment of haemorrhages, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, and can also be used as a dye (Plants for a Future 2012). The bark is a commercial source of tannin; the leaves, wood and galls also contain tannins, a mulch of dried leaves repels slugs and other garden pests, and the seed cups have been used as buttons (Plants for a Future 2012). In Greece it is used for reforestation on degraded lands for production of wood, nuts and food for all wildlife (Radoglou et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although this species suffers from habitat decline and diseases, it has a widespread European distribution and is included in protected areas in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Quercus petraea is native to temperate Asia and Europe and is also cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
The populations are slowly declining in parts of its range.

habitat:
A deciduous tree which can reach heights up to 40 metres, the largest of the European native broad-leaved trees, forming part of woodlands. It can be found on any type of substrate including stony ground and rock fissures but prefers well drained, shallow and slightly acidic soils. Unlike other Oak species the leaves are rarely eaten by insects or galled. Flowers appear with young leaves from April to May. It produces acorns and may hybridise with Quercus robur . Often a dominant species in upland oakwoods and deciduous woodland but is also planted and found in parks, gardens, urban areas, Trees are long lived and can persist up to 300 years. Seedlings are shade-tolerant and therefore it is able to regenerate in woodland better than other Quercus species (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al 1990, Forestry Commission 2012). This species forms part of several habitat types protected under the EC Habitats Directive, among others: 91A0 Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles 91G0 Pannonic woods with Quercus petraea and Carpinus betulus (priority habitat) 91M0 Pannonian-Balkanic turkey oak –sessile oak forests

threats:
Despite being a common species it faces several threats throughout its range. Clearance of native woodland for conifer plantations or habitation is a major threat as well as grazing from animals such as deer, squirrels and rabbits which strip the bark and browse for seedlings (JNCC 2012). There is a high risk from forest fires (European Commission 2012). A fungal disease known as Sudden Oak Death ( Phytophthora ramorum ) is potentially affecting populations throughout Europe although this disease has shown to be more damaging to other species. There are other Phytophthora fungi affecting oak trees causing sticky fluid bleeding from the bark and trunk (Forestry Commission 2010). Drought exposure is thought to be the underlying cause of previous oak dieback which makes them more susceptible to attack by insects (Forestry Commission 1999).

conservationAction:
Sessile Oak is characteristic of at least three habitat types protected under Annex I of the EC Habitats Directive and therefore receives some form of protection. It is listed as Endangered on the national red list of Belarus (Ermakova 2005) and as Rare in Lithuania (Caegory 3 - Rašomavičius 2007), but is considered Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In the United Kingdom, oak trees are surveyed and monitored for symptoms of acute oak decline (Forestry Commission 2010).

useAndTrade:
Oak timber is of great importance for wood production and is strong, hard and extremely endurable. It has many uses but is mostly used for its hardwood in construction, building ships, making furniture and as veneer and plywood. Oak sawdust is used for smoking food to give flavour (Forestry Commission 2012). Medicinally it is not of great importance but a decoction of the bark is useful in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, intermittent fevers and haemorrhages (Plants for a Future 2012). The oak bark can be cut and dried from fresh young branches and was applied topically to burns and wounds, or applied orally in gastritis or diarrhoea. Herbal preparations are made from the comminuted herbal substance, decoction, infusion, dry extract and powdered herbal substance present in combination products and in food supplements. Herbal substance or herbal preparations in solid or liquid dosage forms can be used orally or as a herbal tea. Herbal substance or comminuted herbal substance for decoction preparation can be used for oromucosal cutaneous or anorectal use. In the European Pharmacopoeia, it is described as the cut and dried bark of young branches and the lateral shoots which contain tannins. Its use is regulated in Belgium, France, Germany (European Medicines Agency 2010).


range:
Quercus robur is native to Europe, North Africa and temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is widespread and common throughout its native range although there have been local declines.

habitat:
Quercus robur is a large deciduous tree found in woods, high forests and coppice woodland, on a variety of soil types especially heavy fertile basic loams and clay. It is often a dominant species in upland oakwoods and deciduous woodland but is also planted and found in parks, gardens, urban areas and older trees are frequently pollarded. It is tolerant of waterlogging along fen margins. It produces acorns and may hybridise with Quercus petraea (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 1990). This species forms part of several habitat types protected under the EC Habitats Directive, among others: 9190 Old acidophilous oak woods with Quercus robur on sandy plains 91F0 Riparian mixed forests of Quercus robur , Ulmus laevis and Ulmus minor , Fraxinus excelsior or Fraxinus angustifolia , along the great rivers (Ulmenion minoris) 9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with Quercus robur and Quercus pyrenaica

conservationAction:
Quercus robur is characteristic of at least three habitat types protected under Annex I of the EC Habitats Directive and therefore receives some form of protection. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Oak timber is of great importance for wood production and is strong, hard and extremely endurable. It has many uses but is mostly used for its hardwood in construction, building ships, making furniture and as veneer and plywood. Oak sawdust is used for smoking food to give flavour (Forestry Commission 2012). The traditional herbal medicinal product is used for symptomatic treatment of mild diarrhoea and minor inflammation of the oral mucosa or skin. The oak bark can be cut and dried from fresh young branches and applied topically to burns and wounds, or applied orally in gastritis or diarrhoea. Herbal preparations are made from the comminuted herbal substance, decoction, infusion, dry extract and powdered herbal substance present in combination products and in food supplements. Herbal substance or herbal preparations in solid or liquid dosage forms can be used orally or as a herbal tea. Herbal substance or comminuted herbal substance for decoction preparation can be used for oromucosal cutaneous or anorectal use. In the European Pharmacopoeia, it is described as the cut and dried bark of young branches and the lateral shoots which contain tannins. Its use is regulated in Belgium, France, Germany (European Medicines Agency 2010a,b).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) that is much greater than the values needed for a threatened category, and it is present throughout the Mediterranean coasts of southern Europe. The area of occupancy (AOO) and population are also inferred to exceed these thresholds. It is suspected that the population is relatively stable and is not currently, nor has been recently, subject to any significant declines. It is assessed as Least Concern in the European Region and within the EU27.

range:
This species has a native range extending from the Mediterranean to south-central China (Govaerts 2014) and is widely introduced and cultivated elsewhere, including the Azores (Lansdown 2012). Greuter et al. (1984) reported that in Europe it occurs in most countries around the Mediterranean seaboard and on all the larger Mediterranean islands.

population:
There are many records of occurrence for this species, several thousand records for Spain alone (GBIF 2013). This shrub is reported to be common throughout Crete (Fielding and Turland 2005). This infers a large overall population size

habitat:
This evergreen, often multi-stemmed, shrub, or small tree (two to five meters in height) is commonly found along the margins of rivers and watercourses. In drier habitats it can be found in gullies that are seasonally wet (Fielding and Turland 2005). It flowers between May and September and the seeds are dependent on a good supply of water for optimal germination and young seedlings are very sensitive to drought (Herrera 1991). This shrub is poisonous to many animals, including humans, and also generally unpalatable to grazing animals. Some insect species are known to feed on it, for example, a Sphingid moth ( Daphnis nerii ) and an aphid ( Aphis nerii ) (Herrera 1991).

threats:
In some areas sub-populations may be threatened on a local scale, for example by building developments. However, these are threats are suspected to be at a local scale only, with no significant impacts on the overall population size.

conservationAction:
This species is found within established conservation areas such as the Donana National Park and Guadiamar Green Corridor in Spain (Ontiveros et al. 2013). It is widely cultivated and is also grown ex situ in botanic gardens. It is known to be conserved in the Forest Seed Bank of the Generalitat Valenciana (Martinez 2013).

useAndTrade:
This species is widely used and cultivated as an ornamental shrub. This species is very toxic to humans and livestock, as it contains cardiac glycosides. Although this plant is poisonous, products made from it were used as herbal medicine in ancient times. Steam from boiled leaves is inhaled to relieve sinusitis, pounded leaves are applied to the skin to relieve itching, ulcers and tumours (Jongbloed 2003); the leaves are used as an insecticide. Drugs derived the leaves have, more recently, been investigated as a treatment for cancer but with little reported success (American Cancer Society 2008). Its sap has been used as rat poison (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2013) and it has been used to produce an insecticide (Polunin 1969).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This widespread species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) that greatly exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. The area of occupancy (AOO) and population are also inferred to exceed these values and there are suspected to be no significant overall declines in population. It is assessed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU27.

range:
This plant is considered native in much of Europe (not found in northern Scandinavia and European Russia) and the Caucasus and its range extends into eastern Turkey (Pignatti 1982, Govaerts 2014, GRIN 2014). The species' natural range is obscured in Europe by historical introductions, but is considered an archaeophyte in most parts of its European range (e.g., United Kingdom, where first record of cultivation was in 995; Preston et al. 2002). The species has been introduced and naturalized elsewhere, for example, it is considered a category 2 invasive species in Ontario, Canada (Cymbaly 2007).

population:
This plant is a widespread species, for example, it is reported from almost all of France (Tela Botanica 2013). Several thousand records, for Germany alone, are listed in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2014). The population is inferred to be very large and stable.

habitat:
This is a spreading, perennial, evergreen plant, which roots at the stem nodes and can form large clonal colonies. The five petaled blue-violet flowers occur singly in the leaf axils. It flowers in spring. It is found in deciduous forest in partial shade on a variety of soils. It grows in lowlands and in hills and is widespread in woodlands. It is also found in hedgerows, banks and more open shrubby habitats.

threats:
There are not thought to be any major threats to this widespread and common species.

conservationAction:
This species is found within protected areas, for example the Natural Park of Serra de São Mamede in Portugal (Camejo-Rodrigues et al. 2004). It is cultivated ex situ in Botanic Gardens and germplasm is stored, for example, in the Woody Landscape Plant Germplasm Repository Maryland U.S.A. (GRIN 2014). In Europe, at present, no specific conservation actions are needed for this species, and it occurs within Natura 2000 sites.

useAndTrade:
This is considered to be an excellent ground cover plant, particularly for shaded areas, and is widely cultivated. It is a medicinal plant that has been used in European folk medicine to treat cerebral and memory disorders and a variety of other ailments such as constipation and bleeding (Grieve 1931, Plants for a Future 2012). It is reported to contain more than 50 alkaloids which have been shown to have a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect (Khanavi et al. 2010). A pharmaceutical drug Vincamine derived from the leaves of this species is marketed as a peripheral vasodilator that increases blood flow to the brain (Caymen Chemical 2013). The stems are also reportedly used in basket making (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Centaurium erythraea is native to North Africa, temperate Asia and Europe. It has also become naturalised in Macaronesia, Australasia, North and South America, the Pacific Islands and the Caribbean. This plant is cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is a widespread and common species and sometimes considered a weed.

habitat:
A biennial, rarely annual, herb found in a wide range of disturbed grassy habitats, chalk and limestone grassland, heathland,woodland margins, open scrub, dunes, quarries and mountain slopes growing on dry or well drained mildly acid or calcareous soils. It flowers from June to September (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Talavera et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. This plant is included in the following national red lists: Rare in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Vulnerable in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It is used in traditional medicine as herbal preparations made from comminuted or powdered herbal substance, liquid extract, tincture and soft extract. The comminuted herbal substance can be taken as a herbal tea or other herbal preparations for mild dyspeptic/gastrointestinal disorders and temporary loss of appetite. Centaurii herba consists of the whole or fragmented dried flowering aerial parts of Centaurium erythraea usually in combination with other Centaurium species. Due to the occurrence of the very bitter secoiridoid esters centapicrin and desacetylcentapicrin, fruits are more bitter than the flowers, leaves and stems. Swertiamarin is the major component in all parts of C. erythraea . It has been used for many decades in the European Union for the relief of digestive complaints (peptic discomfort) and lack of appetite. Centaurii herba was also used for the treatment of diabetes, snakebites, malaria, wounds and as an antipyretic, tonic and sedative (European Medicines Agency 2008, 2009). Externally, the fresh green herb is said to be a good application to wounds and sores. A homoeopathic remedy is made from the plant used in the treatment of liver and gall bladder ailments (Plants for a Future 2012). This plant yields a yellowish-green dye (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern as although it is threatened in parts of its range, it has stable populations in other parts and is unlikely to decline severely in the near future. The overall risk of extinction is low.

range:
Gentiana acaulis is endemic to Europe and found in montane areas in Central and southern Europe. It occurs in the Carpathian Mountains, in the northern Balkan Peninsula, Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees, Cantabrian Mountains and in the Sistema Ibérico (Talaveras et al. 2012).

population:
The overall trend of the European population is difficult to determine. It is threatened and probably declining in some countries, but of Least Concern in others. It has been described as one of the most common alpine and sub-alpine Gentian species in Central Europe by other sources (Badarau and Malos 2011).

habitat:
Gentiana acaulis is a herb that grows in alpine grassland, shrubland, rocky places and forest clearings, on acidic soil (Talaveras et al. 2012, Klotz et al. 2002, Peev and Vladimirov 2011).

threats:
In Bulgaria, collection of the species has been reported as a threat as well as disturbance by tourists and grazing (Peev and Vladimirov 2011). No other information about threats is available.

conservationAction:
This species is protected at national level in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010) and Bulgaria (Peev and Vladimirov 2011), and regionally protected in France and Switzerland. It is listed in the following national Red Lists:  Regionally Extinct in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Peev and Vladimirov 2011) Vulnerable in Germany (level 3 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002)  Some of the Bulgarian sites are included in a national park and in a Natura 2000 site. Seeds for ex situ preservation are collected in Bulgaria (Peev and Vladimirov 2011).

useAndTrade:
The root of this species, gentian root, has various medicinal properties similar to Gentiana lutea (Plants For A Future 2012). Gentian root is prepared as a dry or liquid extract, a tincture or comminuted herbal substance. It is traditionally used in mild dyspeptic and gastrointestinal disorders as well as to treat loss of appetite (European Medicines Agency 2009). It is likely to be used for ornamental purposes.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species has a widespread distribution in Europe and although there is no information on major threats or the population trend, it is clearly stated as not threatened in parts of its range and has even been described as common in Romania. It is therefore classed as Least Concern for the European region.

range:
This plant is found in the mountain ranges of Central and southern Europe (Info Flora 1994-2012). It extends its distribution into Iran and Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
There is no information on the overall population trend of this species available. It has been described as common from Romania (Badarau and Malos 2011).

habitat:
This plant is a perennial herb that is found in forests, pastures and grasslands including commercially used grasslands ( Molinio-Arrhenatheretea ), forest grassland ecotones ( Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei ), alpine-montane tall herb and small-reed communities ( Stellario nemorum-Geranietea sylvatici ), subalpine-alpine green alder and willow communities ( Betulo carpaticae-Alnetea viridis ), mesophilous summer-green deciduous forests ( Carpino-Fagetea ), snow-heather pine-forests ( Erico-Pinetea ) (Klotz et al. 2002, Info Flora 1994-2012).

threats:
There is no information on the threats to this species available.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Vulnerable in Hungary (Király 2007) and at national level in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), however it is not considered threatened on the regional Red List of Bavaria which is the region that holds the majority of the German populations (Ahlmer 2010). It is listed as Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It receives protection at regional level in at least France (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2012), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010) and Switzerland (Info Flora 1994-2012).

useAndTrade:
Gentian root is prepared as a dry or liquid extract, a tincture or comminuted herbal substance. It is traditionally used in mild dyspeptic and gastrointestinal disorders as well as to treat loss of appetite (European Medicines Agency 2009). It is used for ornamental purposes (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Gentiana cruciata is a rare plant, found in low densities and has low regeneration potential. It grows predominantly on grazed or managed nutrient-poor calcareous grassland, a habitat that has become increasingly fragmented as a result of land use and management practices. This habitat type is a conservation priority under Natura 2000 and this species is currently protected in 187 Natura 2000 sites. It is threatened by habitat loss and degradation though lack of adequate management and is also collected in the wild for medicinal use. It is currently threatened in 9 of the 30 countries where it is present in Europe, and 7 out of 19 EU Member states, though it is protected or its collection from the wild regulated by law in several countries. Athough both the species and its habitat are declining, G. cruciata remains a widespread species throughout Europe.


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread and protected in parts of its range and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough across Europe to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists. Further information on its cultivation and harvest quantities for medicinal use is required, as well as its population status in the countries where it has not been assessed on national Red Lists.


Changes in land use and management practices in Central Europe are needed to preserve the calcareous grassland habitats this and many other species require.

range:
Gentiana cruciata is found throughout Central and Eastern Europe and western Siberia (Kéry et al . 2001, Marhold 2011). It is described from elevations up to 2,900 metres above sea level in Bulgaria (Assyov and Petrova 2006).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown but it has been described as rare. Kéry et al . (2001) found most subpopulations in the Swiss and French Jura mountains to be very small, though these are probably relicts of once larger populations. In Bulgaria, the species is present throughout except in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the country; populations are very dispersed and at low density. In Estonia and Latvia it is also sparsely distributed (Lipman 2009). The species is rare in the Czech Republic, found in only 6-20 localities, and is declining (Grulich 2012). Significant declines have been reported in Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002).

habitat:
A low to short tufted perennial herb with blue flowers found on semi natural habitats such as extensively managed, grazed or mown and nutrient-poor calcareous grassland and dry grassy habitats. It is also found on abandoned pastures, Pannonic meadow steppes and fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (European Environment Agency 2010). It is self compatible but produces very few seeds in the absence of pollinators such as bees, hoverflies and butterflies (Kéry et al. 2001). The endangered butterfly Maculinea rebeli is a specialist herbivore on this species (Kéry et al. 2001).

threats:
In Central Europe, calcareous grassland habitats have become increasingly fragmented due to changes in land use and management, causing the populations of species dependent on this habitat to become small and isolated (Kéry et al . 2001). In the EU, the total area of grassland declined by 12% between 1975 and 1998; there is a lack of adequate management in these habitats, such as cutting and grazing, as well as other threats such as abandonment, afforestation and succession (Calaciura and Spinelli 2008). Increasing demand for raw material of up to 1,500 tons of roots (of Gentian spp) has caused significant damage to the habitat (Hayta et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
It is listed as Near Threatened in Hungary where it is a protected species (Király 2007, Baričevič et al. 2004), Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) and the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000), Vulnerable in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It is also Vulnerable in Lithuania, where only one accession was collected in the Vilnius district in 2003 and collection from the wild is regulated by law as raw material is deficient (Rašomavičius 2007, Lipman 2009, Baričevič et al. 2004). It is Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012) and Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). In Europe, semi-natural grasslands are considered a priority for conservation and are listed under Natura 2000 (Calaciura and Spinelli 2008). It is protected in Germany under the Federal Nature Conservation Act.

This species is protected over a large area as it occurs in many Natura 2000 sites: thirteen sites in Italy, nine in Hungary, thirteen in Greece, eight in France, two in Spain, thirty-one sites in Germany, twelve in Latvia, twelve in Lithuania, fifty-five in Poland, two in Romania, twenty-four in Slovakia and six in Belgium (European Environment Agency 2010). The whole genus Gentiana was legally protected in Croatia and noted in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). The conservation of the specialist herbivore butterfly Maculinea rebeli requires the conservation of large Gentiana cruciata populations (Kéry et al. 2001).

Further information on its cultivation and harvest quantities for medicinal use is required, as well as its population status in the countries where it has not been assessed on national Red Lists. Changes in land use and management practices in Central Europe are needed to preserve the calcareous grassland habitats this and many other species require.

useAndTrade:
Gentian roots have been used for their stomachic and sedative effects (Hayta et al. 2011). There are significant resources of this species in Bulgaria. In Serbia there is a quota in force (Lipman 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low. However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and the main threat is still overharvesting of this medicinal plant - adequate measures to prevent this are needed and the populations should be continuously monitored.

range:
Gentiana lutea is an element of montane-subalpine deciduous and coniferous forests of European mountain ranges. This species is mainly found in the Balkans, middle and southern Europe, Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians and Minor Asia (Turkey). It is native to many European countries: Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, France (mainland and Corsica), Greece, Italy (mainland and Sardinia), Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In France, it is found in at least 60 localities (rest of the data are not clear). It has a scattered distribution in north western and central Greece. It can be found in the northern and central mountain range of Italy and in Sardinia and Sicily at more than 500 localities. In Slovenia, it has been reported from three localities, it is widespread in the western part of the country and scattered elsewhere. In Spain, it occurs at 120 - 122 localities. In Switzerland, Gentiana lutea is found in the Alps and Jura at many sites. In Ukraine, it grows in the Chornogora, Gorgany, Svidivec and Marnaroski Alpy mountain massifs of the Carpathians.

population:
The population trend in the Balkans, where most of the European populations are found, is declining, especially in Bosnia, Albania and Montenegro. In the other European countries the populations are stable as they are not collected in the wild. The subpopulations are isolated and severely fragmented and there is very little seed exchange between them. The species is confined to mountain slopes. It is mainly found in isolated patches with a few individuals. The Balkan populations declined by c. 30% in the last 15 years. In France, the populations are mainly stable but may be in decline in some places at low altitude. The situation is similar in Italy, where the populations are stable but there are local declines e.g. in Sardinia from collection. The Slovenian populations are stable, and in Switzerland, it is widespread, stable or even increasing as people used to collect it and this collection has ceased. In the past the area occupied by Gentiana lutea was bigger in the Ukraine than it is now. It occupied all the Carpathians high mountains from Gorgany to Chivehiny mountain massifs. Now, isolated populations occupy 10-15 m² and the total area of this species in the Ukrainian Carpathians is only 167 ha.

habitat:
It is a perennial single stem species with yellow flowers at the tip. Flowers first time in the third year of its life. It occurs in the mountains at high altitude and prefers calcareous soils in meadows. This species grows in glades of humid pine forests, rocky and shaded grasses. It does not stand high temperature and needs high precipitation. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): 4030 European dry heaths 4060 Alpine and Boreal heaths 5120 Mountain Cytisus purgans formations 6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands 6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareoussubstrates ( Festuco-Brometalia ) 6230 Species-rich Nardus grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe) 6520 Mountain hay meadows In Ukraine it grows in shrubland with Pinus mugo, Juniperus sibirica, Duschekia alnobetula and in herbaceous communities dominated by Nardus stricta .

threats:
Overharvesting of the wild populations for medicinal and food purposes is the main threat to the species. Furthermore, the  modification of cultivation practices including an increased use of fertilisers and the abandonment of pastoral systems that leads to vegetation succession, are impacting this species. Locally, the conversion of shrubland and grassland into forest plantations leads to habitat loss. Overgrazing and recreational activities are further local threats.

conservationAction:
Gentiana lutea is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive and under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, bark and fruits are subject to this regulation. In several countries, e.g. Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Montenegro, Italy, Slovenia, special collection permits are required from the government. In Serbia and Croatia, the collection of this species is forbidden. It is recommended to replace wild collections by increasing cultivation of the species, to control the harvesting and maintain traditional agriculture. Measures at national level are in place for various countries, for example: France: Listed in la liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Champagne-Ardenne (21) (Arrêté du 8 février 1988) and listed as protected species in 7 Départements (Alpes-Maritimes, Haute-Corse, Alpes-de-Haute-de-Provence, Jura, Corse-du-Sud, Corse-du-Sud, Haute-Corse). Germany: It is listed as Vulnerable (level 3) on the national red list (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and is under national protection. Greece: It is protected under the Presidential Decree 67/81, and found in seven Natura 2000 sites Italy: It is partially included in parks and Natura 2000 sites. In Sardinia, a project to recover the population is underway. Slovenia: It was formerly protected by law and is listed as Vulnerable in the national red list (Čušin et al. 2004). Serbia: It is estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). Switzerland: Classed as Least Concern in the national red list (Moser et al. 2002), partially included in protected areas. Ukraine: It is included in the Red Data Book (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable, and protected in the Carpathian reserve, Carpathian national park, in Apchineckij zakaznik.

useAndTrade:
The roots of G. lutea are used for medicinal purposes and to produce liquor. It is put in alcohol to remove the bitter taste. Medicinally it is mainly used for treatment of digestive complaints (World Health Organization 2007). In France, 2,500 tonnes are being collected in the Massif Central (CBN Massif Central 2010).

redListAssessors:
Melnyk, V., Gygax, A., Montagnani, C., Jogan, N., Gigot, G., and Bazos, I.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Hungarian Gentian, Gentiana pannonica, is a rare plant with a restricted distribution in the Eastern Alps and Bohemian Forest. Sub-populations are isolated and the regeneration of the population is limited due to land use changes, particularly abandonment of pastures; populations in secondary habitats show reduced genetic variability, which may affect the ability of the species to adapt to changing conditions in future. Changes in land use have also resulted in declines in the quality and quantity of available habitat. It has been threatened by exhaustive over-collection for its use in the past; it remains unclear if its collection still continues or if it exists in cultivation. The species is threatened in four out of six countries in which it occurs (Austria, Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland). It is very rare in Italy, where it is known from only one locality; subpopulations in Slovenia are not declining. The population is declining in parts of its range, but stable in others, and it is not known whether overall decline rates approach or exceed 30%. Given its restricted and scattered distribution, the area of occupancy (AOO) may be less than 2,000 km²; it occurs in more than 10 locations but may be considered severely fragmented, as subpopulations are scattered and isolated and seedling establishment limited.


The overall population decline has not been quantified and as the plant has a clonal structure, it is difficult to determine the generation length. It is also difficult to estimate the number of mature individuals, as this species can remain inconspicuous for relatively long periods of time. Based on population surveys across much of its range in the eastern Alps, the population size may be quite low (perhaps as low as 10,000-15,000 mature individuals), but this cannot be confirmed with the information available. This species is listed as Near Threatened, nearly meeting B2ab(iii,v), in both Europe and the EU 27. More precise estimates of its distribution are required to measure AOO with more certainty. It is also strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all the data is available. It may then require a higher threat category.

range:
Hungarian Gentian, Gentiana pannonica, is restricted to central Europe (Hofhanzlová and Křenová 2007, Marhold 2011, Ekrtová and Košnar 2012, Ekrtova et al. 2012). The centre of its distribution is in the Eastern Alps in Austria, Germany and Slovenia; it also occurs sporadically in the southern and central Alps (Italy and Switzerland) at elevations over 1,000 metres. In Germany it is found in two small, distinct areas: on the southern border with Austria in the Alps, and a smaller area on the eastern border with the Czech Republic (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In Italy it is known from one locality, and in Slovenia it is found in several localities. Outside the Alps, it is scattered in the Bohemian Forest in the border region of the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria (though most localities are situated in the Czech part of the mountains), and is rare in the Giant Mountains and the Jesenıky Mountains (Hofhanzlová and Křenová 2007, Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). The latter two occurrences are sometimes considered to be remnants of former cultivations and thus introduced, but it may indeed be native to the Giant Mountains (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012).

population:
In the primary habitats in the Eastern Alps and the Bohemian Forest, Hungarian Gentian occurs in isolated mountain ranges in small and often distant clusters, with few plants scattered over wide areas. It is only found in numerous subpopulations in the secondary habitats of the Bohemian Forest. The populations in the Giant Mountains are very small (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). The populations of G. pannonica in the Bohemian Forest are isolated from each other and seedlings are rare, though vegetative propagation continues (Hofhanzlová and Křenová 2007). Subpopulations have been considered threatened but stable in central Europe, where declines are balanced out by increases (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). A survey carried out during 2000-2001 in the Czech Republic, at a study site in the centre of the species’ distribution in the Bohemian Forest , found the subpopulation size to be about 400 leaf rosettes (clumps) over 9 ha, with about 300 ﬂowering stems (Hofhanzlová and Křenová 2007). In Italy it is very rare (Lipman 2009). In Switzerland, there are fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and the subpopulation is declining (Moser et al. 2002). It occurs in no more than 20 localities in the Czech Republic and a few subpopulations have become extinct, though the extant subpopulations are not clearly declining (Grulich 2012). The total number of individuals sampled from twenty subpopulations in fifteen localities in Austria and the Czech Republic was more than 3,265 leaf rosettes and polycormons (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). In Austria, the main subpopulation in the Alps is not declining, though there are small declining subpopulations in the north-east border with the Czech Republic; it is not reportedly declining in Slovenia (K.-G. Bernhardt pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Hungarian Gentian is a long-lived hemicryptophyte (a plant with perennial buds situated at or just below the soil surface) that spreads mainly by clonal growth; it is self-compatible, though mainly out-crosses, and is pollinated by bumble bees. It is a sub-Alpine species that colonizes both the primary (relict) and the secondary (semi-natural) habitats near the timberline (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). It is typical of the east-Alpine flora, found in primary habitats in Alpine and sub-Alpine areas growing on calcareous and silicone bedrock in tall-forb vegetation and grasslands, mixed with scrubs of Pinus mugo or Alnus alnobetula ; it is very rare in secondary treeless habitats in the Alps (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). In the Bohemian Forest in the Czech Republic, the species occupies tall-grass and tall-forb vegetation in the cirques of glacial lakes, stream banks and secondary montane meadows (Hofhanzlová and Fér 2009); regeneration is lower here than in primary habitats due to unfavourable conditions caused by long term lack of grazing disturbances (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). Successful seedling recruitment is limited by several factors. Ekrtová and Košnar (2012) found that seedling recruitment was only successful in primary habitats and stream banks in secondary habitats. A high abundance of the herb layer in the secondary montane meadows may be an important factor that prevents successful seedling emergence; in addition, intensity of competition limits establishment and survival of seedlings, while sufficient soil moisture is required for seedling recruitment.

threats:
Land use changes, particularly abandonment of pastures, meadows and heaths, prevents seedling establishment and has reduced the regeneration of the population (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). Low-intensity grazing is important as it repeatedly disturbs the vegetation cover, creates spots of open bare soil, reduces strong competitors in grasslands, and prevents forest establishment. This species has been exhaustively collected on a large scale by professional root diggers for its use, particularly during the 19th century, with collection of up to 200 kg of roots per collector daily (Aubert et al. 2007). Intrapopulation genetic variation is lower in secondary habitats (where recent conditions seem to be unsuitable for spontaneous seedling recruitment) than in primary habitats, though there is still considerable clone diversity in these sites; this decreased genetic diversity may have resulted from historical processes, such as isolation and population density reduction, followed by bottlenecks during the Holocene (Ekrtová and Košnar 2012). Even if declines in genetic diversity occurred historically, these can limit the species' ability to adapt to changing conditions into the future.

conservationAction:
This plant is classified as Endangered in the Czech Republic due to rarity and loss of subpopulations (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012). It is also listed as Endangered in Switzerland (EN C2a; Moser et al. 2002), and is threatened (3: gefährdet) in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is listed as endangered on the Austrian Red List, due to declines in the small populations near the border with the Czech Republic (K.-G. Bernhardt pers. comm. 2013). It is protected in Germany under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is only protected in one Natura 2000 site in Austria (European Environment Agency 2010). Seed is stored in the Germplasm Bank of the Department of Land Ecology of the University of Pavia in Italy (Lipman 2009). The conservation of Hungarian Gentian in its secondary habitats requires the management of succession; restoration of the traditional land use is necessary, particularly for maintaining this species in its secondary habitats ( Ekrtová and Košnar 2012).

useAndTrade:
A medicinal and aromatic plant, like many other species of Gentiana , this species is rich in bitter-tasting secoiridoid glucosides, which are applied in the treatment of gastrointestinal tract diseases. The roots are applied as a decoction, extract or tincture (Lipman 2009, Skrzypczak et al. 1993). Gentian roots have also been collected for use as medicine and for aromatic preparation of alcoholic drinks (Hofhanzlová and Křenová 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


It is classified as Least Concern because although it is rare it is relatively widespread in Europe. Populations are decreasing and its habitat is threatened but  this is unlikely to cause a fast enough decline to qualify for listing in a more threatened category in the near future.

range:
Gentiana pneumonanthe is an Eurasiatic sub-oceanic species, distributed in Europe from southern Scandinavia to northern Portugal and eastward into Russia.

population:
Gentiana pneumonanthe is rather rare and sparsely distributed over its entire range (Raijmann et al. 1985, Rameau et al. 1989-1993). It is particularly rare around the Mediterranean basin.

habitat:
Gentiana pneumonanthe is a mesohygrophilous long-lived, diploid, herbaceous, perennial species that grows on wet soils. It grows in wet meadows (e.g. Molinion caerulae ), acidic grassland, peaty marshes, peatlands, swamps (e.g. Alnion glutinosae ), wet heaths and open wet forests (e.g. Alno-Padion ). It can be found on enriched soils and benefits from grazing or light burning (Preston et al. 2002, Sampaio 1988). In the Mediterranean region it is restricted to mountains and cold situations.

threats:
This species is mainly threatened with local extinctions as a result of the general destruction, degradation and draining of wetlands, soil eutrophication, lowering of the groundwater level, and changes in small-scale agricultural land-use, such as grazing. There is not only a decrease in the total number of populations, but the average number of individuals per population is declining as well (Raijmann et al. 1985).

conservationAction:
G. pneumonanthe is included in several national red lists: Endangered in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007); Vulnerable in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (category 3+ - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002); Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007) and the Netherlands (Meijden 2000); Rare in Estonia (Lilleleht 2008); Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). G. pneumonanthe is protected in France at regional level (Alsace, Bourgogne, Centre, Franche-Comté, Limousin, Lorraine, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Rhône-Alpes) and at a departmental level (Isère, Dordogne, Gironde, Haute-Savoie) (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2012). G. pneumonanthe ssp. depressa is classed as Vulnerable in the Spanish Red List ( Moreno 2008).

useAndTrade:
Gentiana pneumonanthe has been used to treat pulmonary diseases. The flowers provide a blue dye (Plants For A Future 2012).

redListAssessors:
Ben Saad, S., Bilz, M., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Ghrabi, Z. & Muller, S.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Gentiana punctata is a medicinal and aromatic plant endemic to the Alps and other mountain ranges in central and southeastern Europe. Its population status is not entirely clear; it is rare and/or declining in several countries, but has been reported as stable across central Europe, where population declines are apparently balanced out by equivalent increases. It is threatened in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Serbia, but benefits from protection and bans or regulations in all of those countries except Czech Republic, plus several others. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, it occurs in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.

range:
Gentiana punctata is endemic to the Alps and other mountain ranges in central and south-eastern Europe, where it is found at elevations above 1,500 metres (Lipman 2009, Marhold 2011).

population:
The number of individuals is not known. In Bulgaria it is said to be very restricted with low density; detailed studies from 2001-2011 have shown declines and even extinction of some populations (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 2011). It is rare in Italy (Lipman 2009). It is also rare in the Czech Republic, where it occurs at fewer than five localities and 1-2 subpopulations are known to have become extinct, though the extant subpopulations are not clearly declining (Grulich 2012). In Albania, it is known from only one locality in Cerem (Tropoja District), with less than 1000 individuals (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). The population in Central Europe has been considered stable, as declines are balanced out by equivalent increases (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012).

habitat:
This is a rhizomatous perennial herbaceous plant found in Alpine grassland, pastures and scrub in siliceous bedrock, often on very steep slopes (Kozuharova and Anchev 2006, Lipman 2009).

threats:
This species is threatened by collection as a medicinal plant for personal use and for export (as the whole plant is dug out for the roots), active development of mountain tourism, road construction, low reproductive output, low survival rate of seedlings and delayed flowering and threat from fires (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 2011).    Encroachment of calcareous grasslands   and heathland use were threats to the species in Germany prior to 1988, and could still be threats elsewhere in its range today (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012).

conservationAction:
Gentiana punctata is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012), and is is assessed as Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii); C2a(i) in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 2011). It is Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and threatened in Germany (classification 3: gefährdet), where it is protected on the    Federal Nature Conservation Act   (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is considered to be Vulnerable in Serbia where there is a quota in force (Lipman 2009). Its use in Bulgaria is banned and it is protected in Montenegro (     “Official Gazette SRCG”, No. 36/82) and Switzerland. It is listed as a priority species for ex situ micropropagation and has been established in in vitro propagation;           three accessions have been deposited in the National Gene Bank of Serbia and Montenegro (Lipman 2009, Vinterhalter et al. 1998). In Bulgaria it is protected by the National Biodiversity Act and located within Natura 2000                                 sites (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 2011). The whole genus Gentiana has been legally protected in Croatia and noted in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). This species is found in four Natura 2000 sites in Greece, one in Austria, five in Bulgaria, forty four in Italy, two in Poland, three in Slovakia and six in Romania (European Environment Agency 2010). It has been identified as a target species for the SEEDNet Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group (Lipman et al. 2009).

useAndTrade:
A medicinal and aromatic plant, like many other species of Gentiana the plant is rich in bitter-tasting secoiridoid glucosides which are applied in the treatment of gastrointestinal tract diseases. The roots are applied as a decoction, extract or tincture (Skrzypczak et al . 1993, Lipman 2009). It is sold on the Serbian market and not known to be in cultivation (Baričevič et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Gentiana purpureais assessed as Least Concern as it has stable populations in Norway and Switzerland which hold the biggest part of the global population. The root of this species is used for medicine and collection has been reported as a threat in parts of its range.

range:
This plant is a European endemic that is confined to Scandinavia and the Alps (Info Flora 1994-2012). The majority of its population is found in Norway and Switzerland. It has been reported from one site in Sweden (ArtDatabanken 2010). The species is extremely rare in Germany and is only found at the foot of the Alps in Bavaria (Ahlmer 2010). It is found in northern Italy and France.

population:
The populations in Norway present around 50% of this species global population and are stable (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Sweden, it is known from one site with ca . 1,000 rosettes which represent only around 20 mature individuals. The populations are assumed to be stable (ArtDatabanken 2010).

habitat:
This perennial herb is found on alpine and sub-alpine shrubland, pastures and grassland with tall forbs and Green Alder ( Alnus viridus ) (Info Flora 1994-2012, Klotz et al. 2002). The Swedish locality is near small streams and marshland (ArtDatabanken 2010). This plant has a bitter taste and is therefore not being eaten by animals. Grazing has a positive effect on this species as it controls encroachment and out-competing by other plants (Artsdatabanken 2010).

threats:
Collection of the root due to its medicinal properties has been reported as a threat from Norway and can be assumed to be a threat in the other countries too.

conservationAction:
Gentiana purpurea is listed as Critically Endangered in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and as Rare in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). It is classed as Least Concern on the national red lists Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). The plant is protected in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010) and fully or partially protected at regional level in Switzerland (Info Flora 1994-2012).

useAndTrade:
The root of this species, gentian root, has various medicinal properties similar to Gentiana lutea (Plants For A Future 2012). Gentian root is prepared as a dry or liquid extract, a tincture or comminuted herbal substance. It is traditionally used in mild dyspeptic and gastrointestinal disorders as well as to treat loss of appetite (European Medicines Agency 2009).


taxonomicNotes:
Erodium foetidum belongs to a taxonomically very complex group (Alarcón et al. 2012), which has traditionally been treated in very different ways. We accept here several subspecies (or microspecies) that are found in eastern Spain. E. foetidum subsp. foetidum (incl. E. crispum Lapeyr.) is the only one with a very restricted area and it can be considered to be threatened (all the rest are not, including subsp. celtibericum (Pau) O. Bolòs & Vigo (= E. celtibericum Pau) in the east, subsp. valentinum (Lange) O. Bolòs & Vigo (= E. valentinum (Lange) Greuter & Burdet) in the southeast, and subsp. cheilanthifoium (Boiss.) O. Bolòs & Vigo (= E. cheilanthifolium Boiss.) in the south. An additional subsp. antariense (Rouy) O. Bolòs & Vigo from northern Africa is considered a valid species ( E. antariense (Rouy) Batt.) here, following Alarcón et al. (2012) who found E. antariense to be closer to E. glandulosum than to E. foetidum , however it is retained as a subspecies of E. foetidum by others (e.g., African Plants Database 2012, Aldasoro et al. 2009). Erodium subsection Petraea includes six morphologically distinct species: E. antariense, E. rodiei, E. paularense, E. glandulosum, E. foetidum (endemic to Europe, within which could be recognized three subspecies) and E. rupestre . Two of them ( E. antariense and E. rodiei ) are separated from the rest by large geographic distances (Alarcón et al. 2012; L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014). For a general discussion on the group and distribution maps of the related taxa see Bolòs and Vigo (1990), Guittonneau et al. (1991), and Alarcón et al. (2012); M.B. Crespo pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


In Europe, the species is restricted to southern France and the eastern parts of Spain. Whilst the area of occupancy (AOO) can not be estimated, the species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) that greatly exceeds the threshold for a threatened category, there is no evidence of widespread threats. The species is considered Least Concern. Further taxonomic study is required to resolve the identity of the various subspecies.

range:
The species in the wider sense, as considered here, is native to southern France (Languedoc-Roussillon, with unconfirmed records from Midi-Pyrenees), Andorra (Carrillo et al. 2008), and the eastern half of Spain. The species' (treated in a wide sense) extent of occurrence is very much greater than 20,000 km 2 , however there are inadequate point data available to estimate the area of occupancy. T he subspecies E. f. subsp. antariense (Rouy) O. Bolòs & Vigo, found in northern Africa (Algeria and Morocco), is considered a valid species following Alarcón et al. (2012) and is not included here.

population:
Around Narbonne (southern France), the species is widely found and common, whilst near Montpellier and Perpignan, they are found in naturally fragmented populations localized on hill tops (E. Vela pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
This is a perennial pulvinular chamaephyte that grows on limestone stony slopes and rocky hillsides (Bolòs and Vigo 1990, Sáez et al. 2010), found in Spain from near sea level (50 m; Sáez et al. 2010) to 1,400 m, whilst in France generally found at lower altitudes; near Montpellier it is between 200 and 600 m, near Narbonne between 20 and 250 m, and near Perpignan between 100 and 600 m (E. Vela pers. comm. 2014). It is also cultivated in rural gardens (Puente Cabeza 2009, Association Tela Botanica 2000-2012).

threats:
Populations around Narbonne in France are impacted by urbanization and wind turbine developments because of the proximity of the low hills to urban areas and roads; near Montpellier and Perpignan, populations are naturally fragmented and localized on hill tops but not impacted by known threats (and often occur in Natura 2000 protected areas) (E. Vela pers. comm. 2014). Threats in Spain are not well understood, but might also include urbanization at lower altitudes. Grazing and fires have been suggested as threats in Spain, however the species is well adapted to hill tops where naturally exposed to strong winds, droughts and herbivory (E. Vela pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
The species (treated in a narrow sense) was considered 'en perill d’extinció' in Catalonia in 2008 (Generalitat de Catalunya 2008, Sáez et al. 2010). The population from northeastern Catalonia (Girona Province) occurs within a protected area (Cap de Creus Natural Park; L. Saez pers. comm. 2014); the species is recorded from numerous Natura 2000 protected areas, including in Spain (Puerto de Otal, Serreta Negra, Puertos de Panticosa, Ports de Beceit, Macizo de Peñagolosa, Serra de Mariola, Serra de Aitana, etc.; M.B. Crespo pers. comm. 2014) and France (e.g., Pic Saint-Loup). In Spain (Catalonia, Girona Province, Cap Norfeu) the single population referable to E. foetidum in the strict sense (subsp. foetidum ) has been ascribed to the IUCN category of EN (C2a(ii)) (Sáez et al. 2010); seed from the Cap Norfeu population are currently conserved in seed germplasm banks (L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014). Considered Least Concern in France (UICN et al. 2 012). Further study is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the subspecies and its subspecies.

useAndTrade:
The species has been used as a chamomile substitute (Pardo de Santayana and Morales 2010), with use as a digestive herbal tea. Utilized and traded locally and probably nationally to some extent.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations, no major threats and its ability to live in a wide variety of habitats.

range:
Geranium sanguineum is native to temperate Asia and Europe. It is also naturalised in North America and cultivated elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al . in prep). Some sources say it is not native to Britain and originally came from the eastern Mediterranean region of Europe and Turkey and it has become naturalised in Britain after escaping from the gardens (University of Oxford 2012).

population:
It is generally a widespread and common species throughout Europe.

habitat:
A short to medium hairy perennial with stout horizontal rhizomes found in grassland, scrub, open rocky woodland, limestone rocks, screes, coastal cliffs and permanent sand dunes growing in base rich, light and well drained soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . in prep).

threats:
As the species is found on coastal sand dune its habitat is under threat due to recreation pressure, grazing, invasive species and sand extraction. As a result G. sanguineum may be at risk (North East Biodiversity Forum 2008). However, it is found on a wide range of habitats apart from sand dunes.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is classeded as Rare in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) but is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
This plant is known to have antioxidant and antiviral properties and research suggests that it extracts can inhibit the replication of the herpes simplex virus (Serkedjievaa and Ivanchevab 1998). It has also been used to stop bleeding and heal wounds but it has not been used extensively in medicine (University of Oxford 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is a widespread species, found mainly in Mediterranean areas, with more than one thousand occurrence records in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2013). It grows in a range of habitats, including roadsides and waste ground, over a range of altitudes. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) exceeds the values needed for a threatened category and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) and population also exceed these values.

It is assessed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU27. However, in some parts of the range in Europe it is considered to be threatened and local monitoring and conservation measures may be needed, although the species has been widely introduced (e.g., Australia), and is considered a weed species in some countries.

range:
This plant occurs in countries around the Mediterranean from north Africa to Spain, including the islands of Cyprus, Crete, Sardinia and Sicily. Its distribution extends to Turkey (Thrace) and the Balkan Peninsula, including Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Hungary and Slovakia in central Europe (USDA 2012, Federal Ministry of Environment and Tourism 2013). The species is probably widespread, and has been introduced widely, and is considered a weed species in some countries (Randall 2012).

population:
There are few available data on the population of this species. Over one thousand collection records in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2013) suggest that it is a widespread species and not rare within the core range. At the edge of range the populations are smaller and in some areas local declines may occur, for example, as a result of cattle grazing and trampling in some locations in Bulgaria (Evstatieva 2011).

habitat:
This small (6-30 cm), spreading, bristly haired, perennial herb is found in grassland and Mediterranean shrubland on maritime sands, dunes, sandstone, slate , limestone , dolomite and gypsum substrates (Talavera et al. 2012). It is also found in rocky habitats, on waste ground and beside roads. It is a characteristic species of Pannonic dune open grasslands and steppe (Eunis 2010). It is noted to be insect and wind pollinated (Evstatieva 2011).

threats:
The overall population is not considered to be threatened. However, at the edge of its range where populations are small it may be vulnerable to threats. For example, in Bulgaria it is listed as Endangered, with its small and fragmented population subject to collection from the wild and grazing and trampling by livestock (Evstatieva 2011). It may also be locally threatened in its more coastal locations, for example, in the coastal area of Molise, Italy, where it is locally endangered by coastal erosion and tourist developments (Giuliano and Stanisci 2010).

conservationAction:
This species is known to occur in Natura 2000 sites, for example, Orsoya in Bulgaria, Kékhegyi Lõtér, Hungary and Litorale di Campomarino, Italy (Eunis 2010) and other areas, for example the Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park in north eastern Greece (Korakis et al. 2006). It is grown ex situ, for example in the Hortus Botanicus Instituti Plantarum Medicinalium in Budakalasz in Hungary (Anonymous 2014). Its seeds are also stored, for example, in the Millennium Seed Bank, Kew (Ensco 2014). Where it is rare, at the edge of its range, for example in Bulgaria and Serbia, it is afforded some legislative protection (Evstatieva 2014, Republic of Serbia Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning 2010). It has been assessed as Critically Endangered in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federal Ministry of Environment and Tourism 2013).

useAndTrade:
The roots of this species produce a red dye which has a number of uses: wood stain, marble stain, thermometer colouring, microscopy staining and as a colouring agent in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and perfumery products. It has been used as a food colouring and to give colour to port, but is suspected to have some liver toxicity and is not recommended for internal use (Plants for a Future 2012). It has the European E number E103 (Alkannin) but is no longer in the approved list of additives (Food Standards Agency 2014). It has a long history of medicinal use and was described by Hippocates, more than 2000 years ago for the treatment of ulcers. It is known to have antibacterial properties and is used in folk medicine in the treatment of skin wounds and recently in the treatment of leg ulcers (Papageorgiou et al. 1999). It has also been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects (Sedaghat et al. 2011). There is some suggestion that the chemical properties of the root extract may be used in cosmetics for their anti-aging activity and anti-cancer properties are also the subject of investigation (Assimopoulou and Papageorgiou 2005, Papageorgiou et al. 1999). It is cultivated as a dye plant (Grieve 1931) and is also collected from the wild, for example, in Bulgaria (Evstatieva 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations, no major threats and its ability to grow in disturbed habitats.

range:
This plant is native to the Mediterranean region, the Canary Islands and Madeira (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Valdés 2011). It has been cultivated and naturalised outside its native range (Talavera et al. 2012).

population:
It is common in nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula (Talavera et al. 2012). The species is found in all of European Russia as weed or ruderal plant but not frequently (AgroAtlas 2003-2009). Its populations are assumed to be stable.

habitat:
This annual or biannual herb can be found in fields and disturbed land. It frequently escapes from cultivated areas and is found near dwellings. It can grow in acid or alkaline soils, but prefers limestone and clay (Talavera et al. 2012, AgroAtlas 2003-2009).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Vulnerable in the national Red List of Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), however it is indicated as introduced in this country.

useAndTrade:
Borago officinalis is edible and quite popular in regional cuisine. It can be taken as a tea, added raw to salads or cooked to soups and other dishes. It has been applied as a medicine to treat inflammation of the prostate, to control blood pressure and cholesterol levels, to treat fever, chest problems, kidney complaints. Long-term use of the plant can be dangerous as it contains alkaloids that can harm the liver. It is used externally to treat skin inflammations (Hanelt et al. 2001, Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011, Talavera et al. 2012, Plants For A Future 2012, AgroAtlas 2003-2009). A blue dye can be obtained from the flowers that can also be used as a food colouring (Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is considered endemic to Europe, where it is found in most parts of the region. The extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species greatly exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. It occurs in a variety of habitats over a range of altitudes and the area of occupancy (AOO) is also inferred to exceed these values. The population is large and threats are suspected to have minimal impacts on the overall population at present. It is assessed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU27.

range:
This plant is a European endemic where it can be found from Scandinavia in the north to the Balkans and from France in the west to Ukraine in the east (Bennett 2003, USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Valdés 2011).

population:
The species is widespread in Europe. It occurs in more than twenty countries and there are more than seven thousand records for this species in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2013). The population is known to be large, for example, in 2012, four large populations of more than 1,000 individuals were sampled in two different parts of the distribution range. Two of these populations, Hofeberg and Bertsdorf, were situated in eastern Germany, representing the core of the distribution area. Two populations, Kloosterbos and Waardebroeken, were sampled in western Belgium, which is located beyond the western edge of the main distribution range (Meeus et al. 2013). It is not thought to have significant threats and the population is inferred to be stable.

habitat:
A perennial herb, it grows in damp open woodland, including oak, hornbeam, lime, sycamore and beech woods, and is also found scrub. It is found from lowlands to mountain areas and prefers nutrient rich alkali soils. Its over wintering buds are at ground level (hemicryptophyte) and it flowers between March and May. It is pollinated by insects that are rewarded with nectar (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is associated with the Anemono nemorosae - Caricetea sylvaticae within the phytosociological classification system (Association Tela Botanica 2000).

threats:
The species is subject to some local collection from the wild for medicinal use, for example, in the Ukraine (Minarchenko 2011) but it is though to have little impact on the overall population status. General loss of habitat with intensification of agriculture may have impacts in parts of the range, perhaps particularly at the edges of its range where it is less common, for example it is considered rare in Denmark and Endangered in the Netherlands (U. Schippmann pers com. 2013).

conservationAction:
The species is grown in many botanic gardens (BCGI 2013) and seeds are listed as being stored in Pavia, Italy (ENSCO 2014). It is found within Natura 2000 sites including Lauter und Eisenbach in Germany, Las Baniewicki in Poland and Jungfruvassen in Sweden (EUNIS 2010).

useAndTrade:
This plant is cultivated in gardens and is a good ground cover plant for shady or partial shady areas. The leaves can be eaten in salads or as a cooked vegetable. The species has medicinal use for chest conditions, the high mucilage content making it beneficial in the treatment of bronchitis, sore throats and chronic coughs. The leaves can be used externally to stop bleeding (PFAF 2012). It has high phenolic and anti-oxidant properties (Ivanova et al. 2005). Dried flowers and leaves, collected from the wild in the Ukraine and Croatia, are available for sale via the internet.


range:
Symphytum officinale is native throughout Europe and temperate Asia and is widely naturalised outside its native range (USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012).

population:
Symphytum officinale is abundant in England, but is rare in Scotland (Grieve 2012). It is common throughout Europe becoming scarcer in the north (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

habitat:
Symphytum officinale is a tall perennial herb which produces purple pink flowers from May to July and is found in damp grassland, river, stream and canal banks, ditches, fens, marshes and damp road verges. It often forms extensive colonies (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions. It is listed as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) .

useAndTrade:
Comfrey leaves have been used in folk medicine as a poultice for treating burns and wounds (Oberlies et al . 2004, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The traditional herbal medicinal product is used for the symptomatic treatment of minor sprains and bruises (European Medicines Agency 2011). The root and the leaves are used, the root being more active, and they can be taken internally or applied externally as a poultice as it contains a substance called 'allantoin', a cell proliferant that speeds up the healing process. A homeopathic remedy is made from the fresh root, harvested before the plant flowers, for treatment of broken bones and eye injuries. The young leaves can be cooked or eaten raw and the young shoots can be used as an asparagus substitute and older leaves can be dried and used as a tea. The peeled roots are cut up and added to soups and a tea can be made from the dried leaves and roots. The roasted roots are used with dandelion and chicory roots for making coffee (Plants for a Future 2012). However internal consumption in the form of herbal tea is ill advised due to pyrrolizidine alkaloids which when ingested is associated with hepatoxic disorders (Oberlies et al . 2004, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, despite local declines. It is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.

range:
Ballota nigra is native to northern Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), temperate Asia and Europe from sea level to 1,500 m elevation (USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012, Castroviejo et al . 2010).

population:
It is widespread from Europe to Central Asia and North Africa (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

habitat:
A medium to tall, almost hairless and strongly aromatic perennial found in woodland margins, hedgerows, road verges and waste ground, shady meadows, along water courses on disturbed nutrient rich soils near habitations. It is pollinated by bees (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
It is listed as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Least Concern in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). This species is protected by the Medicinal Plants Act in Bulgaria (Koev 2010).

useAndTrade:
It is an economically valued plant for production of honey by bees (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). Black horehound has a long history of herbal use but due to its unpleasant flavour, it is not widely used in traditional medicine. The aerial parts are the most valued medicinally for antibacterial activity in a variety of its extracted compounds (Didry et al . 1999). An infusion of this plant is known to have antioxidant properties (Vrchovská et al . 2007). An excellent remedy for the settling of nausea and vomiting where the cause lies within the nervous system rather than in the stomach. It has antiemetic properties and in the past was often used for treating problems connected with the respiratory system, convulsions, low spirits and the menopause but its effectiveness is disputed by present-day authorities. The whole plant is used internally for treatment of nervous dyspepsia, travel and morning sickness, arthritis, gout, menstrual disorders and bronchial complaints. A syrup can be made from the fresh herb (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Clinopodium alpinum has a wide distribution throughout central Europe and the Mediterranean, and is common throughout southern European mountains. Though it is presumably collected for its medicinal value, this unlikely to cause significant declines in the near future. It is therefore classified as Least Concern.

More research on the population size and trends, ecological requirements as well as potential threats are required.

range:
Clinopodium alpinum has a wide distribution throughout central Europe and the Mediterranean (RBG Kew 2012). It is common throughout southern European mountains (Pignatti 1982, De Bolos and Vigo 1995). Outside of Europe, it is found in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Asiatic Turkey.

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available.

habitat:
This perennial is an Alpine cushion-forming herb found in meadows and Alpine pastures. It reaches heights of 10-20 centimetres and produces purple labiate flowers from July to September. It prefers arid and infertile soils on stony slopes and landslides at altitudes 1,000-2,700 m (ActaPlantarum 2007-2013).

threats:
Clinopodium alpinum is presumably collected from the wild for its medicinal use and possibly also to use as a garden plant, but whether this is causing declines is unknown. There are no other known threats.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions. It has not been assessed on any National Red List in Europe. Information on population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed. Given its widespread distribution, it is almost certainly present in protected areas and national parks.

useAndTrade:
The leaves of this edible species are used for the preparation of infusions, teas and tinctures . Its essential oils, terpenes and tannins are believed to possess diaphoretic , febrifuge , stimulant , digestive and carminative properties ( ActaPlantarum 2007-2013). It is also sold as a garden plant. It is not known if this species is cultivated.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


This species is assessed as Data Deficient as it is assumed that its rarity is connected to undersampling. Monitoring of the populations and research are needed to assess whether there is an actual risk of extinction to this species.

range:
Clinopodium serpyllifolium ssp fruticosum is endemic to temperate Asia (Israel, Syria and Turkey) and Europe (Ukraine, Croatia, Albania, Italy and Spain) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

habitat:
A dwarf evergreen shrub which grows in rocky areas and is very adaptable to heavy soils. It has grey-green leaves and white to pale pink flowers (O'Hara 2010). It contains essential oils comprised of monoterpenes, pulegone and isomenthol. The concentration of the essential oils reduces during the flowering period between mid summer and early autumn and are known to be more concentrated in the leaves than the flowers (Putievsky et al. 1996, Dudai et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place.

useAndTrade:
In the eastern Mediterranean, this herb is well known for a variety of uses and the aerial parts are used as medicinal teas and infusions to treat abdominal pains, diarrhoea, eye infections, high blood pressure, heart disorders, colds and wounds. It is also used as a cooking spice and for making a sweet refreshing minty tea for treating stomach ulcers, clearing nasal congestion, making insect repellent and antiseptic. It is used medicinally for reducing blood pressure but contains the compound pulegone not to be administered to pregnant women or during conception (O'Hara 2010, Dudai et al . 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Very little information is available on the conservation status of Galeopsis segetum. The species is threatened in several countries within its native range, and has gone extinct in the United Kingdom. However, its population status is unknown in France, Spain, Italy and Denmark, which comprise a substantial proportion of its range. The threats to this species are not known and there is no information on the population or precise information on its distribution. It is therefore classified as Data Deficient. More information is needed on precise population information as well as the threats affecting the species; once the threats are identified, appropriate conservation measures should be defined and implemented.

range:
Galeopsis segetum is endemic to western and south-central Europe and introduced to central-eastern Europe (Rich and Pryor 2003, RBG Kew 2012).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available for this species. In the United Kingdom, it was formerly established at one site near Bangor (Caerns.), where it was regarded as a native, but though it used to appear annually after its discovery there in 1802, it was last seen in 1975 and is now presumed to be extinct; it is still found elsewhere in the United Kingdom it is a rare and declining casual, but is not considered native (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is declining in Switzerland and Germany (Moser et al . 2002, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is quite rare in Spain, with only 27 registers in the north (Anthos 2010).

habitat:
Galeopsis segetum is an annual weed found in lowland areas and Hemp-nettle screes associated with Anarrhinum bellidifolium, Epilobium lanceo latum and Senecio viscosus ; it has been recorded growing on various substrates such as gravel, sand, boulders, scrubby woods, paths, edges and quarries, exclusively on lime-deficient soils, and including arable or waste ground (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Rich and Pryor 2003).

threats:
There is no information on actual or potential threats. No specific threats have been listed in any of the national red lists on which the species is included.

conservationAction:
Galeopsis segetum has been listed as Extinct in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), Endangered [A2d] in Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002), Vulnerable in the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000) and Belgium (Van Landuyt et al . 2006), an "early warning" issued due to declining populations in Germany (V: Vorwarnliste, Bestände zurückgehend) (assessment from 1996; Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Least Concern in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). More information is needed on precise population information as well as the threats affecting the species; once the threats are identified, appropriate conservation measures should be defined and implemented.

useAndTrade:
In continental Europe, this species was used medicinally for illnesses such as lung and spleen problems, but there is no clinical or pharmacological evidence to support its usage (Rich and Pryor 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no known major threats.

range:
Glechoma hederacea is native to temperate Asia and Europe, except the far north and has become naturalized in North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
A common and widespread species throughout Europe and temperate Asia, often considered a weed (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

habitat:
A low to short, stoloniferous, patch-forming, aromatic, usually hairy perennial herb found in woodland, coppices, hedgebanks, grassland, meadows, waste places and sometimes as a weed of cultivated land growing in shaded damp soils (Castroviejo et al. 2010, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Forey 1991). Part of the reason for its widespread distribution is its rhizomatous method of reproduction. It will form dense mats which can take over areas of lawn, and thus can be considered a potentially invasive or aggressive weed.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in the national red list of Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Before the use of hops ( Humulus), this plant was the main source of bitter for flavouring beer (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). The young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked although they have a bitter flavour. It is toxic to horses when ingested in large quantities. The leaves can be harvested in May and used fresh or dried for tea, often mixed with verbena leaves, which is diuretic and tonic (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, Plants for a Future 2012). It is used in herbal medicine as an astringent, a remedy for diarrhoea and colds (Forey 1991). This plant has hepatotoxic potential to cause liver failure (European Medicine Agency 2007). Ground-ivy is effective for treating problems of mucous membranes of the ear, nose, throat, chest and digestive system. It can be administered to children to clear lingering catarrh and to treat chronic conditions such as glue ear and sinusitis. Its juice can be applied externally for healing of bruises and black eyes (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


There is very little information available for Glechoma hirsuta. It is widespread in some countries (Croatia, Serbia) but declining substantially in others (Czech Republic); however, data are lacking across most of its range. It is therefore classed as Data Deficient. More research on the population size and trends, ecological requirements as well as potential threats is needed for this species.

range:
Glechoma hirsuta is native to central and eastern Europe (RBG Kew 2012).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. It is widespread in Croatia (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013) and Serbia (Radulovic et al. 2010). In Albania, it is known from a handful of localities (Ndroq, Pezë e Vogël, Shkalla e Keqe (Bardhet) in Tirana District, Pllaja e Vermoshit in Shkodra District) (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). In the Czech Republic, it is no longer present at 20-50% of the localities recorded in the past (Grulich 2012).

habitat:
A stoloniferous perennial herb found in the understorey of deciduous forests of eastern Europe (Huber et al . 1997).

threats:
Very little information is available on threats to this species. In Bulgaria, this species is found in lowland mesophilic oak hornbeam forests, which are classified as Near Threatened as they are threatened by unregulated logging, fires, overgrazing and urban development (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011).

conservationAction:
Glechoma hirsuta is listed as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic due to population declines resulting from habitat loss and degradation (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012). The synonym Glechoma hederacea ssp. hirsuta (Waldst. & Kit.) Gams is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It occurs in the Jedlinka Nature Reserve in Slovakia (Adamcik et al. 2006). More information is needed on the population size and trends across its range, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
Glechoma hirsuta is a medicinal and aromatic plant widely used in folk medicine in the same way as the more popular Glechoma hederacea . Aerial parts of Glechoma hederacea are traditionally used for healing numerous diseases and as a spice (Radulovic et al. 2010). The leaves and flowering stems are reported to be anodyne, antiphlogistic, appetizer, digestive, astringent, diuretic, febrifuge, pectoral, gently stimulant, tonic and vermifuge. Radulovic et al. (2010) found similar chemical composition in the essential oil of the two species, which explains why the plants convey similar medicinal effects.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Hyssopus officinalis has declined in countries such as Spain, Italy, Switzerland due to unregulated collection from the wild for increasing demand by food and cosmetic industries. The cultivar is known to produce a better yield, which has switched the demand from the wild part in Switzerland, although in Spain its collection continues to threaten the species. It is also cultivated in Latvia and Lithuania. The status of the population in other counties is unknown. Given this lack of population information across its range and its potentially threatened status, it is listed as Data Deficient until further information can confirm its actual threat status.

range:
Hyssopus officinalis has a wide distribution throughout Europe (though is absent in the north), north Africa and west Asia (RBG Kew 2012). It is only present in Slovakia in cultivation, occasionally escaping from culture (Marhold and Hindák n.d.). It is a naturalized neophyte (introduced in the recent past, generally after 1500 AD) in Germany, Norway and the United Kingdom (Artsdatabanken 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is considered an archeophyte (introduced in the distant past) in Poland (Zając et al. 2009).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. This is a rare species believed to be declining, following declines in substeppic pastoral ecosystems; more than 50% of the localities in south-eastern France are very old and the species is no longer found there (E. Vela pers. comm 2013, SILENE 2006-2013). It is rare in Albania, where it is known from Pashtriku Mt (Kukësi District), Ivan Mt, Kallamas and Kapshticë (Korça District) (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
A ruderal perennial subshrub which prefers substeppic grassland habitats, and is also found in Mediterranean Atlantic evergreen forests growing in dry, limy basic soils; it is a typical xerophyte and is well adapted to drought ( Pignatti 1982, De Bolos and Vigo 1995, Lipman 2009, Khazaie et al. 2008). <span c

threats:
In Poland, there has been a decline in ruderal species through changes in habitat from urbanization, loss of fertile soil and changes in soil composition (Zając et al . 2009); this threat is likely to impact subpopulations in other countries as well. There is also harmful demand from drug companies that are carrying out intense wild picking of this species, which has limited protection (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Near Threatened in Switzerland, though in some regions it is considered Endangered or has gone Regionally Extinct (Moser et al. 2002). It is considered to be Vulnerable in Italy and is protected in the Piedmont, Umbria and Lazio regions. It is described as being endangered and requiring cultivation (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is thought to be Vulnerable in Poland; there are 16 accessions in ex situ collections, of which ten were transferred to the Polish gene bank (Lipman 2009, Zając et al. 2009).

It is considered to be Endangered in Spain, although is not included in the Spanish Red List; crop policies to control extraction volumes and protection from increasing demand is required (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012). It is protected in Spain under regional legislation as a 'Taxon of special interest' in Murcia (Decreto 50/2003, B.O.R.M. no. 131), and is listed as a 'Taxon of special interest' in the Red Book of the Protected Wild Flora of the Murcia Region (Sánchez Gómez et al. 2002). It is also protected under the French Decree of 20 January 1982 establishing the national list of protected plants [Liste des espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire français métropolitain: Article 1], though is it not listed on any French red lists. In Croatia, it is listed as Data Deficient (Nikolić and Topić 2005).

useAndTrade:
A medicinal and aromatic plant used for its essential oil, which contains the constituent Methyleugenol used in food stuffs as flavouring agents (European Medicines Agency 2005). Essential oil distilled from the fresh dried aerial parts of the plant is widely used in perfumery and cosmetics in Bulgaria and elsewhere in the world (Cerrneva 1997). Wild plants also contain camphor, however, the cultivated H. officinalis subsp. officinalis contains pinocamphone and therefore the wild plants cannot be used for perfumery (Cerrneva 1997). Its dried ﬂowering shoots are used in tea blends for relief of coughs, catarrh and antispasmodic effects. The bitter taste of the drug allows it to be used as a spice in households and in the food industry for the ﬂavoring of meats and sauces. The hydrodistilled essential oil from the shoot portion is widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries (Khazaie et al. 2008). In Italy it is cited under the Royal Decree 772 of 1932, allowing a maximum of 2 kg of sprigs to be harvested (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is cultivated in Latvia in an area less than 10 ha (Baričevič et al. 2004). Research on breeding is being carried out in the Central Research Station Fundulea in Romania, and the plant exists in ex situ conservation in the Slovenian Medicinal and Aromatic Plant genebank (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is sold on the Serbian market and is cultivated in Serbia over an area of 80-100 ha; in the former Yugoslavia there are two cultivars (Baričevič et al. 2004). It was introduced to Latvia through exchange with other European countries. In Montenegro it is not protected and is free for gathering and trade under Official Gazette SRCG No.27/02 (Lipman 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Lamium album is a common and widespread species in Europe with no major threats, and is therefore classified as Least Concern.

range:
Lamium album has a wide distribution throughout Europe and Asia (China to Mongolia). It has been introduced into Iceland, North America and New Zealand (RBG Kew 2012). It is present in Ireland (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
This is a widespread and common species.

habitat:
A rhizomatous or sometimes stoloniferous perennial herb found in secondary woodland, grassland, hedge banks, waysides and disturbed ground (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, RBG Kew 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. This species is not threatened on any national red lists. It is listed as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is a common, non-threatened plant in Sweden (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

useAndTrade:
The leaves and flowers can be eaten raw or cooked by humans, and are a good source of vitamin A; the flowers make a nice herbal tea (Plants for a Future 2012, RBG Kew 2012). It is often eaten by slugs and snails. The boiled flowers can be used as a traditional herbal remedy for catarrh and dropsy and the roots boiled in wine for treating kidney stones. It is also used as a uterine tonic and to relieve other menstrual and vaginal problems, diarrohea, and prostatitis. The plant can be made into a compress for piles, varicose veins and vaginal discharges, and a distilled water from flowers and leaves used to relieve eye problems. The flowering tops are antispasmodic, astringent, cholagogue, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, haemostatic, hypnotic, pectoral, resolvent, sedative, styptic, tonic, vasoconstrictor and vulnerary. There are several variegated forms which are grown as ornamental herbaceous perennials.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Native to Spain, France and Italy, Lavandula angustifolia is a commercially important and highly aromatic shrub cultivated for its flowers, for the production of essential oil for aromatherapy and medicinal use. It is also grown widely for its horticultural value. It has been widely introduced outside this area and is frequently found in cultivation all over Europe, where it has escaped and become naturalised in many areas. Collection from the wild is not thought to be causing significant declines as it is cultivated widely. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, and lack of significant threats.

range:
Lavandula angustifolia is endemic to France, Italy and Spain, where it is found in mountain ranges from 0-1,800 m asl (Italy), 500-1,500 m (France) and 500-1,700 m (Spain) (Pignatti 1982, Castroviejo et al . 2010, Girerd and Roux 2011, RBG Kew 2012). It has been widely introduced outside this area and is frequently found in cultivation all over Europe, where it has escaped and become naturalized in many areas (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). It is widespread across eastern Spain, but elsewhere is only known from the southeastern corner of France and just over the border in Italy, plus one locality Italy near Bologna (Anthos 2010). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) based on known localities is several hundreds of thousands of km². It is probably found in additional sites in several departments across France (Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel 2012). L. angustifolia Miller subsp. pyrenaica is a variety endemic to the east Pyrenees and NE Spain (Lis-Balchin 2002). There are 417 registers in Spain (Anthos 2010).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. No declines have been documented.

habitat:
A highly aromatic small evergreen shrub found in dry grassy slopes amongst rocks, in exposed (usually parched), hot rocky environments, often on calcareous soils (Plants for a Future 2012); it is also found in gardens and urban areas. In its native habitat it is found in montane areas, making it a hardy species ideal for cultivation (Lis-Balchin 2002).

threats:
This species is likely to be collected in the wild, but this is not thought to be a significant threat.

conservationAction:
The conservation status of this species has not been assessed in France, Spain or Italy. In Italy it is regulated by the Royal Decree no 772 of 1932, where only 10 kg of flowered tips are allowed to be harvested (Baričevič et al. 2004). No additional conservation measures are needed.

useAndTrade:
Its use in the perfumery and fragrance industry, aromatherapy and as ornamentals is very common. It is also used to flavour food. It is used in herbal preparations using the essential oil obtained by steam distillation from the flowering tops, comminuted herbal substance or tincture. Lavandulae flos is used pharmaceutically and is included in Commission E monographs for treatment of anxiety and restlessness (European Medicines Agency 2011). It is cultivated in India, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Croatia and Hungary but there are no data available on the production quantities. The importance of lavender plantations has decreased in recent decades, however a relict of the first plantation still exists in the Tihany Peninsula in Hungary. In Italy it is regulated by the Royal Decree no 772 of 1932, where only 10 kg of flowered tips are allowed to be harvested. In Serbia it is cultivated over an area of 20 ha. In Romania it is cultivated over an area of 750 ha with annual harvest of 431 tonnes of flowers. Breeding of cultivars is carried out in Romania out by the Central Research Station Fundulea and in the former Yugoslavia there is 1 domestic or improved cultivar (Baričevič et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). The hybrid L. angustifolia x latifolia is a cultivated crop in East Anglia, England (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). A new variety L. angustifolia var. etherio with improved essential oil yield, rich flower production and adaptability to local conditions is cultivated in Greece (Hassiotis et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Lavandula latifolia is native to France, Italy and Spain. A commercially important and highly aromatic shrub, it is cultivated for its flowers for the production of essential oil for aromatherapy and fragrance, and is grown widely for horticultural value and honey production. Collection from the wild is not thought to be causing significant declines across its range as it is cultivated widely, except in Spain where it is still collected from the wild; nonetheless, the population in Spain appears to remain relatively abundant.


Local declines have been observed, however, and the harvest in all three countries should be monitored and controlled to prevent more widespread declines. The collection of wild plants is regulated in Italy, as well as in some regions in Spain and France. Its distribution in Spain alone is large enough to exceed range thresholds for qualification in a category of threat .

It is classified as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.

range:
Lavandula latifolia is endemic to France, Spain and Italy and is found at elevations from 0-2,050 metres asl (Pignatti 1982, Castroviejo et al. 2010, Girerd and Roux 2011, RBG Kew 2012, Lis-Balchin 2002). It has been introduced to Sicily and to the Balkan Peninsula, in former Yugoslavia (RBG Kew 2012). It is widespread across eastern Spain (Anthos 2010), but is more restricted in France, where it is found scattered across eleven departments in the south west, plus one small population in southern Indre-et-Loire (Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel 2012). It is probably found in additional sites across France (Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel 2012). Its distribution in Italy is unknown, so its extent of occurrence (EOO) cannot be estimated, but it is undoubtedly several hundreds of thousands of km². In Spain, the EOO is estimated to be over 270,000 km² in the northeast alone. There are 1,550 records in Spain (Anthos 2010).

population:
Very little population information is available; the available information comes almost exclusively from Spain. It appears to be abundant in northern Spain (Anthos 2010). Various studies have looked at natural populations, but there are no estimates of population size. Seventeen subpopulations have been studied in projects carried out in Spain for screening of genetic resources in Castilla La Mancha, Extremadura, and four subpopulations in Aragon (Baričevič et al . 2004). Essential oil variation was studied in seventy-two plants from seven natural subpopulations in Valencia, Spain (Munoz-Bertomeu et al. 2007). There are at least 21 subpopulations in Spain and it appears to be abundant, although demand for collection is increasing, at least in parts of its range (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012).

habitat:
An evergreen perennial highly aromatic shrub found in montane dry Mediterranean areas. It constitutes a prime nectar source for honey bees (Munoz-Bertomeu et al. 2007). It is salt wind exposure tolerant, and highly drought tolerant once established; plants are not long-lived (Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
This species is subject to intense collection from the wild in parts of its range (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012).

conservationAction:
This species is not included in any National Red List, but it is protected in all three of its native countries, at least regionally. In Italy it is regulated by the Royal Decree no 772 of 1932, where only 10 kg of flowered tips are allowed to be harvested (Baričevič et al. 2004).                                                                                                              It is listed in the French Decree of 30 December 2004 establishing the list of protected plant species in the Midi-Pyrénées region [Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Midi-Pyrénées : Article 5]. In Spain, it is protected under regional legislation in Andalucia, where its harvest is legally regulated                                                                  "EN-

useAndTrade:
This species is cultivated for its essential oil for aromatherapy and as an ornamental (Lis-Balchin 2002), but the primary use of its aerial parts is for industrial perfumes and fragrance materials. It can also be used to flavour foods. It is very popular and is believed to be antibacterial, antifungal, sedative, antidepressive and a muscle relaxant, and is also effective for burns and insect bites, although these are not clinically proven (Munoz-Bertomeu et al . 2007). It produces up to three times as much essential oil as the more popular Lavandula angustifolia , but it is of lower quality (Plants for a Future 2012). In Italy, it is regulated by the Royal Decree no 772 of 1932, which allows only 10 kg of flowered tips to be harvested. It is commercially cultivated in Spain in Andalucia, Valencia, Murcia, Catalunya and Aragon although there are no data on the total area cultivated (Baričevič et al. 2004). In southwest France it is cultivated as the hybrid L. angustifolia x latifolia to produce honey (Guyot-Declerck et al. 2002). It is also extensively cultivated in Italy and England (Piccaglia and Marotti 1993, Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Leonarus cardiaca is classed as Least Concern as it is very widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low. However, population declines have been reported from several countries and it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists. It is threatened primarily by unregulated collection from the wild for medicinal and cosmetic industries, and does not appear to be cultivated extensively.


Research into the causes of those declines as well as adequate measures to prevent this are needed.

range:
Leonurus cardiaca is found from Europe to Iran; it is introduced in Spain and the United Kingdom and is not present in Portugal (Anthos 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, RBG Kew 2012). It has been widely introduced across the Indian subcontinent, New Zealand and North America.

population:
There is no information on the population size available, but given its broad distribution the European population is believed to be relatively large. There are an estimated 3000 mature individuals (ranging from 2000-10,000) in Sweden alone (ArtDatabanken 2010), though local populations can be quite small (e.g. there are only 50-250 mature individuals in Norway; Artsdatabanken 2010). 

habitat:
A rhizomatous perennial herb found in waste places and lowland riverside tall herb communities (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It can also be found in farming and urban environments (ArtDatabanken 2010). Flowering begins in July and continues through August or longer; the species is pollinated by bumblebees and other bees, and is self-sterile (ArtDatabanken 2010). Seeds spread by wind and by catching on animals and humans.

threats:
Collection of plants from the wild for their medicinal properties is a plausible significant threat. Habitat loss due to grazing, urban development and building restoration work have been threats in parts of its range in the past (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), and may continue in other parts of its range today.

conservationAction:
This species is rare in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Critically Endangered in Luxembourg [B1a+2b(iv)] (Colling 2005) and Switzerland [B1+B2cd] (Moser et al. 2002), Endangered B1a(ii)b(iii)+2a(ii)b(iii); D1 in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Vulnerable A2ac in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), Near Threatened in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012), and Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012). The subspecies L. c. cardiaca is also threatened (level 3: gefährdet) in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). 

This species is not protected in Montenegro and is free for gathering and trade. Its wild populations are protected in France from all collection and destruction under regional legislation in the in regions Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and Rhône-Alpes (Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel 2012), and is also protected in Switzerland (Lipman 2009). A two-year study revealed that this species is widely distributed with adequate population size in Bulgaria and is suitable for in situ conservation (Angelova et al. 1994). Its cultivation technology in Serbia is partially known (Baričevič et al. 2004). Leonurus cardiaca habitats should be monitored and protected, particularly in regions where it is threatened, and populations monitored to ensure collection does not cause significant declines.

useAndTrade:
This is a traditional medicinal plant used as herbal, comminuted and powdered substance, tincture, liquid extract or herbal tea for the relief of nervous tension. The dried flowering parts are used, so it is collected during the flowering season from July to September (European Medicines Agency 2010a,b). It is also used to treat heart trouble (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Lithuania, there is limited raw material available to satisfy the commercial demand, though wild populations are not threatened in their natural habitats as the sampling of their diversity has been initiated to ensure the conservation of their germplasm and further use in breeding (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is sold on the Serbian market and not cultivated widely, although there is one domestic or improved cultivar in the former Yugoslavia (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is cultivated over a small area in Estonia.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Marrubium vulgare is showing strong declines in at least a quarter of its European range, due primarily to changes in land use practices in the agricultural and pastoral sectors, particularly lack of grazing, land abandonment and increasing high-intensity agricultural practices. Unregulated overcollection from the wild for its medicinal value is an additional threat, though as the species is widely cultivated it is not known what proportion of its population is significantly affected by overcollection. It only appears to be common in Spain and the United Kingdom. It is threatened in ten countries, mostly in central Europe, where it has gone extinct in Luxembourg, has disappeared from 90% of sites in the Czech Republic, and is highly threatened in several other countries; all of these countries but one (Switzerland) are EU Member States. It is therefore listed as Near Threatened approaching criteria A2cd. It is unknown whether individuals from neighbouring regions immigrate into Europe and could rescue the regional population; even if they arrived in Europe, the threats would most likely preclude them from boosting the European population. The original category therefore remains unchanged.


Within the EU 27, the species is highly threatened and declining in more than 30% of its range, though this may not translate to a population decline of 30% or more. It is therefore listed as Near Threatened approaching criteria A2cd. As the status of the populations outside the EU 27 is questionable, a rescue effect is uncertain and the category remains unchanged. No information is available on its status in north-eastern Europe or European Russia, nor have population declines been quantified across most of its range. It is strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all the data is available. It might then require a higher threat category.

range:
Marrubium vulgare is widespread throughout Europe, west Asia and north Africa and is widely naturalised in Australia the Americas, where it is a potential weed (RBG Kew 2012). Although RBG Kew (2012) do not record it from Finland, it was found there until 60 years ago ( "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013) and appears to (rarely) be found there still today as a casual alien (Lipman 2009). It is introduced in Ireland according to RBG Kew (2012), though the Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora (2012) report it as native. The true natural distribution of the species in Britain is unclear as it has been widely naturalised and distinguishing between native and introduced populations can be difficult (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012); this is likely true across Europe.

population:
The subpopulations in Spain and the United Kingdom are widespread and common (Anthos 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012); in Portugal they are also widespread (Flora-on 2013). However, the species seems to have declined in the United Kingdom since the 1962 Atlas due to lack of grazing, though long term trends in distribution and abundance are masked by the appearance and loss of naturalised colonies, which are numerous, and thus hard to define (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is also strongly declining in central Europe, though it is not considered threatened there (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It has gone extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), and has disappeared from many sites in Germany since 1950 (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). At least 90% of all populations ever recorded have become extinct in the Czech Republic, and extant populations are clearly declining (Grulich 2012). Populations are also decreasing in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). "hps atn"> "hps atn"> It is rare in Hungary (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Sweden, there have been major declines since the 1920-30s; the species was previously distributed across southern and middle Sweden, but today only remains in heavily fragmented subpopulations on Oland "hps atn">( seven localities 2 005) and Gotland "hps atn">( eight localities 2 004) (ArtDatabanken 2010). "hps atn"> "hps atn"> Of those few remaining Swedish localities, only a few will persist over time with management (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). The last record in Finland "hps atn"> "hps atn"> was more than 60 years ago, and it is considered extinct ( "hps atn"> "hps atn"> <span c

habitat:
A perennial herb found on open lowland grasslands and sandy banks growing on chalk, sandstone or sandy soils; it grows in a variety of dry, calcareous environments, including near human habitation such as farmyards, village streets and roadsides (ArtDatabanken 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is able to naturalise in rough and waste places (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
Marrubium vulgare is threatened by land use changes in the agricultural and pastoral sectors, particularly lack of grazing, land abandonment and increasing high-intensity agricultural practices; small-scale disturbance favours the establishment and spread of this species, but it cannot cope with the major shifts in land use taking place today (ArtDatabanken 2010, Baričevič et al. 2004, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In some places where this species was previously collected on a large scale, such as Hungary, land use change has caused it to become very rare (Baričevič et al. 2004). Large-scale collection for its medicinal use is also a threat (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Sweden, populations on Öland seem genetically impoverished, possibly as a result of self-pollination due to small population sizes; "hps atn"> seedlings are showing vigorous vegetative growth and almost non-existent flower and seed production ( "h

conservationAction:
This species is listed on numerous national red lists. It has become Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012) and the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000), and is also considered to be Critically Endangered in Italy (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is Endangered in Sweden [B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v)] (Gärdenfors 2010) and Switzerland [A4dB1B3c, using the 1994 IUCN Red List Criteria] (Moser et al. 2002); it is also considered endangered in Hungary, where it is often collected and requires protection even though it is cultivated (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is listed as Vulnerable in Slovakia (Marhold and Hindák n.d.), and is threatened in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006). It is highly threatened (2: stark gefährdet) in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). The last record in Finland was more than 60 years ago, and it is considered extinct ( M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). It is considered Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheff

useAndTrade:
It is used as a traditional herbal medicine, as an expectorant in cough associated with cold, treatment of mild dyspeptic complaints and temporary loss of appetite. The whole or fragmented dried flowering aerial parts are commonly used as an herbal tea. Extracts of M. vulgare herba are also used for flavouring beverages and candies (European Medicines Agency 2013a, 2013b). It is in widespread cultivation, though it is no longer cultivated in some countries (e.g., Sweden). This species is sold on the Serbian market, where cultivation technology is partially-known, and is cultivated in Hungary (Baričevič et al. 2004). There is one cultivar in the Czech Republic. It is also cultivated in Finland, only as an annual as it is unable to survive the winter conditions, from transplanting of seedlings which are harvested in September, with an average yield of 0.30-0.60 kg /m²; there is not much variation between European accessions (Lipman 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Lemon Balm Melissa officinalis is a very popular and important medicinal and aromatic plant, widely used across Europe for its multiple medicinal and culinary qualities. It is collected from the wild across its range, but also widely cultivated, and storage of genetic material is underway in many countries. Wild collection is also regulated in several countries, though not all. It is likely that this species has suffered a decline in parts of its range through collection of wild plants, but recent development and expansion of cultivation and propagation should help to decrease pressure on wild populations. This plant occupies a wide range of habitats, including in human-dominated landscapes, and is a freely self-sowing and common garden escape which readily establishes new populations. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its widespread distribution, presumably abundant population, and the many conservation measures already in place.

range:
Melissa officinalis is native in southern Europe and the Mediterranean to central Asia, and is widespread as an alien species throughout Europe, New Zealand and the Americas (RBG Kew 2012). It is difficult to determine its precise native range, as there are many naturalised populations further north (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is present in Slovakia only in cultivation (Marhold and Hindák n.d.). It was introduced to Norway after 1800 AD, though it is not clear if it is reproducing in the wild (Artsdatabanken 2010).

population:
There is no information on the population size available. The plant is collected from the wild for its many medicinal and culinary qualities, but is also widely cultivated; the overall population trend in the wild is unknown. In the Iberian Peninsula it is widespread and common (Anthos 2010, Castroviejo et al. 2010). It is relatively widespread in France, though the population appears to be more concentrated in the north-central and north-western part of the country, with records scarce in the south and east (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013). It is present in all regions in Italy, though determining whether the populations are native or escapes from cultivation is difficult (Lipman 2009, Vitalini et al. 2009). In Bulgaria it is widely spread throughout the country up to 1,000 m asl, though its populations are mainly found in limited areas, with small size and low density (Lipman 2009). It is also widespread and common in Albania (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). It is quite rare in Malta (Lipman 2009).

habitat:
A lemon-scented perennial herb, this lowland species is found in woodlands, and on banks, road verges and derelict land near human habitation, cracks in walls and stone fences and waste grounds, and is a common weed in gardens and nearby habitats in which it has escaped (Castroviejo et al. 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The flowers are hermaphroditic and pollinated by bees; the species is known for attracting wildlife (Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
Specific threats to this species have not been identified, though it is likely to have suffered declines from collection in the wild. In various habitats in Bulgaria, wild populations have only been found in very small and scattered areas due to increased collecting and use (Lipman 2009). Climate change and its associated ecological disruptions may prove to be a future threat, especially in combination with widespread anthropological threats affecting habitats and species across Europe (Abrahamyan et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
This plant is not listed on any European national red list. In Italy it is relatively widespread and occurs in the Valvestino area, recognized by the European Union as a 'Site of Community interest', which has allowed the preservation of the ethnobotanical traditions (Vitalini et al. 2009). It is a protected species in Italy under the Royal Decree no 772 of 1932, and the harvest is regulated. It is legally protected in Croatia and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). In Montenegro it is not protected, and is free for gathering and trade (“Official Gazette SRCG”, No.27/02) (Lipman 2009). It is present in at least one protected area in Portugal (F.B. Caldas pers. comm. 2013). This species is widely cultivated (e.g. in Bulgaria, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czech Republic, Denmark and Finland). Vegetative propagation is carried out in situ in Portugal, while the Slovenian Medicinal and Aromatic Plant genebank carries out maintenance of germplasm as seed, in vitro and in vivo collections and seed propagation for cultivation purposes (Baričevič e t al. 2004). Microclonal propagation and biotechnological conservation methods have been developed for this species, among others, in Hungary (Baričevič e t al. 2004).

As of 2009, there were three samples in the Suceava Genebank collection in Romania; in Serbia, there is a quota in force as well as two accessions deposited in the National Gene Bank of Serbia and Montenegro (Lipman 2009). According to the European Internet Search Catalogue, there are a total of 161 accessions, of which less than ten are from its native range (European Internet Search Catalogue, accessed 2013). Given its biological and chemical diversity, importance for medicinal plant production and interest in its genebank conservation, it was one of the ten priority medicinal and aromatic plant species selected for development of descriptors for in situ and ex situ conservation by the ECPGR Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Baričevič e t al. 2004). <span class="hps

useAndTrade:
Melissa officinalis is used in traditional herbal medicine as an herbal substance, herbal preparation, dry extract and as an herbal tea prepared from the dried aerial parts for the relief of mild symptoms of mental stress and insomnia, fevers and colds, and the treatment of mild gastrointestinal complaints (European Medicines Agency 2007, Plants for a Future 2012). The leaves and young flowering shoots are antibacterial, antispasmodic, antiviral, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, sedative, and tonic (Plants for a Future 2012). The essential oil has antimicrobial and antioxidant properties (Mimica-Dukic et al. 2004). An infusion of the leaves is used for nervous and heart diseases in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Redzic 2007). In the Iberian Peninsula, it is used to make the famous Agua del Carmen, a liquor used to treat the physical and emotional symptoms of nervousness and hysteria (Castroviejo et al. 2010). The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked, and are used to flavour foods and alcoholic beverages, and made into a tea. It is also used to inhibit thyroid activity, treat cold sores, insect bites, gout, and as an insect repellent (Plants for a Future 2012). The essential oil contains citral and citronella, and is used in aromatherapy. This is one of the wild plants collected in the largest quantities for export in Bulgaria, where the raw materials are provided mainly from industrial plantations as its natural resources are not concentrated in large areas (Baričevič et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). It is one of the medicinal and aromatic plants of greatest importance in Hungary, where it is cultivated (Lipman 2009). It is also one of the main medicinal and aromatic species cultivated in Poland and in Spain; there are 12 accessions in Czech Republic for cultivation, and is cultivated over 100-300 ha in Serbia (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is cultivated in Austria; in 2005, it was cultivated over 25 ha, both traditionally (10 ha) and organically (25 ha) (Lipman 2009). In Italy, the harvest quantity permitted is 5 kg of flowered tips and leaves; all Melissa officinalis processed in Italy comes from cropping (Lipman 2009). In Denmark, there has been an increased production of potted plants as a fresh supply of spices and herbs (Baričevič et al . 2004), and it is also present in herb gardens in Finland (Lipman 2009). According to the database on commercial collecting of protected plants in Croatia, from 2005-2012 there were 28 requests to collect aerial parts (including flowers and leaves, sprouts and buds) of this species; around 50 kg were reported to have actually been collected, though these data are not updated (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). Since 2003, several field trials have been set up in Croatia to characterize and evaluate accessions (Lipman 2009). In Portugal, while it is not one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plant species (in terms of volume) collected from the wild for commercial use, it is one of the ten most representative species in cultivation; 700 kg dry matter were produced over 0.25 ha in 2012 as part of a project to foster business development in the aromatic and medicinal plant sector in Portugal (Barata et al . 2013). It is present in ex situ collections in Latvia, is cultivated in Romania, and cultivation is being established in Malta (Lipman 2009). Though outside its European distribution, there are 19 in situ and 11 ex situ accessions in Israel, where it is frequent, plus 28 seed collections (Lipman 2009). There are many cultivars.


taxonomicNotes:
There are no significant taxonomic issues associated with this name. A robust variety has been introduced to the UK with North American seed mixtures and the species certainly appears to be increasing as an alien (K. Walker in Preston et al . 2002). However given that it is not native to North America (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) this form must have its origins elsewhere.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations in most part of its range. Local declines are being susptected in some countries of Central Europe where the species is listed on national red lists. Those populations should be monitored.

range:
M. pulegium occurs throughout much of Europe, Macaronesia and North Africa to northern Iran. It has been introduced to parts of the western Himalayas, New Zealand, North America and southern South America (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe it has been reported from all countries except the Faroe Islands, Finland, Iceland, Russia (all zones), Norway mainland as well as Svalbard and Jan Mayen and Sweden.

population:
M. pulegium has been lost from many sites in the UK through habitat loss, mainly due to "tidying" up of wet areas in pasture and the intensification of livestock farming. Furthermore, it is included in the national red lists of Belgium, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Germany and Switzerland and therefore a decline in this part of its range can be suspected. However, it is widespread and abundant in France and has numerous populations in most other countries of its European range.

habitat:
M. pulegium is a Hemicryptophyte that typically occurs in seasonally inundated grassland, particularly on reasonably fertile soils where either inundation or another factor such as poaching by livestock suppresses competition from more aggressive taxa.

threats:
In the UK, many populations have been lost through general "tidying-up" of small seasonally wet areas, the reasons for the declines in other countries are not known. It is not threatened in most part of its range.

conservationAction:
It is classed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Endangered (level 2) in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
M. pulegium is a source of pennyroyal oil and is employed in the manufacture of soaps and synthetic menthol. Used medicinally for flatulent colic, stomach ailments, and as a diaphoretic (Plants For A Future 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Nepeta cataria is listed as Least Concern as though it is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going extinct in Europe is quite low. However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and research into the causes of those declines as well as adequate measures to prevent this are needed. Threatened subpopulations require monitoring and conservation efforts.


More information on its precise distribution and whether it is suffering declines in more countries across its range would be useful to help identify any additional required conservation actions.

range:
Nepeta cataria is native to north Africa, southern and eastern Europe, west and central Asia, parts of the Indian subcontinent, and China, and has become naturalised all over the world (Adiguzel et al. 2009, RBG Kew 2010). This species was reportedly introduced to Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden and United Kingdom (RBG Kew 2010). However, it is a documented archeophyte (introduced historically, generally prior to 1500 AD) in many of those countries (e.g., Czech Republic, Germany, Sweden, United Kingdom) and most likely spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages; it is thus considered native for the purpose of this assessment. There is uncertainty about its history in Norway before 1800 (Artsdatabanken 2010). It may have been introduced in the Baleares through its use as a medicinal plant (Sáez and Rosselló 2001).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. It is a rather unpredictable species as it can remain for a long time in the seed bank, so even when it appears to have disappeared, that disappearance is often temporary (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). Although populations are declining in parts of its range, it is common in other areas and is presumed to be stable overall. The population is declining in central Europe but is not considered threatened (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In Switzerland, there are fewer than 2500 mature individuals and the population continues to decline (Moser et al. 2002). There are less than 50 mature individuals in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Sweden, this species occurs over a large area but is found in only occasional scattered occurrences (area of occupancy estimated at 100 km², ranging from 22-480 km²); the declining population is estimated to contain 200 mature individuals (range of 10-500) (Gärdenfors 2010). There are long-established populations in the United Kingdom, though the species' range has been markedly contracting for several decades; plants occasionally escape from gardens and give rise to casual populations which rarely persist for more than a few seasons (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The population in Spain and Bulgaria appear to be widespread and common (Assyov et al . 2006, Anthos 2010). In Albania, it is known from several localities (Damës in Tepelena District, Lugina e Valbonës, Qafa e Droçkës in Tropoja District) at 1200-2500 m (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
This plant is a perennial herb of open grassland, waysides, hedge banks, roadsides and rough ground on calcareous soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is also found in open farm environments, landfills and other ruderal lands. The seed is long-lived. The species blooms from July-September, producing abundant flowers that are frequented by hoverflies and bumblebees; it is sensitive to competition during all growth stages ( ArtDatabanken 2010).

threats:
Threats include removal of hedgerow, intensified agriculture, overgrowth by scrub, and village/building restoration and improvement works (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Several of the species' biological properties, such as short life in soil, low germination, competitive sensitivity and climate sensitivity, also make the species less well adapted to conditions in modern agricultural/rural environments where it is often found ( ArtDatabanken 2010) .

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Rare in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Critically Endangered in Norway (criteria D1; Artsdatabanken 2010), Endangered in Sweden (criteria B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a(i);D; Gärdenfors 2010) and Switzerland (criteria B1;B2d;C2a; Moser et al. 2002), Vulnerable in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), and Data Deficient in the Baleares Islands (Sáez andRosselló 2001). It is not considered to be threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012).

Nepeta cataria is present in ex situ genetic resources collection (Lipman 2009). It is legally protected in Croatia and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). It is also protected in Sweden (ArtDatabanken 2010). More information on its precise distribution and whether it is suffering declines in more countries across its range would be useful to help identify any additional required conservation actions.

useAndTrade:
Nepeta cataria is considered to be an important medicinal herb due to the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the essential oil and the methanol extract. It can be taken orally as tea tincture, which is sedative and soporific, or as a juice, infusion or poultice. The leaves and flowering tops are antispasmodic, antitusive, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, sedative, stomachic and tonic. It is traditionally used to treat abnormal growths, respiratory conditions, colic, colds, stomach ailments, nervousness, insomnia and toothache. The fresh or dried leaves and young shoots are also used for flavouring soups and sauces. The leaves and flowers are used to attract cats (Adiguzel et al . 2009, Global Information Hub on Integrated Medicine 2011). It is cultivated in botanical gardens, but the extent of its cultivation for use is unknown. In Croatia, where collection is regulated, there have only been two requests to collect above-ground parts (including leaves, sprouts and buds) since 2005; 93 kg were permitted for collection but only 2 kg were reported collected (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

Origanum dictamnus is endemic to Crete where it has a restricted distribution with an extent of occurrence of 7,600 km² and an area of occupancy of 250 km². However, it the number of locations is large, there is no indication of population fragmentation and the habitat is often inaccessible. Overexploitation is a serious threat but there is no quantification or documentation of a reduction of population size or of the loss of locations in the past. Thus, Origanum dictamnus does not qualify for any of the threat categories, but continued overcollection of the wild populations would render the plant threatened. It is therefore assessed as Near Threatened as it is suspected to reach Criterion A.

range:
Origanum dictamnus is native to the island of Crete, Greece. It is widespread on the island, and becomes rarer towards the east. It occurs on most mountain ranges (Lefka Ori Mts, Idi Mts, Dikti Mts, Thrypti Mts, Asterousia Mts) and mountains (e.g. Giouchtas Mt), and in several gorges (e.g. Trypiti, Prassiano, Aithiano, Kourtalioti). Confirmed post 1930 mapped records are provided by Turland (1995), Kypriotakis (1997), Bergmeier et al. (2001), Tsiourlis and Pentarakis (2001), and MAICh (2008). Based on these the extent of occurrence is 7,600 km² and the area of occupancy is 250 km².

population:
Origanum dictamnus has been recorded in 60-70 locations throughout Crete. There is no objective assessment of the population size and all assessments are based on subjective observations. It was reported that overexploitation had caused dramatic reduction of population sizes and even the complete extinction of the plants in some areas (Skoula and Kamenopoulos 1996). Zaffran (1990) assessed the plant as “rare” on Crete regarding its abundance.

habitat:
It grows on calcareous cliffs but also on stony and rubbly ground such as gorge beds. Found from sea level to 1,900 m asl (Commission of the European Communities 2009).

threats:
The main threat for Origanum dictamnus is overexploitation of the natural populations mainly for the trade of the dried plant which has medicinal properties. Due to this threat, Turland (1995) classified the plant as vulnerable (V, old IUCN criteria). Kypriotakis (1997) however classified the taxon as rare (R, old IUCN criteria). The cultivation of Origanum dictamnus is today more organised and this might have decreased the pressure on those wild subpopulations that are difficult to access. However, Stavropoulos et al. (2006) still included Origanum dictamnus in the list of wild plants threatened by overexploitation.

conservationAction:
Origanum dictamnus is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book (Phitos et al. 1995). Part of the population of the plant is included in Natura 2000 sites (GR4310001, GR4310002, GR4330003, GR4330004, GR4330005, GR4340002, GR4340005, GR4340007, GR4340009, GR4340012).

useAndTrade:
This herb is used as a condiment and has medicinal properties (Plants For A Future 2010). Skoula and Kamenopoulos (1996) reported that the production of Origanum dictamnus collected from wild populations in the period 1981 to 1991 was 1.5-3.5 tonnes/year. Although the plant was cultivated in the same period (production 25-40 tonnes/year), dried plant of wild origin had a higher price.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Origanum onites is common and abundant in Greece and Turkey, but rare in Sicily. It is highly valued as a spice and for its medicinal properties and is cultivated in Turkey for worldwide export. It is likely to be collected from the wild for local use, but specific data on harvest levels are lacking. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category.

range:
Origanum onites is native to the Mediterranean from Siciliy to Turkey (Yaldiz et al . 2005, RBG 2010). In Greece it is only found in the southern part of the mainland and the islands of the Aegean Sea, extending into western and southern Turkey; in Sicily it is only known from one location. The highest elevation it is found is up to 900 metres in Crete (Vokou et al. 1988).

population:
The total population size is unknown. It is a common species in Turkey, southern and south-eastern Greece (Vokou et al. 1988). It is very abundant in the Aegean Islands and eastern Crete, but absent in western Crete; in Italy it is very rare, being restricted to one locality in eastern Sicily (Padulosi 1997, Karousou and Kokkini 2003). It is heavily collected, but it is not known whether this is causing population declines.

habitat:
A perennial species with woody stems, easily distinguished from other species of Origanum due to its inflorescence. It is seasonally dimorphic for adaptation to summer drought and dry conditions, and produces two separate type of leaves in summer and winter. It grows on limestone rocky places, calcareous cliffs and scrub (Padulosi 1997, Karousou and Kokkini 2003).

threats:
It is one of the most commonly collected plants from the wild and in cultivation in Aegean Turkey. It is likely to be sourced from the wild by locals for food flavouring and medicinal value, but information on harvest levels is lacking.

conservationAction:
The Greek Genebank, the Department of Aromatic and Medicinal Plant Agricultural Research Center of Macedonia-Thrace and the University of Bari (Italy) together have seven accessions of Origanum onites , and there are over 28 ex situ collections in herbaria worldwide. Its threat status not been assessed at the national level, but it can be considered Least Concern in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). It is not considered to be rare or threatened in Turkey (Padulosi 1997). It is included in the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group as a priority species in Turkey (Lipman et al. 2009). Harvest from the wild should be monitored to ensure it does not cause declines.

useAndTrade:
Turkish Oregano is one of the most commonly collected plants from the wild and in cultivation, particularly in the Aegean region of Turkey (though this is outside of European Turkey). It is the most exported Origanum species from Turkey to the rest of the world, as it is widely used as a spice for cooking and herbal tea. The essential oil and hydrosols from the fresh leaves are used in traditional medicine, mainly for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders and diabetes, but have also been used as a stimulant, analgesic, antitussive, expectorant and sedative in Turkish folk medicine. It has the second highest essential oil content after Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum. The quality criteria for market demands requires 2-4.5% essential oil in the dried leaves as well as containing the powerful antimicrobial component carvacrol. Content of the essential oil varies with the time of day and month of harvesting. A breeding programme for high yield and quality for synthetic varieties has been in place at the Aegean Agricultural Research Institute since 1992 (Baričevič et al. 2004, Yaldiz et al. 2005, Toncer et al. 2009).


range:
Oregano grows wild all over Europe and the United Kingdom, becoming rare in Scotland and parts of Ireland. It is also native to North Africa and Macaronesia, temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It is cultivated widely outside its native range (Castroviejo et al. 2010, Forey 1991, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is common within its native areas and also widely cultivated. In the United Kingdom it has declined slightly except in chalk and limestone soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2010).

habitat:
Oregano is an aromatic herbaceous perennial growing in calcareous soils and is mainly found in dry grassland, scrub, hedgebanks, road verges and quarries. It easily colonises bare ground or with sparse vegetation and is occasionally naturalised from gardens. It does not do well in heavily grazed areas. It has the characteristic marjoram scent and it blooms in late summer producing dense round clusters of purple-pink flowers which are attractive to butterflies and bees. It is in flower from July to September, with the seeds ripening from August to October. (Forey 1991, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, World Health Organization 2010).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed.It is listed as Least Concern on the national red lists of Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Herba Origani consists of the whole or cut dried aerial parts of Origanum vulgare which is collected during the flowering phase. The drug consists of flowering leafy stems up to 20 cm long, green or violet in colour which is used to treat cough, colds and bronchial catarrh, and is used as an expectorant and diaphoretic. It is known for its aromatic odour, slightly bitter and spicy taste and astringent properties. It is also used as a sedative and antispasmodic agent for treatment for bloating, stimulation of bile secretion, stimulant of appetite and digestion, algomenorrhoea and impotence, used as a diuretic and treatment for kidney infections, kidney stones and poor renal function from chronic nephritis. It is also used externally for scrofula and wound healing. It is among many other plants used to relieve toothache. The methanol extract and its essential oil is used with carvacol and thymol which is antiinflammatory and helpful in reducing aches from muscle strains to treat inflammation, arthritis, hepatitis. Its essential oils also have antifungal, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, insecticidal and antibiotic properties (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, World Health Organization 2010). This plant's essential oil is used in aromatherapy. The leaves can be used raw or cooked and it is often grown as a potherb. Much of the commercially available dried oregano does not come from this plant but from a number of different, often unrelated plants such as Lippia graveolens , L. palmeri and Origanum syriacum . A herb tea is made from the dried leaves and flowering stems (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


In Europe, the species is known from southern and eastern Spain. The species has no known widespread threats, has a relatively broad distribution and is considered Least Concern at present.

range:
The species has a native distribution in North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia) and in southeastern Europe (USDA 2012, Castroviejo et al . 2010). In Europe, the species is known from southern and southeastern Spain. There are two subspecies of P. crinita following an eco-morpho-geographical pattern of variation: P. crinita subsp. malacitana is restricted to mountains above 1,300 m (up to 2,500 m) in Andalusia (Almijara, Cádiz, Granada, Málaga; Blanca et al. 2009, Castroviejo et al . 2010) and frequently forms highly morphologically variable hybrid swarms with P. lychnitis ; whereas P. crinita subsp. crinita grows in eastern Spain (Alicante, Albacete, Murcia, Valencia; Castroviejo et al . 2010), in much drier habitats usually below 800 m (Albaladejo et al. 2005) between 85-1,400 m (Castroviejo et al . 2010). There are over 100 species in the Phlomis genus with the main centre of diversification in the eastern Mediterranean basin, of which four species, including this species, occur in the Iberian Peninsula and it often hybridises with Phlomis lychnitis where their distribution overlaps in southern and eastern Spain (Andalusia and Levante).

population:
Natural populations are stable and weakly exploited, scarcely collected (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014). P. crinita subsp. crinita is found in the Levante (eastern Spain) where it hybridises with P. lychnitis but seems to be less important based on the observation that mixed populations consist of parental phenotypes with just a few intermediate individuals. There is a higher frequency of hybridization in Andalusia than Levante.

habitat:
A chamaephyte sufruticose (Blanca et al. 2009), being part of the Mediterranean vegetation found in disturbed rocky soils growing in dry habitats and scrub on stony limestone substrates and sometimes on road verges (Castroviejo et al 2010, Albaladejo et al 2005).

threats:
Whilst the species may may be impacted in parts of its range in southern Spain by urban and tourist development, it is not considered to have any widespread threats across its range (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or required for this species, although it has been assessed as Least Concern in Andalusia (Blanca et al. 2009). The species occurs in the Sierra de Abenuj protected area.

useAndTrade:
The essential oil extracted from the plant has anti-inflammatory (Joshi et al. 2011) and and-microbial activity (González-Tejero et al. 1995).


range:
Prunella vulgaris has a wide native distribution which includes North Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Europe and North America and is also naturalised outside these regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is frequent throughout the United Kingdom and common throughout its distribution (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A hairy perennial found in open woods, grassy habitats, meadows, pastures, road verges, wasteland, lawns and cultivated land, growing on dry calcareous or neutral soils. It is pollinated by bees and flowers between June and November. It forms clonal patches in short-grazed turf and spreads by the detachment of daughter ramets (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Forey 1991, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2010). Seed size and amount of leaf litter in open woodlands determines seedling emergence, size and survival (Winn 1988).

threats:
It is commonly found on a variety of habitats, including some under anthropogenic influence, and does not face any major threats.

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Least Concern in the national red lists of Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Its name implies that it ought to be used as a medicinal plant and used to be recommended for treating wounds, ulcers and sores but is used much less in traditional medicine. The plant contains compounds similar to sulfated polysaccharides such as dextrin, which have shown in vitro anti-HIV activity. Aquesous extracts of this species have bioreactive properties (active protease inhibitors) and have an antibacterial action inhibiting the growth of Pseudomonas, Bacillus typhi, E. coli, Mycobacterium tuberculi . This plant can also be used in combination with other plants for steam baths to treat sore legs or knees. The fresh or dried leaves can be used to make tea for treatment of fevers, diarrhoea, sore mouth and internal bleeding. The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and used in salads and soups. As its leaves contain tannin they have a bitter taste which can be removed by washing the leaves. A cold water infusion of the freshly chopped or dried and powdered leaves is used as a refreshing beverage (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Rosmarinus officinalis is a widespread, common and abundant species that is cultivated widely and used for its aromatic and medicinal properties. There are no significant threats to this species, although it has declined in some areas in the Mediterranean through collection from the wild and habitat loss and degradation. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Rosmarinus officinalis is native to south-west Europe, the Mediterranean region, North Africa and the Caucasus; it is found from 0-1,600 m asl (Castroviejo et al. 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, RBG Kew 2012). It is introduced in Switzerland (A. Gygax pers. comm. 2013).

population:
The number of individuals is not known, but the species is widespread and common. It has become naturalised in many areas as a cultivar escape.

habitat:
An evergreen aromatic shrub found in gardens, walls, pavements, waste places, and dry scrub land in the Mediterranean region; it is drought tolerant (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, RBG Kew 2013).

threats:
There is a long tradition of collecting this species (among other medicinal and aromatic plants) throughout the Mediterranean, and this species is collected from the wild across its range; this was made legally permissible in Croatia in 1991 (Baričevič et al. 2004). However, collection is not thought to be impacting the populations. It is considered threatened in Malta not because of overuse, but rather habitat loss and degradation as a result of human activities, including development and agricultural practices (Baričevič et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Its overall conservation status is not threatened (RBG Kew 2013), though it is said to be threatened in Malta due to habitat loss and degradation as a result of human activities (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is widely cultivated and maintained in ex situ conservation, including accessions, seed collections and botanical gardens, both within and outside its native range (Baričevič et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). In total 80 accessions have been collected throughout Europe. It also exists in other ex situ collections. Numerous populations in Sardinia and Italy have been studied within the National Project IPPO (Increase of medicinal and aromatic plants production). In Spain, 19 populations have been studied for collection, conservation and characterization of germplasm. In Portugal, the chemical characterization of its essential oils has been evaluated at the Escola Superior Agrária de Elvas. In Montenegro, it is not a protected species and is free for gathering and trade.

useAndTrade:
Rosemary plant is widely cultivated for its aromatic oil which is called "rosemary oil" and is obtained by steam distillation of the fresh leaves and flowering tops of the plant (Al-Sereitia et al. 1999). The essential oil is used as a traditional herbal medicinal product for the symptomatic relief of dyspepsia and mild spasmodic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract (European Medicines Agency 2009). It is used most commonly as an ingredient for flavoring in cooking and has a variety of other uses, such as a stimulant and memory enhancer (RBG Kew 2013). In Albania it is one of the most frequently collected medicinal and aromatic plants, with a harvest yield of 130 tonnes dried raw material (leaves) in 2001. It is widely cultivated. In Albania it is the most commonly cultivated species, planted over an area of 600 ha in 2001 (Kathe et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Salvia fruticosa is commonly used for culinary and medicinal use in its native Mediterranean distribution. There is limited information available on the population and no population size estimates, though it is collected in large quantities in parts of its range and thus likely to be relatively abundant at least in places. It is likely that the population has declined due to collection from the wild, particularly in Greece and possibly also Albania, though it is cultivated in Albania which mitigates collection pressure on wild populations.


Based on the available information, it is listed as Least Concern in both regional Europe and the EU 27 in view of its wide distribution and presumed large overall population, such that the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low. However, more information on the current population size, trend and the overall rate of decline is needed to review whether it would qualify for threatened under Criterion A; it may be threatened or near threatened, particularly in the EU 27 where its status is heavily dependent on population trends in Greece.

range:
Salvia fruticosa is native to the central and eastern Mediterranean region and North Africa (RBG Kew 2010, Gonaid et al. 2012). In Greece, it occurs in almost all littoral areas of the mainland, as well as on the Ionian and Aegean Islands, forming extended populations in the Mediterranean ecosystems. In Crete it has a continuous distribution all over the island and has been found at altitudes between sea level and 900 metres (Karousou and Kokkini 1997). The extent of occurrence (EOO) in Crete alone is approximately 5,000 to 7,000 km². Outside of regional Europe, it is native to Israel, Libya, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Turkey in Asia, and has been introduced to Algeria and Morocco (RBG Kew 2010).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. This species is widespread and abundant in parts of its range, but is under high collection pressure and may be declining. The subpopulation in Greece was recorded over 15 scattered localities (Pitarokili et al. 2003). On Crete it is widespread, dominating particularly in central Crete, the Lasithi area and the Sitia peninsula, though in west Crete it is less common and coexists with, or is replaced by, the Greek endemic Salvia pomifera L. subsp. pomifera (Karousou and Kokkini 1997). At least three genetically variable populations have been found on the island of Crete (Skoula et al. 1999). In Turkey, it is widespread and common in the Aegean and Mediterranean regions, mostly restricted to western Anatolia though it has also been recorded from a few localities at the coastal edge of the Marmara region; an estimated 5-10 % of the global population is found in western Anatolia (Celep et al. 2010, Kahraman et al. 2011). There are nine records for the species in Spain and Portugal (Anthos 2010).

habitat:
This perennial herb or sub-shrub is found growing in dry calcareous substrates in highly degraded areas and waste places (Karousou and Kokkini 1997, Thanos and Doussi 1995).

threats:
It is likely that the population has declined from collection in the wild. In Turkey it is threatened by construction (including roads, dams and other construction), land clearance, fire, urbanisation and tourism (Celep et al. 2010, Kahraman et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
This species is included in the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group as a priority species in Turkey (Lipman et al. 2009). It has been classified as Vulnerable in Turkey (Ekim et al. 2000), although a reassessment found it to be Least Concern on a regional, national and international level (Celep et al. 2010). It is listed as Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It has not been assessed on any Greek national red list, but can be considered Least Concern (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). Outside of Europe, it is protected in Israel under The Plant Protection Law (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is important that harvest levels be managed to ensure the harvest remains sustainable and healthy wild populations are maintained. More information is required on the status of the species in Italy, Albania and Cyprus, and the population size, trend and the overall rate of decline across its range.

useAndTrade:
This plant is common in Greece for its culinary use and is grown as an ornamental shrub. It is also used in traditional medicine as the leaves are antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, depurative, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic and vasodilator (Gonaid et al. 2012). The essential oil has antifungal and antioxidant properties. The extracts of the aerial parts could be used as a natural anthelmintic and slug control agent (Pitarokili et al. 2003, Papageorgiou et al. 2008). It is an important herb used predominantly in the Mediterranean region as a spice, though it is also used in the rest of the world as a substitute to Salvia officinalis and for oil production. The main supplies are from Turkey, Greece, Albania, where plants are collected from wild populations once a year between the flowering and seed stages, though it is also cultivated (Putievsky et al. 1986). In Greece, it is collected from almost the entire mainland and islands for limited trade by local people for use as a condiment and in decoctions; it is not thought to be cultivated in Greece (European Herb Growers Association 2010). Albania is Europe's leading sage producer ( Salvia officinalis and Salvia fruticosa ), exporting over 1000 tonnes annually with a market value of US$ 2.5 million (in 2000); however, since the early 1990s, Albania's export figures have fallen dramatically (from about US$ 30 million to US$ 10-12 million in the late 1990s) and the production of essential oil has declined from 60-100 to 10-20 tonnes per annum (Kathe et al . 2003). In Turkey it is used as an herbal tea and is also exported (Celep et al . 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Includes the following subspecies (Reales et al. 2 004); Salvia officinalis subsp. officinalis Salvia officinalis subsp. gallica Salvia officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia Salvia officinalis subsp. oxyodon The subspecies Salvia officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia (Vahl) Gams is considered a valid species, Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl, by some workers (e.g., Castroviejo et al. 2010, G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014), however we consider it here as a subspecies of Salvia officinalis L. following Reales et al. 2004.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species has a very broad distribution throughout Mediterranean Europe. Although the exact native distribution is not well understood the species is assessed as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. It is cultivated and naturalised widely.

range:
The species has a very broad distribution throughout southern and southeastern Europe. The exact native distribution is not well understood; considered to have originated in the Balkan Peninsula and widely naturalised throughout much of southern Europe (e.g., locally naturalized in the Iberian Peninsula prior to the cultivation of crops) by Castroviejo et al. (2010). However we consider here Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl to be a synonym of Salvia officinalis, and Castroviejo et al. (2010) state Salvia lavandulifolia to be native to Spain (primarily eastern provinces), southeastern France, and northwestern Africa (coastal areas of Morocco and western Algeria). Reales et al. (2004) in their review of the Salvia genus, found that records of this species from Africa refer to the S. fruticosa/S. blancoana group, which does however overlap with Salvia officinalis in some regions; thus the distribution of Salvia officinalis is considered to be across northern and western Mediterranean, from the former Yugoslavia through the southern Alps to the southeastern Iberian Peninsula. Although it is native to the Mediterranean region it is grown commercially in gardens all over Europe and has widely naturalised (USDA 2012, Forey 1991, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-).

population:
A common species that is relatively widespread throughout its range; the status of populations within its natural are not known, but considered likely to be stable.

habitat:
A perennial, evergreen shrub up to 60 cm height (Castroviejo et al. 2010). Found in a range of habitats including dry shrubby vegetation, dry meadows, and rocky steppes.

threats:
The are no known significant threats to this species and present-day collection from wild populations is assumed to be negligible across its range.

conservationAction:
There are no current conservation actions required. It is considered Rare in Slovenia and Vulnerable in Albania. It is listed as Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser et al 2002).

useAndTrade:
This is a commonly used and popular herb for cooking. The fresh leaves can be used to make tea for relief of cold, flu and sore throats. A decoction with wine can be gargled for relief of toothache and a mixture with rosemary is reputed to maintain, strengthen and stimulate the growth of brunette hair (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The leaves are well known for their anti-oxidative, anti-bacterial, fungistatic, virustatic, astringent, eupeptic and anti-hydrotic properties. The antimicrobial properties of the tannins have astringent properties and are an active ingredient of dental-care herbal medicinal preparations. The extracts and essential oil have hypotensive properties, central nervous system-depressant actions and antispasmodic activity (Baricevic et al. 2001). Herbal preparations consist of comminuted herbal substance, dry or liquid extract, tincture, herbal tea and liquid or semi-solid preparations for oromucosal use. The essential oil has a very variable composition depending on the source and harvest time but consists of thujone, cineol, camphor and the leaves tannins, diterpene bitter principles, triterpenes, steroids, flavones, and flavonoid glycosides (European Medicine Agency 2009a,b). The essential oil from the plant is used in small doses to remove mucous from the respiratory organs and mixed in embrocations for treating rheumatism and used internally in the treatment of excessive lactation, night sweats, excessive salivation (as in Parkinson's disease), profuse perspiration (as in TB), anxiety, depression, female sterility and menopausal problems. Sage is furthermore used commercially to flavour baked goods, ice cream, and sweets (Plants for a Future 2012). Natural populations in Spain are stable and weakly exploited, scarcely collected; probably not harvested for their essential oils for more than 20 years, when rudimentary stills were used directly in the field. However, the economic crisis may cause a return to historical exploitation (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Salvia sclarea is found throughout the Mediterranean and eastern Europe. It is rare in some parts of its range but widespread and common in others wherever suitable habitat exists. Although it is collected in the wild, this does not appear to be causing declines. It is widely cultivated and has been in some parts of its range for over a century. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.


More information is needed on the population size and trends, harvest levels in the wild, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

range:
Salvia sclarea is native to the Mediterranean, north Africa and Central Asia (RBG Kew 2010).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. It is widespread throughout Bulgaria and the seed has been collected from the region of Kuklen, Tracian Plain. It is rare in Italy and Serbia (Lipman 2009). In Albania it is known from several localities (Mali i Thatë, Koritë, Gjergjevicë in Korça District, Kulla e Lumës in Kukësi District, Letëm in Librazhdi District, Qafë Mollë in Tirana District) (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). It appears to be widespread and common in Spain and Turkey wherever suitable habitat exists (Anthos 2010, Celep et al. 2010).

habitat:
A biennial or short lived perennial herb growing on rocky slopes, mixed deciduous and coniferous woodland, shale banks and roadsides, dry slopes and scrubs (Plants for a Future 2012, Lipman 2009).

threats:
There appear to be no major threats. It is collected in the wild for its medicinal and aromatic properties, but there are no reports that this is causing declines.

conservationAction:
Salvia sclarea is listed as Critically Endangered in Cyprus (Tsintides et al. 2007) and Switzerland (though it is introduced in Switzerland; Moser et al. 2002). In Serbia it is considered to be Locally Rare and is a protected species listed under CITES, but there is no quota in force. It is legally protected in Croatia and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09). There is one accession in Serbia. There is an ex situ collection in Sadovo, Bulgaria. This species is considered a priority species in Turkey by the Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Working Group (Lipman 2009). In Turkey it can be considered Least Concern on the regional, national and international level (Celep et al. 2010). More information is needed on the population size and trends, harvest levels in the wild, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
In Albania, S. sclarea has been cultivated since 1907 (Kathe et al. 2003). It is also cultivated in Romania and there are 2 cultivars in F.R. Yugoslavia (Lipman 2009, Baričevič et al. 2004). In Croatia, there was only one commercial request between 2005-2012 to collect the leaves, sprouts and buds of this species, but its collection was not permitted (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). The seeds are used for washing the eyes and the whole plant is antispasmodic and aromatic; the leaves and flowers are used for flavouring beverages (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Salvia tomentosa is distributed in the Balkan Peninsula, including European Turkey, and is invasive outside its native range. In Turkey, it is widespread and abundant wherever suitable habitat is available; it appears to be rare in Bulgaria. No information is available on its abundance or population status elsewhere in its European range. Overgrazing and development are reported threats, though these do not appear to be significant. It is a medicinal plant and is collected from the wild, though whether this is impacting the populations is unknown. Commercial collection from the wild is prohibited in Bulgaria as the natural availability is limited. Immigration from the European population into the EU 27 population is likely. Given its widespread distribution, apparent abundance in places and lack of significant threats, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Salvia tomentosa is native to the Mediterranean and Caucasus (RBG Kew 2010). It has a limited distribution in Bulgaria (Lipman et al . 2009). It has been recorded as an invasive species in France (CABI 2013).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. In Turkey, this species is widespread and abundant wherever suitable habitat exists (Kahraman et al . 2012). It is widespread in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions of Turkey. In East Anatolia there is only one record from Elazig Province, though this is outside of Europe. It appears to be quite rare in Bulgaria (Evstatieva et al. 2007).

habitat:
A perennial subshrub found in scrubland, often with Pinus brutia , Pinus nigra and Quercus pubescens in m "st">aquis shrubland, on limestone or igneous substrates (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011, Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
Overgrazing and building of roads, dams and other structures are threats to the species in Turkey (Kahraman et al. 2011). This plant is collected from the wild, but whether collection pressure is significantly impacting the populations is unknown.

conservationAction:
Kahraman et al. (2012) recommended this species be classified as Least Concern in Turkey at the national, regional and international level. It is listed as a priority species in Turkey by the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group (Lipman et al. 2009). In Bulgaria, gathering for trade is prohibited under special protection and use Ordinance no. RD-71/2007; this covers all picking, cutting, gathering, storing, owning and trade of the entire plant, seeds, bulbs, roots and other reproductive parts, and also prohibits damage to their habitats (Evstatieva et al. 2007). More information is needed on the population size and trends, and the actual or potential threats to this species throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
The leaves are used as a condiment and the plant can be used to make a tea (at one time preferred in England above all other sage teas), while the aerial parts contain essential oil known for its antibacterial activity, often used to treat ailments such as cold, flu and tonsilitis (Haznedaroglu et al. 2001, Plants for a Future 2012, Ulukanli et al. 2012). The essential oil can be used as a potential insecticide and bactericidal agent (Ulukanli et al. 2012). It is listed as a medicinal plant in the Bulgarian dendroflora, but with limited use; collection from the wild is prohibited for commercial purposes but is allowed for personal use (Tashev and Tsavkov 2008). It is not known to be cultivated, but is available for purchase through the World Wide Web.


taxonomicNotes:
The synonym Satureja obovata (restricted to Spain) was assessed as a European regional endemic in 2013.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, the species is found in the northern Mediterranean region from southern and southeastern Spain, Sardinia, and the Adriatic coast (southeastern Italy and the Balkan Peninsula). Further research is required to confirm the species full distribution outside the European region. Utilized as a tea and as a medicine, however the species is widely cultivated. No information is available on population trends or threats, however it is considered Least Concern given its wide distribution.

range:
The species has a broad but disconnected distribution from southern Europe in the western Mediterranean (south and southeastern Spain), and the Adriatic coast (southeastern Italy, Sardinia, and the Balkan Peninsula) in southeastern Europe. The species is questionably endemic to the Mediterranean basin (e.g., RBG Edinburgh 1998, Morales 2010, with records also from Turkey (Anatolia) and Lebanon (Bakis et al. 2014), however some references also cite the species distribution as extending to northern Iraq (WCSP 2014). Found at altitudes from sea level up to c.1,500 m (Morales et al. 2010).

habitat:
A low-growing herb or shrub found in cleared scrub, rocks and cracks in limestone, marl and basalt substrates (Morales et al. 2010). An annual or perennial semi-bushy aromatic plants that inhabit arid, sunny, stony and rocky habitats.

threats:
No information available. Potentially impacted locally by over-grazing and habitat loss/conversion.

conservationAction:
The species is included in regional legislation in Andalusia (Spain), where its harvest is regulated on private forest land according to Order B.O.J.A. number 71 (21 June 1997), and in Murcia, where the harvest of all Satureja species is regulated according to the Regional Catalogue of Protected Wild Plants of the Region of Murcia under Decree 50/2003 (B.O.R.M. number 131, 10 June 2003). In 1984, the synonym S. obovata was listed as not threatened in peninsular Spain (Barreno et al. 1984). The species taxonomy requires resolution. Up-to-date information on the population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed.

useAndTrade:
The genus Satureja is related to rosemary and thyme, and the plants are often used to flavour food. Dried and fresh leaves are used to produce a herbal tea that can be used to treat stomach disorders and heart problems. Widely cultivated. An essential oil is extracted from the species and has been shown to exhibit antimicrobial properties.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Satureja hortensis is widespread throughout the Mediterranean, but there is no information available on its population size or trend or the effects of potential threats. It is therefore listed as Data Deficient. This plant is a very popular and common culinary herb and may be collected in the wild for this use, but the extent of the harvest is unknown. It is also cultivated. More information is needed on the population size and trends, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

range:
Satureja hortensis is native to southern Europe, from the Mediterranean to the Caucasus. It has been introduced in the Iberian Peninsula, Switzerland, eastern Europe and Russia (Moser et al. 2002, RBG Kew 2010). It is reportedly introduced to Corsica and the Baleares Islands, but there are no records of its occurrence there (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013, Anthos 2010). It is a casual archeophyte in the Czech Republic (Danihelka et al. 2012).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. In Albania it is known from several localities (Mullet (Tirana District); Ulëz (Mati District); Velipojë (Shkodëra District); Zall-Dardhë (Dibëra District)) at 50-500 m (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
An annual herb found growing on dry, gravelly and stony slopes to 1500 metres, on abandoned cropland and next to orchards (Castroviejo et al. 2010, Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
The threats to this species are unknown. It may be declining due to collection in the wild.

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Near Threatened in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), although it is not part of its natural range. It is widely cultivated. More information is needed on the population size and trends, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
Summer Savory is most often used as a culinary herb to flavour cooked foods and as a garnish, but also has substantial medicinal properties (Plants for a Future 2012). The leaves, which are harvested just before the plant comes into flower, are used fresh or dried and can be made into a tea. It is particularly useful for the digestive system, and the whole herb is antiseptic, aromatic, carminative, digestive, expectorant and stomachic; it is also used to treat colic and reduce flatulence, and to treat nausea, diarrhoea, bronchial congestion, sore throat and menstrual disorders (Plants for a Future 2012). The essential oil from the aerial parts has antimicrobial and antifungal properties (Gulluce et al. 2003), and is used in scalp lotions to treat baldness and also extensively in perfumery (Plants for a Future 2012). It also provides relief for bee and wasp stings and arthritis. This species is in agricultural production in Austria, cultivated over 2 ha by three farmers (Lipman 2009). Breeding is carried out in Romania resulting in certified landraces and there are two cultivars in the F.R. Yugoslavia (Baričevič et al. 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
Sideritis algarviensis D.Rivera & Obón from southern Portugal is considered a synonym of S. arborescens here (The Plant List 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in Europe in the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at more than 50,000 km2, and the area of occupancy (AOO) at 116 km2, however this restricted AOO should be treated with caution as based on a limited number of available datapoints. The threats to this species are not understood, however much of the species range within southern Spain is in areas of intensive urbanization, and touristic and agricultural development, although it does occur within protected areas.The species is assessed as Least Concern as although it is suspected that the species AOO may meet the threshold for a threatened category under criteria B (geographic range), it is likely that this estimate of AOO is an underestimate, and the suspected threats are considered unlikely to impact all locations. Levels of utilization of wild plants has greatly declined in Spain in recent years and it is considered unlikely to be harvested in significant volumes.

range:
The species is endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), northern Morocco and northwest Algeria (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2010). In Spain, it is found in coastal provinces of Andalusia (except Huelva) and the Algarve (Morales 2010) (Almeria, Cádiz, Granada, Málaga, Sevilla; Castroviejo et al. 2010). Restricted to southern Portugal (Algarve; Castroviejo et al. 2010). Based on available records (Anthos 2014), the extent of occurrence is estimated at more than 50,000 km², and the area of occupancy at 116 km² based on available records.

habitat:
Found in plantations of Pinus pinea, Pinus pinaster, Cistus monspeliensis growing in sandy limestone soils or rocky substrates (Castroviejo et al. 2010), and in pine or oak woodlands on sandy coastal soils.

threats:
The threats to this species are not understood, however much of the species range within southern Spain is in areas of intensive urbanization, and touristic and agricultural development.

conservationAction:
Further research is required to determine populations trends and threats. Considered Near Threatened in the Spanish national Red List (Bañares et al. 2011), although Least Concern in Andalusia (Blanca et al. 2009). The species is recorded from the Cabaneros and Grazalema protected areas in southern Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).

useAndTrade:
The aerial parts of plants from the genus Sideritis are widely used as a popular decoction or infusion, orally or topically administered (Bojovic et al. 2011). Considered to have a range of properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial (Bojovic et al. 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
The isolated population in Gudár differs morphologically and genetically from the southern populations (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is endemic to mountainous areas in southeastern and eastern Spain. It is an uncommon species, very restricted geographically and populations may be isolated at high elevations. Further information is needed on threats, with habitat alteration a possible threat, and no information on population trends. Given the absence of known threats, and the species presence at high altitudes, it is considered Least Concern at present, however it could be vulnerable to disturbance and further research should be undertaken.

range:
The species is native to southern and eastern Spain; found in the upper zones of the Sierra Nevada (Granada and Almería provinces), sierras Baza, Tejeda and Gádor, and with an isolated population in Gudár (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

population:
The main area of distribution in the Sierra Nevada, where it is abundant and populations are numerous, stable and found in two protected areas (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014). Populations are isolated and restricted between 1,500 and 3,250 m on mountain ranges. It is unknown if they are fragmented. Most of the high altitude species of Sideritis are endemic with small distributions and are incompletely known and threatened with extinction. The four subspecies variants show geographically or ecologically directed patterns with variability determined by ecological factors and grazing pressures. The subspecies in the Sierra Nevada overlap in their distribution and can be found relatively close to each other. At lower elevations it is less frequent and isolated (Rivera et al. 1999).

habitat:
A shrub colonising calcareous and siliceous substrates found in rocky and shrubby areas in mountain ranges. It occurs at the highest altitude of all Sideritis species over 3,000 m (Castroviejo et al. 2010, Rivera et al. 1999).

threats:
Considered vulnerable to habitat loss/alteration, but cause of threat not known. Increasing aridity may be a threat, but further research is required.

conservationAction:
Occurs in protected areas. The species is considered sensitive to habitat alteration ('Taxon sensible a la alteración de su habitat') in Aragon. Taxonomic study is required.

useAndTrade:
Medicinal uses are recorded: digestive (stomach ailments and gastric ulcer), skin and subcutaneous use (alopecia) (Rai et al. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is endemic to central and southwestern Europe, primarily in mountainous areas from northern Portugal through to western Switzerland and northern Italy. The species has been assessed as Vulnerable in Switzerland (due to restricted geographic range). Whilst it is known to be collected extensively from the wild in some parts of its range and is not known to be cultivated for commercial purposes, it has been cultivated in gardens. Further information on the scale and sustainability of harvest from the wild is required, but at present it is considered Least Concern on the basis of its very wide geographical distribution and large number of records.

range:
The species is endemic to western and southwestern Europe where it occurs from northern Portugal and Spain to central-eastern and southern France, western Switzerland, and northern Italy (USDA 2012, Castroviejo et al . 2010). It is extremely variable and has often been divided into a number of forms, varieties and subspecies, some of questionable taxonomic value (L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014). It also grows in the French and Italian Alps, in the French and Swiss Jura, and in the Massive Central (France) (Pignatti 1982, Association Tela Botanica 2014, Info Flora 2014). Records from peninsular Italy and Sicily (de Santayana et al. 2005) are considered erroneous (Pignatti 1982). The species has been introduced to Germany, where it has become established (Unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. com. 25.11.2013).

population:
There is no information on the population trends available.

habitat:
A perennial aromatic herb with a woody base found in rocky places on stony limestone substrates, mountain pastureland, scrub and open woodland and can grow in a range of soil types. The species has eleven described subspecies which display a range of habitat preferences from coastal areas on the coast of Asturias up to high montane areas. The species also exhibits a variety of growth forms and morphology (Rios and Crespo 2001, Castroviejo et al. 2010).

threats:
The species has been intensely collected, including for commercial purposes, and studies are required to see if this collection is sustainable (de Santayana et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
Some attempts have been made to grow it in private gardens (de Santayana et al. 2005) and some records of the species in Switzerland are considered to be garden escapes. If this species can be cultivated for commercial purposes it will be beneficial to the survival of the wild populations. It has been assessed as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) due to very restricted range. Research is required on the generation length and reproductive success.

useAndTrade:
This medicinal plant is very popular in the peaks of Europe and the Pyrenees where it has been traditionally used for its digestive properties and the treatment of peptic ulcers. An infusion of the inflorescences is known to have antioxidant properties and is usually taken as a herbal tea in breakfast or after meals. This plant is also used to make herbal liqueurs, spirits and digestifs for their flavour as a social beverage but are now used for their medicinal properties which is popular in Cantabria (Sierra-Vega 2012, de Santayana et al. 2005). The aerial parts of the plant contain three known flavone glycosides (Rodríguez-Lyon et al. 2000). This species has been referred to as an important and widely distributed species and is a popular Spanish medicinal plant of pharmacological interest to treat gastric ulcers and diarrhoea. It contains phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid), flavonoids (hypolaetine, isoscutellarein) and essential oils with a high content in hydroxycinnamic derivatives. Pharmacological essays have shown that its flavonoids are responsible for its digestive properties (de Santayana et al. 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is endemic to southeastern Spain, where it is found from near sea level up to c.1,500 m. Whilst the species has a restricted area of occupancy that is estimated, based on known records, at 1,416 km2, some populations are found in protected areas and there is little harvest and use of the species. Some lowland populations may have been impacted by habitat conversion, but the species is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species is endemic to southeastern Spain (from around Granada eastwards to at least Benidorm (Alicante, Almería, Granada, Murcia, Jaén(?)) and is found below 1,500 m elevation ((5)30-1,250(1,550 m)) (Rios and Crespo 2001, Castroviejo et al. 2010, USDA 2012). The species extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km2, however the area of occupancy, based on known records, is estimated as 1,416 km2.

population:
Populations are considered stable (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
A perennial herb. Whilst some other Sideritis species occur at high and low altitudes, this species grows at lower altitudes (up to c.1,500 m) (Rios and Crespo 2001). Grows in scrublands, espartales shrublands ( Stipa spp.) and sometimes in forests of Aleppo pine, on basic or chalky (gypsipherous) soils (Castroviejo et al. 2010). This species is a chamaephyte fruticose.

threats:
The area where this species is found is intensively urbanised and developed for tourism and agriculture, which is assumed to impact on the species, however the scale of impact is not understood, and the species occurs within protected areas. The level of harvest from the wild is low as the species is little used.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed, although it occurs within protected areas. It has not been assessed at the National Level in Spain.

useAndTrade:
The aerial parts of this plant contain flavanoids which have been used in Spain to treat inflammatory conditions (Alcaraz et al. 1981, Rai et al. 2012). The gastric anti-ulcer activity of hypolaetin-8- O -β- smallCaps D-glucoside (H-8-G), a flavonoid isolated from this species is known to reduce gastric lesions as it increases mucous production (Alcaraz and Tordera 1988).  smallCaps   smallCaps Local use of the species includes as an anti-ulcer treatment, the main use of the genus in the region (Rai et al. 2012), however the plant is little-used (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)


The species is known from southern Spain, apparently restricted to a limited number of records in the provinces of Malaga and Cádiz. Based on available records, the extent of occurrence is estimated at 8,308 km2, and the area of occupancy at 100 km2. It is found in scrubland growing in calcareous and sometimes sandy soils. It is inferred that the species habitats and AOO are likely to be impacted by lowland development (urbanisation, agriculture and tourism developments) and in upland areas by drought and habitat clearance.


The species is assessed as Endangered (B2ab (I, ii, iii)). Further research is required to confirm the species distribution and threats.

range:
The species is known from southern Spain, apparently restricted to a very small number of records in the provinces of Malaga and Cádiz (Castroviejo et al 2010). It occurs between 100 and 550(1,000) m (Castroviejo et al 2010, Blanca et al. 2009) above sea level. Records are from Murcia-Almería, Trevenque-Almijara, Alpujarras, Almería, Axarquía, however Blanca et al. (2009) and G. Blanca (pers. comm. 2014) consider the species to be restricted to Ronda and Axarquía. Based on the above records, the extent of occurrence is estimated at 8,308 km2, and the area of occupancy at 100 km2.

habitat:
It is found in scrubland growing in calcareous and sometimes sandy soils (Castroviejo et al 2010). This species is a chamaephyte fruticose.

threats:
Threats are assumed based on two main threats dividing lowland (urbanisation, agricultural expansion and tourism development) and upland areas (drought and habitat clearance).

conservationAction:
It is assessed as Endangered in Spain (Moreno 2008). Research is required into the species threats and distribution, and actions to protect its lowland habitat is recommended. The species is recorded from the Sierra de las Nieves protected area in Andalusia (Gavira 2006).

useAndTrade:
Local use of the species includes as an anti-ulcer treatment, the main use of the genus in the region (Rai et al. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

Sideritis scardica is endemic to the Balkan Peninsula, where it is found at high altitudes in rocky montane areas. It is under intense collection pressure from the wild, with increasing demand for its medicinal value. The mass collection of generative shoots during the flowering phase combined with low germination of seeds has resulted in a significant population declines, at least in parts of its range, as the plant has been exploited for its herbal properties. It is not known to be extensively cultivated and although it occurs in protected areas and is a protected species in some countries, the degree of enforcement is unknown and collection is ongoing. Anthropogenic activities such as land use changes, trampling, ploughing, creation of forest trails, and grazing by cattle are additional threats.

Populations have been declining for several decades, particularly in Bulgaria (where the most population information is available), though the decline has not been quantified. Although conservation measures have been put in place in the past ten years, whether these have been effective is unknown; they have not been so in the past. The species is threatened in half of its countries of occurrence and its population appears to be quite small (2,500 mature individuals in Bulgaria and 250 in Serbia), though population data are absent from the centre of its range in Albania, Macedonia and Greece, where populations might be larger (but demand is expected to remain high). Given the species' threatened status across much of its range, and considering the uncertainty in the population sizes and degree of decline, it is listed as Near Threatened approaching criteria A2cde.

Within the EU 27, it is present only in Bulgaria and Greece and is threatened in both countries. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 20,000-30,000 km². It is severely fragmented and suffering a continuing decline in both the quality of habitat and number of mature individuals. As the most intense collection pressure is in Bulgaria and Greece, and presuming population declines over the past 10-15 years have followed the same pattern as over the past few decades, it is suspected to have declined by at least 20% across its EU 27 range, and possibly 30% or more. It is therefore listed as Near Threatened approaching criteria A2cde and B1ab(iii,v).

Close monitoring and protection of the small remaining fragmented population is required.

range:
Sideritis scardica is endemic to the central part of the Balkan Peninsula (RBG Kew 2012). Its distribution is not continuous, but rather fragmented between mountain ranges at high elevations. In Macedonia, it is widespread in the central and western mountains. In Albania, it is limited to the mountains in the southwest, where it is known from Steblevë Markgraf (Dibëra District) at 1500 m (Janeska et al. 2007, Petreska et al. 2010, L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). In Bulgaria it is only known from nine localities in the Slavyanka Mountains, Pirin Mountains and Rhodopi Mountains at elevations between 1,000 to 2,200 metres (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is distributed mainly in mountainous areas of eastern-central, north-central and north-eastern Greece, between 1,600 and 2,300 m asl ( Strid and Tan 1991, National Technical University of Athens 2011). It has been recorded from European Turkey, at 800 m asl (Güner et al. 2000). The exact distribution in Serbia is unknown, but likely to be restricted to the mountains at high elevations. The extent of occurrence (EOO) across Europe, as measured by the minimum convex hull, is estimated to be around 86,000 km²; the calculated area of suitable habitat within its European range is roughly estimated to be 9,600 km². Within the EU 27, the EOO is estimated to be around 20,000-30,000 km², based on known locality data in Bulgaria and presence in Natura 2000 sites in Greece ( Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011, National Technical University of Athens 2011).

population:
The total population size is unknown. Collection of this species for its healing properties has led to a decrease in the size of populations (Aneva et al. 2013). In some areas, the plant was so abundant in the 1950s and 1960s that collection of flower-bearing stalks took place by mowing; today, the species has declined drastically in parts of its range (e.g. Dobrostan, where only a few specimens remained in 1999; Yordanova and Apostolova 2000). This is unsurprising, considering the high proportion of reproductive shoots collected during the flowering season, which, along with low germination of seeds, has led to a decline in generative reproduction in at least parts of its range (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000). In Bulgaria, there are fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, with fewer than 250 in each of the fragmented subpopulations, and the population is declining (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Yordanova and Apostolova (2000) found that populations maintained highest density on rocky terrains, most likely because such terrains are least accessible to anthropogenic interference and also because the extreme conditions in such habitats reduce competition. They also found limited formation of generative shoots, indicating poor reproductive capacity of the population in general. No population information is available from Macedonia, though the plant is widespread (Janeska et al. 2007). In Serbia , the subpopulation has over 250 individuals (Baričevič et al. 2004), however, its presence is not verified in any literature. The number of individuals in Greece and Albania are unknown. It is not a rare species in Greece, though Sideritis species are often over-collected for their use in the preparation of mountain tea; the species is assumed to be declining due to over-collection for commercial demand and possibly habitat decline (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). In Greece it is cross pollinated and therefore each colony at different sites is a different open-pollinated subpopulation, which is increasing the natural hybridization of this species (Lipman 2009).

habitat:
A short-lived herbaceous perennial which reproduces by seed, this plant is found in open, dry, grassy and stony meadows and rocky places on limestone shallow or eroded soils; it grows in the subalpine and alpine vegetation belts with other high mountain plants (Strid and Tan 1991, Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). It occurs on slopes predominantly with southern exposure and an incline of 5-30 degrees for maximum insolation, higher temperatures and dry conditions. It is capable of associating with different plant species provided there is little competition between them, and was found to be particularly associated with habitat dominated by Juniperus communis , probably because it found shelter from trampling and collecting under the bushes, as increased density of Juniper during natural succession would gradually push S. scardica out of the habitat (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000).

threats:
The principle threat to this species is intensive collection for trade as a medicinal plant. It is collected from natural populations found in the mountains, particularly in Greece and Bulgaria where it has become threatened due to increased demand. On Mount Olympus, a major tourist attraction, it grows wild but colonies are more susceptible as they can be observed and collected easily (Lipman 2009). Collection pressure could cause complete extinction of the species in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). The legal protection status conferred in Bulgaria in 1989 had little or no effect, as the plant is still collected on a mass scale throughout the country, except where protection is enforced by authorities (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000). Extensive collection of generative shoots before seed production has reduced the reproductive output (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000). Anthropogenic activities such as trampling and collecting also impact the species, as evidenced by the higher density of plants found in close proximity to Juniperus communis , which offers some protection (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000). There is also grazing pressure from cattle and further pressure of habitat loss from humans through land use changes, ploughing and creation of forest trails (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000, National Technical University of Athens 2011).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, Sideritis scardica is listed as Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii,iii,iv); C2a(i) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Part of the population is protected within the Alibotush Strict Nature Reserve, Pirin National Park, and Trigradsko Zdrelo Protected Site in the Rhodopi Mountains, where the localities are within Natura 2000 sites; it is also found within the Slavyanka Reserve. The species is included on the list of medicinal plants under special regime for conservation and use in Bulgaria, and has been successfully propagated for inclusion in ex situ collection of rare and endemic plants from the Pirin Mountains (Kozuharova 2009). In Bulgaria, gathering for trade is prohibited under special protection and use Ordinance no. RD-71/2007 (Evstatieva et al. 2007). The harvesting of plant material from the natural populations of is prohibited, and material for the pharmaceutical industry and phytotherapy for medicine can only be obtained by cultivation through conventional and biotechnological methods, which will help ensure the sustainable use and conservation of the species (Vitkova et al. 2011). In Macedonia, the Ministry of the Environment has regulated its export due to unregulated demand and sale of this species. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Serbia; t here is one domestic/improved cultivar in F.R. Yugoslavia (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is described as threatened in Greece (Lipman 2009), and is provisionally listed as threatened in Albania (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). It has been identified as a target species for the SEEDNet Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group (Lipman 2009). Conservation priorities for the protection and preservation of this species include protection under national legislation (e.g. the Biodiversity Act in Bulgaria), ex situ conservation by preserving their seeds and germplasm, and increasing the area in cultivation to cover the increasing demands from consumers (Lipman 2009, Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Research is needed to quantify the harvest across its range and measure the extent of declines, particularly in Albania and Turkey where there is no population information available. Populations should be monitored to ensure collection from the wild is sustainable and that existing conservation actions are effective; protection of the plant from overcollection has been achieved in specific sites through active monitoring and protection (e.g. Mougla Forestry Range in Moursalitza Ridge, Bulgaria; Yordanova and Apostolova 2000).

useAndTrade:
Sideritis scardica has historically been a valuable medicinal plant. The name 'Sideritis' derives from the Greek word “sideros” meaning iron; in the ancient past, Sideritis was a generic reference for plants used to heal wounds caused by iron weapons during battles (Aneva et al. 2013). Very popular throughout its range, the plant is used as a herb either for the preparation of tisane, using stems, leaves and flowers, or for its aromatic properties in local cuisines. It has traditionally been used to aid digestion, strengthen the immune system, suppress viral infections, and to treat allergies and shortness of breath, sinus congestion, pain and mild anxiety. In Bulgaria, it is cultivated on approximately 0.5 ha (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). The essential oil from the aerial parts varies in composition between the Macedonian and Bulgarian subpopulations, but is used to cure bronchitis and bronchial asthma, common cold and lung emphysema (Kostadinova et al . 2007, Knorle 2012). It is also commonly used to make 'mountain tea', as with other Sideritis species, and is rich in flavanoids, terpenes and essential oils, iridoids, coumarins, lignans and sterols (Mursalski Tea 2013, Yankova-Tsvetkova et al . 2013). There is considerable interest in this species as a medicinal plant; despite it being protected it is subject to intensive exploitation due to its anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity (Yordanova and Apostolova 2000, Petreska et al . 2010). In Serbia, it is a minor and underutilized crop with only one or two cultivars (FAO n.d.).


taxonomicNotes:
The species is accepted by WCSP (2014) and The Plant List (2014), however Euro+Med Plantbase (2014) considers it to be a synonym of Sideritis taurica Steph. ex Willd.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a relatively broad distribution in ;mountainous areas in southern/Mediterranean Europe. Although found in relatively restricted habitat types and leaves are harvested, the species has a large Extent of Occurrence, and whilst utilised extensively in parts of its range, it is unlikely to be threatened across its range. It is considered Least Concern at present, however the species should be reassessed if further information becomes available on population trends and threats.

range:
The species is recorded from southern Italy to Ukraine, Turkey, Syria and Lebanon (Davis 1988, RBG Edinburgh 1998, Trigas and Iatrou 2006, USDA 2012). In the European region, the species is known from southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean; Italy (southern parts of the mainland and Sicily), the Balkan Peninsula (southeastern Bulgaria (Strandzha Mountains; Koleva et al. 2003, Aneva et al. 2013), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Macedonia, and Montenegro, and Albania), Romania, Ukraine (Crimea), and Greece (Crete).

habitat:
A drought tolerant perennial shrub up to 50 cm which flowers between June and August and is found growing in montane environments on dry limestone substrates at altitudes above 1,000 metres (Davis 1988). Its alpine distribution favours a faster rate of germination, seedling emergence and establishment at higher temperatures (PFAF 2014, Thannos and Doussi 1995).

threats:
Considered threatened in Bulgaria due to its very restricted distribution, low number of individuals in the populations, low reproduction rate and intensive collection as a medicinal plant threaten the species with complete extinction (Assyov and Petrova 2012).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria it is listed as Critically Endangered (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), where the species is protected by the Biodiversity Act. One population in Bulgaria is within the borders of the Sredoka Reserve and Dokuzak Protected Site, and the species is recorded from Galicica National Park in Macedonia.

useAndTrade:
The plant is used to make an aromatic herbal tea. The wild plant is collected, dried and powdered and the hexane compound, herb extract is used for its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties for treatment of gastric ulcers (Menghini et al 2005). The aerial parts are used for their antioxidative properties (Armata et al 2008). Common uses include treatment of: constipation and stomach ache, stomach pain, painkiller, throat inflammation, neural appeaser, and colds (Fakir et al. 2009). The plant (seed and dried leaves) seems to be relatively widely available via the plant trade and medicinal plant sources. Other members of the genus are widely cultivated, however it is not known if this species is.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern as it has a wide distribution and is common in many European regions. As it is listed as threatened for several European countries these populations require close monitoring and appropriate conservation strategies.

range:
Stachys officinalis is native to north Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), temperate Asia (Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russian Federation) and throughout Europe except the extreme north. It is also cultivated widely and has become naturalised in Finland and Norway (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 2010).

population:
There have been significant local declines in England and Ireland where it is considered rare (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). However, it is common throughout most of Europe.

habitat:
A soft hairy perennial herb found in permanent grassland, heaths, banks, open woodland and scrubland growing in light soils (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
There have been local declines due to changes in land management practices such as the loss and improvement of permanent pastures and grasslands, extent of field ploughing to edges of woodland which cause the loss of marginal flora and a decline in coppicing and changes in woodland management (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The increased use of herbicides and intensive grazing may be a threat to its grassland habitats.

conservationAction:
It is listed on the following national red lists: Critically Endangered in Denmark (NERI 2007), Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Betony was used widely by medieval herbalists who believed that it possessed magical properties to protect against various evils. The dried leaves were formerly used as a substitute for snuff (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). The aerial parts of the plant contain essential oils and are active against certain gram positive and negative bacteria. It has the highest antibacterial activity of all Stachys species (Grujic-Jovanovic et al. 2004). It is commonly used medicinally as a nervine and tonic for head injuries, as an external application for wound treatment, stimulant of the liver and digestive system with an overall tonic effect of the body. Small amounts of the powdered herb are used as a herbal remedy for headaches and a homeopathy remedy is made from the fresh plant for asthma and excessive perspiration. The leaves and flowering tops are used for making a refreshing and aromatic tea. A yellow dye can also be obtained from the leaves (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern as it is widespread and common and there are no major known threats.

range:
Stachys palustris is native throughout Europe, temperate Asia, India and Pakistan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is common throughout Europe but less frequent in southern Europe (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

habitat:
Stachys palustris is a medium to tall hairy, aromatic perennial found in intermittently flooded and poorly drained soils, in damp habitats, along margins of rivers, streams, canals, ponds, ditches, fens, marshes and swamps and as a weed in cultivated fields and arable land (Senatore et al. 2007, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Catsroviejo et al. 2010). It provides pollen for bees and is subsequently pollinated by bees (Chittka and Schürkens 2001).

conservationAction:
It is listed as Near Threatened on the national red list of Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), but Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
All parts of the plant release an unpleasant smell when bruised. The leaves, roots and seeds are edible and are considered to be a wholesome and nutritious food. The tubers are harvested in autumn, dried and ground into powder to make bread and the tubers can also be eaten raw or cooked and have a pleasant mild nutty flavour. As an alternative to asparagus, the young shoots are edible. The flowered aerial parts are harvested and dried when in bloom as they are antiseptic, antispasmodic, emetic, emmenagogue, expectorant, haemostatic, nervine, sedative, tonic and vulnerary agents. It is used to stop internal and external bleeding, treatment of wounds, gout, cramps and joint pains. The plant is known to contain the active compounds iridoids, flavanoids, phenolic acid, steroids and tannins. The essential oil can be obtained from the aerial parts (Senatore et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Teucrium botrys is widespread throughout Europe. As it is a chalk grassland species it is threatened by a decline in the area and quality of its habitat through changes in agricultural and management practices. Chalk grasslands are protected in various sites, mostly in Germany, under Natura 2000, which should help prevent further local declines. Across Europe, it is threatened or near threatened in six of 23 countries of occurrence. In the EU 27, it is threatened in five out of 16 countries in which it occurs, a concerning proportion, but maintains healthy populations in several countries.

It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, presence in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and identification of the causes of those declines as well as adequate measures to prevent them are needed.

range:
Teucrium botrys is native throughout Europe (except northern Europe), north Asia and north Africa, and has been introduced into North America (RBG Kew 2010). It is reported to be extinct in Bulgaria (RBG Kew 2010), but its presence there is debateable as no specimens or sample material are available in Bulgarian herbaria (Assyov et al . 2006). It has been recorded in Germany, where it is very widespread in the central- and south-west (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). This species is said to have a narrow ecological range in Serbia and Montenegro, though it is found throughout Montenegro and central to southern Serbia (Lakusic et al . 2010). It is distributed throughout the Iberian Peninsula, but is more common in the northern half; in Spain there are 271 occurrence records, mostly in the northeast (Anthos 2010). It is also widespread in France, but is found in only a handful of localities in southern UK ( Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013).

habitat:
A biennial herb found on bare or sparsely vegetated open ground in grasslands, margins of arable land, rocky uncultivated fields, roadsides, open chalk grasslands and quarries (Aizpuru et al. 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It reproduces exclusively by seed, flowering from July to September, and is pollinated by bees though self-pollination is possible. It is a poor coloniser, as the seeds are heavy and do not fall far from the parent plant, and does not tolerate shade or competition; it benefits from disturbance and populations can increase quickly after cultivation or habitat management (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
Declines can be attributed to agricultural intensification, scrub encroachment and lack of grazing, cultivation or management such as harrowing, scrub cutting and turf cutting (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). This species requires open habitat and is favoured by some disturbance, such as that provided by grazing or management activities. Urban development is a localised threat.

conservationAction:
Teucrium botrys is classified as Critically Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000); Vulnerable in the Czech Republic (due to disappearance at 20-50% of previously recorded sites; Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012), Hungary (Király 2007) and Luxembourg (Colling 2005); Near Threatened in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002); and Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is listed as Vulnerable (VU D2) in the Basque Country (Aizpuru et al. 2010). The species is conserved within Natura 2000 sites in Germany, Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Poland, as well as numerous nationally designated sites (European Environment Agency n.d., accessed 2013). In the United Kingdom it is an invasive weedy species from cultivation (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), but is listed as a Vulnerable species under the Long list of Globally Threatened/Declining Species (JNCC 1995). It is protected under regional legislation in France, where all felling, damaging, collection, use or sale of wild populations, as well as destruction of its habitats, is prohibited in Pays-de-la-Loire [Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Pays-de-la-Loire: Article 1]. It was protected under regional legistlation in Spain, which required authorization for felling or uprooting all Teucrium species (but not for collection of seeds or other parts), but this has been repealed (Anthos 2010). Proper habitat management, through low-intensity grazing, cultivation, scrub cutting and other disturbance activities, is essential for the maintenance of this species.

useAndTrade:
No information is available on the specific uses of this species. The aerial parts contain flavanoids (Valant-Vetschera et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Teurcrium chamaedrys is widespread throughout Europe and occurs over a range of habitats. There are no significant threats and it is not exploited for its medicinal value. It is therefore classified as Least Concern.

range:
Wall Germander, Teucrium chamaedrys , is native throughout Europe to north Asia and north Africa (RBG Kew 2010). It has been introduced to the United Kingdom and Ireland, though one small population at Cuckmere Haven (E. Sussex) in the UK may be native (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
Spain: Over the last 20 years the number of individuals is estimated to have increased three-fold as a result of regeneration following fires. The current number of mature, sexually mature individuals is estimated to be over 1,000 out of a total population of 7,500-8,000. Four years previously, it was estimated to be between 5,000-5,500. The majority of the population is east of Cartagena, especially in the Monte de las Cenizas and Peña de Aguila area within the Parque Natural de Calbanque. There is a significant urban settlement between these localities. While the number of mature trees may increase as young trees become mature, there is very limited potential expansion in the total extent of occurrence. 

habitat:
A perennial herb found on walls, rocks and dry banks, this species occurs in a range of habitats throughout Europe, including Sub-Atlantic very dry grassland, scrub, forests and sub-pannonic steppe (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, E uropean Environment Agency 2010 (accessed 2013)). It is pollinated by bees, and self-pollination is possible (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
It is collected from the wild as a medicinal plant, though collection pressure does not appear to be high.

conservationAction:
Teucrium chamaedrys is classified as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), and the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012), though it is potentially vulnerable in the latter and should be monitored as it is declining in abundance. It is Vulnerable in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It is a rare species in the UK, where it has been introduced (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). Accessions of domestic cultivars is required (Lipman 2009). More information is needed on the impact of wild collection on the population size and trends, and whether there are any other threats affecting the species.

useAndTrade:
Wall Germander is anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, aperient, aromatic, astringent, bitter, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, stimulant and tonic; it is used to treat gout and weak stomach, lack of appetite, in making bitter alcoholic drinks with digestive qualities, for weight loss, and for its diuretic properties (Plants for a Future 2012). However, there have been reports of hepatotoxicity of the herbal infusions of the aerial parts (Alvarez et al. 2001, Kouzi et al. 1994). It has been cultivated as an ornamental plant (Maloupa et al. 2005). In 1999, 270 kg were collected without permission from the wild in Serbia (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Montenegro it is not protected and is free for gathering and trade as a medicinal and aromatic plant under Official Gazette SRCG, No. 36/82 (Lipman 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is endemic to southern and southeastern Spain. Its Extent of Occurrence is estimated at c.20,525 km2 and its Area of Occupancy at c.184 km2, based on available specimen records (Anthos 2014), which meets (AOO) or is close to meeting (EOO) the thresholds for a threatened category (Criteria B: geographic range), however it is considered likely that these values underestimate both EOO and AOO.

The known threats are thought to be habitat degradation and conversion caused by agricultural intensification, touristic and urban development, however whilst these threats may impact some lowland populations of the species, they are not thought to impact the majority of the species population, and the species is present at more than ten locations.

The species is considered Least Concern at present.

range:
The species is endemic to southern and southeastern Spain (provinces of Mágina, Almería, Granada, Jaén, and Málaga), where it is found at altitudes from sea level up to 1,000 m. (Castroviejo et al. 2010), more commonly below 700 m (Blanca et al. 2009). Its Extent of Occurrence is estimated at 20,525 km2 and its Area of Occupancy at c.184 km2, based on available specimen records (Anthos 2014).

population:
There are few population data for this species; assumed to be declining based on land use changes, but not considered significant at present.

habitat:
This perennial species is found in thyme shrub vegetation, rocky slopes, rocky coastlines and fixed dunes, in calcareous soil, sand or loam. It flowers from late May to July. It is noted to be a very variable species (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

threats:
Found in shrub vegetation, in hills, steppes and coast in lowland areas. Previously the lowland habitat of this species was unsuitable for cultivation but developments in the technique of cultivation under plastic (plasticulture) have allowed them to become utilized. Coastal areas may also be subject to tourist developments and urban development.

conservationAction:
There are protected areas within the range of this species, for example, the Parque Natural Cabot de Gata and Punta Entinas Sabinar. The species is known to be conserved in a botanic garden and seed banks. The species has been assessed as Least Concern in the Andalucía Red List (Blanca et al. 2009); the subspecies almeriense has been assessed as Near Threatened in Spain (Bañares et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
The species may possibly be utilized as a rock garden plant (Slabý 2014). A diterpenoid has been found in the essential oil extracted from the plant (Fayos et al. 1979); diterpenes can have antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and expectorant properties. Most members of the Teucrium genus are known to have medicinal uses (PFAF 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Teucrium montanum is widespread across most of Europe, though it has been described as rare in some parts of its range and the populations is declining. It is found in a range of dry calcareous grassland steppe habitats between elevations of 500-1,500 metres, which are not continuous throughout Europe, rather fragmented and threatened in some countries; however, many of these habitats are listed under Natura 2000. It is threatened by collection from the wild for its medicinal value, as it is claimed to heal any illness. In some areas, particularly the Balkan region, it is also threatened by grazing and afforestation which cause changes in species communities. Very little information on the extent of exploitation and potential population declines is available.

This plant is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population (certainly larger than 10,000 mature individuals), presence in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. However, it is highly threatened in a few countries in the central part of its range and is declining in several more. There is a need for its protected from overcollection in the wild; more information is required on the population size and trend across its range, and monitoring of the population status and harvest levels is highly recommended to prevent further declines.

range:
Teucrium montanum is native to central and southern Europe, the Mediterranean to west Asia and north Africa (RBG Kew 2010). Though quite widespread, it appears somewhat scattered in several countries. It is scattered throughout central and southern Germany, with stronger populations in the south (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In France it is found throughout, but concentrated in the north (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013). There are relatively few localities in Spain, mostly in the north-east (Anthos 2010). This pattern may be a result of under-collection, as citizen science data indicate it is more common (GBIF data, on European Environment Agency 2010). Detailed information on its distribution in other countries is not readily available. It is found from about 100-2,100 m asl (Girerd and Roux 2011, L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

population:
The total population size is unknown, but the population, though quite widespread, is believed to be declining due to collection for its medicinal value and, more importantly, habitat degradation and loss. It has been listed with very early warning in Germany due to population declines (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It does not appear to be particularly abundant in any country for which detailed distribution data is readily available (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013, Anthos 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012 ), except Albania where it is common (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). It is described as rare in Romania (Claudiu and Petru 2012, Plantlife IPA n.d.).

habitat:
A grass crop or shrub found in dry open grassland habitats, low mountain scrub, on calcareous stony or rocky substrates; it blooms from May to the end of summer (Mraz 1998, Tumbas et al. 2004). It is part of the typical flora found in the Helleno-Balkanic steppes [EUNIS Habitat Code E1.21] in perennial, steppe-like low open grasslands on shallow stony soils of the sub-Mediterranean and sub-Pannonic zones of the Balkan peninsula (from Greece to Serbia and western Bulgaria) (European Environment Agency 2010). In Bulgaria it is described from the Petrophytic steppe found at elevations between 500 and 1,500 metres above sea level, which is now Vulnerable and restricted to the eastern part of Bulgaria, and also the Moesian hedgehog-heaths with gorse, which is classified as endangered (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011).

threats:
It is collected from the wild as a medicinal plant. Intensive grazing, which increases erosion and causes changes in species composition, as well as forest plantation are threats to the mountain petrophytic steppe habitat in Bulgaria (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011).

conservationAction:
Teucrium montanum is classified as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Critically Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000) and Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It Germany it is listed as "Very early warning" due to population declines (V: Vorwarnliste, Bestände zurückgehend) (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). The subspecies Teucrium montanum subsp montanum is Endangered in Czech Republic due to rarity; it occurs at 6-20 localities, though few subpopulations have gone extinct and the extant subpopulations are not clearly declining (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012). This species is legally protected in Croatia and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). It is protected under regional legislation in France, where all felling, damaging, collection, use or sale of wild populations, as well as destruction of its habitats, is prohibited in Basse-Normandie [Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Basse-Normandie : Article 1] and Picardie [Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Picardie : Article 1]. It is found in the National Nature Reserve Devínska Kobyla in the Carpathians (Hegedüšová et al. n.d.). In Italy, this species is cited in the Royal Decree no. 772 of 1932 allowing 2 kg of aerial parts to be harvested for its essential oil (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Bulgaria there has been no conservation assessment of this species, however, its habitat type is considered to be threatened (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). This plant is found in a number of Natura 2000 sites: three in Belgium, three in Germany, six in France, three in Austria, three in Italy, and one in Romania (European Environment Agency 2010). Accessions of domestic cultivars is required (Lipman 2009), along with monitoring of harvest levels to ensure they are sustainable and enforcement of existing protective legislation. Additional information is required on the population size and trend across its range. Threats to its habitat, including intensive grazing and forest plantations, should be controlled.

useAndTrade:
This species is consumed as a herbal medicine and a nourishing food. It is widely used as a diuretic, stomachic, analgesic and antispasmodic agent. The essential oil and methanol extracted from the aerial parts is known to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and antifungal activity (Vukovic et al. 2007). It is sold on the market in Serbia and is not known to be cultivated; in 1999, 1084 kg was collected from the wild in Serbia, 692 with permission and 392 without permission (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Montenegro, it is not protected and is free for gathering and trade as a medicinal and aromatic plant under Official Gazette SRCG, No. 36/82 (Lipman 2009). It is one of the most frequently used plants in southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it used for its healing properties for the treatment of any sickness, but mostly for the treatment of the digestive system; an infusion of the aerial parts (2-3 leaves) is used to treat jaundice. Special attention is necessary as it is considered a valued therapeutic resource, which according to local beliefs heals every disease (Redzic 2010). It has been collected from the wild over an area of 8,700 hectares with 2 tonnes harvested in 2005 (International Trade Centre 2007). It is described as one of the most collected plant species in Herzegovina (Pecanac 2007). According to the database on commercial collecting of protected plants in Croatia, from 2005-2012 there were 26 requests to collect almost 1,900 kg of above-ground parts ((including flowers and leaves, sprouts and buds) of this species; over 800 kg are reported to have been actually collected (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although Wood Sage Teucrium scorodonia is threatened in Hungary and the Czech Republic, it remains a common and widespread species across Europe. It is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Wood Sage ( Teucrium scorodonia ) is native to central and northern Europe, the central Balkans and Tunisia (RBG Kew 2010). It has a wide distribution across the Iberian Peninsula, where its extent of occurrence (EOO) is more than 350,000 km² (Anthos 2010). It is common and widespread throughout the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Switzerland. It is introduced in Slovakia, where it is probably permanently established (Marhold and Hindák n.d.). There are three subspecies according to Flora Europaea (Tutin et al. 1972): T. scorodonia subsp. scorodonia , which is the most common in Europe; T. scorodonia subsp. baeticum (commonly called Teucrium pseudoscorodonia Desf.), which occurs in southwestern Spain and North Africa, and T. scorodonia subsp. euganeum , which is localised to mainland Italy and Sicily. In Corsica, only T. scorodonia subsp. scorodonia is present and is widespread (Djabou et al. 2012).

population:
The population size has not been estimated, but this plant is widespread and common throughout northern Europe. The population in Czech Republic has declined and is now rare (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012).

habitat:
Wood Sage is a pubescent rhizomatous perennial herb or dwarf shrub, found in a variety of habitats such as woodlands, heaths, scrub, hedgerows, chalk grassland, pavements, mountain ledges, dunes and shingle; it is often associated with Pteridium (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It can occur in secondary communities, at least in parts of its range (Marhold and Hindák n.d.).

threats:
There appear to be no significant threats to this species. Seedling failure has been reported due to drought, frost and animal depredation (Hutchinson 1967). In the Eastern limit of its range, it is threatened by changes in forest management and abandonement of former agricultural practices; changes in climate may also be a future threat (G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

conservationAction:
Wood Sage is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012) and Hungary (Király 2007). There is no information available on its cultivation for medicinal use, although it has commonly been utilised in Italy and Spain as a medicinal plant for humans and animals. No specific conservation actions are required for this species at the European or EU 27 levels, though protective measures should be put into place in the Czech Republic and Hungary, if they have not done so already.

useAndTrade:
The essential oil from the aerial parts of Teurcrium scorodonia ssp. s corodonia from Italy is known for its astringent and antiseptic properties (Maccioni et al . 2007). In northern Spain, the aerial parts have been commonly used as a vermifuge (Blanco et al . 1999). The essential oils studied from the subspecies in Italy and Spain have variable compounds (Djabou et al . 2012). In Spain it was used as antihelmintic ( "st">a medicine that expels parasitic worms from the body) in domestic animals and in human medicine, by macerating the plant for a day in water or milk, for its intestinal, tonic & diuretic properties (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al . 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

As is the case with other Thymus species, Mediterranean Wild Thyme Thymus capitata is highly valued for its essential oil, which is used for its medicinal properties and as a culinary herb. It is a hardy species that is very common throughout its distribution; collection from the wild has not caused any apparent population declines. Given its widespread distribution and stable population, it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
Mediterranean Wild Thyme ( Thymbra capitata ) is native to northern Africa and southern Europe where it occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, Balkan Peninsula and the Mediterranean islands (RBG Kew 2010). The records from Anthos (2010) show it is common and widespread in southern Spain. In Italy it is typical of the southern regions: Lazio, Campania, Abruzzo, Molise, Basilicata, Sicily and Sardinia (Lipman 2009). It is widespread in Albania, particularly on the Karaburun Peninsula (Mullaj and Tan 2010).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. This plant is common in Spain, Croatia and Italy, and in Malta it has been found to be very abundant in the wild (NatureTrek 2007, Lipman 2009, Anthos 2010). The population in Crete is said to be large and widespread (Wild Herbs of Crete, accessed 2013). Eight populations surveyed on the island of Lesvos, Greece, showed to be 'pollen limited' as a decline in visitation and pollination by pollinators such as honeybees reduced the quality and quantity of pollen within plants of these populations; free-pollinated flowers produced more seeds in larger populations, perhaps due to greater genetic variability or habitat quality (Tscheulin and Petanidou 2011).

habitat:
Mediterranean Wild Thyme is an evergreen woody perennial small shrub found on arid slopes and Mediterranean pine forests at elevations up to 1,000 metres asl; it flowers between May and August (Lipman 2009). It is associated with shrubs of the coastal thermo-Mediterranean zone, which are widespread (European Commission 2013).

threats:
No information has been reported on any significant declines. This species is very commonly used by humans in the Mediterranean. The plant is very woody with a strong root and stem system, and responsible collection may invigorate the plants, when only the top flowering parts are collected such that the plants are only pruned; even after 20 years of collection abundant populations remain in some collection sites (J. Sorensen in litt. 2013).

conservationAction:
This plant has not been assessed on any National Red List. It occurs in five Natura 2000 sites in Italy and sixteen in Malta, and one Biogenetic Reserve in Greece (European Environment Agency 2010). There are no specific conservation actions recommended for this species, beyond generally monitoring harvest levels to ensure collection is sustainable.

useAndTrade:
This aromatic plant is used as a culinary herb for food flavouring. The aerial parts are collected for its essential oil, which has antifungal, antispasmodic and antibacterial properties and is used for medicinal purposes (Cosentino et al. 2002). It is grown commercially in Sardinia (Cosentino et al . 1999). The flowering tops are commonly collected in Crete during the flowering period (Wild Herbs of Crete, accessed 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is considered endemic to southern Spain. The extent of occurrence exceeds 76,000 km2, although the area of occupancy, based on available point data (Anthos 2014), is estimated at less than 2,000 km2, an AOO that qualifies for a threatened category. However natural populations are stable and undergo limited exploitation, and the species occurs in protected areas (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014). It is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species is considered endemic to southern Spain (Alicante, Cádiz, Granada, Jaén, Málaga, Murcia provinces; Trevenque-Almijara, Vélez-Baza, Nevada-Filabres, Alpujarras, Almería, Ronda, Axarquía, Cádiz (reaches east and south of Murcia; Blanca et al. 2009). Presence in Morocco is uncertain (WCSP 2014) and not recorded by Castroviejo et al (2010), and reported to be endemic to Spain by Navarro et al (2002). The extent of occurrence exceeds 76,000 km2, however the area of occupancy, based on available point data (Anthos 2014), is estimated at less than 2,000 km2. Altitude range is from 0 - 1,750 m (Blanca et al 2009).

population:
Natural populations are stable and actually weakly exploited, scarcely collected (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
The species is found in thickets and scrub on limestone and in stony soils and occasionally in sandstone (Castroviejo et al 2010). The species is a chamaephyte fruticose.

threats:
The species may have been impacted locally by habitat conversion, but it is not considered threatened across its range.

conservationAction:
Numerous records (Anthos 2014) occur within protected areas.

useAndTrade:
It is collected from southeastern Spain where it is collected and cultivated for its essential oil (Saez 1999). Over the last 20 years the species has not been harvested for its essential oils. In the past, rudimentary stills were used directly in the field. However, the economic crisis may cause a return to the historical exploitation (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014)


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


In Europe the species is restricted to southeastern Spain (provinces of Alicante, Almería, Murcia, and Granada) at altitudes of between 10-500 m (Castroviejo et al. 2010). Considered by some references (e.g., Govaerts 2003) to be endemic to Spain, Castroviejo et al. 2010) record the species from northwestern Africa.


Although the species has a restricted distribution, its populations are considered stable and it is not currently highly utilised. It is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species is restricted to southeastern Spain (provinces of Alicante, Almería, Murcia, and Granada) at altitudes of between 10-500 m (Castroviejo et al. 2010). Considered by some references (e.g., Govaerts 2003) to be endemic to Spain, Castroviejo et al. (2010) record the species from northwestern Africa. In Europe, the extent of occurrence is estimated at over 20,000 km², however the area of occupancy is estimated to be 1,880 km², based on available records.

habitat:
It occurs in scrub on limestone chalky substrates and loamy or sandy soils and in fine volcanic rocks (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

threats:
The species range overlaps with high levels of urbanisation, tourism development, and agriculture development, however these are likely to have localized impacts and are not considered significant. There is not thought to be any current significant harvest of the species in Spain.

useAndTrade:
The plant is harvested in winter for extraction of its essential oil and in spring the leaves are collected as a food condiment (Jordán et al. 2003). The aromatic composition of the essential oil varies seasonally (Goodner et al. 2006). Over the last 20 years the species has not been harvested for its essential oils. In the past, rudimentary stills were used directly in the field. However, the economic crisis may cause a return to the historical exploitation (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Although the species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, it is found across most parts of both Spain and Portugal. The species is assessed as Least Concern given that the area of occupation and extent of occurrence certainly exceed the threshold for a threatened category, and that there is little current collection of the species from the wild.

range:
The species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (Anthos 2014). In Portugal it is distributed all over the country especially in arid areas (Faleiro et al 2002), and less common or absent from some western parts.

population:
Natural populations are stable and actually weakly exploited, scarcely collected, and populations are found in protected areas (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014). There is no information available however large populations were previously reported from the Algarvian mountains (Faro 2000). This species has been described as rare however it is cultivated from the wild (Grundtvig Plant Wild 2012).

habitat:
It is an evergreen aromatic dwarf shrub growing in dry soils and is drought tolerant. It blossoms from April to June and is found along road verges and abandoned cultivated fields, stony places and rocky ground growing principally in loose texture siliceous substrates and also in sandy places and fixed subcoastal sand dunes (Castroviejo et al 2010, Plants for a Future 2012, Faleiro et al 2002, Faro 2000).

threats:
There is at present little exploitation of wild populations of the species.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in one of Spain's largest protected areas in the Jaén Province (Andalucia 2012). Protection from collection of seeds is important for this species. It is not currently included on the Spanish national Red List. Harvest from the wild is controlled in two areas or Andalusia (Blanca Salas et al. 2009).

useAndTrade:
Its essential oil is extracted from the aerial parts and is known as 'marjoram oil' used as a flavour and fragrance agent and is known to have antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. The essential oil is rich in 1,8-cineole in leaf oils and flower oils (Miguel et al. 2004 and Faleiro et al. 2002). The essential oil can be used as an application in the treatment and prevention of poultry and pig diseases caused by salmonella (Penalver et al. 2005). The essential oils can be used as an antiseptic, deodorant and disinfectant used either fresh or dry from harvested after flowering. The leaves can also be used as a seasoning for flavouring soups (Plants for a Future 2012). Over the last 20 years the species has not been harvested for its essential oils. In the past, rudimentary stills were used directly in the field. However, the economic crisis may cause a return to the historical exploitation (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Breckland Thyme Thymus serpyllum has a widespread distribution across Europe, where it is restricted to dry habitats. It remains abundant in France, Denmark, Estonia and Norway but is rare in the UK and declining in Finland and the Czech Republic. The species is listed as threatened in the Netherlands and Belgium, and Near Threatened in Finland and Germany. This plant is of less medicinal value than Thymus vulgaris but is still one of the most collected and harvested species from the wild in eastern European countries such as Albania and Ukraine. Its status in these countries is unknown but the population may be declining due to overcollection, though it is cultivated in Albania.

Up-to-date harvest information is required for further evaluation of the wild population remaining in Eastern Europe. In west and central Europe, the population is declining in some regions due to a decline in the area and quality of its habitat, through changes in management and land use. These declines have not been quantified, and the species remains widespread and abundant across most of Europe and the EU 27. Its widespread cultivation is also likely to mitigate the demand on wild populations. This plant is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category, and is therefore listed as Least Concern.


Research and monitoring of the population trend across Europe is recommended to determine the extent of declines and ensure collection is sustainable. Further information on population analysis may reveal it to be more threatened.

range:
Thymus serpyllum is native throughout northern Europe to western Asia and North Africa (RBG Kew 2010, Lipman 2009), and is widely naturalised outside its native range (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is widespread throughout France (INPN 2012). It is native to Switzerland (A. Gygax pers. comm. 2013). According to Kathe et al . (2003) it occurs in the former Yugoslavia, and is also said to occur in Italy and Serbia (Lipman 2009). It occurs over several locations in Hungary (Oszagyan et al. 2011). In the United Kingdom, it is found in fewer than 15 hectares (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
The number of mature individuals in the wild is unknown. Breckland Thyme is a rare species in the United Kingdom, but is abundant in France and Finland. It is, however, declining in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010), Sweden (where it is considered a synonym of T. pulegioides ; ArtDatabanken 2010) and the Czech Republich (Grulich 2012). In the Ukraine there are significant resources but it has a limited distribution (Minarchenko 2011). This species is often confused with other Thymus species, and is therefore overlooked or misidentified (G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Breckland Thyme is a small perennial herb or small shrub found in lowland dry sandy heaths, chalk grasslands and inland dunes in areas grazed by rabbits or sheep (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In Sweden it is found exclusively in managed, unfertilised areas, semi-natural pastures, and road verges in dry soils (Eriksson 1998). In Italy it is found in arid pastures in the Alps and Appennines up to 2,200 metres elevation, and in Romania it is found in hill and montane vegetation. The fruit is a nutlet (Lipman 2009). It is an important food plant for many insects, which require large viable populations. Indeed, it is the only food plant for several threatened insect species (Rassi et al. 2010).

threats:
The distribution of Thymus serpyllum is dependent on human activities, both for dispersal and for the maintenance of established populations. Given its association with grazed habitats, long, continuous management of sustainable grazing practices is important for the maintenance of these populations (Eriksson 1998). In the United Kingdom, sites where the species was known were lost in the past as heathland was ploughed for forestry and cultivation; the decline in rabbit and sheep populations further reduced areas of short, open turf. However, the recovery of rabbit populations and increase in sheep grazing has ensured the maintenance of suitable conditions at its remaining sites (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The species is likely declining in other parts of Europe where traditional grazing practices are being abandoned. Other threats include eutrophication of forests and overgrowth of dry meadows.

conservationAction:
This species is classified as Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005); Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010); Near Threatened in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Finland (Rassi et al. 2010); and Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000). It is threatened with disappearance in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006). In the UK it is classified as Least Concern (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) but is now nationally rare. In the Czech Republic it is listed as Lower Risk-near threatened as it is declining (Grulich 2012). In Serbia there is a legal quota in force (Lipman 2009). It is characteristic of the flora of Kozara and Janj National Park in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In Croatia it is protected within the Biokovo National Park under Gazette ‘Narodne novine’ No. 30/94 and No. 72/94 which prohibits collection of medicinal and aromatic plants; however, local collectors and tourists are known to collect it in areas close to roads, paths and trails, though it is not known to be sold by locals (Kathe et al. 2003). Research and monitoring of the population trend across Europe is recommended to determine the extent of declines and ensure collection does not threaten the species. Management of grasslands is required to maintain appropriate habitat.

useAndTrade:
The drug Serpylli herba is derived from the essential oil and is mainly gathered from wild growing plants in Bulgaria. Wild thyme growing naturally in Estonia has a low quality of the drugs of interest. In Estonia it is cultivated and utilised from the wild (Paaver et al . 2008). Phenolic compounds (thymol and carvacol), a characteristic feature of the Serpyllum species growing in the Northern European countries, have not been detected in T. serpyllum . It has lower essential oil content than common thyme ( Thymus vulgaris ) and is used mostly for preparing herbal baths and pillows and the essential oil to make toothpastes, mouthwash and other toiletries. Since 2003, the flowering aerial parts have been included in the European Pharmacopeia for use as an antiseptic, expectorant and antispasmodic for treatment of whooping cough, bronchitis and gastrointestinal disorders. The plant has been in cultivation for centuries, because it is important in pharmacology and decorative horticulture. Wild thyme is an important nectar source plant for honeybees. In Latvia there are 20 accessions, and 10 ex situ accessions in Poland (Loziene et al . 1998, Raal et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). In Albania it is one of the most frequently collected medicinal and aromatic plants from the wild, second to Thymus vulgaris ; an estimated 100 tonnes of leaves were harvested in 2001. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, where the whole plant is collected throughout the entire country, including in the Kozara and Janj National Park, it is one of the top ten most frequently collected species; in 2011, an estimated 11 tonnes were harvested from the wild, of which 5% was for the national market and 95% for international trade. This was worth 5.50 KM (0.5 Euro) per kg dried material (Kathe et al . 2003). In the Ukraine there are significant resources; it falls in category 4 with an average of 1.1-10 tonnes per year harvested from the wild (Minarchenko 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is native to the western Mediterranean region from the Iberian Peninsula to Italy. Considered as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. The species is questionably endemic to Europe, and further research is required to confirm the origin of records from North Africa.

range:
The species is native to the western Mediterranean region from the Iberian Peninsula to Italy (northern Italy, southern France (including Corsica), eastern Spain and the Balearic Islands). Records from the western Balearic Islands (Ibiza) and eastern Spain refer to the endemic subsp. aestivus (Reut. ex Willk.) A. Bolòs & O. Bolòs (L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014). It has been cultivated widely (USDA 2012), cultivated in Britain by 1548 and probably long before. In Italy it has been recorded up to elevations of 800 m (Flora Italiana 2012) but usually occurs at lower elevations. Reported in Spain at altitudes of up to 2,000 m (Blanca et al. 2009). Questionably endemic to Europe; the status and origin of records from North Africa (Morocco), require confirmation.

population:
There is no information available on population trends.

habitat:
A dwarf evergreen shrub found on dry slopes, rocks, dry walls, stony banks, rough grassland and wasteland (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012), and id woodlands in Mediterranean regions (Blanca et al. 2009). It is well adapted for growing in dry hot weather of the Mediterranean. It prefers light, permeable soil somewhat rich in organic matter and mineral fertilizing elements. The sandy soil found inland around the Mediterranean Sea is basic, low pH, and preferred by thyme (Blanca et al. 2009). However, it can also be found in similar climates around the world and is found in many gardens. The plant is hardy and has many adaptations to help it survive. The life cycle varies in the Mediterranean and mountainous areas.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed however research is needed to confirm the natural distribution of the species. It is not known to have been assessed on any national Red List.

useAndTrade:
A herbal substance can be prepared from the whole leaves and flowers separated from the previously dried stems. Herbal preparation with marketing authorisations are made of fixed combinations of dry extracts, liquid extracts from the fresh herb, soft extracts, tincture and comminuted herbal substance for tea preparation. The traditional herbal medicinal product is used as an expectorant in cough and symptoms associated with cold. This combination derived from Germany has been in use since 1976 (European Medicines Agency 2007 and 2011). It is very rich in essential oils, antioxidants and antisepctic properties which make it a valuable remedy for chest and throat complaints. The essential oil is also one of the most important oils used in aromatherapy. Thyme leaves and flowering tops are edible and are a common ingredient for flavouring in cooking. The leaves can be used either fresh or dried.(Plants for a Future 2012). Like many other members of the mint family, Thymus has been one of the many possible alternatives used for treating coughs and respiratory ailments (including tuberculosis). The most important reason for drinking thyme tea has been to calm the nerves and the plant is a well known sedative (Allen and Hatfield 2004). This plant is known to cause allergic dermatitis as it contains Thymol, thyme oil includes terpenes and alcohols. Thyme volatile phenolic oil has been reported to be among the top 10 essential oils, showing antibacterial, antimycotic, antioxidative, natural food preservative, and mammalian age delaying properties (Badi et al 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, the species is known from the Iberian Peninsula. It is regarded as Least Concern as it is widespread within its distribution and there appear to be no major threats.

range:
The species is known from the Iberian Peninsula and the northern Magreb (Algeria and Morocco; Navarro et al. 2002, Jardim Botânico da UTAD 2007, Blanca et al. 2009, WCSP 2014). It is widespread throughout the Iberian Peninsula except the Cantabrian coast and some Mediterranean coastal provinces (Castroviejo et al. 2010).

population:
The species is widespread throughout the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo et al. 2010). Natural populations are stable (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
A perennial aromatic shrub found in bushes and thickets in early succession stages in limestone or shale soils. The subspecies Thymus zygis zygis occurs in oak and pine groves, growing in limestone, marl, granite, quartzite and slate substrates (Castroviejo et al. 2010) and in northeastern Spain it also grows in dry scrub, in chalky soil (L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014).

threats:
Not considered threatened across its range.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place or required for this species, and it occurs in protected areas.

useAndTrade:
The essential oil is known for its high antioxidative properties as well as antiseptic, antibacterial and antiviral properties (Soares 1997). Its use is well established in the form of a herbal substance where the whole leaves and flowers are separated from the previously dried stems and also herbal preparations in the form of liquid extracts, dry extract, tincture and comminuted herbal substance for tea preparation in liquid or solid dosage forms for oral use. It is used in traditional herbal medicine as an expectorant in cough associated with cold (European Medicines Agency 2007, 2011). The most common chemotype extracted is thymol. This species is known to hybridise with other Thymus spp. (Sáez 2000). Over the last 20 years the species has not been harvested for its essential oils. In the past, rudimentary stills were used directly in the field. However, the economic crisis may cause a return to the historical exploitation (G. Blanca pers. comm. 2014).


range:
This species has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

habitat:
Verbena officinalis is a tall perennial herb that is found in a wide range of natural and disturbed habitats. It occurs in grassland, shrubland, rock outcrops, coastal cliffs, at roadsides, arable fields, and moist ground. It has also been reported from quarries and gravel pits, streamsides and wood borders (Preston et al. 2002, Castroviejo et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or in need. The species is listed as Vulnerable in national red list of the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) but as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The plant is used as a domestic herbal remedy to treat headaches, fevers, nervous exhaustion, depression, gall bladder problems and skin problems. The leaves can be eaten or prepared as a tea (Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Vitex agnus-castus is found along the coastline and up to 250 km inland in southern Europe, but is scattered and fragmented and always rare. Although it is or has been considered threatened in two countries, there are very few data available on its precise distribution, population status, or the impact of actual or potential threats. It is an important medicinal plant, all of which is used for female complaints with menstruation and hormone related problems, and is known to be harvested widely outside its native range. It is collected from the wild for medicinal and other purposes, and is threatened in Malta.

Given the lack of information to inform the species' threat assessment, it is assessed as Data Deficient. Further information is required on population declines, threats and harvest quantities.

range:
Vitex agnus-castus is widely circum-Mediterranean, and is native to southern Europe, the Mediterranean, the Balkans eastward to Turkey and north Africa (RBG Kew 2010). Despite this broad distribution, it is scattered and fragmented and always rare (Pignatti 1982, De Bolos and Vigo 1990, Anthos 2010, SILENE 2006-2013, E. Vela pers. comm. 2013). Outside of Europe, it is widely cultivated and now naturalised in the USA and elsewhere in the tropics (Daniele 2005). It is found along coastlines up to 250 km inland (Dogan et al. 2011). In Spain its distribution is restricted to the southern and eastern coast where there are 129 records (Anthos 2010). It is widespread along the coast of Croatia (I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013). It occurs in the western part of Albania up to 200 m (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013), though it can be found up to 750 m elsewhere.

population:
No population information is available for this species. It may be declining; about one quarter of the records in south-eastern continental France are old records and presumed extinct (SILENE 2006-2013).

habitat:
This is an aromatic, ornamental deciduous shrub found in humid habitats such as stream banks and valleys, littoral habitats growing in sandy parched alluvial soils and coastal rocky areas and often in limestone slopes and ditches (Dogan et al. 2011).

threats:
This plant is likely to be threatened by collection from the wild. Further information is required.

conservationAction:
Vitex agnus-castus is considered to be threatened in Malta and is found in ex situ collection at the University Botanic Gardens and public gardens (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Croatia, permission was granted in 1991 for its free collection from the wild (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is legally protected in Croatia in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Borsic pers. comm 2013). In France, where it is legally protected, it was listed as Vulnerable in 1995 (including Corsica, the major part of the French localities; Olivier et al. 1995) but is now listed as Least Concern (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is found in two Natura 2000 sites in Spain, sixteen in Italy, seven in Malta and two in France (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
Vitex agnus-castus is able to grow in nutritionally poor soils and is therefore a common species for restoring degraded land. It is also edible and of medicinal value, and is used as a dye, a honey plant and in landscape architecture for its beautiful aromatic flowers (Dogan et al. 2011). In Europe, the parts used for medicinal purposes include the dried ripe fruit and the extracts / concentrates of the fruits which contain flavanoids, iridoids, essential oil, triglycerides and diterpenes but the whole plant extract is considered necessary for therapeutic action. The German Commission E has approved its use for the treatment of female menstrual conditions (Daniele et al. 2005). In traditional use it is administered as a powdered herbal substance, tincture or dry extract. It is authorised for marketing in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Spain and the UK (European Medicine Agency 2010). It is among the top 18 most important medicinal and aromatic plants harvested from the wild in Herzegovina with an estimated annual quantity of 27.5 tonnes of the flowers, leaves and fruits collected all for international trade at 5 KM or 2.5 EURO / kg dried material (Kathe et al. 2003). In Croatia it is one of the most collected plants. From 2005-2012 there were 13 requests for collection of mostly above ground parts including the leaves, sprouts and stems. Permission was given for over 68,000 kg to be collected but only several kilos were reported to have been collected (I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013). Between 2005 and 2009 a total of 9 kg of the fruits and seeds were also collected (Borsic et al. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, it occurs in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough or across enough of its range to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. Bay Laurel, Laurus nobilis, is a common species throughout the Mediterranean, where it is native to Italy, Slovenia and the Balkan Peninsula. It is likely to be native to Bosnia and Herzegovina but further information is required to confirm this. Its distribution has expanded into western Europe where it has become naturalised in Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.


The wild population of Laurus nobilis has declined due to overcollection and exploitation for medicinal and culinary uses, and due to habitat loss in parts of its native Mediterranean forest habitat. It is highly valued as a medicinal and aromatic plant, particularly in Croatia, Montenegro and Albania where it is one of the most commonly collected plants. This high collection pressure has caused notable declines in those subpopulations, and it is threatened in Albania and Slovenia; however, it remains common in Italy and abundant in Greece. Although the subpopulation in southern Italy is restricted to forest habitats, the species is widely cultivated there, so there appears to be no significant pressure from collection.

Monitoring of the populations and research are needed to determine the species' population status and trends across its native range. As it is not protected or regulated anywhere in the Balkan Peninsula, this species requires legal protection to regulate the large quantities of material collected.

range:
Bay Laurel ( Laurus nobilis ) is native in the Mediterranean, from southern Europe to Israel and North Africa; it has become naturalised along the Atlantic coast in Europe through cultivation and garden escapes. It is found in western and southern France and is likely to occur across the country in a fragmented distribution (INPN 2012). It is widespread on the Iberian Peninsula, where it has become naturalised through cultivation and where it is thus difficult to distinguish native and introduced populations (Castroviejo et al. 1986, Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2001, Anthos 2010). In the UK, it was first recorded in the wild in 1924 and has become naturalised through cultivation since 1995; it is distributed predominantly in the south (Online Atlas of the British & Irish Flora 2012). In Croatia it is widely distributed along the coast and on the islands, where it also grows naturally and in cultivation (Franjić and Škvorc 2010, I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013). This species has a much broader distribution through cultivation (Conforti et al. 2006); it is widely cultivated and naturalised, which makes identifying native wild populations difficult. The subpopulations in Spain (at least in part) and southern France may be native; however, it has been proposed that the wild populations occurring in the center and eastern Mediterranean basin and populations in the Iberian Peninsula and western France are the result of introduction (Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2001).

population:
The total population size is unknown. Bay Laurel is common in the flora of the Mediterranean and Malta (Baričevič et al. 2004). It also grows wild in Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, small Tyrrhenian islands and in small coastal areas in central Italy. In Calabria (southernmost Italy), the species is widely cultivated and wild populations are extremely restricted, especially in Mediterranean oak forests along deep gorges of the Tyrrhenian coast (Conforti et al. 2006). Some populations in northern Spain are considered to be natural but genetic analysis shows they are more genetically similar to Laurus azorica , which is native to the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands; the populations on the Atlantic coast and Iberian Peninsula, where it is abundant, are found in habitats similar to those of L. azorica (Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2001). This species occurs over almost all of Greece and is abundant in Crete, Cephalonia, Thassos, Mount Pelion and Mount Athos. It is also grown as an ornamental in gardens and parks with dormant seeds in tree nurseries (Takos 2001).

habitat:
This plant is a dioecious evergreen large shrub or small tree found in a variety of lowland habitats such as woodland, scrub, sea cliffs, dunes, roadsides and river banks (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It forms thickets in Mediterranean shrub and coastal habitats, which are included in the Natura 2000 habitats in France, Greece and Italy (European Environment Agency 2010). It is always found in regions of warm climate and high rainfall and more frequently in humid microclimates such as canyons and valleys. In Greece it is said to be indigenous in sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation zone (associated with Quercetalia ilicis ) in cool fertile locations. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 5230 "Arborescent matorral with Laurus nobilis " (a priority habitat) and 5310 "Laurus nobilis thickets".

threats:
Overexploitation and collection from the wild, particularly in Montenegro, Albania and Croatia, has caused populations to decline (Lipman 2009). Bay Laurel may also be threatened by deforestation and human expansion.

conservationAction:
Bay Laurel is found in numerous Natura 2000 sites in southern France, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Greece (European Environment Agency 2010). It is classified as Endangered in Albania and Slovenia (FAO 2006), Near Threatened in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), and can be considered Least Concern in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). It occurs in Botanic Gardens in Malta (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Croatia, it was legally protected according to the Nature Protection Act (Official Gazette 70/05, 139/08, 57/11) and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09). As a protected wild plant, it could have been collected for personal needs without authorisation, but its commercial collecting was regulated by the Ordinance on the Collecting of Protected Wild Plants for the Purpose of Processing, Trading and Other Types of Traffic (Official Gazette 154/08). According to the new Nature Protection Act (Official Gazette 80/13), it will not be legally protected any more, and its exploitation will have to be regulated (I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013). The habitats 5230 "Arborescent matorral with Laurus nobilis and 5310 "Laurus nobilis thickets" are listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive. Monitoring of the populations and research are needed to determine the species' population status and trends across its native range. If necessary, harvest levels should be controlled to maintain healthy native populations.

useAndTrade:
Bay Laurel is a medicinal and aromatic plant whose leaves are used as a valuable spice and ﬂavouring agent in the culinary and food industry. It is popular as a garden plant for its aromatic leaves, which are also used as a condiment (Castroviejo et al. 1986). It has been used for its astringent, carminative, digestive, diuretic, emetic and stomachic properties. The fatty oil from the fruit, Bay Oil or Oil of Bays (Oleum Lauri), is used externally for the treatment of furuncles, sprains, bruises and rheumatism, and as an insect repellent due to the lauric acid content (Nayak et al. 2006). It is not regarded to have important medicinal uses, but traditionally the aromatic leaves and fruit were used against hysteria and as an emmenagogue, while the powdered fruit in the form of an infusion has diuretic and carminative properties (Conforti et al. 2006). Lauri fructus are the dried, ripe berries of Laurus nobilis . The pulverised form is used orally in veterinary medicine to facilitate removal of the afterbirth in cows and mares. It is also used as a spice. Lauri folii aetheroleum is the volatile oil obtained by steam distillation from bay leaves of Laurus nobilis. It is used for topical administration to the udder or mammary glands of cows, horses, sheep, goats and pigs (food-producing animals), for disinfection and to prevent transmission of udder or mammary gland diseases. The volatile oil and other constituents have antibacterial and fungicidal activity. This plant is also used in perfumery and flavouring in food and liqueurs (European Medicines Agency 1999a, 1999b). In Cyprus it is gathered or grown for its aromatic leaves and oil from its fruit for cosmetics (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Montenegro it is not protected and is free for gathering and trade under Official Gazette SRCG, No.27/02; in 2004 it was one of the most exploited plants (Lipman 2009). In Albania it is among the top ten most important medicinal and aromatic plants, and was among the most frequently collected from the wild with 330 tonnes dried raw leaves harvested in 2001 (Kathe et al . 2003). This is one of the most commonly used plants in the Iberian Peninsula (Uriarte-Pueyo et al . 2011). In Croatia it is collected for its leaves, sprouts and buds. Between 2005-2012 there were 60 requests to collect the species in Croatia, and permission was granted to collect more than 467,000 kg of material, but only outside its native stands; during this period, at least 50,000 kg were actually collected (Borsic et al. 2010, I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) populations are declining as a result of over-collection and its habitat is under threat from land development, agriculture and grazing, among other factors. The species is cultivated in Poland and Serbia to meet demand for its medicinal use, which should reduce the pressure on wild populations. It is listed as threatened in five countries, and is rare in Belgium and Luxembourg due to the small area of suitable habitat. There is no information on the population in Sicily, Sardinia and Malta, and the status of the population is unknown in countries such as Austria, Hungary, Poland and the Balkans.

Research into the status of the populations in these regions is required. The species, however, remains widespread and not considered threatened in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. Althaea officinalis requires monitoring and conservation of its habitat to prevent it becoming threatened at the European or EU 27 levels.

range:
Marshmallow ( Althaea officinalis ) is native throughout Europe, western Asia and north Africa (Valdés 2011). Flora Italiana states it is present in Sicily, Sardinia and Malta, however, there are no records for this species (Schede di botanica 2013). In Bulgaria it is widespread throughout the country and found at elevations up to 1,000 metres asl (Assyov and Petrova 2006). It is also widespread in Spain and France (Anthos 2010, INPN 2012). In Germany it is Vulnerable but widespread (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. The population is known to be declining but remains common in the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, France and Germany.

habitat:
This is a perennial herb found in lowland coastal habitats, ungrazed ditches and pastures with brackish water, flood meadows, tidal rivers and transition zones between saltmarsh and freshwater habitats. It also occurs as a garden escape (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is characteristic of tall herb communities lining watercourses (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011).

threats:
Marshmallow populations have declined due to drainage and development in coastal areas, ditch management and conversion to grazing or arable land (Kitchener et al. 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Development and other activities along watercourses such as building dykes, changes to river banks, drainage and gravel extraction are also threats to its habitat (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). It is also threatened by over-exploitation and collection from the wild for use as a medicinal and aromatic plant.

conservationAction:
Marshmallow is classified as Rare in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and Luxembourg (Colling 2005); Endangered in Czech Republic due to severe declines (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012); Vulnerable in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Lichtenstein (Schippmann 2013) and the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000); and Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In Italy it is classified as Low Risk and it is considered to be Endangered in Romania (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is not threatened in Poland (Schippmann 2013). It is nationally protected in Germany (Schippmann 2013). In Bulgaria, gathering for trade is prohibited under the Ordinance no. RD-71/2007 (Evstatieva et al. 2007). In Bulgaria lowland riverside tall herb communities are classified as Endangered (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011), but this species is likely to be found in other habitats. It is listed under the Council of Europe Bern Convention Res. No. 4 1996 (European Environment Agency 2010). This species is widely cultivated, though cultivation has decreased in recent years (Schippmann 2013).

useAndTrade:
Marshmallow root preparations are marketed in different countries as either authorised, registered and non-pharmaceutical products and food supplements. Combination products containing marshmallow root and marshmallow root preparations are authorised/registered in Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and the UK. The roots are collected in the autumn from plants aged two years and over. Marshmallow has been used in traditional European medicine since ancient times and is traditionally used as a demulcent and emollient in irritation of oral and pharyngeal mucosa and associated dry cough, in mild gastric complaints and for the treatment of minor skin inflammations (under The Complete German Commission E Monographs, The Expanded Commission E Monographs, WHO Monographs and several other Pharmacopoeias). A syrup made from the macerate has been sold on the Lithuanian market for over 100 years and in Poland since 1999 as a demulcent for symptomatic treatment of cough. In Poland, Germany, Romania and Spain the comminuted substance in the form of herbal tea has been traditionally used for coughs. The syrup of the liquid extract and the dry extract are also used for cough relief. Tablets containing Althaea polysaccharides have been marketed in Estonia as a food supplement since 2004, to be used as an expectorant (European Medicines Agency 2009a, 2009b). In Bulgaria it is one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants in cultivation and export (Evstatieva et al. 2007). It is an important medicinal plant in Serbia and due to increasing demands on the market, it is cultivated over an area of 80-100 ha (Pavlovic et al. 2007). In 1999, 10,782 plants were collected with permission in Serbia, plus 1,802 collected without permission. It is also an important ornamental plant which can be successfully propagated. In Croatia permission was granted for collection from the wild in 1991 with annual harvest of 12 tonnes of roots and leaves. Althaeae flos, folium and radix are derived from both the wild and cultivation. It is cultivated in Poland (Kathe et al. 2003, Baričevič et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Malva neglecta is considered to be Least Concern in Europe. It is widespread and common and is considered a weed in parts of its range.

range:
Malva neglecta is native to North Africa, temperate and tropical Asia and Europe and has become naturalised outside its native range (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Malva neglecta is a widespread species. It is a common weed in the United Kingdom and the Czech Republic and is rare in Denmark, Estonia and Sweden. It is not invasive within its European range (NOBANIS 2012). M. neglecta was present in Britain in Roman times. It is probably declining in the west and north of its range in the United Kingdom (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Valdés (2011) reports it as being introduced in Poland, Slovenia, Finland, Norway and northern European Russia.

habitat:
Malva neglecta is a perennial herb that flowers from June to September and the seeds ripen from July to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by bees, flies and are also self-fertile. It can grow in semi-shaded light woodlands or without shade. It favours shallow, dry soils and is tolerant of grazing and mowing but not of competition with more vigorous species. It is found in fields, waste places, grassy banks, roadsides, coastal habitats, along hedgerows, dry walls, paths, transport networks and other constructed hard-surfaced areas and occasionally on coastal drift-lines (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). The fungus Puccinia malvacearum is associated with this plant species and is known to cause disease by rust on the leaves and stem (Ecological Flora of the British Isles 2012).

threats:
The threats to this species are not known. This species can be infected by the malva vein clearing potyvirus in Europe (Johnstone 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions for this species in place or required. It has been listed as Least Concern in various countries such as Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Malva neglecta is of economic importance for humans as it is eaten as a vegetable, especially the seeds. It has a high mucilage content and its tea helps to alleviate inflammation and mouth irritation. The plant is also useful because of its expectorant and cough-suppressing action. The plant contains tannins in its leaves and blossoms, which can relieve the pain of stomach upset, relax intestinal spasms and soothe irritated skin (Khatami and Ghanati 2011). The leaves and flowers are the main part used as a poultice for bruise, inflammations and insect bites. Leaves and young shoots are edible and the seed heads are used to obtain a dye. The root can also be used as a toothbrush (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Malva sylvestris is widespread and common in Europe and can occur in a wide range of habitats. There are no known threats seriously affecting the species and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Malva sylvestris is native to Africa, tropical and temperate Asia and Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Malva sylvestris is common and widespread throughout Europe.

habitat:
Malva sylvestris is a biennial or perennial herb found on nitrogen rich grasslands, roadsides, railway banks, waste ground and field borders, near farms, urban areas and sometimes sea cliffs. It prefers well drained and nutrient rich soils and reproduces freely from seed (Castroviejo et al. 1993, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
There are no known threats to this species but it can be infected by the malva vein clearing potyvirus in Europe (Johnstone 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions for Malva sylvestris. The species is considered to be Vulnerable in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It is listed as Least Concern, among others, in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Malva sylvestris is widely used in Mediterranean and European traditional medicine and ethno-veterinary treatment of external and internal inflammation, as well as injuries. It is also locally regarded as a food wild herb. Mallow leaves reveal very strong antioxidant properties (Barros et al. 2010). All parts of the plant are used for their antiphlogistic, astringent, demulcent, diuretic, emollient, expectorant and laxative properties. The leaves are used as a poultice for bruises, inflammations, insect bites and stings and can be taken internally in the treatment of respiratory system diseases and problems with the digestive tract. They are also used to make tea and the flowers can be taken to gargle. When combined with eucalyptus it makes a good remedy for coughs and other chest ailments. The leaves are edible raw or cooked and are rarely consumed by cattle. This species is often cultivated for ornamental purposes (Plants for a Future 2012, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Tilia cordata is widespread throughout Europe where it forms abundant mixed stands and less common pure stands of woodland. It is known to be collected from the wild in Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, Montenegro and Poland for its medicinal properties. The inflorescences are the main parts collected and used and although this does not cause mortality of the tree it may reduce the reproductive output. It is also planted for this purpose and for landscaping in urban areas. It has the ability to regenerate vegetatively.

Logging of beech trees where it co-exists in mixed forests has caused declines and its distribution has decreased over the last two centuries, leading to rarity in certain areas. However, the species remains widespread and the population is not considered to be at threat from extinction. It is therefore classified as Least Concern. More information is required on local declines outside the EU.

range:
Tilia cordata is found in upland areas throughout Europe except the extreme north at elevations up to 1,600 metres asl (EUFORGEN 2009, Castroviejo et al . 1993). It has only been recorded in the north and central part of Spain in fewer than 50 localities and does not occur in Portugal (Anthos 2010). It is found throughout France except the south coast (INPN 2003-2013). Outside of Europe, it is found in non-European Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan (EUFORGEN 2009).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown but it was said to be frequent in the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo et al. 1993). It is rare in UK where it occurs as an ancient coppiced tree but has also been planted in parks and streets (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In Poland, lime regeneration is successful where it regenerates freely in groups in Białowieża Forest; vegetative reproduction is very important for populations growing on the border of natural range. Sprouting is known to prolong the life of damaged trees. It is a co-dominant tree in mixed stands and pure stands can be found in the eastern part of Europe (i.e. lime or lime-oak forests in Russia). It is most abundant from north-east France through central Germany and Poland to central Russia and north Ukraine. It is common in the Swiss plain and the lowland parts of Austria, Czech Republic and western Hungary, occurring sparsely in Alpine valleys and is absent in the dry parts of the Hungarian plain. In Italy and Greece pure stands are rare. Flowering and seed production of stand trees begins at the age of about 25-30 years, but trees originating from sprouts blossom 10-15 years earlier. T. cordata and T. platyphyllos form natural inter-specific hybrids when individuals of these species exist in the close proximity; these forms are known as “common linden” Tilia x europaea (L.) syn. Tilia x vulgaris (Hayne) (Radoglou et al. 2008). Investigations of morphological characteristics of T. cordata have revealed little variation between populations (Jensen 2003). In Denmark the population is widespread; the majority of stands are small with fewer than 50 individuals but it is found at higher densities in commercial forests (Honnay et al . 2004).

habitat:
Small-leaved Lime is a tree up to 30 metres in height found in mixed deciduous Quercus or Fraxinus woodland on steep slopes, cliffs, ravines, gorges and on mountain peaks. It can grow in a range of soil types and regenerates by seed (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1993). It also has the ability to regenerate vegetatively. It is found in the wild and in plantations and gardens (European Medicines Agency 2012a). Its distribution limit in the north is restricted by its sensitivity to cold temperatures and frost and by drought in the south. The EUNIS habitat classification is Thermophilous Alpine and peri-Alpine mixed [Tilia] forests; this species grows in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitats 9180 "Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines" and 9020 "Fennoscandian hemiboreal natural old broad-leaved deciduous forests ( Quercus , Tilia , Acer , Fraxinus or Ulmus ) rich in epiphytes" (European Environment Agency 2010).

threats:
This tree species may be threatened in some areas from collection in the wild for medicinal purposes. Browsing by deer causes bark damage. Exploitation of beech over the last two centuries is considered to be the main cause of decline in the occurrence of lime in woodlands (Radoglou et al. 2008). The species is sensitive to climatic conditions and is not tolerant of frost or drought. The distribution has declined over the last 2000 years due to farming expansion and in northern Europe it has declined due to low seed fertility. Inbreeding caused by the extensive fragmentation and destruction of biotopes is expected to have an impact on both T. cordata and T. platyphyllos (Jensen 2003).

conservationAction:
Small-leaved Lime is found in the Nagycenk protected area in Hungary. In Italy it is protected under the Royal Decree no 772 of 1932, allowing harvest of 10 kg of flowers (for all Tilia spp) (Baričevič et al. 2004). Forest management and selective thinning enhances growth of trees (Radoglou et al. 2008). It is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). The habitats 9180 "Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines" and 9020 "Fennoscandian hemiboreal natural old broad-leaved deciduous forests (Quercus, Tilia , Acer, Fraxinus or Ulmus) rich in epiphytes" are listed as priority habitats on Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive; Mixed ravine and slope forests are listed in Council of Europe Bern Convention Res. No. 4 1996 (European Environment Agency 2010). In Croatia, an annual quota of 1000 kg was set up in 2001 by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical Planning, Nature Protection Division (Kathe et al. 2003).

useAndTrade:
In Croatia, permission was granted for its collection from the wild in 1991. It is also collected in Hungary. In Poland it is highly important as one of the main medicinal and aromatic plants with inflorescences collected from natural sites for export. It is also exported in large quantities from Bulgaria. In Montenegro it is not protected and free for gathering and trade under Official Gazette SRCG No 27/02 where it is one of the most exploited species. There is sufficient source of raw material for commercial interest. It is cultivated in Slovakia where research is carried out for breeding and seed improvement (Baričevič et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). Tilia flos (lime flower) consists of the whole dried inflorescence of Tilia cordata Miller, of Tilia platyphyllos Scop., of Tilia x vulgaris Heyne or a mixture of these as stated in the European Pharmacopoeia 2008. It is cultivated in Europe and North America while the material of commerce originates mainly from Balkan countries such as Bulgaria, Romania, former Yugoslavia, Turkey and in part from China. In Bulgaria, an average of 1246,223 kg of Flos Tiliae is used for export from natural stocks which are very good or cultivated (Evstatieva et al . 2007). In Romania 85 tonnes was collected in 2001 (Kathe et al. 2003). It is used in herbal preparations as a comminuted herbal substance, liquid extract or tincture. The tannin or mucilage content in the flowers produce more flavourable teas and extracts. Its use is authorised and regulated in Austria, Czech Republic, Germany (Commission E monographs), Hungary (VIth Hungarian Pharmacopoeia), Lithuania and Poland (Polish Pharmacopoeia of 1970) for treatment of colds and coughs; the species has sedative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, hypotensive, emollient, diuretic and mild astringent properties. Lime flower is listed by the Council of Europe as a natural source of food flavouring to be added in small quantities (European Medicines Agency 2012a). It is also an important ornamental tree grown in streets and parks (Radoglou et al. 2008). It can easily reproduce vegetatively through cuttings and root layers and cuttings can be propagated from old trees. Tilia wood is used for carving (Jensen 2003). It is exported from the former Yugoslavia destined for markets in Germany, France, Austria, Italy and USA (Kathe et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Large-leaved Lime Tilia platyphyllos, is a long-lived, tall deciduous tree species native throughout Europe. In northern Europe, it is rare and regeneration is sparse; the largest number of individuals is in mature old forests with fewer individuals found in younger stands. Threats to the species include expansion of farming, fragmentation and destruction of biotopes leading to inbreeding, intensive pruning for lime flowers, heavy livestock grazing, and low seed fertility in northern Europe. It is widely utilized for its medicinal properties, and is sourced through collection from the wild and cultivation.


Although its distribution has declined over the past 2000 years, it remains widespread, including in urban and residential areas (though most individuals come from cultivated stock), and is more common in mountainous regions of central and eastern Europe. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. Conservation of older or ancient woodlands is necessary. More information is required on rarity and continued declines, particularly since it is so long-lived and slow declines over long time periods may have substantial impacts on the population.

range:
Large-leaved Lime, Tilia platyphyllos , is native to Central and Southern Europe (Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013). Pollen analysis shows that it once had a larger distribution than at present (Turok et al. 1999). Its native status within countries can be doubtful where it has been cultivated (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is found from 0-1,700 m asl (Pignatti 1982, De Bolos and Vigo 1990). It is introduced in Portugal (F.B. Caldas pers. comm. 2013).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. Large-leaved Lime is rare in northern Europe where the population has declined over the past 2000 years (Jensen 2003). It is more common in mountainous regions of central and eastern Europe (Turok et al. 1999). Tilia cordata and T. platyphyllos form natural inter-specific hybrids when individuals of these species exist in the close proximity; these forms are known as “common linden” Tilia x europaea (L.) syn. Tilia x vulgaris (Hayne) (Radoglou et al. 2008). In Denmark the population is small, mostly in the south and containing few individuals, with the largest subpopulations found in mature or old forests and few in young stands. Inbreeding is expected to have an impact on its population (Honnay et al. 2004).

habitat:
This tall deciduous tree can live up to 500 years and is found in ancient or old mixed deciduous woodland, growing in calcareous soil as a large tree or coppice stool. It is found in upland areas and also grows on cliff ledges as well as being planted in urban areas (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The EUNIS habitat classification is Thermophilous Alpine and peri-Alpine mixed [Tilia] forests (European Environment Agency 2010). This species flowers at the age of 30 and maturation of seed and germ is slow; normally seeds germinate two years from harvest with seeds from older trees having a higher germination rate. It can easily reproduce vegetatively through cuttings and root layers and cuttings can be propagated from old trees.

threats:
This species is sensitive to climatic conditions and is not tolerant of frost or drought. In the past, it was threatened by deforestation and invasion by Beech. The distribution has declined over the last 2000 years due to farming expansion and in northern Europe it has declined due to low seed fertility. Inbreeding caused by the extensive fragmentation and destruction of biotopes is expected to have an impact on both Tilia cordata and T. platyphyllos (Jensen 2003). Intensive pruning for lime flowers and heavy livestock grazing are also significant threats (Radaglou et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Large-leaved Lime is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al . 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002) and the United Kingdom (Chef fings and Farrell 2005). It is Critically Endangered (CR D) in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Sweden (CR D) ( Gärdenfors 2010), and Endangered in Albania (FAO 2006). Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines are listed in the EU Habitats Directive Annex I and Mixed ravine and slope forests in Council of Europe Bern Convention Res. No. 4 1996 (European Environment Agency 2010). In Croatia, an annual quota of 1000 kg was set up in 2001 by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical Planning, Nature Protection Division (Kathe et al . 2003). Conservation of older or ancient woodlands is necessary. More information is required on rarity and continued declines, particularly since it is so long-lived and slow declines over long time periods may have substantial impacts on the population.

useAndTrade:
Tilia flos (lime flower) consists of the whole dried inflorescence of Tilia cordata Miller, of Tilia platyphyllos Scop., of Tilia x vulgaris Heyne or a mixture of these as stated in the European Pharmacopoeia 2008. It is used in herbal preparations as a comminuted herbal substance, liquid extract or tincture. The tannin or mucilage content in the flowers produce more flavourable teas and extracts. This species is cultivated in Europe and North America, while the material of commerce originates mainly from Balkan countries (e.g. Bulgaria, Romania, former Yugoslavia, Turkey) and in part from China. In Bulgaria, an average of 1,246,223 kg of Flos Tiliae is used for export, originating from very good natural stocks or cultivation (Evstatieva et al . 2007). Its use is authorized and regulated in Austria, Czech Republic, Germany (Commission E monographs), Hungary (VIth Hungarian Pharmacopoeia), Lithuania and Poland (Polish Pharmacopoeia of 1970) for treatment of colds and coughs, as it has sedative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, hypotensive, emollient, diuretic and mild astringent properties. Lime flower is listed by the Council of Europe as a natural source of food flavouring to be added in small quantities (European Medicines Agency 2012a). It can easily reproduce vegetatively through cuttings and root layers and cuttings can be propagated from old trees. Tilia wood is used for carving (Jensen 2003). In Montenegro, where it is one of the most exploited species, it is not protected and free for gathering and trade under Official Gazette SRCG No 27/02. There is sufficient source of raw material for commercial interest. It is cultivated in Slovakia where research is carried out for breeding and seed improvement (Baričevič et al . 2004, Lipman 2009). It is exported from the former Yugoslavia destined for markets in Germany, France, Austria, Italy and the USA (Kathe et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Silver Lime Tilia tomentosa is native to southeastern Europe, where its confirmed presence includes Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, northern Greece, the former Yugoslavia and European Turkey. Outside of Europe, its range extends to Southwestern Asia. This species can be invasive, often becoming dominant in beech and other hardwood forests, and causing forestry problems in some regions of the northern Balkans. It is rare in Greece and the pure Silver Lime wood stands in Bulgaria are classified as Endangered, however, individuals may occur throughout the country.

The leaves and flowers are used for medicinal purposes and the species has declined due to collection from the wild, harvesting for wood, competition from other broadleaved trees (such as Beech) in coppiced forests and heavy livestock grazing. It is still described as a dominant tree, though it is cultivated and may be difficult to determine which parts of the population are wild.

It is classified as Least Concern given its widespread distribution, large overall population, invasive nature in parts of its range, and because the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species’ populations to severely decline in the near future.

range:
Tilia tomentosa is native to Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia, and is a dominant species of mixed deciduous forests in the Balkans. In Hungary, it is widespread in the hilly area south of Lake Balaton (Somogyi-dombság, Mecsek), and is also present in the eastern region bordering to Romania (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). In Romania, it is found at elevations up to 1,000 metres asl, the optimum elevation being 150-450 metres asl. In Bulgaria it is found in the north east in flat hills and foothills of the Mizian zone, where it occurs over an area of 17,273.1 ha (172.73 km²), of which 13.3% are pure stands. According to Assyov and Petrova (2006), it occurs throughout the entire country. It occurs in the Ukraine near Uzgorod (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). In Greece i ts distribution is scattered from the Parnon Mountain (Peloponnese) up to Rodope (north Greece) at altitudes of up to 1,200 m a.s.l. (European Environment Agency 2010, Radoglou et al . 2008). A ccording to Franjić and Škvorc (2010), i n Croatia it is most widespread on Bilogora in northern Croatia, which supposedly got its name because of the white leaves of Tilia tometosa (Bilo - white, gora – mountain), but most recorded localities of this species in Croatia are on Moslavačka gora, Dilj gora and Spačva (Nikolić 2011).

population:
There is no information on the population size, and the overall population trend is unknown; the species faces several threats and is declining in some parts of its range, but is invasive in other parts of its range. In former times lime trees were more abundant in the Greek mountains but now they are scattered and rare.

habitat:
Silver Lime is a fast-growing tall deciduous tree found in Silver Lime woods in south Romania, north Bulgaria and Serbia. Soil moisture is a limiting factor which restricts its natural occurrence. At ages of over 50-60 years it dominates over steep and flat terrain in Bulgaria. In Greece it is found in vegetation zones of deciduous broadleaves in mixture with beech, oak, ash, and maple; pure stands are very rare. It is also found in mixed stands of forest steppe (Radoglou et al. 2008). In Croatia, it grows in the community Carpino betuli-Quercetum roboris , which extends on the area of ca. 110,000 ha in Croatia, with largest stands in the area of Spačva and along river Sava and its tributaries. This species is an important, sometimes dominant or co-dominant, species within the tree and shrub layer of several plant communities in Southeastern Europe, though this dominance may in some cases result from a large anthropogenic influence (Dinic et al. 1999, Petrescu 2007, Vukelić et al. 2012). This species can be invasive, often becoming dominant in beech and other hardwood forests and causing forestry problems in some regions of the northern Balkans (G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

threats:
Silver Lime is collected from the wild across most of its range for its medicinal properties and wood. In Greece, pure stands are rare and the population continues to decrease due to competition with other broadleaved species in coppice forests, intensive pruning for lime flowers and heavy livestock grazing ( Radoglou et al. 2008). Large scale cuttings and over exploitation of the wood are also threats ( Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, Silver Lime woods are classified as Endangered (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). This species is only found in one Natura 2000 site, in Romania (European Environment Agency 2010). In Croatia, it was not listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09), which means that it is neither protected nor strictly protected (I. Boršić pers. comm.). The species would benefit from protection of its habitats where it is declining, and from harvest management should this prove to be unsustainable.

useAndTrade:
This tree species is utilised for its wood as sawlogs and veneer logs (Radoglou et al. 2008). Tilia tomentosae flos (Silver Lime flower) consists of the whole dried inflorescence of Tilia tomentosa Moench, gathered during the flowering season. No products containing silver lime flowers are available in the Member States of the European Union, except Herbal Tea in Czech Republic. Traditionally, lime flowers were added to baths to quell hysteria and steeped as a tea to relieve anxiety-related indigestion, heart palpitation and vomiting (European Medicines Agency 2012). In Turkey, the leaves are used in treatment of common cold and bronchitis (Toker et al. 2004). It is harvested from the wild in eastern Bosnia with an estimated annual quantity of 22 tonnes of flowers collected; 5% of this goes to local market, 10% to the national market and 85% to the international market at a price of 7.50 KM / 3.75 Euro per kg dried flowers, though export rates may have recently increased due to increasing demand. It was frequently collected from the Kozara National Park. It is one of the top most harvested species from the wild in Bulgaria, with an estimated 160 tonnes of flowers collected; between 1992-1995 it was one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants exported (including other Tilia spp). In Romania, a 2001 study found 75 tonnes of flowers were collected with 20% for sale on local market, 20% national market and 60% international market; total revenue from trade in 2001 was $240,000 from these 75 tonnes (Kathe et al. 2003). It is not often collected in Hungary as it has only moderate medicinal value; rather, other Tilia species ( T. cordata and T. platyphyllos ) are collected (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is a beloved park wood in many countries throughout Central Europe (G. Király pers. comm. 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
Great variability, especially in degree of indumentum and leaf shape, has led to recognition of many microspecies and infraspecific taxa that are not satisfactorily separated when the species is investigated over its geographic range. Apparent hybridization between Lythrum salicaria and L. virgatum and among the many races of L. salicaria in eastern Europe and Asia has further confused the taxonomy (Haining Qin and Shirley A. Graham in Flora of China).

range:
Native throughout Europe and North Africa east to China, Japan and Korea, it has been introduced to North America and Australia where it can be extremely invasive. In Europe, it has been recorded from all countries except the Faroe Islands, Gibraltar (UK), Greek Aegean Islands, Crete, Cyprus, Iceland, Monaco, Azores, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).

population:
L. salicaria is widespread and abundant in most European countries.

habitat:
L. salicaria will occur in various wetland types from river margins and banks, to low-lying seasonally inundated areas in rough pasture, the margins of wet woodland and even seasonally pools.

useAndTrade:
This plant is used in ornamentation and medicine.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is a widespread and common species that is a significant constituent of Mediterranean maquis vegetation. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and population are all inferred to exceed the values for a threatened category. It is suspected not to have any significant ongoing threats and any population declines in some areas are likely to be balanced by increases in others, for example, as a component in the vegetation colonising abandoned agricultural fields. It is assessed as Least Concern.

population:
This is reported to be a common and widespread shrub of the Mediterranean basin and it is inferred that the population is large. Urbanization and agricultural expansion may have caused loss and fragmentation of the habitat but are suspected not to be resulting in any significant overall population decline, as this species has a high ecological tolerance and produces a large number of seed with a high germination rate enabling it to be a successional species in abandoned fields, where the population may increase (Santos 2000).

habitat:
This evergreen shrub or small tree, generally growing to 0.5-3 m in height (Migliore et al. 2011), is a common constituent of Mediterranean maquis vegetation and the pine and oak woodland understorey. The flowers are insect pollinated and it produces large numbers of seeds which are dispersed by birds or washed away by rains and which have a high germination rate. The species has a wide ecological tolerance (Polunin 1969, Ahmed and Vardar 1973).

threats:
Myrtle fruit and leaf material are often collected from wild populations but are not thought to significantly affect viability. Increasing urbanization, natural fires, grazing by livestock and other wild herbivores, and the cutting of wood are all putting pressure on wild populations (Melito et al. 2013) but are suspected not to to constitute major threats.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as occurring in 21 Natura 2000 sites located in Italy, Spain and Malta and protected areas such as the Brijuni Islands National Park in Croatia. It is grown ex situ in 130 botanic gardens worldwide and seed is stored in seed banks, for example in Cordoba, Spain (BGCI 2013, ENSCO 2014). To relieve collection pressures on wild populations there have been attempts to identify candidate cultivars with a view to establishing managed stands for commercial cultivation (Mulas et al. 2002 and Mulas 2012 in Melito et al. 2013) and in recent years myrtle plantations have been established.

useAndTrade:
Essential oils are extracted from the young leaves and mature fruits. These are used in the production of local liquors known as mirto in Corsica and Sardinia. Extracts have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties and the leaves and berries are used in various processed food and cosmetic formulations. It is taken internally in the treatment of urinary infections, digestive disorders, vaginal infections, lung congestion, sinus inflammation and dry coughs. Externally it can be used to treat acne and the extracted oil is used to treat gum inflammation. Other documented uses include the treatment of dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, internal ulceration and rheumatism (Plants for a Future 2014). The plant is used in either fresh or dry form as a food additive, and its leaf can substitute for hops in beer manufacture (Bonjar 2004 and Barboni et al 2010 in Melito et al. 2013). The flowers can be eaten in salads and the fruit can be eaten raw or cooked, made into a fruit drink or dried and used as a flavouring (Plants for a Future 2014). Dyes and tannins are also extracted and the wood is used as fuel (producing a high quality charcoal) and for wood working to produce, for example, tool handles, walking sticks (Plants for a Future 2014, GRIN 2014). A perfumed water, known as eau d'ange is obtained from the flowers. It is cultivated as an ornamental in gardens and often used as a hedging plant. It also has cultural significance and is associated with love and immortality and is, for example, used in wedding bouquets (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Daphne laureola has a wide distribution throughout subatlantic-submediterranean Europe and is abundant in most of its range. In Spain alone, the extent of occurrence is estimated at around 318,000 km² and its population is over 7,500 individuals; it does not therefore meet the criteria for being threatened with extinction. The population is threatened in Bulgaria and Germany and Near Threatened in Hungary and Croatia, but is protected in all of those countries. In Portugal it is very rare, and not protected.

This plant is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, it occurs in a number of protected areas, and because declines are unlikely to be fast or extensive enough to dramatically impact the European or EU 27 populations.


However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and research into the causes of those declines as well as adequate measures to prevent this are needed.

range:
Daphne laureola is native to western and central Europe, the Mediterranean and north Africa (Pedrol 2011). In Spain alone there are 765 records in an area over 318,000 km² (Anthos 2010). This species is considered a noxious weed in North America (King County 2013).

population:
The total number of individuals is unknown, but is certainly very high. In the Iberian Peninsula, Spurge-laurel has a disjunct distribution and is abundant in both the northern Cantabrian range and the Pyrenees and the southern Baetic Ranges. A study of six accessible populations in the Baetic Ranges identified at least 7,500 individuals; no subpopulations had fewer than 500 reproductive individuals (Castilla et al. 2011). This species is rare in Hungary (Király 2007) and Portugal (F.B. Caldas pers. comm. 2013). In Bulgaria its populations range from single plants to mosaic subpopulations (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). It is abundant in the UK, though it is found both as a native and as a relic of cultivation or introduction; much of the range marked as native may more likely be introduced (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Spurge-laurel is an evergreen gynodioecious woody perennial shrub found in beech forests, woodland and the understory of montane forests in heavy, neutral or basic soils. In southern Europe it is found on the main calcareous mountain ranges. It reproduces by self layering and by seed but relies on cross pollination by flies or moths (Castilla et al. 2011, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
Locally, the abundance of Daphne laureola is affected by impacts of herbivory and environmental conditions. In Bulgaria, it is found in only two locations and is threatened by deforestation for timber production (cutting of beech and coniferous forests) and construction of facilities for tourism (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011).

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Endangered [EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)] in Bulgaria, where it is protected by the Biodiversity Act and subpopulations occur in various nature reserves (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). It is Vulnerable and protected in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is Near Threatened and protected in Hungary (Király 2007). It is also Near Threatened in Croatia, though it is protected under the Nature Protection Law (OG 54/76) in the Pozega Valley region (Nikolić and Topić 2005, Tomasevic 2006). It can be considered Critically Endangered in Portugal (F.B. Caldas pers. comm. 2013). It is Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), and is not threatened in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012). It occurs in seven Natura 2000 sites in Belgium, two in Bulgaria, three in Spain, one in France and Hungary, and thirty two sites in Italy (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
The leaves have been used as an emmenagogue ( herb which stimulates blood flow in the pelvic area and uterus) to treat various menstruation problems, though they can cause purging and vomiting; the leaves and bark have been used to cause abortions (Plants for a Future 2012). All parts of the plant are poisonous, and several of the plant's toxic compounds are being researched for their effects against leukaemia (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Mezereon Daphne mezereum is widespread across Europe; it is present in all countries in Europe except for Ireland and Portugal. The number of individuals is unknown, and it is difficult to assess trends in this species as it has long been cultivated; further information on population trends is required.


Although, it appears to be affected in some countries by habitat loss and degradation, this plant is common in gardens, frequently sown by birds and is increasing as an alien species. Based on the information available, this species is listed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations in most of its range and is present in a number of protected areas; the risk of the species going extinct in Europe is therefore quite low.

range:
Daphne mezereum has a wide native distribution throughout Europe and west Asia (Pedrol 2011). It is present in all countries in Europe except for Ireland and Portugal. Although (Pedrol 2011) do not report it from Bosnia and Herzegovia or Montenegro, it is likely to be found there.

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. It is difficult to assess trends in this species as it has long been cultivated and today is cultivated widely; it is difficult to distinguish escaped cultivars from natural populations. The species is scattered in the Czech Republic (Fránová et al . 2006), and is nationally scarce in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is abundant and widespread in Germany and Switzerland. In Finland, it still has quite strong populations (T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Mezereon is an early-flowering, short-lived deciduous shrub found in calcareous woodland, chalk pits and sometimes steep rocky slopes. It produces by seed and is self fertile. It is common in gardens and has been cultivated for centuries (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
Mezereon species is threatened by uprooting and habitat destruction and degradation due to urbanisation (Kelcey and Muller 2011, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Around 15 viral diseases are known to infect this species in the Czech Republic (Fránová et al. 2006). It is collected from the wild as a medicinal and aromatic plant.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000) and the United Kingdom (under A2c; Cheffings and Farrell 2005); Near Threatened in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and Hungary (Király 2007); and Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It is not threatened in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012), but it is protected (Fránová et al. 2006). It is no longer considered threatened in Finland (T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013). In Switzerland, it is a protected medicinal and aromatic plant (Baričevič et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). It occurs in over 400 Natura 2000 sites throughout Europe (European Environment Agency 2010). Recommended conservation measures include protecting the species' habitat from further degradation, and researching and monitoring population trends to track declines where they are occuring.

useAndTrade:
This plant is poisonous to humans and animals (Cooper and Johnson 1984), but the plant extract has been used widely in folk medicine for treatment of cancers (Kupchan and Baxter 1975). The plants are cultivated widely for their beautiful and fragrant flowers (Royal Horticultural Society 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of the genus Trapa appears to be complex, with only this species recognised throughout much of Europe, but up to 15 species recognised in the east. The distinguishing character for the different subordinate taxa appear to be useful, but no information on the degree to which they have been tested or any details of molecular studies could be found. T. natans is treated here as one of 15 taxa of the genus occurring in Europe. The distribution of T. natans sensu stricto is obscured by variation in the degree to which other taxa are recognised. It is likely that the information employed here will include information on other taxa and will therefore present a more positive idea of the status of the species than is actually the case. In typical populations of this species (var. natans ), the crown of the fruit is 4-5 mm wide while the distance between the base of the fruit and the base of the lower cornicles is 6.5-10.0 mm. In var. borysthenica (V. Vassil.) Tzvel., the crown of the fruit is 5-6(7) mm wide and the distance between the base of the fruit and the base of the lower cornicles is 4.0-6.5 mm (which could be the result of ancient hybridisation with T. sibirica ). The variety with almost cylindrical tubercles between the bases of the apical and lower cornicles (such tubercles in all four), which may also be considered a result of abnormal development of fruit, is so far known only from the Berezine River and from the Para River in the Oka Basin (Tzvelev 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


This species is widespread but rare and declining everywhere throughout its range. The rate of decline within the last three generations is not known neither are the causes of the decline. It is suspected that the decline has been ongoing since 900 BC due to a constant cooling of the climate, but in this case the current increase in mean temperatures could benefit this species. It is difficult to assess it under Criterion A but the species is clearly under threat and is therefore precautionary assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
Trapa natans has been reported from most of Europe north into southern Sweden and east into European Russia. Outside Europe, it occurs east throughout most of Asia into China, the Philippines and Malaysia. It has apparently been introduced into Australia and North America where it is now widespread and may be invasive. It is difficult to interpret information on the distribution of this species with any confidence due to taxonomic confusion. Thus, for example, according to (Stevanović 1999) the only Trapa species occurring in Serbia was T. annosa , but T. natans is widely reported in the literature as occurring in Serbia - the different statements almost certainly refer to the same taxon but only in a few cases is it possible to establish which taxa are intended. With reference to the historic distribution of T. natans and its relationship with man, there is wide speculation that its range was strongly influenced by its value as a crop. Arber (1920) states that T. natan s has been used from early times for food, medicine and magic, and is supposed to have been introduced into Switzerland as long ago as the period of the lake dwellings, while Vankina (1970) goes further to say that "During the Atlantic and sub-boreal periods the area of distribution of T. natans stretched as far north as Middle Sweden and southern Finland. In Latvia, it appeared in the warm Atlantic period and has been found here at a total of 13 sites, including in the cultural layers of six settlement sites. At Sārnate, it has been found in dense layers of nutshells up to 40 cm thick around the hearths, occupying areas of several square metres. It has been suggested that the people of the Stone Age deliberately cultivated the water chestnut near their settlements. There is evidence that in the 16th century roasted water chestnuts or water chestnut flour were sold in the markets of Mantua and Ferrara. At the beginning of the same century, in southern France the water chestnut was consumed raw, boiled or roasted, and also used in the form of flour. It is known that during the time of the First World War the water chestnut was also sold at the market in the Latvian town of Jēkabpils. At around 900 BC, evidently as a result of climatic cooling, the water chestnut began to die out."

population:
Trapa natans appears to be very rare in the western European part of its range. It is extinct in Spain, there is only a single known population in Switzerland (Welten and Sutter 1982), two populations known in Greece. There are two populations currently known in Latvia (Lakes Pokrote near Balvi and Lakes Klaucāni and Priekulāni in Jēkabpils District). In Lake Klaucāni, the water chestnut grows in the western and southwestern bays of the lake, where it is protected from wind by forest, very near the lakeshore, where, at a depth of 2 m, the water on the lakebed during the vegetative period of the water chestnut retains a temperature of 21 degrees C. Nowadays, these sites have been placed under state protection (Vankina 1970).

habitat:
Trapa natans is an annual (up to 3 m height) floating-leaved plant, growing in stagnant waters, lakes, channels with weak currents, ponds and marshes. It primarily occurs in unpolluted lowland nutrient-rich, but not strongly calcareous waters that have a muddy bottom and plenty of light; it is important as food source for birds and provides fish spawning grounds (Morgan and Leon 1992).

threats:
The causes of the decline in population s of T. natans are not clear, although they are usually attributed to loss and degradation of habitats. Vankina (1970) suggests that the current evidence of decline is simply part of a process that has been ongoing since 900 BC, due to cooling climate. If this is the case, then the current trends toward temperature increase may actually favour this species.

conservationAction:
Trapa natans is included under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and in the following national and regional red lists: Black Sea Region (Vulnerable) Bulgaria (Endangered) Carpathian Mountains (Endangered) Czech Republic (Critically Endangered) Germany (Endangered - level 2) Russia (Near Threatened) (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) Slovakia (Vulnerable) Spain (Extinct) Sweden (Extinct) Switzerland (Critically Endangered) Turkey (Vulnerable) Ukraine (Endangered) In France, Trapa natans is protected at regional level (Alsace, Basse-Normandie, Limousin) and at departemental level (Ardennes). In Hungary, it is protected but not endangered.

useAndTrade:
The fruit of T. natans has apparently been a staple food source since the stone age, at least in Latvia where middens have been found with a depth of up to 40 cm of shells of this species (Vankina 1970), while it has been associated with the stone age lake dwellings in Switzerland (Keller 1866). The fruits were apparently sold in markets in Europe into the 16th century (Vankina 1970). The fruits are still important in continental Asia, Malaysia and India, especially in China. Several countries in southeast Asia, and also Chinese communities in Europe and North America, import the fruit directly from China. Fruits are used in the preparation of liniments to treat elephantiasis, pestilent fevers, rheumatism, sores, sunburn and skin complaints. Used also as food for pigs and other livestock in southeast Asia.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Drosera anglica is an insectivorous plant found on nutrient poor Sphagnum bogs and peat mires, with a widespread distribution across the northern hemisphere, including throughout Europe. Although precise information is not available to quantify the overall population decline, this plant has suffered extinctions in parts of its European range, is highly threatened in several countries, and has a small and fragmented distribution in other countries, particularly in western Europe.

No population information is available for much of eastern Europe and European Russia. Current population declines are a cause for concern, especially given the species' sensitivity to habitat alterations; threats to the species include habitat alterations such as drainage, eutrophication and peat extraction. To date, population declines may not be as high as 30%, but depending on the intensity of habitat loss and alteration in the very near future, decline rates could increase and the species could become threatened quite quickly. It is therefore listed as NT approaching criteria A3c and A4c at both European and EU 27 levels.


It is unknown whether immigrants from populations outside of Europe could rescue the European population, and as such the initial category remains unchanged. It is strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all data are available, at which point it might require a higher threat category.

range:
Drosera anglica has a circumboreal distribution and is one of five species of Drosera found in the Northern Hemisphere. It occurs throughout northern Europe, North America, Asia, and on the mountains in Hawaii (Baskin et al. 2001). It is usually found on lowland but occurs at higher elevations up to 915 metres (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
In a study in Norway conducted from 1995-1999, 2,872 plants were recorded along 26 transects; a persistent soil seed bank was not observed (Nordbakken et al. 2004). Although no specific information on population trends is available, this plant has suffered local extinctions in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), and has been declared Extinct in Hungary (Király 2007) and Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is threatened in a number of European countries. It is, however, a common plant in Sweden and Norway, where it is under no threat (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). In Finland, it is not currently listed as threatened, though in parts of the country (particularly the south) there have been strong declines in suitable habitats (T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013), which will have led to population declines.

habitat:
The Great Sundew is a rosette-forming perennial herb found on nutrient poor calcareous mires, blanket bogs, Sphagnum bogs and wet montane peaty meadows ( Castroviejo et al. 1997). It is an insectivorous plant that is tolerant in response to its nutrient-poor habitat: cool boggy areas of mountainous regions. It has evolved this carnivorous lifestyle. It reproduces mainly by seeds which are dormant at maturity; seed dormancy is broken in nature by cold stratification during winter and by spring, seeds are capable of germinating at low habitat temperatures, if they are exposed to light (Baskin et al. 2001). It is a relatively short-lived species, surviving for less than ten years (Nordbakken et al. 2 004).

threats:
Extended dry periods during the growing season have a negative effect on Drosera populations, and extended wet periods may be balanced from competition from increased Sphagnum growth. The species is highly sensitive to changes in the water table (including climate-induced fluctuations in precipitation that affect the water table) and nitrogen deposition, which may increase competition from Sphagnum . It is a model species for understanding extinction risks under future long term environmental change, including nitrogen deposition and climate change, which are likely to affect seed production (Nordbakken et al. 2004). This species has become highly threatened in parts of its native range due to habitat alterations such as drainage (e.g., for forestry purposes) and peat extraction. In the UK, the species is declining as a result of habitat alterations such as drainage, eutrophication and peat extraction (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
This plant has suffered local extinctions in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), and has been declared Extinct in Hungary (Király 2007) and Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is listed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012); Endangered in Poland and Slovakia (Witkowski et al. 2003); Vulnerable in Denmark (NERI 2007), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Romania (Witkowski et al. 2003); Near Threatened in the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005); and Least Concern in Finland (T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) where it is still common. It is also listed as Endangered on the Carpathian Red List (Witkowski et al. 2003). All Drosera species are protected in Poland (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is found in 47 Natura 2000 sites in Poland, one in Slovakia and two in Germany (European Environment Agency 2010). It may be threatened in Italy, Spain and France where it has a more restricted distribution. Its populations should be monitored to prevent further declines and population sizes and trends should be quantified more specifically; more intensive conservation actions are required in the areas where it has declined. Management and protection of wetlands and peatland is necessary to avoid further declines.

useAndTrade:
D. anglica was used as a homeopathic remedy for coughs (roots, flowers and fruit) in Germany, but is now rarely used due to the threat of extinction (University of Michigan 2013, Homeopathy for Wellness 2012). Sources of raw material of this species for commercial interest are described as deficient (Baricevic et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


The Oblong-leaved Sundew Drosera intermedia is a carnivorous plant restricted to wetland mires and bogs, with a widespread global distribution, including throughout Europe. It is threatened in many parts of its native European range, where populations continue to decline as a result of habitat alterations such as drainage, afforestation, peat extraction and loss of lowland heath.


Although precise information is not available to quantify the overall  population decline, this plant has suffered regional extinctions and is highly threatened in many countries. Current information in insufficient to indicate population declines as high as 30%, but depending on the intensity of habitat loss and alteration in the very near future, decline rates could increase and the species could become threatened quite quickly. It is therefore listed as NT approaching criteria A3c and A4c at both European and EU 27 levels.


It is unknown whether immigrants from populations outside of Europe could rescue the European population, and as such the initial category remains unchanged. It is strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all the data is available, at which point it might require a higher threat category.

range:
The Oblong-leaved Sundew ( Drosera intermedia ) is one of the most widely distributed species in the genus. It is found throughout Europe, and also occurs in eastern North America, the Caribbean and northeastern South America (Jury 2009, Missouri Botanical Garden 2013).

population:
This species is threatened in many countries in Europe, where the subpopulations are believed to be declining. It is the rarest of the three Drosera species found in the Nordic countries, but is still rather common and under no threat (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013); it is, however, threatened in Finland (Rassi et al . 2010).

habitat:
This is an insectivorous, rosette-forming perennial herb found on wet heaths and raised bogs, growing in wet acidic peaty soils up to 1,800 metres (Castroviejo et al. 1997, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is less associated with Sphagnum moss (unlike D. rotundifolia ) and is found on lower damper parts, often on open or water-covered areas of mud, though the two can often co-exist (Baskin et al. 2001).

threats:
This species has declined as a result of habitat alterations such as drainage, afforestation, peat extraction and loss of lowland heath (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013).

conservationAction:
Drosera intermedia is listed as Regionally Extinct in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Extinct in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007), Critically Endangered and declining in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012), Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Vulnerable in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Vulnerable and protected in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010, Baričevič et al. 2004) and Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), and Near Threatened in the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000). It is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). All Drosera species are protected in Poland (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is found in eleven Natura 2000 sites in Poland and one in Lithuania, Portugal and Italy (European Environment Agency 2010). Its populations should be monitored to prevent further declines and population sizes and trends should be quantified more specifically; more intensive conservation actions are required in the areas where it has declined. Management and protection of wetlands and peatland is necessary to avoid further declines.

useAndTrade:
Extracts of the aerial parts of the Oblong-leaved Sundew have antimicrobial activity. It is of less medicinal value than other Drosera species (Didry et al. 1998).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread throughout Europe and although the populations are declining, the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low at the moment. However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and adequate measures, such as habitat protection to prevent further declines, are needed.

range:
Drosera rotundifolia is native throughout temperate Asia, Europe and North America (except Mexico). It is also cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Common Sundew is still a common species in the United Kingdom although becoming rarer in some regions. It has declined substantially throughout Europe.

habitat:
Drosera rotundifolia is a perennial, rosette forming, insectivorous herb found in lowland, upland and montane wet acid heaths, moors, Sphagnum bogs. It is often abundant around margins of bog pools growing on acid peaty soils and flowering from July to August. This plant is often self pollinated and only opens fully in bright sunlight (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 1997).

threats:
This species is susceptible to varying levels of nitrate and ammonium increasing soil acidity due to atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur deposition in heathlands.

conservationAction:
Drosera rotundifolia has been included in the following national red lists in Europe: Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005); Critically Endangered in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005); Endangered in Greece (Phitos et al. 2009) and Hungary (Király 2007); Near Threatened in The Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002); Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996); Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

The 'Adopt a Seed' programme run by the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew is gaining sponsorship to help protect the species through ex situ conservation (RBG Kew 2012). As it is Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg and no stock is cultivated and seed is not held by any institution, a reintroduction from Luxembourg material is not possible but the species could be reintroduced from material of extant Belgian localities (Colling 2005). It may be necessary to develop special areas of conservation in places where this species still occurs but is not protected. Raised bogs are found in every EU Member State, with the exception of Luxembourg. Countries known to hold significant concentrations of active raised bogs include Finland, Sweden, the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland. In northwest Europe, many bogs have been destroyed due to human disturbance and activity. The relatively high proportion of the EU resource remaining in the UK means that this country has a special responsibility for the protection of sites supporting this priority habitat type and consequently a high proportion of the total UK resource has been included in the Special Areas of Conservation series and national parks (JNCC 2012).

useAndTrade:
The sundew has a long history of herbal use for relaxing respiratory muscles and relieving wheezing and chest complaints, whooping cough, bronchitis and asthma. The leaf juice contains protein digesting enzymes used for treatment of warts and corns and the aerial parts have antibiotic properties used for the treatment of infected skin lesions. The entire fresh plant is harvested when it begins to flower to make a homeopathic remedy. Sundew was frequently used as a medicinal herb. Traditionally it was the source for the drug Droserae Herba but as it has become threatened Drosera rotundifolia is no longer extensively used (Melzig et al . 2001). The plant extracts contain valuable secondary metabolites such as napthoquinones which have antimicrobial, antifungal and antitumor effects. It also contains pumbagin which can inhibit development of insects and parasitic nematodes (Bobak et al. 1995).


taxonomicNotes:
N. lutea is known to hybridise with N. pumila ( N . × spenneriana Gaudin) and although this hybrid is not infrequent where the ranges of the parents overlap, it is not considered likely to affect the survival of the species or this evaluation.

range:
N. lutea occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to China. It occurs more or less throughout Europe, except for the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Crete.

population:
N. lutea is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.

habitat:
N. lutea typically occurs in slow-flowing or standing, mesotrophic or eutrophic water bodies such as ponds, lakes, rivers and canals, it will also occur in oligotrophic conditions.

useAndTrade:
The roots and the seeds can be eaten or used for medicinal purposes.


taxonomicNotes:
Nymphaea species, their taxonomy and distribution are badly obscured by the occurrence in the wild of a wide variety and large numbers of horticultural cultivars. Tzvelev (1996) notes that "Beside the typical form, in water bodies with unfavourable hydrologic (particularly temperate) and edaphic conditions, small-leaved and small-flowered plants are found, which are considered by some authors as separate species - N. minoriflora (Borb.) Wissjul. Moreover the dependence of various plant parts of waterlily on the size of its rhizome has been proved experimentally (Dubnya 1976)". The hybrid with N. candida ( N . × borealis E. Camus) is widely distributed, usually in the presence of both present but occasionally in the absence of N. alba (Tzvelev 1996).

range:
N. alba occurs mainly in Europe, extending outside the region to North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus and into Jammu and Kashmir in India. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.

population:
N. alba is classed as Near Threatened in Switzerland, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.

habitat:
N. alba typically occurs in lakes, ponds, the backwaters of rivers or large ditches, and occasionally in standing water in bogs or fens.

useAndTrade:
N. alba is used as ornamental plant and the refreshing roots are used as food.


taxonomicNotes:
Greater and Lesser Celandine are not related species.

range:
Chelidonium majus is native to Europe, North Africa and temperate Asia. It has become naturalised elsewhere in temperate regions such as North America and New Zealand (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). It occurs throughout Europe but is scarcer in the north.

population:
Chelidonium majus is common throughout its range but has declined at the edges of its range in the United Kingdom (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Greater Celandine is a perennial herb which is widely naturalised on lowlands by roadsides and paths, in the crevices of old walls, on bare and waste ground, open woodland, hedgebanks in moist, semi-shaded habitats. It has been cultivated since medieval times as a medicinal plant, and most localities are near habitation. It flowers from April to October and prefers moist to rather dry mesotrophic or eutrophic, slightly acid to calcareous soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Heukels 2000).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012). In Bulgaria this species is collected from the Vitosha Nature Park but as no commercial medicinal plant collection occurs in Vitosha Nature Park, there are no quotas and no licence fees applicable to collection which is controlled regularly by inspectors of the Regional Inspectorate for Environmental Protection and the Regional Forestry Service (Kathe et al. 2003).

useAndTrade:
Greater Celandine is used for curing warts and as an eye ointment. The plant is however extremely poisonous (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). Its highly corrosive latex is also used for the treatment of corns and as an astringent for removing wrinkles, suntan and freckles. More drastic has been its role as an acrid spring purgative and stimulant, and for treating liver cancer, especially in Russia. The main use of the latex is for an eye ointment - when diluted with milk it can remove cataracts. A combination of the yellow flowers and juice can be used to treat jaundice (Allen and Hatfield 2004). The fresh yellow latex is generally used for treatment of generalised skin disease but this plant has also been listed as being valued widely in traditional medicine for diabetes and for relief of toothache when a decoction of the plant or juice is gargled. Papaveraceae are known to relieve pain as they contain powerful alkaloids with narcotic, analgesic and antibiotic properties and morephine like properties are associated with chelidonine and homochelidonine in Greater Celandine (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). A comminuted herbal substance is available as well as a tincture, fluid extract for internal use and for external use as eye drops and ointment. Herbal preparations in solid or liquid dosage form or as an herbal tea for oral use. Chelidonii herba is described by the European Pharmacopoeia (01/2008:1861) monograph as the dried, whole or cut aerial parts of Chelidonium majus L. collected during flowering (European Medicines Agency 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution and presumed stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Fumaria officinalis is native to north Africa, temperate Asia and Europe. It also occurs in North America as an introduced species (USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network, 2012).

population:
This is a common species with presumed stable populations. In the Czech Republic, it is described as being rare or dispersed requiring further study and observation (Holub and Procházka 2000).

habitat:
Fumaria officinalis is a scrambling herbaceous annual found on arable land and as a weed in gardens, allotments, urban areas and other disturbed land, most commonly found on well drained calcareous soils. It also grows on old walls (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1986, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

threats:
Fumaria officinalis is presumed to face no major threats as it is not listed as threatened on any national red list in Europe.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions for Fumaria officinalis. It is listed as Least Concern on the national red list of Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Fumaria officinalis has been highly valued since Roman times for its tonic and blood cleansing effect upon the body. It is particularly valuable in the treatment of all visceral obstructions, particularly those of the liver, in scorbutic affections and in troublesome eruptive diseases of the skin, especially eczema (for which it can be taken internally and externally). The plant is harvested as flowering begins in the summer and can be used fresh or can be dried for later use. Some caution should be exercised in the use of this herb since excess doses can have hypnotic and sedative effects, especially if it is taken for more than a week. A review of the literature, however, reveals very few studies that support its use for dermatological indications (such as milk crust, eczema, scabies) or as a diuretic or laxative. This contrasts with its use to treat functional diseases of the biliary system (Hentschel et al. 1995). It can be administered orally as a herbal tea to increase bile flow for the relief of symptoms of indigestion such as sensation of fullness, flatulence and slow digestion (European Medicines Agency 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Glaucium flavum is widespread along the coastlines of Europe and it is cultivated widely. It is presumed to be used for medicinal purposes at low levels and at present there are no threats and therefore it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
Glaucium flavum occurs throughout Africa, temperate Asia and Europe. It is usually found near the coast in western Europe to the Mediterranean and West Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
This species is widespread throughout its distribution. In England, it is common and locally abundant on calcareous sands, shingle beaches and cliffs. It is also common around the shorelines of the Mediterranean. The populations and range of Glaucium flavum in the Oslo Fjord region in Norway has been decreasing from formerly recorded 35 populations to only eight populations in 1998 (Solås et al. 2010). This species has been classified as threatened in a few European countries which indicates local declines are occurring.

habitat:
This species is a coastal short-lived perennial herb growing on shingle banks, sand, gravel or stony soils and beaches, cultivated fields and more rarely amongst loose rock, eroding cliffs of sand and clay and on the bare tops of chalk cliffs. The few inland records are of casual occurrences (Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1986). It is not frost tender and flowers from June to August and the seeds ripen from August to September.

threats:
There appear to be no threats to this species but it may be susceptible to localised land use changes and pollution along coastlines.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation actions for this species. It is listed on several national red lists: Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002); Endangered in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010); Near Threatened in the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010); Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
This species contains glaucine, which has some medicinal properties and is applied to relieve coughs and lower blood pressure. A clear yellow and edible oil is obtained from the seed of this species, used in lanterns. The root is poisonous. This species is also used as an ornamental flower (Plants for a Futrure 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Papaver rhoeas is a common and widespread species and is not of conservation concern. There have been local declines due to the application of herbicides in agriculture, but it is still a widespread species with a long-lived seed bank.

range:
Papaver rhoeas is native to Europe, western temperate Asia and North Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Aghababian 2011). It has become naturalised outside of this range and is now widespread throughout tropical and west Asia and North America (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1986).

population:
This species is common and widespread throughout its distribution. Although there have been losses around the edges of its range, especially in the United Kingdom, the overall distribution is remarkably stable (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A rough, hairy annual found in cultivated and arable fields, waste places, roadsides, scrub clearance, field boundaries growing on open disturbed, often calcareous soils. It is far less frequent on cultivated land due to modern agricultural practices as it is sensitive to herbicide, but can be abundant in unsprayed strips in fields. It is also frequent in wildflower seed mixtures and occurs as a garden escape (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). The seeds of this species can lie dormant in the soil for 80 years before germinating, usually triggered by soil disturbance (Royal Botanic Garden, Kew 2012).

threats:
Agricultural practices and use of herbicides can cause disturbance for this species.

conservationAction:
The Common Poppy suffered a decline with the intensification of agriculture and the increasing use of herbicides after the Second World War, but recovered in Britain in the 1980s as a result of the policy of ‘set-aside’ in which farmers were rewarded for taking agricultural land out of production (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2012). The species is listed as Near Threatened in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), but is considered Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
This species is a cultural icon and distinctive symbol of wartime remembrance. The delicate red flowers are an attractive and popular feature of the countryside and have long been recognised as symbols of fertility and death. The flowers can be used for ornamental purposes and for red dye. It has a long history of medicinal use: the flowers have been used in treating mild pain caused by earache, toothache and neuralgia and an infusion of the petals is traditionally taken for coughs, insomnia and poor digestion (Royal Botanic Garden, Kew 2012). Unlike the related opium poppy ( P. somniferum ) it is non-addictive. However it contains alkaloids and should only be used under the supervision of a qualified herbalist. The flowers and petals have hypnotic, slightly narcotic and sedative properties. An infusion can be taken internally for treating bronchial complaints and coughs, insomnia, poor digestion, nervous digestive disorders, minor painful conditions and jaundice. The latex in the seedpods is also a narcotic and slightly sedative and can be used in very small quantities as a sleep-inducing drug but caution is advised. The leaves and seeds are tonic and are useful in the treatment of low fevers. Poppy seeds are edible and often used in bakery (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
This is a very variable species with a number of subspecies and cultivars (Grey-Wison 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is a widely cultivated and naturalized species and the native range is uncertain. However, following the native distribution noted by Aghababian (2011) the extent of occurrence (EOO) exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. As it occurs in a variety or disturbed and managed habitats and is reported common in parts of its range, it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. The population is thought to be large and to have no significant threats or declines. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is native from Macaronesia and the Mediterranean region to Asia (Díaz González 1986, Finnish Museum of Natural History 2011). The species is considered native to France, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the islands of Crete, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics by Aghababian (2011), whilst GRIN (2014) add Macaronesia (Madeira and Canary Islands). However, its native status is uncertain in parts of its range, for example, Fielding and Turland (2005) consider that it is a cultivated species in Crete and locally naturalized. This species is introduced and cultivated in many areas for very long periods, and although the native range is uncertain, it is considered an archaeophyte in some countries.

population:
Few data are available on the wild population of this poppy. It is reported to be common in Mallorca (Becket 2008). From its wide range and its occurrence in disturbed habitats it is inferred that the population is large and stable.

habitat:
This is a species that grows in waste places, such as roadsides and railway embankments. It is also found in fields, orchards, olive groves, beside streams and on rocky hillsides usually at lower altitudes (Grey-Wilson 1993). It is an annual herb growing generally to between 30 and 100 cm in height (EOL 2014).

threats:
No specific threats to this species were identified. It occurs in a variety of disturbed and anthropogenic habitats and naturalizes from cultivation.

conservationAction:
This species is represented in many seed bank accessions (ENSCO 2014) and 72 botanic gardens worldwide (BGCI 2013). It is not known whether it occurs within any protected areas, but probably occurs within Natura 2000 sites within Europe.

useAndTrade:
The seeds of this poppy are used in baking, as a condiment, and for their edible oil. The U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that commercial production of poppy seeds for food was 93,125 metrics tons in 2010, harvested from 142,220 ha worldwide. Turkey and the Czech Republic were the leading producers, together accounting for 64% of the harvest. Spain, France, and Croatia each contributed another 5% (EOL 2014). The species is also cultivated, often illegally, for the latex from the unripe seed capsules which is used the production of opium, heroin, and morphine. The alkaloids it produces have legitimate medicinal uses, for example as an analgesic, antispasmodic, sedative and hypnotic and also in the treatment of coughs. A homeopathic remedy, from the dried latex is used in the treatment of a variety of complaints, including constipation, fevers and insomnia. Oil cake made from the seeds is also considered a valuable cattle fodder (Misfud 2013). This species is also planted as an ornamental for its attractive flowers and foliage (EOL 2014) and the seed head may be dried and used in floristry (Grey-Wilson 1993).


taxonomicNotes:
In the past, Plantago psyllium was associated to both Plantago arenaria and Plantago afra , whereas the latter two are now regarded as separate species, with P. arenaria being an accepted synonym of P. psyllium (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006, Castroviejo et al. 1993, The Plant List 2014, GRIN 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species has a large distribution within the Mediterranean basin and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present and is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This herbaceous species occurs throughout all Mediterranean coasts and parts of Macaronesia (Marhold 2011). In the European region, it is mainly found in the western Mediterranean countries, particularly Spain (Anthos 2010), Portugal and Morocco, including the Baleares and Canary Islands. The species can also be found in more eastern Mediterranean countries Greece including Crete, Cyprus, Israel and to a less extent in Croatia and Bulgaria. Moreover, the plant also occurs in Italy, mainly on Sardinia and Elba (Assyov and Petrova 2006, USDA 2010, GBIF 2014, University of Mainz 2000).

population:
The population size is not known, but it has been reported as being very common in Mediterranean basin. Moreover, the species grows in perturbed and anthropized areas and the population is therefore most probably not declining <span title="Se encuentra en tierras de cultivo, junto a las carreteras, en lugares pisoteados, en campos ricos en abonos orgánicos o granjas. (Berdonces 1998).

habitat:
<span title="Se encuentra en tierras de cultivo, junto a las carreteras, en lugares pisoteados, en campos ricos en abonos orgánicos o granjas. The species is a herbaceous shrub-like plant with sessile growing leaves, growing on well-drained farmland, along roadsides, sandy and stony or trampled sites and organic fertilizer enriched areas (Berdonces 1998). <span title="Propiedades

conservationAction:
There are no ongoing conservation actions for this species and none are required.

useAndTrade:
The husk and seed is widely used as a fibre supplement for the treatment of constipation. Like for most Plantago species, the husk of this species contains a high proportion of hemicellulose, composed of a xylan backbone linked with arabinose, rhamnose, and galacturonic acid units. Clinical studies could confirm the effects of using Semen Plantaginis (dried, ripe seed of Plantago afra L., P. indica L., P. ovata or P. asiatica ) from traditional medicine as bulk-forming laxative to restore and maintain regularity and for the treatment of constipation (Thorne Research. 2002, The Green Ring Society 2008). It is also regularly used to soften the stools in cases of painful defecation after rectal or anal surgery, anal fissures and hemorrhoids (European Medicines Agency 2013). Other traditional medical uses associated to Plantago derived medicine include use as expectorant, anti-tussive, antibacterial agent and for the treatment of rheumatic, gouty afflictions, bronchitis and glandular swelling (The Green Ring Society 2008).


taxonomicNotes:
Plantago arenaria is considered a synonym of Plantago indica L. by The Plant List (2014), however it is accepted by Euro+Med (2014). In the past, Plantago psyllium was associated to both Plantago arenaria and Plantago afra , whereas the two later are now regarded as separate species, with P. psyllium being an accepted synonym of P. arenaria (GRIN 2014, Euro+Med 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in most European countries and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present. In addition, the species is establishing northwards of its native range, mainly in anthropogenic habitats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species has a Euro-Siberian southern-temperate distribution, however its native range has been obscured by its spread as a weed and it is widely naturalised in other continents (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012). The species occurs across most countries of Europe including the Canary Islands. Growing naturally around the Mediterranean basin including North African countries, it is naturalized in temperate regions (GRIN 2014). Its natural distribution stretches from Portugal to European Russia, the Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent (USDA 2014).

population:
The population size is not known. The species grows in perturbed and anthropized areas and the population is therefore most probably not declining (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2014; European Network on Invasive Alien Species 2014).

habitat:
The species grows on open sandy and stony ground. Outside of its natural range, the species is considered as weed growing in man-made or disturbed habitats like roadsides, ports and loading areas (Julve 1998, Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010, NOBANIS 2014).

threats:
The species has no known threats and seems even to start establishing northward of its native range (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010).

conservationAction:
No conservation efforts known for this species.

useAndTrade:
The husk and seed is widely used as a fiber supplement for the treatment of constipation. Like for most Plantago species, the husk of this species contains a high proportion of hemicellulose, composed of a xylan backbone linked with arabinose, rhamnose, and galacturonic acid units. Clinical studies could confirm the effects of using Semen Plantaginis (dried, ripe seed of Plantago afra L., P. indica L., P. ovata or P. asiatica ) from traditional medicine as bulk-forming laxative to restore and maintain regularity and for the treatment of constipation (Thorne Research. 2002; The green Ring Society 2008). It is also regularly used to soften the stools in cases of painful defecation after rectal or anal surgery, anal fissures and hemorrhoids (European Medicines Agency 2013). Other traditional medical uses associated to Plantago derived medicine include use as expectorant, anti-tussive, antibacterial agent and for the treatment of rheumatic, gouty afflictions, bronchitis and glandular swelling (The green Ring Society 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Plantago lanceolata is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations, the ability to live in disturbed habitats and no major threats.

range:
Plantago lanceolata occurs throughout Europe, north Africa, temperate and tropical Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). It is found up to 2,500 m asl in Europe (Castroviejo et al. 2009).

population:
This species has been described as being very rare in Malta. It is abundant and widespread occurring almost anywhere in the British Isles where there is suitable habitat. It is naturalised around the world and ubiquitous throughout its range (Castroviejo et al. 2009, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Ribwort Plantain is a perennial herb, found in a wide range of habitats but predominantly in meadows, banks, waste and cultivated land growing in neutral or basic soils. It also occurs in open woodland, upland grasslands, on rock ledges and crevices, sand dunes and cliffs, roadsides, river banks, on lawns and walls. Its seed is moderately long-lived (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation actions in place for this species however it exists in many ex situ seed collections. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In Bulgaria this species is protected in national parks and listed as a species with dense populations but limited distribution and resources (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004). It is listed as one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plant species harvested from the wild in Bosnia and Herzegovina for international market trade (Kathe et al. 2003).

useAndTrade:
The whole or fragmented, dried leaf and scape of Plantago lanceolata is used in herbal substances (comminuted or powdered), dry, liquid and soft extract, expressed juice and syrup and as herbal tea for oral use. Ribwort plantain herb mainly consists of leaves and dried flowering aerial parts which contain glycosides, mucilage and flavanoids, antimicrobial saponin and volatile oil. It is used in combinations with other herbal substances or preparations to treat complaints associated with colds, inflammations of the mouth and throat, catarrhs of the respiratory tract and inflammation of oral and pharyngeal mucosa. Externally it is applied for inflammation of the skin (European Medicines Agency 2011). The root, combined with Marrubium vulgare , is used to treat rattlesnake bite. The seeds help fighting parasitic worms. Plantain seeds contain up to 30% mucilage which swells up in the gut, acting as a bulk laxative and soothing irritated membranes. A distilled water made from Plantago lanceolata can be applied as an eye lotion Plants for a Future 2012). Its use is regulated in Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany and Poland (European Medicines Agency 2011). The leaves and seeds of this plant can be eaten raw or cooked although the leaves are rather bitter and difficult to prepare as the fibrous strands need to be removed before eating them (Plants For A Future 2012).


range:
Plantago major occurs throughout Europe, western temperate Asia and North Africa from sea level to 2,100 m and has been widely naturalised outside its native range (Castroviejo et al. 2009).

population:
Broadleaf Plantain is generally a widespread and common species.

habitat:
Broadleaf Plantain is a low to short perennial herb found on grassy and open waste or disturbed habitats such as trampled paths and tracks, field edges, roadsides, gardens, lawns and meadows. It grows in a wide range of soils except highly acidic soils and can produce a large and persistent seed bank (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. This species is considered Least Concern in the national red lists of Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The leaves, roots and seeds of this plant can be eaten raw or cooked although the leaves are rather bitter and difficult to prepare as the fibrous strands need to be removed before eating them. It is very rich in Vitamin B1. The dried leaves can be used to make tea (Plants For A Future 2012). Its leaves have been used for centuries all over the world as a remedy for healing wounds and treatment of a number of diseases related to the skin, respiratory organs, digestive organs, reproduction, circulation, against cancer, for pain relief and against infections. P. major contains biologically active compounds such as polysaccharides, lipids, caffeic acid derivatives, flavonoids, iridoid glycosides and terpenoids. Alkaloids and some organic acids have also been detected. A range of "hit">biological "hit"> activities has been found from plant extracts including wound healing "hit">activity, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, weak antibiotic, immuno modulating and antiulcerogenic "hit">activity. Some of these effects may attribute to the "hit">use of this plant in folk medicine (Samuelsen 2000).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)


The species has a wide distribution from Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria, through Ukraine to European parts of Russia. Whilst in central-southeastern Europe it has an apparently patchy distribution and populations there have declined and the species is considered possibly extinct in Romania, in European parts of Russia the species populations are considered likely to be more stable and declines are not thought to approach the threshold for a threatened category, and it is considered Least Concern for the European regional assessment.


The population declines observed within the EU27 member states in central-southeastern Europe (Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary) in the past were caused by irreversible habitat destruction and pasture management changes (Badarau and Malos 2014). In 1978, at least 15 populations were known in these three countries; these were reduced to only three by the mid-2000s (in Hungary and Bulgaria, with the species considered possibly extinct in Romania; Schneider-Binder 1978, Vidéki and Máté 2003, Tzonev et al. 2007).


The species has a very restricted EOO (5,000 km2) and AOO (500 km2) and the past threats are very likely to still occur, and the number of locations are 1-2 (based on the primary threat of habitat loss driven by agricultural development). The species qualifies therefore for criteria B and is assessed as Endangered (B1ab(I,ii,iii,iv)+2ab(I,ii,iii,iv) in the EU27 member states. Moreover, the low number of populations in the EU and ongoing threats could drive the taxon to Critically Endangered or extinct in a very short time, which qualifies the species also for Vulnerable (D2).

Several protective action plans are planned for the Bulgarian population (T. Karakiev pers. comm. 2014). Similar actions have been undertaken in Romania, which did unfortunately not prevent its probable extirpation there (Badarau and Malos 2014).

range:
The species is Boreal in origin, distributed across the meadow-steppe grasslands of eastern Europe (Schneider-Binder 1978, Missouri Botanic Garden 2014), Russia (Volga regions to East Siberia; Tinkov et al. 2014), northwestern China (Xinjiang), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The species is expanding westwards and northwards in Central Asia and Siberia (A. Shipunov pers. comm. 2014). Within the European region, the species is known from throughout much of European Russia (e.g, Samara Oblast (Mitroshenkova 2014); Belyaevsky District, Orenburg Oblast (Shipunov 2014); Volgograd and surrounds (Wulf 2009)). Shipunov (1998) records the distribution in Russia as predominantly found in southern parts, but extending to 47oNorth, and not found in the Pre-Caucasus to the south; introduced to some areas in Russia (e.g., Baltic Sea region and St. Petersburg). In Central Europe there are apparently isolated populations in Hungary (Vidéki and Máté 2003), Romania (Tzonev and Karakiev 2007; i.e., the Depresiunea Sibiului, near Sibui, central Romania, however populations are considered lost from here (Ianovici et al. 2010)) and Bulgaria (i.e., the Dragoman Marsh Karst Complex Ramsar site; Ramsar 2011). RBG Kew (J. Osborne pers. comm. 2014) holds an old (19 century to mid 20th century) specimen from France ('Montpellier'); this location is some way outside the species main range and identification requires confirmation.

population:
The species is much more common in the eastern parts of its range than it is in Central Europe, although nowhere as commonly found as P. major or P. media. (A. Shipunov pers. comm. 2014). Data for European parts of Russia are limited. The species was considered 'common, plentiful and typical of high meadows' in the Volga region (Rakov 2005-2007), however populations have been lost in some areas, for example from the parts of the Volga floodplain lost following completion of the 500 km-long Kuibyshev reservoir (Rakov 2005-2007). In Romania, four populations were recorded in 1978 (Schneider-Binder 1978). In 2006, a botanical survey came to the conclusion that the species as well as its natural habitat, the meadow-steppe had been lost; although both are protected by Romanian law, Badarau and Malos (2014) consider that there is a very high probability that both the species and its habitat at the known sites have been extirpated, whilst Ivanovici et al. (2010) consider that the species has been lost from Romania. In Bulgaria, a single population has been recently identified (Tzonev et al. 2007). In Hungary, of the 13 populations/locations known prior to the 21st century, all have been extirpated (B. Dénes pers. comm. 2014), and only two new new sites have been identified (in 2001-2 (Schneider-Binder 1978, Vidéki and Máté 2003, Tzonev et al. 2007, B. Dénes pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
The species grows in meso-hygrophile meadow-steppe grasslands developed on gleyic chernozems (Badarau and Malos 2014). Shipunov (1998) records the habitat of the species as saline meadows, steppe depressions, and rarely in forest clearings and edges.

threats:
The main threat of the species is habitat destruction through grazing, mowing, plowing and drainage (T. Karakiev pers. comm. 2014) and hydropower development. Habitat loss and direct mortality from anthropogenic and natural fires is another key threat (A. Shipunov pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
Listed as Critically Endangered in Hungary (Király 2007) and Bulgaria (CR B1ac(i,ii)+2ac(i,ii) Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). The species is considered possibly extinct in Romania (Ivanovici et al. 2010, Badarau and Malos 2014). It is a protected species under Bulgarian biodiversity legislation. The single known population in Bulgaria grows in the region of Chepun-Dragoman and is listed as an Important Plant Area of Natura 2000 (Angelova et al. 2012); this location is not in a protected area, however the region benefits to some extent from field protection measures undertaken by the Balkani Wildlife Society, and a conservation action plan for the species has been submitted to the Bulgarian government (Velev and Vladimirov 2013, T. Karakiev pers. comm. 2014). It is thought that the species occurs in several regional Red Lists in the Russian Federation (e.g., the Red Book of the Republic of Tatarstan; Czchechovskich 2006). The species occurs in at least one protected area (the Nechkinsky National Park in the Udmurt Republic, Russian Federation), and probably occurs in others within its distribution.

useAndTrade:
Specific medicinal applications of the species have not been found, however medicinal collection and use is reported (Baričevič et al. 2002, Lange 2008). Tinkov et al. (2014) reported potential application of the species treatment of human obesity.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide global distribution, however in the European region it is apparently restricted to the Macaronesian islands, the Iberian Peninsula, and Cyprus. The species is assessed as Least Concern as no population declines have been documented and no widespread threats are known.

range:
The species is distributed from the Mediterranean basin (including Macaronesia), to the Middle East, Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula, and southwest Asia, cultivated in Pakistan and India (Dhar et al. 2005, USDA 2010). It is possible that the species is of west Asian origin, however the origin of the plant is obscured by its long history of cultivation and use as a medicine. Considered to be introduced to North America, the plant is still cultivated there (Dhar et al. 2005, USDA 2010), however recent research (Meyers and Liston 2008) suggests the non-anthropogenic introduction of the species to North America 200,000–650,000 years ago. The species' European distribution range is mainly southern and southeastern Spain, including the Macaronesian islands, principally the Canary Islands and Madeira (Anthos 2010, USDA 2010). Previously, the seeds of the plant were collected from wild for medicinal purposes, but due to difficulties in collection, it was brought under cultivation in India (Dhar et al. 2005).

population:
The species is widespread in southeastern and southern Spain, the Canary islands and in Madeira.

habitat:
The species is a small annual herb of temperate sandy regions, growing in margins of fields or grasslands, near sea level to 1,500 m (Missouri Botanical Garden 2010).

conservationAction:
The species is not known to be threatened.

useAndTrade:
The husk and seed is widely used as a fiber supplement for the treatment of constipation. Like for most Plantago species, the husk of this species contains a high proportion of hemicellulose, composed of a xylan backbone linked with arabinose, rhamnose, and galacturonic acid units. Clinical studies confirm the effects of using the species (dried, ripe seed of Plantago afra L., P. indica L., P. ovata or P. asiatica ) as bulk-forming laxative to restore and maintain regularity and for the treatment of constipation (Thorne Research 2002, The Green Ring Society 2008). It is also regularly used to soften the stools in cases of painful defecation after rectal or anal surgery, anal fissures and hemorrhoids (European Medicines Agency 2013). Other traditional medical uses associated to Plantago derived medicine include use as expectorant, anti-tussive, antibacterial agent and for the treatment of rheumatic, gouty afflictions, bronchitis and glandular swelling (The Green Ring Society 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is endemic to western Europe, although it has a relatively wide range there, from southern England to northern Spain (Association Tela Botanica 2014, Botanical Society of the British Isles (Biological Records Centre 2014, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, GBIF 2014, de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001). It is assessed as Least Concern as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species populations to decline in the near future.

range:
The species is restricted to western Europe. It is found in southern and central England, France (except for most western areas), Belgium, Luxembourg, western Germany, northern Switzerland, Andorra and Spain (mostly in the north).

population:
Almost no information on population trends have been found. Probably stable in most of its range.

habitat:
The species is found in lowland sunny tightly-grazed grasslands in the northern area of distribution. In the southern distribution area, the species is found in grasslands, Mediterranean shrublands and forest edges, up to 2,500 m a.s.l.

threats:
Some localities may have been lost towards the periphery of its English range, possibly due to a lack of grazing.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as threatened in Switzerland and Germany. There are no major conservation measures needed, and the species is recorded from numerous Natura 2000 protected areas in France and Germany (EUNIS 2104).

useAndTrade:
The plant is used in folk medicine (Bonet and Reixach 2013). Aerial parts of the plant are decocted, ingested and used as intestinal anti-inflammatory or as an hepatoprotector (Lange 1998, Rigat et al . 2007; unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann pers. comm. 25.11.2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range. Although considered threatened in parts of its European range (in Austria and the Czech Republic), populations to the east, especially in Bulgaria, are considered stable, and the species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Native to Eurasia, the species is distributed across temperate meadow-steppe grasslands of southern and southeastern Europe, western Asia. In the european region, the species is found in Austria, Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Ukraine, Russia and Minor Asia (Assyov and Petrova 2006, GRIN 2014, Plantarium 2014).

habitat:
The species is a perennial, herbaceous plant. The leaves are simple, undivided and entire. The flowers look similar to those of the Fabaceae and are usually arranged in grapes. The plants occurs generally in semi-dry grasslands and dry meadows, also found at forest edges and on rocky slopes. The species is the tallest of the genus Polygala and can grow up to 60 cm in height (Fischer et al. 2008).

threats:
No Information is available on threats to this species.

conservationAction:
The species has been assessed as Least Concern in Hungary (Király 2007). In Austria and the Czech Republic, the species is listed as threatened (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999, Holub and Procházka 2000, Danihelka et al. 2012).

useAndTrade:
Various species from the genus Polygala are used in traditional medicine such as P. senega and P. amara (Herzog et al. 2014). Medicinal use is reported in Romania (Butură 1979), but the purpose is not known.


taxonomicNotes:
The species is often considered valid as Bistorta officinalis Delarbre.We follow The Plant List (2014), who consider the species valid as Persicaria bistorta (L.) Samp.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is widespread throughout Europe, although considered introduced in some parts of this range, and is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, increasing populations and no major threats.

range:
The species is a widespread taxon with a circumboreal distribution. It is found in Europe, Asia, Alaska and in North Africa. Currently present in most countries in Europe thriving from 0 m up to 2,350 m a.s.l. (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, GBIF 2014, NOBANIS 2014). The species is introduced in Scandinavia.

population:
No information on population trends are available. Populations may have increased because of new introductions in Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland. It is only known to have disappeared in three small regions of France and Liechtenstein. The overall range is increasing (Fischer et al. 1999, Association Tela Botanica. 2014, DAISIE 2014).

habitat:
A perennial herb of base-poor soils in damp pastures, mountain and subarctic grasslands, meadows, river banks. Also cultivated in gardens, especially in the United Kingdom.

threats:
Some moorlands where the species thrives have been destroyed in Germany (probably also in other areas even if no records have been found). The pressure of grazing is one of the main threats to the habitat.

conservationAction:
The species is threatened and included in national Red Lists of Finland and Liechtenstein. There are no major conservation measures in place or needed, although it certainly occurs within protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic study required to confirm the correct placement of the species.

useAndTrade:
The plant is astringent and used to contract tissues and staunch blood flow. The roots are collected, dried and used both internally or externally in the treatment of bleeding, diarrhea, cystitis, excessive menstruation, small burns anal fissure, etc. Also used in homeopathy and in traditional Chinese medicine (Duke 2014, PFAF 2014; unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). Leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and make an excellent substitute for spinach. In Northern England the leaves are an ingredient of the Easter ledger pudding. The root can be eaten in soups and stews.


