# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The historical distribution of this species is in the western Atlantic Ocean as far north as Greenland, south to Bermuda. It has also been reported from the eastern North Atlantic and is probably present in non-tropical regions of other oceans. This species is common throughout its range and is abundant in some areas; it is listed at the biomass-dominant pelagic species in some areas.  There is no available information regarding the use and/or trade of this species and there is no evidence that this species faces any major threats at this time.  There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though this species may have access to several marine protected areas, deep-water marine protected areas are likely to be of limited effectiveness. Therefore, Bathylagus euryops is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathylagus euryops is known from the Atlantic Ocean and from the Southern Ocean near Falkland Islands (Porteiro et al. unpublished data). It may be found in non-tropical regions of other oceans as well. Historically, B. euryops has been found as far north as northwestern Greenland; the main distribution in the western Atlantic is from Canada to Bermuda (Scott and Scott 1988, Møller et al. 2010, Sweetman et al. 2013). In the northeastern Atlantic, B. euryops is known from Iceland, east to the Faeroe Islands and Shetlands, south to Portugal, the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014, Cohen 1984).  Globally, the species can be found at depths from 500 and 3,237 m.

population:
Bathylagus euryops is common and abundant in parts of its range. Bathylagus euryops was the biomass-dominant pelagic species sampled during the 2004 MAR-ECO R/V G.O. Sars expedition, and was ranked third in total abundance.  It represented < 2% (n=187) of the "macrozooplankton" trawl fish catch and ~ 12.7% (4687.5 g ww) of the total biomass sampled (Sutton et al. 2008).   This species was also collected during the 2009 (12 June through 17 July) NOAA FSV Henry B. Bigelow expedition, which sampled the fauna of the Sub-Polar Front (SPF) region.  It represented < 2% of the catch (n=243) and contributed ~ 20% of the total pelagic fish biomass (6,436 g ww). During this study, the maximum abundance of B. europs occurred at 750 to 1,500 m along the Reykjanes Bridge with 5.82 ind./100,000 m3 of water filtered +/- 2.08 individuals (Sweetman et al. 2013).

habitat:
Bathylagus euryops is a marine, meso and bathypelagic species that occurs between depths of 500 and 3,237 m (Bogutskaya 2007). This species is sometimes caught in large aggregations and produces pelagic eggs and larvae (Cohen 1984). It feeds on small crustaceans and gelatinous zooplankton (Scott and Scott 1988, Sutton 2013). The maximum total length for this species is 13 cm total length (TL) (Smirnov et al. 2000). The reproduction, ecology, spawning and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathylagus euryops.  Though this species may have access to several marine protected areas (MPAs), deep-water marine protected areas are likely to be of limited effectiveness (Bailey et al. 2009). Further research into the population size and trends, the ecology and early life history, as well as the possible threats towards this species is needed.

useAndTrade:
Information regarding the use and/or trade of Bathylagus euryops is not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Dolicholagus longirostris is widespread in subtropical and tropical regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It has been recorded at depths ranging from 200 to 900 m. It is of no commercial interest to the fisheries industry, and it does not face any major threats at this time.  There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Therefore, Dolicholagus longirostris is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Dolicholagus longirostris has a wide distribution in tropical and subtropical seas. In the western Atlantic, it is known from the Gulf of Mexico (Rass 1971). It is also known in the northwest Atlantic Ocean off Canada (Scott and Scott 1988).  In the northwest Pacific Ocean it occurs off the coasts of Japan (Masuda et al. 1984). This species is found from New Zealand in south west Pacific and in the eastern Pacific in the California Current region (Paulin et al. 1989, Moser and Ahlstrom 1996). This species has also been recently recorded off the northern Brazilian coast at the mouth of the Amazon River in its pre-flexion larval stage (Campos et al. 2007). In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from south of Portugal, Madeira, the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Borges et al. 2009). Occurrence records suggest that this species is found north to the British Isles. Dolicholagus longirostris is associated with depths of between 200 and 950 m, but it is mostly found between 200 and 400 m.

population:
In the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters, this species seems to be rare. Dolicholagus longirostris was collected during Leg 1 (5 June through 3 July) of the 2004 R/V G.O. Sars MAR-ECO expedition at the northern MAR from Iceland to the Azores. Only 4 specimens of this species were caught during this expedition, with 40.0 total wet weight in grams (Sutton et al. 2008).

habitat:
Dolicholagus longirostris is a marine, bathypelagic species that occurs at a depth range between 200 and 945 m, usually found between 200 and 400 m (Uyeno et al 1983, Kobylyanskiy 1985).  This species is usually caught in small aggregations and exhibits daily vertical migrations. The maximum standard length for this species is 17.5 cm or 175 mm male/unsexed (Cohen 1990). It feeds on plankton (Cohen 1984). This species also exhibits an oviparous life cycle (Moser and Ahlstrom 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for Dolicholagus longirostris.  Though this species may have access to numerous marine protected areas due to its wide distribution, deep-water marine protected areas are likely to be of limited effectiveness (Bailey et al. 2009). Research into the population size and trends, the ecology and early life history traits and potential threats is needed for this species.

useAndTrade:
Dolicholagus longirostris is of interest to the fisheries industry (Paxton and Cohen 1999).


taxonomicNotes:
Until recently, Melanolagus bericoides was assigned to the genus Bathylagus, and it is often confused with Bathylagus euryops (Møller et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Melanolagus bericoides is widely distributed in the north eastern Atlantic Ocean. It is a bathypelagic species, typically found at depths > 1,000 m. There are no known major threats to this species. It appears to be rare in Greenland waters, but little else is known about its population in the European region. It is a wide-ranging species with no known threats. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Melanolagus bericoides is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans (Cohen 1986).  In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been collected off of Portugal, Madeira, and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014).    Melanolagus berioides is generally associated with depths of up to 1,130 m (Mundy 2005), but is often found deeper (to 1,700) in the northern portion of its range (Møller et al. 2010).

population:
Melanolagus bericoides is rare off the southwestern coast of Greenland (Moller et al. 2010). The population status of the species elsewhere in European and surrounding regional waters is unknown.

habitat:
Melanolagus bericoides is a bathypelagic species, typically found singly or in small groups (Cohen 1984). The maximum size of this fish has been measured at 20.0 cm standard length (SL) (Cohen 1990). It is known to participate in diel migrations (Mundy 2005). It feeds on plankton (Cohen 1984).  This species is oviparous with planktonic eggs and pelagic larvae (Moser and Ahlstrom 1996). The spawning season, fecundity and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. There are a few marine protected areas in its range, but it is not known if any M. bericoides are found within them. Research into the population trends and size, ecology and early life history traits and possible threats is needed for this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is of no interest to fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC).  Leptochilichthys agassizii is a bathypelagic species with a small distribution in the eastern Atlantic and eastern Pacific.  This species is also thought to occur in the western central Pacific and has also been recorded from the Indian Ocean.  This species is rare in museum collections, probably due to it is depth distributional range. Leptochilichthys agassizii is rare in museum collections and is known to occur at depth ranges of 2,000 to 3,100 m.  At present, this species is not utilized and there are no known threats.  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place; however, the distribution of this species overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. Therefore, L. agassizii is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Leptochilichthys agassizii has a small distribution in the eastern Atlantic and eastern Pacific. This species is thought to occur in the western central Pacific and has also been recorded from the Indian Ocean.   It is known in the eastern Atlantic in several records between 14°11'N (off Senegal) and 50°08'N, and in the eastern Pacific from the equator to 38°24'N (Markle and Sazonov 1990, Sazanov 1995).  This species is found at the depth range of 2,000 to 3,100 m (Markle and Sazonov 1990).  

population:
This species is rare with only a handful records in museum collections, probably due to its depth range (Accessed through Fishnet 2 portal 2012 June). Regional population data are severely limited.

habitat:
Leptochilichthys agassizii is a bathypelagic fish known from depth ranges of 2,000 to 3,100 m. This species is rare and there is not much known about it.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures at this time. However, the distribution of this species overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range, although it is unknown if the marine protected areas encompass the species'depth range.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized at this time.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Microstoma microstoma is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean. It is a mesopelagic species, and little is known about its habitats and ecology. It is relatively uncommon in the region, but known to aggregate at the Azores. There are no known major threats for this species. Therefore, M. microstoma is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microstoma microstoma is found in the temperate and tropical Atlantic Ocean (Hartel in press) and nearly worldwide in tropical and temperate seas (Eschmeyer 2014). In the northeastern Atlantic, M. microstoma occurs off Ireland, the Azores and Maderia (Cohen 1984). There are scattered records throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000) including the Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Turkish seas (Aegean and Anatolian) (Fricke et al. 2007) and east Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 2006), also Madeira Islands. In the western Atlantic, it is found in the Gulf of Mexico (Rass 1971), off southern Florida, the Caribbean and off Bermuda. And in the western Pacific, from Australia (Paxton et al. 1989) and New Zealand (Paulin et al. 1989).  It is most often associated with depths between 2,000 and 2,100 m on northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Porteiro et al. unpublished), but it has been found in depths of between 200 and 2,100 m depths (Carter and Hartel 2013).

population:
This is a widely distributed but rarely captured species (Cohen 1984). It is probably more common than the paucity of records suggests.

habitat:
Microstoma microstoma is mesopelagic (Fischer et al. 1987), with a maximum size is about 20 cm (Cohen 1984). Microstoma microstoma feeds on zooplankton (Cohen 1984). It spawns throughout the year, but more so in the winter (Cohen 1984).

threats:
This species has no commercial interest. There are no known major threats.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range. It was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 due to the paucity of records (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).  Research is needed into the population size and trends and the ecology and early life history traits of this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is of no commercial interest.


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of the genus Nansenia needs revision, as there may be 1-2 hidden synonymies among the currently recognized species (O. Gon pers. comm. 2014). Further, the importance of vertebral counts to the correct identification of Nansenia species can be overlooked, resulting in misidentification of specimens in museum collections. These misidentifications have been perpetuated through checklists, and thus the true distribution of these species is often uncertain (O. Gon pers. comm. 2014).  

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Nansenia atlantica is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean at depths of up to 1800 m. In the northeastern Atlantic, N. atlantica is known from the Azores and the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, though its complete distribution is unknown as specimens are easily misidentified. Nansenia atlantica is rarely collected, and little is known about its habitat and ecology. At present, it is not utilized but additional widespread threats are unknown. However, as the taxonomy of the genus Nansenia needs revision and the true distribution of Nansenia species is generally uncertain, N. atlantica is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Nansenia atlantica is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It is known from scattered aggregations from the Azores, Cape Verde Islands, and Gabon, and has also been recently recorded from the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Porteiro et al. in prep) to about 50ºN. Nansenia atlantica is has been collected to depths of 1800 m (Porteiro et al. in prep).

population:
Nansenia atlantica is a rarely collected species with only a couple recorded in museum collections.

habitat:
Nansenia atlantica is a pelagic-oceanic species. It has been collected at depths of up to 580 m (Kawaguchi and Butler 1984), though Porteiro et al. (in prep) report a depth range of 800 to 1800 m. The maximum size of this species is 16.7 cm standard length (Kawaguchi and Butler 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures at this time. However, the distribution of this species overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010), although, it is unknown if the marine protected areas encompass this species' depth range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Nansenia groenlandica is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Nansenia groenlandica is a rare mesopelagic species, and little is known about its habitats or ecology. At present, it is not utilized and there are no known threats. However, as the taxonomy of the genus Nansenia needs revision and the true distribution of Nansenia species is generally uncertain, N. groenlandica is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Nansenia groenlandica is probably restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean (Porteiro et al. unpublished), where it is known from Greenland south to Cape Cod in the west. In the eastern Atlantic, it is known from southern Iceland south to Morocco (Cohen 1984). It has been found off Greenland (Moller et al. 2010), Iceland and Irminger Sea, and in the southern portion of the region, off mainland Portugal and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). It is found in depths of up to 1,500 m.

population:
Nansenia groenlandica is found throughout the northeastern Atlantic. However, the exact status of the population within the region cannot be determined as of yet, as the taxonomic status of the genus Nansenia requires revision.

habitat:
Nansenia groenlandica is a mesopelagic species found to about 1500 m (Porteiro et al. in prep). The maximum recorded size is 24.5 cm. It is thought to spawn mainly in the spring and summer (Cohen 1984). The diet, fecundity, stages of maturation and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Its range likely intersects with numerous marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). More research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.

useAndTrade:
This species does not appear to be utilized in a commercial capacity.


taxonomicNotes:
This species appears to have been newly described by Matallanas (1985) based on few specimens, although there are doubts about its validity (C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2007). The taxonomy of the genus Nansenia needs revision, as there may be 1-2 hidden synonymies among the currently recognized species (O. Gon pers. comm. 2014). Further, the importance of vertebral counts to the correct identification of Nansenia species can be overlooked, resulting in misidentification of specimens in museum collections. These misidentifications have been perpetuated through checklists, and thus the true distribution of these species is often uncertain (O. Gon pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
Nansenia iberica is a bathypelagic species known only from the Mediterranean Sea. It is currently known from only four specimens, and there is some taxonomic uncertainty regarding the validity of the species. Therefore, N. iberica is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Nansenia iberica is endemic to the west Mediterranean Sea, specifically between the Balearic Islands and Spain (Matallanas et al. 1985, Merella et al. 1997, Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is known from 500 to 800 m depth.

population:
This species is only known from four specimens, so there are no data on population status or trends.

habitat:
This species is mesopelagic. Only three specimens are known (two females, one damaged; Matallanas et al. 1985). A fourth specimen was reported from northwest Majorca from 780 to 800 m depth (Merella et al. 1997).

threats:
There is no information about threats concerning this species.

conservationAction:
There is no information about conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range. It was previously assessed as Data Deficient, as it was only known from a few specimens, in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is known from one record in Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Nansenia longicauda is known from one record in Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014, G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015). Elsewhere it is found in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii, as well as in the western Atlantic Ocean from off New York southwards to the Bahamas at depths ranging from 400 to 1,100 m (Mundy 2005).

population:
There is little species-specific population information available for Nansenia longicauda. This species is represented by 13 lots in museum collection databases.

habitat:
This is a mesopelagic species which is found at depths ranging from 400 to 1,100 m (Mundy 2005).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Nansenia longicauda.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Nansenia longicauda.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Nansenia oblita is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean at depths of 300 to 500 m. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known only from Iceland, Ireland, and the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Nansenia oblita is an infrequently recorded mesopelagic species, and little is known about its habitats or ecology. At present, it is not utilized but additional widespread threats are unknown. However, as the taxonomy of the genus Nansenia needs revision and the true distribution of Nansenia species is generally uncertain, N. oblita is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Nansenia oblita is present in the eastern Atlantic from southern Ireland to Western Sahara. Nansenia oblita is widespread in the west Mediterranean Sea (Cohen 1984), where it has been recorded in the Aegean Sea, Libyan Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coasts of Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Fricke et al. 2007). It has been described from off southern Iceland.  It is also found in the western Atlantic, off Canada and northeastern USA (Scott and Scott 1998). It is found to depths between 300 and 500 m.

population:
Nansenia oblita has been rarely recorded.

habitat:
This is a mesopelagic species (Fischer et al. 1987). The maximum recorded size is about 18 cm, but most specimens are less than 7 cm (Cohen 1984). In the Mediterranean, this species spawns during the winter (Cohen 1990). The diet, fecundity, stages of maturation and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

threats:
This species is not commercially utilized and there are no other known major threats.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.  This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Keskin, Ç., Palmeri, A., Papakonstantinou, C. & Molinari, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Nansenia tenera is widely distributed in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, typically at depths up to 800 m. In the northeastern Atlantic, N. tenera is known from only scattered records at about 55oN and the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Nansenia tenera is a rare species, and little is known about its habitats or ecology.At present, it is not utilized but additional widespread threats are unknown. However, as the taxonomy of the genus Nansenia needs revision and the true distribution of Nansenia species is generally uncertain, N. tenera is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Nansenia tenera is known from scattered records in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and southwest Indian Ocean, and is also known from the southwestern Atlantic off Brazil and Argentina (Porteiro et al. in prep). In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from scattered records at 55oN and around the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Nansenia tenera is typically found to 800 m depth (Porteiro et al. in prep), but can be found as deep as 3000 m (Kawaguchi and Butler 1984). This seems to be in discrepancy with other distribution texts. CAS, fishbase, GBIF etc. say southeastern Atlantic only. In new eca in press, N. tenera is not in it.

population:
Nansenia tenera is a rarely collected species with only scattered records (Porteiro et al. in prep).

habitat:
Nansenia tenera is a rare pelagic-oceanic fish, typically found to 800 m (Porteiro et al. in prep), though it has been collected as deep as 3000 m (Kawaguchi and Butler 1984). The maximum reported size is 13.0 cm standard length (Kawaguchi and Butler 1984).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, the distribution of this species overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010), although, it is unknown if the marine reserves encompass the depth range of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathylychnops brachyrhynchus is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is known from the subtropical Atlantic and Indian oceans (Badcock 1988). Within Europe, it is known only from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
There is little evidence that this species is known from beyond 1,000 m, and scarcity in collections may in fact be due to feeding associations rather than lack of sampling at depth (Badcock 1988).

threats:
It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on its ecology and distribution.

redListContributors:
De Silva, R., Hartel, K., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


range:
In Europe, this species occurs only in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014), where it is known from only record (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015). Globally, it occurs in the North Pacific and North Atlantic (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015). In the Northeast Pacific it occurs in British Columbia, Canada to central California. In the Northwest Pacific it occurs in the Kashimanada Sea of Japan (FishBase 2015).

population:
There is only one record of this species in Europe (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015).

habitat:
This is a marine pelagic-oceanic species that is found at depths from zero to 640 m (Masuda et al. 1984). This is an oviparous species and the eggs and larvae are pelagic (FishBase 2015). The maximum length recorded is 50.0 cm SL male/unsexed (Masuda et al. 1984).

useAndTrade:
This species is not used and is of no interest to fisheries (FishBase 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Dolichopteryx longipes is vastly distributed in tropical and temperate seas around the world. There is limited population information, but this species is not utilized, commercially, and there are no known threats towards it. Its range overlaps with numerous MPAs. Dolichopteryx longipes is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Dolichopteryx longipes is distributed in temperate and tropical waters around the world (Quéro 1990). In North Atlantic, it is found at Reykjanes Ridge, Flemish Cap and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at about 45ºN, extending from off Ireland to the Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores (Porteiro et al. 2010, Carneiro et al. 2014) and Morocco (Kukuev 1982, Vinnichenko 1997). It is associated with depths of between 850 and 1,260 m.   .

population:
There are virtually no data concerning the population size and trends in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters. Porteiro et al. unpublished: 1 specimen in one pelagic tow on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.  Depth (m): 850-1260; Sz (n): 100 mm SL;

habitat:
Dolichopteryx longipes is an oceanic and mesopelagic species (Cohen 1984). The maximum recorded length for this species is 18 cm (Quero 1990) but it is common to 10 cm (F. Uiblein pers. comm 2014 e-mail). Dolichopteryx longipes feeds mostly on small crustaceans, particularly on copepods (Fitch and Lavenberg 1968).  Dolichopteryx longipes is paedomorphic and oviparous (Moser 1996), having planktonic larvae and eggs (Moser 1996, Cohen 1984). The spawning, fecundity and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures established for D. longipes. However, its relatively vast distribution intersects with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs), although it is uncertain if the MPAs encompass a depth comparable to the preference of this fish that would make them effective for this species. A ban on trawling in certain areas and depths of the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic by the FAO-General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) and European Union Commission of Fisheries helps protect this species. Research is needed in the areas of population size and trends, ecology and early life history, as well as potential threats for this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not targeted by the commercial fishing industry.


redListCategoryRationale:
Europe Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Doliochopteryx rostrata is a mesopelagic species found in the Atlantic Ocean. It was only recently described, so little is known about its population but it appears widely distributed. There are no known major threats. Therefore, D. rostrata is assessed as Data Deficient, pending population and distribution information in the northeastern Atlantic and surrounding, adjacent waters.

range:
Dolichopteryx rostrata was described in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from a single specimen collected off Ireland in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean (Fukui and Kitagawa 2006). Additional specimens have been recorded from off West Africa (Parin et al. 2009). It is likely more widely distributed than is currently known. The depth range for D. rostrata is 350 to 1,000 m (Parin et al. 2009).

population:
This species has only recently been described, so little is known about its population.

habitat:
Dolichopteryx rostrata is mesopelagic species, found at depths of 350 to 1,000 m (Parin et al. 2009). Specimens have ranged from 44 to 58 cm standard length (SL) (Parin et al. 2009). The diet, reproductive processes and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. Research into the population size and trends, ecology and early life history, as well as potential threats is needed for this species.

useAndTrade:
Dolichopteryx rostrata is not utilized commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Opisthoproctus grimaldii is a mesopelagic species that occurs in tropical to subtropical Atlantic and Pacific waters and appears to be rare. Life history information for this species is extremely limited. Opisthoproctus grimaldii is of no interest to fisheries and there are no known major threats. Therefore, O. grimaldii is assessed as Least Concern. Research is suggested in the life history and reproductive traits of this species.

range:
Opisthoproctus grimaldii occurs in tropical to subtropical waters in the Atlantic and Pacific ocean (Carter 2002). In the eastern Atlantic, this species is recorded from off the coast of Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014), Azores Islands (Porteiro et al. 1999, Borgeset al. 2010), Canary Islands, and Cape Verde (Haygood et al. 1992). It has also been found in the northwest Atlantic, from off eastern Florida and the Gulf of Mexico south to Argentina, and in the western Pacific subtropical regions off eastern Australia. Opisthoproctus grimaldii is usually found from 300 to 400 m (Quéro 1990) but has been reported to depths of 4,750 m (Bogutskaya 2007).

population:
There are 98 occurrence records and 51 museum records for Opisthoproctus grimaldii (Accessed through Fishnet2 Portal 2012 November). There is very limited population information for O. grimaldii in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters, but it has been described as rare or rarely seen in other areas of its distribution (Craddock et al. 1992).

habitat:
Opisthoproctus grimaldii is a mesopelagic fish (Mundy 2005). The maximum length for Opisthoproctus grimaldii is recorded at about 8 cm standard length (SL) (Quero 1990).  Opisthoproctus grimaldii feeds mainly on small crustaceans, mostly copepods (Carter 2002).  Species in the family Opisthoproctidae are oviparous and have pelagic eggs and larvae (Carter 2002). The spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
Current threats to Opisthoproctus grimaldii are unknown. Since this is a deep-water species, threats are probably limited.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Opisthoproctus grimaldii. Its range overlaps with several marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Research into the population trends and size, the ecology and biology, as well as potential threats is needed for this species.

useAndTrade:
There is no fishery for Opisthoproctus grimaldii (Carter 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Opisthoproctus soleatus is circumglobal in temperate to tropical waters and is thought to be rare. However, it is described as more common in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters than other areas of its range. Life history information is limited for this species. Opisthoproctus soleatus is not of interest to fisheries and there do not appear to be any major threats. Therefore, O. soleatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Opisthoproctus soleatus is circumglobal in temperate to tropical waters (Carter 2002). In the northeastern Atlantic, O. soleatus occurs from western Ireland to Mauritania and from Sierra Leone to Angola (Quéro 1990), but may range as far north as southern Iceland.  The normal depth range for this species is 300 m to 800 m, but it can most often be found at depths ranging from 500 m to 700 m (Quéro 1990). However, this species has also been reported from the Gulf of Guinea at 4,000 meters (NOAA 2012).

population:
There are 223 occurrence records and 143 museum records for Opisthoproctus soleatus (Accessed through Fishnet2 Portal 2012 November). It is rarely taken in IBTS Gulf of Cadiz (only one specimen taken in trawls from 1993 through 2013: J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014); however, it likely occurs at depths greater than survey depth. Opisthoproctus soleatus is reported as most common between Ireland and Mauritania (Quéro 1990).

habitat:
 Opisthoproctus soleatus is not often found in waters with temperatures below 8°C (Quéro 1990). The maximum length for O. soleatus is 11cm standard length (SL) (Carter 2002). Opisthoproctus soleatus feed mainly on small crustaceans, mostly copepods (Carter 2002).  Species in the family Opisthoproctidae are oviparous and have pelagic eggs and larvae (Carter 2002). The spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
Current threats to Opisthoproctus soleatus are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Opisthoproctus soleatus. Its range intersects with numerous marine protected areas across its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).  Research into the population, ecology and biology, as well as the potential threats to this species is needed.

useAndTrade:
Opisthoproctus soleatus is of no interest to fisheries (Carter 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Mallotus villosus is widely distributed and managed throughout parts of its range. There are ecosystem considerations in the management schemes in some places. The most recent assessment for Barents Sea Capelin estimated total stock size of 3.8 million tonnes (based on acoustic survey) to 479,000 tonnes (spawning stock biomass from stock assessment). This species is highly recruitment driven, and it undergoes wide fluctuations. Mallotus villosus is assessed as Least Concern. Continuation of management on the stock of this species is greatly encouraged.

range:
Mallotus villosus is distributed in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans (Eschmeyer et al. 1983). It is circumpolar in the Arctic Sea. In the North Atlantic, it is found in Barents Sea up to Bear Island, in the White and Norwegian seas, off the coast of Greenland up to 74°N and from Hudson Bay in Canada to Gulf of Maine, USA. In the north Pacific, it is found from Korea to Juan de Fuca Strait, Canada (Eschmeyer et al. 1983). It is associated with depths of up to 275 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Mallotus villosus is common throughout its range and may be abundant in localized areas of its range (Ouellet et al. 2013).

habitat:
Mallotus villosus is neritic to epibenthic to 300 m depth (Dodson et al. 2007). It may form shoals and migrate to littoral spawning areas to lay eggs (Dodson et al. 2007). Maximum recorded size is 22 cm standard length (SL) (Dodson et al. 2007). Adults feed on planktonic crustaceans, copepods, euphausiids, amphipods, marine worms, and small fishes (Hart 1973, Muus and Nielsen 1999). Lifespan of 3-5 years. Aver age size at maturity for males and females is 13.5 cm (Beverton and Holt 1959, Naumento 2003). Mature individuals move inshore in large schools to spawn (Eschmeyer et al. 1983). In the spring large spawning shoals migrate toward the coasts, males usually arrive first. Often entering brackish and freshwater (Pietsch et al. 2000). Semelparous (Murua and Saborido-Rey 2003). Produces 6,000-12,000 adhesive egg (Eschmeyer et al. 1983).

threats:
Mallotus villosus is commercially exploited. In 2012, the Faroe Islands landed nearly 30,000 tonnes of this fish. Iceland landed nearly 60,000 tonnes, Norway 27,000 tonnes and the Russian Federation at nearly 70,000 tonnes (FAO 2011, FishStatJ Accessed 2014 April).

conservationAction:
In parts of its range, there are fishing management measures in place for M. villosus. Its range intersects with a few marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
Mallotus villosus is a commercially exploited species. In 2012, the Faroe Islands landed nearly 30,000 tonnes of this fish. Iceland landed nearly 60,000 tonnes, Norway 27,000 tonnes and the Russian Federation at nearly 70,000 tonnes (FAO 2011, FishStatJ Accessed 2014 April).

redListAssessors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Fernandes, P., Heessen, H. & Collette, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: : Least Concern (LC) Barbantus curvifrons is widespread but rare throughout the Atlantic Ocean, except for the polar waters. The species may have been overlooked and it is difficult to identify. This species can occur to depths of 1,000 m and is of no interest to fisheries. Habitat and ecology information are limited for this species, but its deep habitat limits threats. Therefore, this species has been assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Barbantus curvifrons is a wide ranging species that occurs in temperate to tropical waters of the Atlantic (Carter 2002) and tropical to subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Orrell in press). Barbantus curvifrons occurs from 15°S to 57°N in the eastern Atlantic and is absent from the western Atlantic (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987). It was reported to occur in Icelandic waters during the warm period of 1996 through 2005 (Asttorsson and Palsson 2006). One specimen was caught at a depth of 320 m off the southeast coast of Greenland (Møller et al. 2010). It has been reported off of the Bay of Biscay, Portugal, the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Wienerroither et al. 2009). It can found at depths from 500 to 2,000 m.

population:
The species is widespread but rare in the north eastern Atlantic (Sutton and Sigurosson 2008).

habitat:
Barbantus curvifrons is a meso- to bathypelagic species. It exhibits bioluminescence in its post-cleithral organ (Herring 1972). The diet, reproduction, spawning, and early life history of this species are poorly understood. The maximum length of this fish is 13.1 cm standard length (SL) (Quero et al. 1990).

threats:
This species usually occurs at depths below 1,000 m which probably limits threats to this species; however, any current threats that may exist are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. This species may occur in marine protected areas throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
Platytroctids are of no commercial importance to fisheries (Carter 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) This bathypelagic species is fairly common from temperate to tropical Atlantic waters. Additional habitat and ecology information is limited for this species. It is of no interest to fisheries, and threats to this species are unknown. Due to the depth range that it inhabits, threats are probably limited. Therefore, this species has been assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Holtbyrnia anomala is a bathypelagic species that is found in Atlantic waters from the western coast of Iceland to the tip of Ireland (Quéro et al. 1984) and southward to the Canary Islands (Wienerroither et al. 2009) and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). The species was first reported in the Azores during an Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) experimental fishing experiment in 2001. It can found at latitudes up to 66oN in the Davis Strait (Melo and Menezes 2002), as well as off Mauritania, Senegal and Namibia (Quéro et al. 1984). The depth range for this species is 700 m to 3,500 m (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987, Quéro et al. 1990, Porteiro et al. unpublished data).

population:
Holtbyrnia anomala appears to be a fairly common species. Results of European Union (EU) surveys in July from 1988 to 2002 collected a single specimen in 1998 (Alpoim et al. 2002). However, 288 specimens were caught from MAR-ECO (Porteiro et al. unpublished data). Population size and trends are unknown for this species.

habitat:
Holtbyrnia anomala is a meso- to bathypelagic species. It sometimes forms aggregates near sea mounts and ridges (Quero et al. 1984). This species exhibits bio luminescence in its post-cleithral organ (Herring 1972). The maximum recorded length for this species is 25 cm standard length (SL) (Quero et al. 1990). The diet, spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

threats:
This species is not taken for commercial fishing purposes, and other possible threats are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Holtbyrnia anomala may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The Bigeye Searsid occurs in the temperate and tropical Atlantic and may occur in the eastern central Pacific. This species typically occurs from 300 to 1,000 m during the day and has been reported to occur at a depth of 100 m at night. Habitat and ecology information are limited for this species. It is of no interest to fisheries and current threats are unknown. Due to the fact that it is not utilized commercially and that no known threats exist, Holtbyrnia macrops is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Holtbyrnia macrops occurs in the temperate and tropical Atlantic (Carter 2002). In the eastern Atlantic, H. macrops is distributed from the Denmark Strait to South Africa (Markle and Quéro 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is generally thought to inhabit waters  from 32°N to 64°N; the species has also been reported as far north as 72°N (Hartel in press), including the Bay of Biscay, the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and the Canary Islands (Wienerroither et al. 2009). In the western north Atlantic, it is found at Flemish Cap (Vázquez et al. 2013). The species has also been reported in the eastern Pacific off of the coast of California (Childress and Nygaard 1973), although it is not clear if this is another species that was misidentified.  Holtbyrnia macrops exhibits a depth range of 100 to 1,800 m (Quéro et al. 1990, Porteiro et al. unpublished data).

population:
There were 32 specimens taken in 13 trawls from the MAR ECO trawl survey (Porteiro et al. unpublished data). There is limited population information for this species.

habitat:
This species is meso to bathypelagic and benthopelagic in the northern parts of its range and occurs from 300 m to 1,000 m in the daytime, but as shallow as 100 m to 120 m at night (Quéro et al. 1990). The maximum recorded length of this fish is 20 cm standard length (SL) (Quero et al. 1990). This species exhibits bio luminescence in its post-cleithral organ (Herring 1972). The diet, fecundity, spawning periodicity, and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

threats:
This species is not utilized by humans. Other possible threats are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. It may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Maulisia argipalla is a rare but widely distributed deep sea species. In the northeastern Atlantic, M. argipalla is known only from the Azores and Madeira. Little data are available on its population status, habitat, or ecology. There are no known major threats, and this species is not utilized commercially. However, given that records from the assessment region are isolated and scattered, M. argipalla is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Maulisia argipalla is distributed in the east Pacific and northeast Atlantic (Quéro et al. 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, M. argipalla is known from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). This species might be more widespread as some of the records for M. mauli from all oceans may refer to M. argipalla. The depth distribution of M. argipalla is 850 to 1,000 m (Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
Though widespread, M. argipalla appears to be rare.

habitat:
Maulisia argipalla is a mesopelagic species, typically found at 850 to 1,000 m (Quéro et al. 1984). The maximum reported size is 19 cm (Quéro et al. 1984). Little else is known about its habitats or ecology.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. There is a need for more information about the biology of this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized at present.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The Maul's searsid is widespread but rare throughout the Atlantic Ocean, except for the polar waters. The species may have been overlooked and it is difficult to identify. This species can occur to depths of 1,800 m and is of little interest to fisheries. Habitat and ecology information are limited for this species. Therefore, M. mauli is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Maulisia mauli is known from the Atlantic Ocean and may also be found in the Pacific and Indian oceans (Orrell and Hartel in press). In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from Iceland, the British Isles, Bay of Biscay, Spain, Portugal, the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands south to Equatorial Guinea (Wienerroither et al. 2009, Bordes et al. 2009, Møller et al. 2010, Carneiro et al. 2014, Porteiro et al. unpublished).  The depth range reported for this species is 400 to 1,800 m (Shcherbachev 1987, Porteiro et al. unpublished).

population:
Maulisia mauli appears to be relatively rare but widespread, as it appears in many Atlantic trawl surveys (Gushchin and Kukuyev 1981, Fock and Ehrich 2010, Vázquez et al. 2013, Porteiro et al. unpublished). The rare occurrences are probably due to the fact that it has been overlooked and it is difficult to identify.

habitat:
Maulisia mauli is meso to bathypelagic. This species can reach a size of 20 cm standard length (Carter 2002). It has been reported in association with sea mount habitats in the North Atlantic (Kukuev 2004). This species exhibits bio luminescence in its post-cleithral organ (Herring 1972). The diet, spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

threats:
Current threats to this species are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. It may occur within marine protected areas within its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Research is needed into the possible threats to the species, as well as life history traits and population size.

useAndTrade:
Platytroctids, in general, are of no importance to fisheries (Quéro et al. 1990) but this species may be of commercial interest in the Indian Ocean (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Maulisia microlepis is a rare, deep-dwelling species that ranges in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Cosmopolitan, in cold seas (Eschmeyer 2015). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014), from the south and southwest of Iceland, and off the west coast of Ireland (Porcupine Bank; Johnston et al. 2010, Couperus et al. 2012).

population:
Globally, there are 165 occurrence and 30 museum records for Maulisia microlepis (Froese and Pauly 2011; Fishnet2 Portal 2012).

habitat:
The fish can reach 26 cm standard length (Carter 2002). Bathypelagic to benthopelagic.

threats:
Not thought to be any threats currently.

useAndTrade:
Platytroctids are of little importance to fisheries (Bianchi et al. 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The Multipore searsid occurs from temperate to tropical Atlantic waters and is most abundant in the eastern Atlantic.  Based on recent surveys, the species appears to be abundant throughout its range. Despite the fact that there are very little data on the ecology and life history traits of the species, Normichthys operosus is assessed as Least Concern due to its broad distribution and seeming abundance.

range:
Normichthys operosus occurs in the Atlantic from temperate to tropical waters (Quéro et al. 1984); specifically, it is known from about 9°S to 57°N (Krefft 1976), occurring from Iceland and western part of British Isles to Portugal including the Azores and from the Canary Islands to Senegal, Gulf of Guinea and Angola (Quéro et al. 1990, Carneiro et al. 2014, Borges et al. 2009). It is a rare guest in south eastern and western Greenland (Møller et al. 2010). This species tends to be more common in the eastern Atlantic, but is known from both Grand Banks and Bear Seamount in the western Atlantic; however, it is rarely collected off Grand Banks (Moore et al. 2002, 2004).   The shallowest reported depth for this species is 780 and 785 m (Sazonov and Trunov 1978) and can usually found to 1,000 m.

population:
Normichthys operosus appears to be abundant throughout its relatively limited range compared to others of the family. There were 280 specimens of  Normichthys operosus caught from MAR ECO (Porteiro et al. unpublished data). The species consisted of 18% of 570 fishes in a trawl 750 to 1,500 m near the mid-ocean ridge system and was observed in trawls of both the Azores and the Reykjanes Ridge (Sutton et al. 2008).

habitat:
This species can reach a size of 16 cm standard length (Carter 2002). This species is bathypelagic and is known to occur off the Mid Atlantic ridge (Porteiro et al. unpublished data), the Bear Seamount (Moore et al. 2002) and the Reykjanes Ridge (Sutton et al. 2008). The diet, spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood. This species exhibits bio luminescence in its post-cleithral organ (Herring 1972).

threats:
Current threats to this species are unknown, although it is of no importance to fisheries.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. The species may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). More research is needed on the population size, life history, and possible threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Platytroctids are of no importance to fisheries (Quéro et al. 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The Legless Searsid is widespread but rare throughout the northeastern Atlantic. The species may have been overlooked during trawls as it is difficult to identify and not of any commercial importance. Current threats to this species are unknown and ecological information is limited. Therefore, this species has been assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Platytroctes apus is found circumglobally in temperate and tropical waters (Carter 2002), except the southern Atlantic (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987). This species is also known to occur in the low-oxygen waters off Peru, in the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987). It is equatorial in the Indian Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it occurs from Iceland at about 66°N to south to the Portuguese mainland, the Azores and Madeira, to the equator at the Sierra Leone Rise (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987, Quéro et al. 1990, Pakhorukov 1999).  The depth range for this species has been reported from 385 m to more than 5,000 m.

population:
Platytroctes apus is globally widespread, but specific population information is unavailable. In the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters, this species has a patchy distribution and a scattered abundance (Quero et al. 1984).

habitat:
Platytroctes apus is a meso and bathypelgaic species. It can reach a size of 18 cm standard length (Carter 2002). This species inhabits low-oxygen waters off Peru, the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea, and have poorly developed gill filaments (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987). This species has the most reduced shoulder bioluminescent organ of all the Platytroctidae species (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987). The diet, spawning periodicity, fecundity and early life history of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
Current threats to the species are unknown. The extreme lower depth stratification of this species probably shields it from most major threats. The species is also not likely subject to fishery-related threats as it is not harvested.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for this fish. It may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout the species' range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). More research is needed on the life history, population size, and possible threats.

useAndTrade:
Platytroctids are of no importance to fisheries (Quéro et al. 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The Schnakenbeck's searsid is widespread but rare in the eastern Atlantic. Perhaps this is due to the fact that it is often overlooked and is diffucult to identify.This species is reported to reach depths of 2,350 m and is known to be associated with seamounts and underwater ridges. Additional habitat and ecology information is limited. However, Platytroctids are not of commercial importance and current threats to this species are unknown. Therefore, S. schnakenbecki is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Sagamichthys schnakenbecki occurs in temperate to tropical eastern Atlantic waters (Carter 2002), including the Denmark Strait (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987). It also occurs off the western part of the British Isles to Portugal including Azores Island, Madeira, and off the Canary Islands and Cape Verde, Gulf of Guinea, Angola and Namibia (Quéro et al. 1990, Møller et al. 2010, Carneiro et al. 2014). The depth range for this species is 365 to 1,200 m but a museum record has a reported collection depth of 2,350 m (Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
Sagamichthys schnakenbeckis is widespread but rare. The rare occurrences are probably due to the fact that it has been overlooked on fishing trawls and it is difficult to identify (Smith and Heemstra 1986).

habitat:
Sagamichthys schnakenbecki can reach 27 cm standard length (Carter 2002). This species is known to be associated with seamounts and was present at four sampled seamounts in a study by Kukuev (2004), and over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in an earlier study (Kukuev 1982). This species exhibits bio luminescence in its post-cleithral organ (Herring 1972). The diet, ecology, habitat, fecundity, spawning periodicity, and maturity processes are very poorly or not at all understood.

threats:
Current threats to this species are unknown. It is not likely at risk from fishery-related threats, as it is not harvested.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. It may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). More research is needed on the species' population size, life history, and possible threats.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Searsia koefoedi is widespread but rare throughout the Atlantic Ocean, except for the polar waters. The species may have been overlooked on fishing vessels, as it is difficult to identify. This species can occur to depths of 1,500 m and is of no interest to fisheries. Habitat and ecology information are limited for this species, but there are no known threats towards this species and its range intersects with numerous marine protected areas throughout the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters. Therefore, S. koefoedi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Searsia koefoedi is found in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean, from the Denmark Strait (Quéro et al. 1984) to the coast off Portugal, the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands southward to the Gulf of Guinea (Parin et al. 1978, Carter 2002, Møller et al. 2010). There are also records from the equatorial Pacific and Indian Oceans (Quéro et al. 1984). The depth range for this species is 450 to 1,500 m (Quéro et al. 1990, Matsui and Rosenblatt 1987).

population:
The species is widespread but rare. The rare occurrences are probably due to the fact that it has been overlooked on fishing trawls and is difficult to identify. There are 170 recorded occurrences globally (Froese and Pauly 2011). Little is understood about the population size or dynamics of this species.

habitat:
The species is a benthopelagic species and it can reach a size of 15 cm standard length (Carter 2002). Habitat and ecology information is limited for this species, as it is rarely encountered and not well studied.

threats:
Current threats to this species are unknown. It is unlikely that it is at risk from fishery-related threats, as it is not harvested.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. It may occur within marine protected areas that exist throughout the species' range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). More research is needed on the life history, population size, and possible threats to the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Acanthurus monroviae is widely distributed in the Eastern Atlantic and is most abundant in warmer waters of the West African coast. This species appears to be expanding its range northwards in the northeast Atlantic and into the Mediterranean Sea. Only a minor portion of this species' range is within the assessment area. Therefore, A. monroviae is assessed as NA.

range:
Acanthurus monroviae has been recorded from from the Portuguese western coast (38.43°N, 9.07°W) (Horta e Costa et al. 2013) south to Angola, including the offshore islands of the Canaries, Cape Verde and São Tomé and the Gulf of Guinea (Desoutter 1986). In the last two decades, it appears to have expanded its range into the Mediterranean. There are records from Algeria (Hemida et al. 2004) eastward to Israel (Golani and Sonin 1996), and it is likely that this species is patchily distributed along the North African Mediterranean Coast (Hemida et al. 2004). Vagrants have been recorded in the western Atlantic, off the coast of Brazil (Luiz‐Júnior et al. 2004). It has been recorded at depths ranging from 5–200 meters, however it is more commonly found at 5–40 meters (Desoutter 1986).

population:
Acanthurus monroviae is found in the warmer waters of the eastern Atlantic, where it has been considered relatively common (Randall 1981). This species is expanding its range northwards into the northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean due to warming temperatures. Records from Portugal (Horte e Costa et al. 2013) represent a recent northern range expansion. Acanthurus monroviae has been considered generally common in warm waters of the eastern Atlantic (Randall 1981), particularly in association with rocky reefs and blue-green algal mats (Ateweberhan et al. 2012).

habitat:
Acanthurus monroviae is restricted to areas of hard bottom, and is absent from long stretches of open sand. It is found in rocky and coral bottoms (Schneider 1990). Usually, this species found between 2–20 m. The record of 200 m is unconfirmed. As with A. achilles, large yellow area enclosing the caudal spine serves as warning coloration (Randall 2002). It feeds on zooplankton, phytoplankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). It is normally solitary; in south-east Brazil it was seen joining a school of A. chirurgus and feeding together with the members of this group (Luiz-Luiz-Júnior et al. 2004).         The sexes are separate among the acanthurids (Reeson 1983). Acanthurids do not display obvious sexual dimorphism, males assume courtship colours (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2010). It reaches a maximum size of 45 cm total length (TL).

threats:
There have been no recorded population declines in A. monroviae. It is taken as bycatch in mixed-species demersal fisheries in parts of its range (Armah and Nunoo 2007). It is inferred that this species is taken as bycatch in mixed-species demersal fisheries in the assessment region of the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean. Surgeon fishes show varying degrees of habitat preference and utilization of coral reef habitats, with some species spending the majority of their life stages on coral reef while others primarily utilize seagrass beds, mangroves, algal beds, and /or rocky reefs. The majority of surgeonfishes are exclusively found on coral reef habitat, and of these, approximately 80% are experiencing a greater than 30% loss of coral reef area and degradation of coral reef habitat quality across their distributions. However, more research is needed to understand the long-term effects of coral reef habitat loss and degradation on these species' populations. Widespread coral reef loss and declining habitat conditions are particularly worrying for species that recruit into areas with live coral cover. Studies have shown that protection of pristine habitats facilitate the persistence of adult populations in species that have spatially separated adult and juvenile habitats (Comeros-Raynal et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with a few marine protected areas in parts of its range. Acanthurus monroviae was assessed as Least Concern globally in 2010 (IUCN 2012).

useAndTrade:
Acanthurus monroviae is a component of the aquarium trade. It sells for US $200.00 to $300.00 depending on size. This species is collected most commonly from Southern Morocco down to Nigeria, including Cape Verde (http://www.bluezooaquatics.com, accessed 13 April 2010). Acanthurus monroviae is a commercially important species in Northwest Africa (N'Dao 1997,  Hemida et al. 2004, Armah and Nunoo 2007).


taxonomicNotes:
There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae (Nizinski in press)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Ammodytes marinus is distributed along the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean from western Russia to the British Isles. It is the major component of the Ammodytidae fishery, and there is no evidence that there have been significant declines in the population at this time. There are large fluctuations in abundance, in keeping with the characteristics of a short-lived, highly productive species. There has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years, with a decrease in fishing mortality and a general rise in spawning stock biomass of Ammodytidae over three generation lengths (12 years). The sandeel fishery is a well managed stock, with a variety of considerations for ecosystem level impacts. Therefore, A. marinus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ammodytes marinus is restricted to the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeast Atlantic, A. marinus is found from 74°N (Novaya Zemlya and Bear Islands) to 49°N (Channel Islands, western English Channel), including Iceland, the Barents Sea (excluding the White Sea) and the Baltic Sea (excluding the Gulf of Bothnia and Finland). It has been recorded at depths ranging from 10 to 150 metres (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

population:
The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) began treating A. marinus in the North Sea as seven distinct subpopulations in 2011, based on information about connectivity and regional differences in productivity (ICES 2010a). These distinct aggregations vary in their levels of vulnerability to exploitation, and there is limited movement between them (Proctor et al. 1998, Pedersen et al. 1999, Munk et al. 2002, Lynam et al. 2013). Stocks in the North Sea for which biomass data are available showed declines in biomass during the late 1990s and early 2000s corresponding to increasing landings, which peaked in 1999 (ICES 2013). The subsequent decreased fishing effort in the region, including fisheries closures, has resulted in increases in biomass of most sandeel management areas in the later 2000s (ICES Advice 2013, book 6). Low landings have been attributed to a combination of low recruitment and a decrease in fishing effort since 2002 (Lynam et al. 2013). There is evidence for a decrease in the mean size of A. marinus in the northwest part of the North Sea from 1973 to 2002. On average, age group 0 sandeels in July 2002 were 14.5% smaller than on the same date in 1973. Age 1 sandeels were 15.5% smaller between the same dates (Wanless 2004).In the Baltic Sea A. marinus reproduces in both the Kattegat and the Sound. The extent to which this species penetrates the Baltic Sea is unknown. Ammodytes marinus is not typically caught in regular fish monitoring surveys due to its small, elongate body shape, and survey data are only available from one area in the Kattegat, and show large inter-annual variations but no overall trend from 1981–2010. There is a fishery targeting all species of sandeel, which was unable to be fully assessed by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in 2012 due to lack of data. 

habitat:
Habitat and ecology Within the family Ammodytidae, the genus Ammodytes shows the widest distribution among the family, from temperate to boreal waters. However, none of the species is found in the southern hemisphere (Ida et al. 1994). Ammodytes marinus has a strong preference for coarse and medium sand substrates (Holland et al. 2005). It is a burrowing species which rarely emerges from the substrate except in order to feed (Winslade 1974). This species is an important component of the North Sea food web, forming a crucial mid-trophic link between zooplankton production (feeds primarily on the copepod Calanus finmarchicus) and top predators. In particular, it is the direct prey of whiting and haddock, as well as many seabirds. Fishing for sandeel has relatively strong indirect effects on cod, whiting, and haddock (ICES Advice June 2013). The maximum length is 25 cm total length (TL). Life cycle and reproduction Eggs are laid on sandy substrate between December and January, and the larvae hatch from February to April (Winslade 1971, Wright and Bailey 1997). There is variation in growth rate and age at maturity in this species, however the maturity-at-age used by ICES is 100% maturity at age 2 (Wanless et al. 2004). Size at maturity is 9.5 to 13.5 cm TL (Macer 1966, Gauld and Hutcheon 1990). A generation length of 3.8 years was used to assess this species in the 2013 HELCOM RedList Assessment (HELCOM 2013 RedList Assessment).

threats:
Ammodytes marinus is a commercially important species throughout its range. It is capable of rapid turnover, however this presents challenges for fisheries managers (ICES 2010). Stocks in Norway are managed using spatial management in order to prevent local depletion in the Norwegian Economic Zone (fisheries.no).

conservationAction:
Ammodytes marinus is an important commercial species in the North Sea, and is recognized as a key component of the North Sea food web. As such, it is subject to a number of regulatory measures. ICES began treating A. marinus in the North Sea as seven distinct subpopulations in 2011, based on information about connectivity and regional differences in productivity (ICES 2010a). Of the seven subpopulations, four were able to be analytically assessed, and the remaining 3 are still considered data limited. Conservation zones encompassing the preferred habitats of A. marinus have been designated in Dogger Bank by various nations. Because sandeels are an important component of the diets of top predators, such as seabirds and marine mammals, fishing moratoria have been implemented at various times, which have resulted in initial increases in sandeel abundance (ICES 2010). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) area (HELCOM 2013 RedList Assessment Project).

useAndTrade:
Sandeels are a component of industrial fisheries in the Northeastern Atlantic, of which A. marinus is by far the most abundant (Mitchell et al. 1998). Sandeels are lipid rich, and are utilized for fish oil and fish meal. Sandeels are taken by trawlers using small-meshed demersal gear in seasonal fisheries operating in the spring and summer (ICES Advice 2013, book 6). In the North Sea, the sandeel fishery was one of the largest in the area, with annual catches ranging from 0.54 to 1.1 million tonnes from 1982 to 2001 (ICES 2003).  

redListAssessors:
Fernandes, P., Collette, B. & Heessen, H.


taxonomicNotes:
There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae (Nizinski in press).

redListCategoryRationale:
Ammodytes tobianus is distributed along the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from western Russia to the Iberian Peninsula, including southern Iceland. It has been recorded at depths ranging from one to 96 metres. It is caught in the Sandeel (Ammodytidae fishery), but is thought to be a smaller component than A. marinus. It is unknown whether this presents a major threat at present. There has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years, with a decrease in fishing mortality and a rise in spawning stock biomass of Ammodytidae in general. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for A. tobianus. It is likely that A. tobianus receives some benefit from fisheries management efforts directed towards A. marinus, which include the establishment of conservation zones and fishing moratoria. Although it is a commercially-important species in parts of its range, there is a paucity of information available concerning life history, population trends and harvest levels, and the fishery is poorly characterized. Therefore, A. tobianus is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Ammodytes tobianus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic, where it is found from Iceland and Norway south to Portugal, including the Baltic and North Seas. It sometimes strays into the western Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead et al. 1986). It has been recorded at depths ranging from one to 96 metres.

population:
Prior to the year 2000, there was little separation of catch statistics between A. tobianus and A. marinus. However, this has improved (ICES 2007). Despite being recorded there, this species is not common in Norwegian waters and does not occur there regularly. If it is present in Norwegian waters, it is greatly outnumbered by Ammodytes marinus (Naevdal and Thorkildsen 2002).

habitat:
Ammodytes tobianus has a primarily inshore, coastal distribution (Donaghy et al. 1995) and is primarily associated with sandy bays and beaches, including the inter-tidal zone and in estuaries. In the Mondego estuary, Portugal from January 2003 to December 2008 this species was more abundant in the autumn/winter (Primo et al. 2011). This species makes distinct vertical shifts between inactive stages, during which they stay in the sand, and active stages, during which they forage (van Deurs et al. 2011). Adults feed on zooplankton and some large diatoms (Bauchot 1987). They hibernate in winter buried in sand at depths of 20 to 50 cm (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Within the family Ammodytidae, the genus Ammodytes shows the widest distribution among the family, from temperate to boreal waters. However, none of the species are found in the southern hemisphere (Ida et al. 1994). The Ammodytidae are considered keystone species, which play a significant role in the marine ecosystem as prey items for a variety of predators including fishes, marine mammals and birds. Fluctuations in sandeel abundance have been shown to have direct effects on some seabird populations (Furness and Tasker 2000).

threats:
Ammodytes tobianus is a component of the industrial fishmeal and fish oil fishery. It is generally accepted that A. marinus accounts for the majority of landings in this fishery (ICES Advice 2013, book 6).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for A. tobianus. Although it is a commercially-important species in parts of its range, there is a paucity of information available concerning life history, population trends and harvest levels, and the fishery is poorly characterized. It is likely that A. tobianus receives some benefit from fisheries management efforts directed towards A. marinus, which include the establishment of conservation zones and fishing moratoria (ICES 2010a).

useAndTrade:
Sandeels are a component of industrial fisheries in the northeastern Atlantic, of which A. marinus is by far the most abundant (Mitchell et al. 1998). However, in catches from more coastal grounds, A. tobianus can be an important component of the catch (ICES 2006). Sandeels are lipid rich, and are utilized for fish oil and fish meal. Sandeel is taken by trawlers using small-meshed demersal gear in seasonal fisheries operating in the Spring and Summer (ICES Advice 2013, book 6). In the North Sea, the Sandeel fishery was one of the largest in the area: annual catches ranged from 0.54 to 1.1 million tonnes from 1982 to 2001 (ICES 2003).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Fernandes, P. & Heessen, H.


taxonomicNotes:
There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae. Gymnammodytes capensis and G. cicerelus do not significantly differ morphologically and therefore, their status is uncertain. They were described as separate species due to differences in geographic distribution of regional populations, however a systematic revision is needed (Nizinski in press).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Gymnammodytes cicerelus is found in the eastern central Atlantic from Portugal south to Angola including the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It has recently been recorded from the Azores. It is a coastal species which is found over the continental shelf to depths of 35 m over sand, shell, and fine-gravel bottoms. It is also reported from offshore habitats. This species forms schools which emerge from the substrate during the day to feed in the water column. It is likely an important prey item for other fishes, birds and mammals. In addition to this important ecosystem service, G. cicerelus is a commercially important bycatch species in the sandeel fishery. There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available, there are issues of taxonomic quality and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range and within the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea Assessment Area. Therefore, G. cicerelus is assessed as Data Deficient. However, there has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years, with a decrease in fishing mortality and a rise in spawning stock biomass of Ammodytidae.

range:
Gymnammodytes cicerelus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is known from Portugal south to Angola. In the northeastern Atlantic, G. cicerelus is found from Portugal to the Mediterranean and Black seas (Sardà et al. 2005, Yuksek et al. 2006, Nizinski in press). It has recently been recorded from the Azores, at Pico Island (Afonso et al. 2013), but it is unclear whether there is a stable population there. It has been recorded at depths ranging from very shallow waters to 35 metres (Nizinski in press).

population:
Gymnammodytes cicerelus has been described as generally abundant throughout its range (Nizinski in press). Around the rocky reefs surrounding the cape of Palos, Murcia, Spain, this species has been described as occasionally encountered (Garcia-Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 2000). In the Catalan Sea, 265.1 tons/year are landed (Sardà et al. 2005). Data on species composition within the family Ammodytidae available through the Database of Trawl Surveys (DATRAS), an international database of trawl surveys maintained by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) is highly inconsistent. Additionally, there are huge inconsistencies in reporting within countries among years, and it has been suggested that none of the records, with the exception of Hyperoplus sp. and Ammodytes sp. can be trusted (ICES 2007). There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae. Gymnammodytes capensis and G. cicerelus do not significantly differ morphologically and therefore, their status is uncertain. They were described as separate species due to differences in geographic distribution of regional populations, however a systematic revision is needed (Nizinski in prep.).

habitat:
Gymnammodytes cicerelus is a coastal species on the continental shelf over shallower sand, shell, and fine-gravel bottoms in offshore habitats. It is a schooling species that burrows head first into the sediment. Adults and juveniles feed in the water column on zooplankton during the day and burrow in the substrate at night. Gymnammodytes spp. are important prey items for other fishes, birds, and mammals  Species of the Ammodytidae family lay demersal eggs that adhere to sand grains. Their pelagic larvae have been known to dominate the ichthyoplankton during peak spawning season which occurs in the winter. (Nizinski in press). This species reaches a maximum size of 17 cm total length (TL) off the coast of West Africa (Vakily et al. 2002). The Ammodytidae are considered keystone species, which play a significant role in the marine ecosystem as prey items for a variety of predators including fishes, marine mammals, and birds. Fluctuations in sandeel abundance have been shown to have direct effects on some seabird populations (Furness and Tasker 2000).

threats:
Gymnammodytes cicerelus is a commercially important bycatch species There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available, there are issues of taxonomic quality and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range and within the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea Assessment Area.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for G. cicerelus. Although it is a commercially-important species in parts of its range, there is a paucity of information available concerning life history, population trends, and harvest levels, and the fishery is poorly characterized. It is likely that G. cicerelus receives some benefit from fisheries management efforts directed towards A. marinus, which include the establishment of conservation zones and fishing moratoria (ICES 2010a). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gymnammodytes cicerelus is a commercial species. It is utilized on a small-scale basis for bait and food in some areas, and on an industrial scale for fishmeal and fish oil (Nizinski in press). In the Mediterranean, it is taken as bycatch in beach seine and purse seine fisheries targeting small pelagics (Tsagarakis et al. 2012).

redListAssessors:
Heessen, H., Collette, B. & Fernandes, P.


taxonomicNotes:
There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae (Nizinski in press). Prior to the revision by Sabatés et al. (1990), the accepted description of G. cicerelus included two species: G. cicerelus and G. semisquamatus.

redListCategoryRationale:
Gymnammodytes semisquamatus is distributed from the southern coast of Norway and the Shetlands to Spain, including all coasts of the British Isles and the North Sea, excluding the Baltic Sea, and into the Mediterranean. Gymnammodytes semisquamatus is a coastal species which is found over the continental shelf. This species co-occurs with G. cicerelus in the Mediterranean Sea, therefore the depth range of G. semisquamatus is assumed to be to roughly 35 m. This species is found over shell-gravel substrates, and also inshore where shell-gravel beaches occur. It is likely an important prey item for other fishes, birds and mammals. In addition to this important ecosystem service, G. semisquamatus is a commercially important bycatch species in the sandeel fishery. There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available, and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range. Gymnammodytes semisquamatus is assessed as Least Concern because it is widespread within the region, and because there has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years, with a decrease in fishing mortality and a rise in spawning stock biomass of Ammodytidae in general.

range:
Gymnammodytes semisquamatus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is distributed from the southern coast of Norway and the Shetlands to Spain, including all coasts of the British Isles and the North Sea (Reay 1986). It is also known from the the Mediterranean (Sabatés et al. 1990), where it co-occurs with G. cicerelus. In the absence of species-specific depth information, the depth range for G. semisquamatus is assumed to be the same as G. cicerelus, which is a range from very shallow waters to 35 metres.

population:
Gymnammodytes semisquamatus has been reported as uncommon in Norwegian waters, and does not occur there regularly (Naevdal and Thorkildsen 2002). Data on species composition within the family Ammodytidae available through the Database of Trawl Surveys (DATRAS), an international database of trawl surveys maintained by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), are inconsistent. Additionally, there are inconsistencies in reporting within countries among years, and it has been suggested that none of the records, with the exception of Hyperoplus spp. and Ammodytes spp., can be trusted (ICES 2007). There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae (Nizinski in press).

habitat:
Gymnammodytes semisquamatus typically occurs offshore over shell-gravel substrates, and also inshore where shell-gravel beaches occur. It feeds on plankton and is a summer batch spawner (Reay 1986). Spawning occurs from April until July (Lynam et al. 2013). The maximum length is 30.0 cm total length (TL), however it is more commonly seen at lengths of 15 cm TL. The genus Gymnammodytes is confined to the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean and its adjacent waters. Regarding latitudinal distribution, they range from 60°N to 40°S, showing the widest distribution in latitude among members of the family (Ida et al. 1994). The Ammodytidae are considered keystone species, which play a significant role in the marine ecosystem as prey items for a variety of predators including fishes, marine mammals and birds. Fluctuations in sandeel abundance have been shown to have direct effects on some seabird populations (Furness and Tasker 2000).

threats:
Gymnammodytes semisquamatus is suspected to be taken as bycatch in the commercially important sandeel fishery. There are no species-specific landing statistics or reliable population data available, and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for G. semisquamatus. Although it is a commercially-important bycatch species in parts of its range, there is a paucity of information available concerning life history, population trends and harvest levels, and the fishery is poorly characterized. It is likely that G. semisquamatus receives some benefit from fisheries management efforts directed towards A. marinus which include the establishment of conservation zones and fishing moratoria (ICES 2010).

useAndTrade:
Gymnammodytes semisquamatus is taken as bycatch in the commercially-important Ammodytidae fishery (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Additionally, it is suspected that, like several congeners, G. semisquamatus forms an important component of the diet of fishes, mammals and seabirds.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: DD Hyperoplus immaculatus is found in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, known only from the British Isles and Bay of Biscay, to depths of 60 m. It does not appear to be very common, but little information is available for the population. Hyperoplus immaculatus is the least known of all Ammodytidae spp. It is caught in the Ammodytidae fishery, and it is unknown if this presents a major threat to this species. There has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years, with a decrease in fishing mortality and a rise in spawning stock biomass of Ammodytidae. Therefore, H. immaculatus is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Hyperoplus immaculatus is found on all coasts of the British Isles and English Channel to northern Biscay (Reay 1986). There is no species-specific depth information available, therefore it is inferred that the depth range occupied by H. immaculatus is similar to the congener H. lanceolatus, which is from shallow waters to 60 metres.

population:
Hyperoplus immaculatus occurred in 2% of 48 surveys undertaken in tidal estuaries, with a density of 3.7 individuals per 1000 m2 (Nicolas et al. 2010). It accounted for 0.01% of the total weight of species recorded in surveys (Parker-Humphreys 2005). Data on species composition within the family Ammodytidae available through the Database of Trawl Surveys (DATRAS), an international database of trawl surveys maintained by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) is inconsistent. Additionally, there are inconsistencies in reporting within countries among years, and it has been suggested that none of the records, with the exception of Hyperoplus sp. and Ammodytes sp. can be trusted (ICES 2007). There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae (Nizinski in press).

habitat:
Hyperoplus immaculatus can be found both inshore and offshore, although only juveniles appear to occur close inshore. It is also found in estuaries (Nicolas et al. 2010) This species feeds initially on zooplankton, but however at lengths greater than 10 to 15 cm small fishes, such as clupeids and ammodytids dominate the diet (Reay 1986). This species spawns in winter and has a more southern distribution (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It reaches a maximum size of 40 cm TL (Ida 1994). This species is prey for the grey gurnard (Weinert et al. 2010). The genus Hyperoplus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic. It is the largest species within the family Ammodytidae (Ida et al. 1994). The Ammodytidae are considered keystone species, which play a significant role in the marine ecosystem as prey items for a variety of predators including fishes, marine mammals, and birds. Fluctuations in sandeel abundance have been shown to have direct effects on some seabird populations (Furness and Tasker 2000).

threats:
Hyperoplus immaculatus is suspected to be taken as bycatch in the commercially important sandeel fishery. There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available, there are issues of taxonomic quality and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range and within the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea Assessment Area.

conservationAction:
Hyperoplus immaculatus is a suspected bycatch of the commercially important sandeel fishery There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available, there are issues of taxonomic quality and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range and within the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea Assessment Area.

useAndTrade:
Hyperoplus immaculatus is likely taken as bycatch in the commercially-important Ammodytidae fishery (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Additionally, it is suspected that, like several congeners, H. immaculatus may form an important component of the diet of fishes, mammals and seabirds.

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Heessen, H. & Fernandes, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
Hyperoplus lanceolatus is found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from western Russia to the British Isles. It is frequently found in the same sandy habitats as Ammodytid species and is found to depths of 60 m. It is likely an important prey item for other fishes, birds and mammals. In addition to this important ecosystem service, H. lanceolatus is taken as a bycatch species in the sandeel fishery. There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range. However, the taxonomy of this species appears to be relatively clear. It is worth noting that there has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years, with a decrease in fishing mortality and a rise in spawning stock biomass of Ammodytidae. Therefore, Hyperoplus lanceolatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the northeast Atlantic, Hyperloplus lanceolatus is found from Murmansk and Spitzbergen to Portugal, including Iceland and much of the Baltic. It is found to depths of 60 metres (Muus and Dahlström 1978).

population:
This species occurs regularly on the Norwegian coast, however it is found in low numbers relative to the Lesser Sandeel, Ammodytes marinus (Naevdal and Thorkildsen 2002). Data on species composition within the family Ammodytidae available through the Database of Trawl Surveys (DATRAS), an international database of trawl surveys maintained by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), are inconsistent. Additionally, there are inconsistencies in reporting within countries among years, and it has been suggested that none of the records, with the exception of Hyperoplus spp. and Ammodytes spp., can be trusted (ICES 2007). There are issues of taxonomic quality within the family Ammodytidae (Nizinski in press).

habitat:
Hyperoplus lanceolatus is an inshore species, which is also found in the intertidal zone and in estuaries, and offshore to about 60 m depth. It is associated with sandbanks (Kaiser et al. 2004), and is commonly associated with Ammodytes species. This species feeds initially on zooplankton, however at larger sizes small fishes, such as clupeids and ammodytids, dominate the diet (Reay 1986). It is a summer batch spawner which reaches a maximum size of 35 cm TL. The genus Hyperoplus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic. The largest species within the family Ammodytidae, H. immaculatus, is the largest species within the genus (Ida et al. 1994). The Ammodytidae are considered keystone species, which play a significant role in the marine ecosystem as prey items for a variety of predators including fishes, marine mammals and birds. Fluctuations in sandeel abundance have been shown to have direct effects on some seabird populations (Furness and Tasker 2000).

threats:
Hyperoplus lanceolatus is taken as bycatch in the commercially important sandeel fishery (Engelhard et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Hyperoplus lanceolatus is taken as bycatch in the commercially important sandeel fishery. There are no species-specific landing statistics available, there is little reliable population information available, and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range. Although there are taxonomic issues within the family Ammodytidae, the taxonomy of H. laceolatus appears to be relatively clear.

useAndTrade:
This species is of minor or no commercial importance (Engelhard et al. 2008). It is used mainly for fishmeal and oil, but also utilized fresh and pan-fried for human consumption (Frimodt 1995). Hyperoplus lanceolatus may be taken as bycatch in the commercially-important Ammodytidae fishery. Additionally, it is suspected that, like several congeners, Hyperoplus lanceolatus forms an important component of the diet of fishes, mammals and seabirds.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Endangered (EN) Anarhichas denticulatus is found in the North Atlantic Ocean at depths ranging from 60 to 1700 m, but usually from 100 to 900 m. In the northeast Atlantic, it is found from Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, Barents and Norwegian seas, the Shetlands, the Faroes, Iceland and south-eastern coasts of Greenland. There are a few records from the northern North Sea and Skaggerak. It is found over a variety of substrates, but prefers sand, shell hash, and coarse sand. It is a relatively sedentary species which does not form dense aggregations and undergoes limited migrations. Anarhichas denticulatus is a valuable bycatch species, and is also threatened by habitat degradation caused by trawling activity. Additionally, it is likely to be impacted by climate change. The age of first maturity, 5 years, and longevity, 14 years, were used to calculate a generation length of 9.5 years for this species. However, as the estimates were determined from a heavily exploited population in the northwestern Atlantic, we incorporated some uncertainty by calculating the population decline over 26 and 30 years. Surveys indicate the highest concentration of A. denticulatus appears to be in the Barents Sea, where the abundance of A. denticulatus is estimated to have declined by 50–73% over the 26–30 years. Although there are no long-term data from Iceland, it has been recorded from a decreasing number of stations from 1996 to 2007, presumably as a response to warming temperatures. It is inferred that the population in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean has declined by more than 50% over the past three generation lengths. Therefore, Anarchias denticulatus is assessed as Endangered under Criteria A2b.

range:
Anarhichas denticulatus is found in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northwestern Atlantic, A. denticulatus is found from 72°N off Nunavut (O’Dea and Haedrich 2001a) to Sable Island off Nova Scotia and Grand Banks in Canada (Robins and Ray 1986) soen to off Pennsylvania, USA. It is found at depths ranging from 60 to 1700 m, usually 100 to 900 m (Coad and Reist 2004). In the northeast Atlantic, it is found from Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, Barents and Norwegian seas, the Shetlands, the Faroes, Iceland and south-eastern coasts of Greenland. There are a few records from the northern North Sea and Skaggerak.

population:
Population structure There is a relatively low level of genetic differentiation among Anarhichas spp. in the North Atlantic using microsatellite markers (Fst ranged from 0.35 to 0.47) indicating relatively recent divergence in these species (McCusker et al. 2008). These fishes may represent an extreme case of low genetic diversity which may be due to historical fluctuations in population size due to perturbations or glaciation. Risks of low genetic variation include inbreeding depression and reduced adaptive potential. Genetic diversity is low in A. denticulatus relative to A. lupus (McCusker and Bentzen 2010). Using micro-satellite markers, structure was detected between the Barents Sea and other Atlantic locations for this species (McCusker and Bentzen 2011). The percentages of the global populations of Wolffishes in Eastern Canadian waters are unknown, however it is likely to be significant (Kulka et al. 2007). Population trend calculations As the age at first reproduction and longevity were calculated from exploited populations in the western Atlantic, there is some uncertainty in the estimated generation length of about 9 years. To account for this uncertainty, the decline in the population of A. denticulatus was estimated over 26–30 years. The highest concentration of A. denticulatus in the northeastern Atlantic appears to be in the Barents Sea (Bakketeig 2013), where the biomass has declined by 50–73% over the past 26–30 years, based on survey data from the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (Eriksen 2012, Bakketeig 2013). There are no long-term data currently available from Iceland, therefore, population declines from Iceland cannot be quantified. However, A. denticulatus has been recorded at a decreasing number of stations from 1996 to 2007, presumably as a response to warming temperatures. Therefore, the decline of A. denticulatus in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean is inferred to be at least 50% over the past three generation lengths. Regional population information In Iceland, A. denticulatus changed assemblages from 1996 to 2007, likely in response to warming temperatures. From 1996 to 1998 A. denticulatus was characteristic of the south shelf assemblage, while from 1999 to 2007 it was characteristic of the deep-southwest assemblage. From 1996 to 2008, it has been found at a decreasing number of sampling stations (Stefansdottir et al. 2010). Anarhichas denticulatus appears to be absent from the North Sea and Baltic Sea based on the North Sea International Bottom Trawl (IBTS) survey and Baltic Sea (BITS) survey. However, there have been occasional records in northern North Sea and Skaggerak.  Anarhichas denticulatus is the most abundant Anarhichas spp. found in the Barents Sea. It was characteristic of the deep assemblage and was found at 39% of sampling stations. Additionally it was present during each survey year (Aschan et al. 2013). Data from the 2009 and 2012 survey reports from the joint Norwegian/Russian ecosystem survey in the Barents Sea indicate that the distribution of A. denticulatus was similar to that observed in 2008, with small increasing in the west Spitsbergen area. Most concentrations were located in the central areas and along the continental slope to the west of Spitsbergen, with 70% of catches occurring in range of depths of 25 to 350 metres. The mean length was 85.5 cm, with sizes ranging from 5.7 to 131 cm. In 2012, catches were very low, so all Wolffish catches were lumped together at the genus level. The calculated mean density of wolffishes (Anarhichas) reached 2.4 thousand fish per square nautical miles, with an average of 49 fish per square nautical mile. This is lower than in 2008 to 2011. No index was calculated for this species. The mean length of this species in 2012 was 67.7 cm, with a range of 5 to 131 cm. This is a decrease in mean size, as well as a truncation in the size range of this species compared to 2009. Additionally, the size at first reproduction for this species in the Barents Sea is 80 cm and the mean size is below this. From 1979 to 1985 there was a marked decline in the abundance of Wolffish in the Barents Sea after a decade of intensive trawling by the Soviet Fleet. Global population information Anarhichas denticulatus has experienced declines in abundance which have been attributed to substantial habitat degradation by bottom trawlers, as well as the effects of bycatch (Collie et al. 2000, O'Dea and Haedrich 2000, 2001a, b). Of all Wolffish species, A. denticulatus has experienced the sharpest declines in abundance in the Western Atlantic. Estimated population declines off Newfoundland, where all Wolffish species reach their highest densities in Canadian waters, are 98% for A. denticulatus from 1974 to 1994 (O’Dea and Haedrich 2000). The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada re-assessed this species as "Threatened" in November 2012, which is the same status it was assessed as in 2001 (O'Dea and Haedrich 2001a). In Newfoundland waters the mean size (weight/individual) with CPUE (numbers/tow) declined over the years 1978 to 1993 (Haedich et al. 1997). This species underwent strong declines in both abundance and in range size during the 1980s, for the next decade, there was little change, however since about 2002 there have been small increases in both range size and abundance (O'Dea and Haedrich 2001a).

habitat:
Anarhichas denticulatus is a deepwater fish of cold northern areas. In the western Atlantic, the densest concentrations of this species occur at depths between 500 and 1000 metres at temperatures ranging from 2 to 5°C. It is found over stony bottoms during the spawning season, which occurs from fall to winter. It is found over all bottom types, but the highest concentrations are observed over sand, shell hash, and coarse sand. It is a relatively sedentary species which does not form dense aggregations, and undergoes limited migrations (Kulka et al. 2007). The mean size at first reproduction for this species in the Barents Sea is in excess of 80 cm. Fecundity is low. The best catch rates for A. denticulatus off the coast of Canada occurred at depths of 70 to 300 metres. Anarhichas denticulatus undergoes ontogenetic shifts in diet. This species they are mostly planktivorous until 30 to 39 cm, mostly benthivorous from 40 cm to 69 cm, and mostly piscivorous at lengths greater than 70 cm. The primary components of the diet are: euphausiids (7.2%), Northern Shrimp (6.6%), and fish (American Plaice 17.5%, Redfish 14%) (Simpson et al. 2013). Wolffishes (family Anarhichadidae) are demersal, sedentary fishes on the continental shelves or continental slopes, and have atypical life histories for marine species. Atlantic wolffish produce large demersal eggs which are guarded by the male until hatching (Keats et al. 1985). The larvae are relatively large for marine species and emerge with near juvenile traits. Generation Length In Canadian waters, estimates of the age of 50% maturity are 5 years, with 14 year longevity (Baker et al. 2009). Using these estimates, an approximate generation length of 9.5 years is calculated using the formula: 0.5 (Amax+Am), where Am= age at first (50%) maturity and Amax = longevity. Three generation lengths = 28.5 years. Age of maturity and longevity may not be reflective of pre-exploitation population.

threats:
Fisheries-induced threats Although wolffishes are not of major commercial importance and are rarely explicitly targeted, they are landed incidentally in a number of fisheries and have been negatively impacted by fisheries targeting other species. Habitat degradation by bottom trawlers and by-catch have been implicated in the decline of all wolffish species in the Northwest Atlantic. Anarhichas denticulatus has undergone declines of approximately 98% in the Northwest Atlantic (Collie et al. 2000; O'Dea and Haedrich 2000, 2001a, b). Climate change Fishes of genus Anarhichas are considered "temperature keepers", adjusting their depth or geographic distribution in order to inhabit preferred temperature ranges. It is likely that these species will experience range shifts as a result of warming temperatures (Kulka et al. 2004, ICES 2009).

conservationAction:
Anarhichas minor has undergone Extinction Risk Assessment in Canada, through the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), which follows similar assessment procedures as the IUCN Red List. This species was assessed as "Endangered" in 2001 and has been placed under Schedule I of the Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) in 2003. Under this act, A. minor are illegal to land and must be released from gear with minimal harm. Additionally, a recovery plan for wolffishes now exists which describes each wolffish species and its biology. The plan identifies threats, provides examples of activities which are likely to result in habitat destruction, sets objectives and approaches for species recovery, and identifies knowledge gaps. There has been more dedicated wolffish research as a result. As of 2012, Wolffish are the only marine species which have been listed under SARA for which active steps towards delisting have been undertaken (Dawe and Neis 2012).

useAndTrade:
The flesh of Wolffishes (family Anarhichadidae) is considered to be of excellent quality (McCusker et al. 2008). This species is caught on line gear, with bottom trawls, and also with trammel nets (FAO 2001-2014). In general, there are few directed fisheries for wolfishes, because they do not occur in dense concentrations. However, there is a significant targeted fishery in the Northeast Atlantic, off Greenland (Möller and Rätz 1999), as well as by Russia and Norway (Shau et al. 2009, Institute of Marine Research Annual Report 2013). It is landed in bottom trawl fisheries on Greenland Halibut (489.0 kg/trip). The discard rate for this species for this fishery is 24.3% (Ulleweit et al. 2010). It is also taken incidentally in the Icelandic Lumpfish fishery, and is retained when caught as discards are illegal in Iceland (MSC 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Anarhichas lupus is distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeast Atlantic Ocean, it is found from the Barents Sea to the British Isles, including Iceland and the North Sea. It is a relatively sedentary and long-lived species with a maximum age of at least 22 to 23 years and age at maturity of 5 to 7 years, with an estimated generation length of 15 years. This is a highly valued commercial species. It is directly targeted in some areas, but appears to be primarily landed as bycatch throughout its range. Additionally, A. lupus is also vulnerable to habitat destruction due to bottom trawling. Within the assessment zones the population of A. lupus appears to be concentrated in the Barents Sea. The only long-term survey data available suggest that biomass in the Barents Sea has been increasing over the past 35 years. Landing statistics available from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show declines in declared landings of approximately 55%. The majority of these landings are declared from Iceland, which accounts for 88% of declared landings of this species. In Iceland, fishable biomass has declined by approximately 12% from 1985 to 2010, recruitment has been declining, and further decline is foreseen in the region, possibly due to warming temperatures. This species is managed in Iceland, where concerns over increases in trawling effort led to a closure of the main Icelandic spawning grounds, in the west of Iceland, during the spawning season. Elsewhere, remaining A. lupus populations outside the region, in the Western Atlantic, have faced severe declines which have been estimated at 91%. There have recently been some small increases in both range size and abundance in the Western Atlantic, however biomass is still low. Additional population declines have been noted in the Baltic Sea, where this species was assessed as Endangered due to an estimated 70% reduction in the population inferred from landing statistics, and in the North Sea, where there have been reductions of Area of Occupancy. In addition to population declines, the mean and maximum size of A. lupus appear to be decreasing. Although this species is commercially targeted throughout its range and there is some evidence that populations are declining, long-term data are not available to quantify population declines over three generation lengths (or 45 years). Therefore, A. lupus is assessed as Data Deficient. 

range:
Anarhichas lupus is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northwestern Atlantic, it is known from Greenland south to the Grand Banks and off Maine. In the northeastern Atlantic, A. lupus is distributed from Spitsbergen southward to the White Sea, Scandinavian coasts, North Sea, the British Isles, including Iceland. It is also found in the Baltic Sea, where it has been reported in the deeper parts of the Kattegat, regularly in the Sound (Øresund) and the Belt Sea, and occasionally as far as the eastern Gotland Basin. Scattered records south to Bay of Biscay and northwestern Mediterranean (Gulf of Genoa) (Barsukov 1979) likely represent wandering individuals. It is typically found at depths ranging from 1 to 500 m (Frimodt 1995) but has been recorded to depths of 2000 m (Hareide and Garnes 2001).

population:
Population structure Wolffishes may represent an extreme case of low genetic diversity which may be due to historical fluctuations in population size due to perturbations or glaciation. Risks of low genetic variation include inbreeding depression and reduced adaptive potential (McCusker and Bentzen 2010). This species has been hybridized with A. minor in captivity (Gaudreau et al. 2006). The percentages of the global populations of wolfishes in Eastern Canadian waters are unknown, however it is likely to be significant (Kulka et al. 2007). Population trend calculations The generation length for A. lupus is approximately 15 years. The only long-term survey data available for A. lupus in the assessment zone is from Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) in the Barents Sea, but only goes back to 1979 (35 years). During this time, the estimated biomass of A. minor has increased from approximately 5,000 tonnes in 1979 to 20,000 tonnes in 2013 (Eriksen 2012, Institute of Marine Research Annual Report 2013). Landing statistics available from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show declines in declared landings of approximately 55%. The majority of these landings are declared from Iceland, which accounts for 88% of declared landings of this species. In Iceland, fishable biomass has declined by approximately 12% from 1985 to 2010 (Pampoulie et al. 2012). Fishable biomass has been decreasing since 2006, and further decline is foreseen in the region, possibly due to warming temperatures. Iceland is one of the main spawning grounds for this species, and there is concern surrounding the use of bottom trawls in this region may be causing the documented decrease in recruitment (Pampoulie et al. 2012). FAO landing statistics Landing statistics are available from the following FAO fishing regions: Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic. The overwhelming majority of landings declared to FAO originate in the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone. Landings peaked at 33400 tonnes in 1964, and declined with fluctuations to the most recent reported landings of 15044 tonnes, a decline of 55% (FAO 2011). Within the eastern Atlantic, the large majority of landings are declared from Iceland. From 1991 to 2001, landings declared from Iceland have accounted for an average of 88% of all landings originating in the Northeastern Atlantic Fishing Zone. The overall trend in landings in Iceland is one of continual increase, with fluctuations, from 1950 to 2002, to a peak of 17953 tonnes. From 2002 to 2011, landings drop to 10992 tonnes. From 1999 onwards, there has been concern that increased catch effort using bottom trawls in one of the main Atlantic Wolfish spawning locations west of Iceland (Pampoulie et al. 2012). Regional population information Within the assessment region A. lupus is the most widely distributed species within the genus (Bakketeig 2013). In Icelandic waters, landings of A. lupus were relatively stable from 1990 to 2010, hovering around 125,000 tonnes. Fishable biomass has decreased from about 40,000 in 1985 to 35,000 tonnes in 2010. Fishable biomass is close to the long-term average (based on time series from 1981), however the fishable biomass has been decreasing since 2006, and further decline is foreseen (MSC 2013). In Iceland, recruitment has been steadily decreasing since the 1997 recruitment index of about 35, to the 2010 recruitment index of 10 (Pampoulie et al. 2012). Western Iceland is a main spawning ground of A. lupus in Iceland, and fishing and habitat destruction in these areas has been implicated in stock decline. The A. lupus stock in Iceland has been constantly decreasing in numbers since 1999, which may be due to increased fishing effort using bottom trawls. Additionally, sea temperature west of Iceland may have risen above the optimum for growth of female A. lupus and thereby reduced the reproductive potential of this species (Gunnarsson 2014). Swedish commercial landings in the Kattegat have decreased continuously from more than 30 tonnes in 1999 to less than 2 tonnes in 2011. Tagging experiments revealed that A. lupus exhibits spawning-site fidelity and migration to feeding grounds of <100 miles in Icelandic waters (Jónsson 1982). In Norwegian waters in 1991, the length-age distribution of 716 fish showed that most fishes were between 50 and 70 cm (6-year old mean length was 46 cm, 10-year old was 58 cm, 15-year old was 70 cm) (Falk-Petersen and Hansen 1991). Anarhichas lupus was also rare in surveys of the Baltic Sea-the maximum number of individuals collected per haul was 2, and the mean CPUE/length/haul from 1991 to 2010 was 0.01 (Baltic International Trawl survey (BITS) data downloaded from DATRAS). There was a decreasing trend in abundance of this species in the North Sea from 1983 to 1985. In the North Sea, the mean catch rate/hour and number per hour and mean weight of A. lupus in 1983 was 1.569 kg, 0.49 individuals per hour, with a mean weight of 2.767 kg. In 1984 the mean catch rate/hour and number per hour and mean weight of A. lupus was 1.494 kg, 0.54 individuals per hour, with a mean weight of 3.207 kg. In 1985 the mean catch rate/hour and number per hour and mean weight of A. lupus was 0.784 kg, 0.20 individuals per hour, with a mean weight of 4.012 kg (Sparholt et al. 1990). An examination of the ICES ecosystem data maps shows that recent surveys report the highest densities of this species (78 to 98 individuals) in the northeastern North Sea (ICES Ecosystem Data Maps), and that this species is absent from waters outside of this area. A preliminary examination of North Sea International Bottom Trawl Survey (ITBS) data reveals that this species has occurred in low numbers in the area since at least 1966. The maximum CPUE/number/hr from 1966 to 2014 was 8, and the mean was 0.13 (IBTS North Sea data downloaded from DATRAS).  The main distribution of this species in the eastern Atlantic is the Barents Sea. It is the most widely distributed Anarhichas spp. in this region (Institute of Marine Research Annual Report 2013). Three to four-thousand tons of wolfish (common and spotted) are caught in Norwegian waters each year, either as bycatch in other fisheries or during a targeted line fishery which operates from April to August, when populations are located at feeding and mating grounds in the period preceding spawning (Falk-Petersen et al. 1999, Øiestad 1998). Data from the 2009 and 2012 survey reports from the joint Norwegian/Russian ecosystem survey indicate that the distribution of A. lupus in 2009 was more limited than that of 2008, and catches were lower. The greatest catches were to the northwest of Spitsbergen, near Bear Island, and on shallow sites in the southern part of the Barents Sea. In 2009 the CPUE of A. lupus was 0.058, 21 individuals were captured, and the mean length was 22.7 cm with a range of 3.5 to 73 cm. In 2012, catches were very low, so all wolffish catches were lumped together at the genus level. The mean length of A. lupus was 23.5 cm with a range of 2 to 118 cm in the 2012 surveys. The calculated mean density reached 2.4 thousand fish per square nautical mile, with an average of 49 fish (genus Anarhichas) per square nautical mile, which is lower than in 2008 to 2011 (Anon. 2009, Eriksen (Ed) 2012). Note that the mean lengths in both survey years are below the smallest reported lengths of first maturity, from Iceland, which is 25 cm. Lengths at first maturity range from 25 to 60 cm (see habitat/ecology). Global population information Estimated population declines off Newfoundland, where all wolffish species reach their highest densities in Canadian waters, are 91% for A. lupus from 1974 to 1994 (O’Dea and Haedrich 2000). All species of wolffish experienced similar declines in this region, however the declines seen in A. denticulatus and A. minor were more severe (Simpson et al. 2013). Declines have been attributed to substantial habitat degradation by bottom trawlers, recreational fishing and by-catch (Collie et al. 2000; O'Dea and Haedrich 2000, 2001a, b). This species was re-assessed as "special concern" by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIG) in November of 2012. There was no change in status from 2001 to 2012. Anarchichas lupus underwent steep declines in abundance and area of occupancy over much of its range from the 1980s until the mid 1990s, including its historical center of abundance in waters east and north of Newfoundland. Since then it has been increasing in abundance and area of occupancy, but it remains at low abundance. Population increases have been attributed to reductions in commercial fisheries, which take wolf fishes as bycatch. There have been continuing declines in abundance on the Scotian Shelf and in the Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, where there were historically fewer individuals than in areas to the east and to the north (O'Dea and Haedrich 2000). It is worth noting that this species can still be captured without a permit in Canada, whereas it is illegal to possess spotted or northern wolf fishes without one (McCusker et al. 2008).

habitat:
Habitat and ecology The Atlantic wolffish is a demersal species which inhabits rocky bottoms. It has also been recorded as one of the most common species associated with deep-water (600 or more metres) coral reefs (Costello et al. 2005). It can also be found foraging on sandy or muddy bottoms. It occurs normally in shallow coastal waters between 20 to 60 m in summer and it migrates to deeper waters offshore in winter. The wolf-fish has very strong jaws and it feeds on hard-shelled molluscs, crabs, lobsters, sea urchins and other echinoderms. The principal components of the diet are: brittlestars (7.6%), northern shrimp (4.9%), and sand dollars (8.8%). Fish are a relatively unimportant component of the diet. This species is mostly benthivorous throughout its life (Simpson et al. 2013). This species is mostly sedentary and does not generally undertake extensive migrations, with the exception of feeding and breeding migrations (Jónsson 1982, Nelson and Ross 1992).Life history and reproduction Anarhichas lupus is a solitary species and forms pairs for mating. Breeding occurs primarily at depths of 70 to 300 m.  The fertilization of eggs is internal (Pavlov and Mokness 1995) and eggs are deposited in a nest that the male guards until hatching for up to 8 or 9 months (Pavlov and Novikov 1993). The larvae will typically hatch at a size around 20 mm and almost exclusively stay around the nest area until juveniles become bottom dwelling (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Moksness and Pavlov 1996). In the White Sea, spawning occurs from late July until the second half of September. Eggs hatched from April to the Middle of May at depths of 15 to 40 metres. Males and females are mature at 5 to 7 years of age at about 35 cm long (Pavlov and Novikov 1993). Of the coast of Norway, A. lupus mainly spawns at 6 years of age at lengths of about 40 cm (Falk-Petersen and Hansen 1991). Age at first maturity varies. In the Northwest Atlantic it has been shown that sexual maturity occurs at smaller sizes in cooler waters. in Iceland, mature females as small as 25 cm have been reported. Maximum age is about 22 to 23 years (Falk-Petersen and Hansen 1991). The maximum length of this species in the Barents Sea is 115 cm (Pavlov and Novikov 1993).The Atlantic Wolffish differences in life-history traits between the east and west of Iceland; Fish collected in the west tend to grow faster and to mature at an earlier age, and at a smaller size, than fish collected in the cold waters of the east (Gunnarsson et al. 2006). Despite these differences there is a relative lack of genetic structure between eastern and western populations in Iceland, which has been attributed to the relatively recent isolation of populations there following the last glacial maximum (Pampoulie et al. 2012). Although occasional long-distance (100s of km) migrations have been reported for all 3 species of Wolf-fish in the Atlantic, Wolf-fishes are generally known for their sedentary behavior. Tagging experiments showed that most Atlantic Wolffish off Newfoundland were recaptured <10 km from the tagging site after 5 to 7 years (Templeman 1984). Migration  Generation length calculation In Norwegian waters, estimates of the age of 50% maturity are 6 years, with a longevity of at least 24 years (Falk-Petersen and Hansen 1991). Using these estimates, an approximate generation length of 15 years is calculated using the formula: 0.5 (Amax+Am), where Am= age at first (50%) maturity = 6 and Amax = longevity = 24. Three generation lengths = 45 years.

threats:
Fisheries-induced threats Although wolf fishes are not of major commercial importance and are rarely explicitly targeted, they are landed incidentally in a number of fisheries and have been negatively impacted by fisheries targeting other species. Habitat degradation by bottom trawlers and bycatch have been implicated in the decline of all wolffish species in the Northwest Atlantic. Anarhichas minor has undergone declines of approximately 96% in the Northwest Atlantic (Collie et al. 2000, O'Dea and Haedrich 2000, 2001a, b). In the Baltic Sea, the Atlantic wolffish is also threatened by fishery induced mortality, including effects of bycatch and accidental catches (HELCOM 2013 RedList Assessment). Climate change Fishes of genus Anarhichas are considered "temperature keepers", adjusting their depth or geographic distribution in order to inhabit preferred temperature ranges. It is likely that these species will experience range shifts as a result of warming temperatures (Kulka et al. 2004, ICES 2009).

conservationAction:
In the eastern Atlantic, A. lupus stocks are monitored in the following regions: Iceland. Specific management initiatives aimed at conserving the population of A. lupus include the closing of 1000 km2 of spawning grounds in the west of Iceland during the spawning season, from 15 September to the end of April (Pampoulie et al. 2012). Anarhichas lupus has undergone Extinction Risk Assessment in the HELCOM Region/Baltic Sea. Based on criteria A2d, it was listed as Endangered (EN). The rate of population decline was calculated from landing statistics, which have declined by an estimated 70% in the last 40 years in the region, and based on the assumption of limited immigration from adjacent areas where population declines are also severe. The prerequisite for recovery for this species is an effectively reduced fishery and the identification and protection of spawning areas (HELCOM 2013). Anarhichas lupus has undergone Extinction Risk Assessment in Canada, through the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, which follows similar assessment procedures as the IUCN Red List. This species was assessed as "special concern" in 2000 and has been placed under Schedule I of the Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) in 2003. Under this act, up to 200 lbs or 10% of a harvester's daily catch may consist of A. lupus, however A. denticulatus and A. minor are illegal to land and must be released from gear with minimal harm. Additionally, a recovery plan for wolf fishes now exists which describes each wolf fish species and its biology. The plan identifies threats, provides examples of activities which are likely to result in habitat destruction, sets objectives and approaches for species recovery, and identifies knowledge gaps. There has been more dedicated wolf fish research as a result. As of 2012, wolf fish are the only marine species which have been listed under SARA for which active steps towards delisting have been undertaken (Dawe and Neis 2012).  

useAndTrade:
Although it is rarely explicitly targeted, A. lupus is taken incidentally in fisheries targeting other species. This species is of considerable economic importance in the North Atlantic. Its flesh is considered excellent. Fresh and frozen flesh is salted, dried, and smoked. the liver is considered a delicacy. Eggs do not differ significantly from salmanoid eggs, and can be used as a caviar (Moksness et al. 1996). In the Northwest Atlantic, this species was the target of a directed fishery (Dawe and Neis 2012). This species is caught on line gear, with bottom trawls, and also with trammel nets (FAO 2001-2014). There does not appear to be a targeted fishery, however it is landed in the following fisheries: set net fisheries on cod (6.7 kg/trip) bottom trawl fisheries on saithe (34.3 kg/trip), bottom trawl fisheries on Greenland Halibut (35.7 kg/trip) and otter trawl fisheries on demersal fish (175.1 kg/trip). When landed, the average discard rate per trip for this species in the various fisheries ranges from 0.1-69.7%, with the highest rates seen in the Greenland Halibut trawl fishery (Ulleweit et al. 2010). It is also taken incidentally in the Icelandic Lumpfish fishery, and is retained when caught as discards are illegal in Iceland (MSC 2013). Wolffish eggs do not differ significantly from salmonid eggs, and are used as caviar. Wolffish skin is used to make leather (Mokness and Pavlov 1996). This species has been aquacultured.  It is landed in Norway (Shau et al. 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Anarhichas minor is distributed along both coasts of the North Atlantic. In the northeast Atlantic Ocean, A. minor is found from Spitsbergen southward to Scandinavian coasts to about Bergen and around Iceland. It is found at depths ranging from 25 to 1,056 metres. Studies suggest that this species shows a relatively high degree of genetic differentiation across its range, with populations in the Barents Sea emerging as relatively isolated. Although wolffishes are not of major commercial importance and are rarely explicitly targeted, they are landed incidentally in a number of fisheries. As a relatively long-lived and slow-growing species, A. minor is inherently vulnerable to overexploitation, as is thought to be occurring in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean. Long-term survey data from the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) in the Barents Sea suggest that biomass has declined by about 45% over the past 35 years, but biomass appears to be increasing in recent years. Population trends from elsewhere in the northeast Atlantic Ocean are not available. Although these declines reach the threshold for a threatened category, the time series does not cover the full three generation lengths required, and biomass appears to be increasing in recent years. Therefore, we suspect that into the future 10 years landings will dip slightly below the threshold for Vulnerable and A. minor is assessed as Near Threatened under Criterion A4b.

range:
Anarhichas minor is distributed along both coasts of the North Atlantic. In the Northeast Atlantic, A. minor is found from Spitsbergen southward to Scandinavian coasts to about Bergen and throughout the North Sea. It is also found in Iceland (Barsukov 1986). It can be found at depth ranges of 25 to 1,046 m, but is primarily found at depths of 200 to 750 m (Kulka 2007). In the northwestern Atlantic, this species is found from northern Baffin Bay southwards to Nova Scotia and the Gulf of Maine.

population:
Population structure Wolffishes may represent an extreme case of low genetic diversity which may be due to historical fluctuations in population size due to perturbations or glaciation. Risks of low genetic variation include inbreeding depression and reduced adaptive potential (McCusker and Bentzen 2010). This species displays significant population structure across its range, with especially large differences occurring between the Barents Sea and other areas (Imsland et al. 2008). This species has been hybridized with A. lupus in captivity (Gaudreau et al. 2006). The percentages of the global populations of wolf fishes in Eastern Canadian waters are unknown; however it is likely to be significant (Kulka et al. 2007). Population trend calculations The generation length of A. minor is approximately 15 years. The only long-term survey data available for A. minor in the assessment zone are from the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) in the Barents Sea, but only goes back to 1979 (35 years). During this time, the estimated biomass of A. minor has declined by about 45%; however, current biomass is near the long-term average for the time series, and is showing recent signs of increase (Bakketeig 2013).  Regional population information The main distribution of this species in the eastern Atlantic is the Barents Sea. Three to four thousand tons of Wolffish (common and spotted) are caught in Norwegian waters each year, either as bycatch in other fisheries or during a targeted line fishery which operates from April to August, when populations are located at feeding and mating grounds in the period preceding spawning (Falk-Petersen et al. 1999, Øiestad 1998). Data from the 2009 and 2012 survey reports from the joint Norwegian/Russian ecosystem survey in the Barents Sea indicate that the distribution of A. minor was slightly broader in 2009 than in 2008. The mean length was 62.2 cm, with sizes ranging from 11 to 115 cm. In 2012, catches were very low, so all Wolffish catches were lumped together at the genus level. The calculated mean density of Wolffishes (Anarhichas) in 2012 reached 2.4 thousand fish-per-square nautical mile, with an average of 49 fish-per-square nautical mile. This is lower than in 2008 to 2011. No index was calculated for this species. The mean length of this species in 2012 was 65.8 cm, with a range of 4 to 121 cm. In 2013 the biomass of this species was estimated in the Barents Sea and is close to 84 thousand tonnes. Data from 2004 to 2013 show fluctuations in biomass between 31 and 92 thousand tonnes, with an increasing trend evident from 2011 to 2013 (Prozorkevich and Gjøsæter 2013).  In the North Sea, the mean catch rate/hour and number per hour and mean weight of A. minor  in 1983 was 0.002 kg, 0.01 individuals per hour, with a mean weight of 0.25. This species was absent from the same survey in 1984 and 1985. It was less abundant in the North Sea than A. lupus (Sparholt et al. 1990). Recent surveys show that this species occurs in very low densities in the North Sea (one to two individuals), and that it is largely absent from the region (ICES Ecosystem Data Maps). Data from the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) of the North Sea, from 1972 to 2007 show that this species is consistently rare in the survey, and the maximum CPUE/number/hour was four, while the mean was 0.01. Anarhichas minor is not included in surveys of the Baltic Sea (Baltic International Trawl Survey). In Iceland, this species was characteristic of the widespread-shelf assemblage. It was the second most abundant species of this genus in Iceland. From 2007 to 1996 this species has been found at a decreasing number of sampling stations (Stefansdottir et al. 2010). Global population information In Greenland, where this species is commercially important, catches declined from an average of about 6,000 metric tons annually to about 3,000 tonnes in 1980 to 1985. This species was found to be relatively sedentary, with most recaptures within 20 nautical miles of the tagging sites up to 10 years after they were tagged.  This species was uniformly distributed to depths of 600 m. Biomass and abundance decreased from 1982 to 1986, coincident with a change in length distribution. In 1982 the average length was 46.4 cm. In 1986, the average length was 35.5 cm (Riget and Messtorff 1988). Estimated population declines off Newfoundland, where all wolfish species reach their highest densities in Canadian waters, are 96% for A. minor from 1974 to 1994 (O’Dea and Haedrich 2000). These population declines have been attributed to substantial habitat degradation by bottom trawlers and bycatch (Collie et al. 2000, O'Dea and Haedrich 2000, 2001a, b). This species was reassessed as Threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Its threat status has not changed since the initial assessment in 2001. Anarhichas minor has undergone strong declines from the late 1970s until the mid-1990s. Since then there has been some recovery. This is indicated by both increases in abundance in area of occupancy. These increases parallel a reduction in bottom fisheries that had a high incidental catch of this species, as well as the introduction of recovery measures, including mandatory release. This species is still at low levels compared with the beginning of the research surveys (O'dea and Haedrich 2001b).

habitat:
Habitat and ecology Anarhichas minor is a primarily benthic species which can be found over a variety of substrates, including stony bottoms. It is found over all bottom types, however the highest concentrations have been observed over sand and shell hash, as well as coarse sand. This species feeds on invertebrates (77% of the diet) and fish (23% of the diet, mostly large individuals). This species preys primarily on northern shrimp (27.2%) and brittlestars (14.4%). Anarhichas minor are mostly planktivorous only until 9 cm, and mostly benthivorous thereafter. Shrimp began to dominate the diet of A. minor at lengths ranging from 20 to 29 cm, while echinoderms became important at 40 to 49 cm (Simpson et al. 2013). In the Northwest Atlantic the size of maturity for this species is 75 to 80 cm. Fecundity is low, and fertilization occurs internally. The spawning time occurs during or after July to August. This species undergoes limited migrations. It occurs at temperatures ranging from 1 to 7°C in the Northeast Atlantic, but is more common at temperatures of 1 to 2°C. It can be found at depth ranges of 56 to 1046 m, but is primarily found at depths of 200 to 750 m. In the Northeast Atlantic this species is found to depths of 600 m, but the best catch rates are at depths of 200 to 530 m (Kulka 2007). This species reaches a maximum length of 180 cm, but is more commonly seen to 120 cm (Barzukov 1986). Although occasional long-distance (100s of km) migrations have been reported for all three species of wolffish in the Atlantic, these fishes are generally known for their sedentary behavior. Tagging experiments off West Greenland showed that most spotted wolffish were recaptured <30 km from the tagging site (Riget and Messtorff 1988).  Life history and reproduction In Iceland this species has been determined to spawn from July to August. It is a determinate spawner and spawns all the eggs in a single batch. Eggs are demersal, 5 to 7 mm in diameter. The incubation period of the eggs is 800 to 1000 degree days, depending on the incubation temperature. The length and age at 50% maturity was 82.7 mm and 9.1 years, which is similar to the Barents Sea. The oldest individuals sampled in this study, from both commercial fisheries and from scientific surveys, (n=477) was 12 years old, and the average age was 7.1 years old (Gunnarsson et al. 2008). Estimated longevity for this species is 21 years, with a fecundity of 19,000 eggs (Gusey and Shevelev 1997, O'Dea and Haedrich 2001). Generation length calculation In Icelandic waters, estimates of the age of 50% maturity are nine years, with a longevity of at least 21 years (Falk-Petersen and Hansen 1991). Using these estimates, an approximate generation length of 15 years is calculated using the formula: 0.5 (Amax+Am), where Am= age at first (50%) maturity = 9 and Amax = longevity = 21. Three generation lengths = 45 years.

threats:
Fisheries-induced threats Although wolffishes are not of major commercial importance and are rarely explicitly targeted, they are landed incidentally in a number of fisheries and have been negatively impacted by fisheries targeting other species. Habitat degradation by bottom trawlers and bycatch have been implicated in the decline of all Wolffish species in the Northwest Atlantic. Anarhichas minor has undergone declines of approximately 96% in the Northwest Atlantic (Collie et al. 2000, O'Dea and Haedrich 2000, 2001a, b). Climate change Fishes of genus Anarhichas are considered "temperature keepers", adjusting their depth or geographic distribution in order to inhabit preferred temperature ranges. It is likely that these species will experience range shifts as a result of warming temperatures (Kulka et al. 2004, ICES 2009).

conservationAction:
Anarhichas minor has undergone Extinction Risk Assessment in Canada, through the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), which follows similar assessment procedures as the IUCN Red List. This species was assessed as "Endangered" in 2001 and has been placed under Schedule I of the Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) in 2003. Under this act, A. minor are illegal to land and must be released from gear with minimal harm. Additionally, a recovery plan for wolf fishes now exists which describes each wolf fish species and its biology. The plan identifies threats, provides examples of activities which are likely to result in habitat destruction, sets objectives and approaches for species recovery, and identifies knowledge gaps. There has been more dedicated wolf fish research as a result. As of 2012, wolffish are the only marine species which have been listed under SARA for which active steps towards delisting have been undertaken (Dawe and Neis 2012). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for A. minor in the assessment zone. There is a need for more research concerning population and harvest trends.

useAndTrade:
The flesh of Wolffishes (family Anarhichadidae) is considered to be of excellent quality (McCusker et al. 2008). This species is caught on line gear, with bottom trawls, and also with trammel nets. There is no targeted commercial fishery for this species, however it is landed in bottom trawl fisheries on Greenland Halibut (278.4 kg/trip). The discard rate for this species for this fishery is 3.9% (Ulleweit et al. 2010). It is also taken incidentally in the Icelandic Lumpfish fishery, and is retained when caught as discards are illegal in Iceland (MSC 2013). It is landed in Norway (Shau et al. 2009). Due to the patterning of its skin, the spotted wolfish is used for making fish leather. There is increased interest in the aquaculture of this species (Sommer et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LCApogon imberbis has a vast range throughout the Mediterranean along the west coast of Africa, southward to Angola and includes many of the Atlantic Islands off the coast of Africa. This species is not reliant on any endangered habitats, and is known to take to artificial reefs, as well as any rocky structure. It is considered one of the most common species through most of its range and very abundant. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, Apogon imberbis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Apogon imberbis is found from Portugal to the Gulf of Guinea, including the Mediterranean (Tortonese 1986). It is also known from the Macaronesian Islands, including Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014) and southward to the Gulf of Guinea. There are also reports from the Cape Verde and Canary Islands. This species is not present in the Black Sea. It is known from 2 m to more than 200 m of depth (Tortonese 1986).

population:
The species is abundant in the Mediterranean. It inhabits artificial reefs and other hard structures. Overall the species is considered very common and abundant in the Mediterranean, however, this species may not be as abundant in the eastern Atlantic (O. Gon, pers. comm.).

habitat:
Apogon imberbis often settles on rocky reefs as well as artificial structured reefs. In a study in southern Italy the species was found to prefer to inhabit rocky cliffs and caves (Bussotti and Guidetti 2009). They are most commonly found from 2 to 20 m depth, but have been found to 200 m (Tortonese 1986). They feed on small fishes and invertebrates, as well as plankton. They are mouthbrooders, and the maximum known size is 15 cm standard length (Tortonese 1986). It is also known to school in large numbers (Tortonese 1986). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 11.5 cm TL and the length at maturity is 5.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
No major threats are known for Apogon imberbis.

conservationAction:
The distribution of Apogon imberbis overlaps many marine protected areas throughout its range. Apogon imberbis was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
The species is sometimes used as bait for hook and line fishing. It is also caught in parts of its range for human consumption.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Aidablennius sphynx is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea and is found in eastern Atlantic Ocean and in warmer parts of the Black Sea. As it can live on artificial hard structures, large areas of habitats are available. This species might be impacted locally by pollution; however, it is common and widespread. It is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Aidablennius sphynx is primarily a Mediterranean species, extending slightly into the eastern Atlantic. In the east Atlantic, this species is present along the Moroccan coast, and it is also present throughout much of the Black Sea (Fischer et al. 2007). The species resides between 0 and 3 m, though it appears to be most common below 1.5 m (Zander 1986, Nieder 2000).

population:
Aidablennius sphynx is common throughout parts of its range (J. Williams pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Aidablennius sphynx lives in very shallow waters, typically 0 to 3 m though mostly in 0 to 2 m (Zander 1986, Nieder 2000). It is typically found in rocky areas exposed to sunlight and surf on horizontal, algae-covered terraces, though it is able to live on artificial hard structures in shallow waters. Aidablennius sphynx feeds on benthic invertebrates and algae (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with demersal, adhesive eggs and distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). Males guard eggs in burrows (Zander 1986). It gets to about 8 cm (Zander 1986).

threats:
Threats to A. sphynx include habitat degradation due to pollution, but is likely to be localized.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, it may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its range. Aidablennius sphynx was listed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Aidablennius sphynx can be found in public aquaria, but is not utilized commercially.

redListAssessors:
Williams, J.T., Kovacic, M. & Herler, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Blennius ocellaris is widespread from the English Channel to Morocco, including the Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea. Though little is known about the population status or trends of this species, it is considered common throughout parts of its range. There are no major threats to the species. Therefore, Blennius ocellaris is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Blennius ocellaris is found from Morocco to the English Channel, including the west and north-east Mediterranean Sea and the western Black Sea (Zander 1986). It is typically found from 10 to 100 m in the Atlantic and from 30 to 100 m in the Mediterranean (Zander 1986).

population:
Collections for this species are common in museums with typically less than ten specimens per collection. It was collected in about 37% of experimental trawls conducted in the Aegean Sea, but was not abundant (Damalas et al. 2010).

habitat:
This species lives on muddy bottoms. It was found in a Halophila stipulacea bed in a coastal zone of Sicily (Di Martino et al. 2007). This species is mainly nocturnal and feeds on small invertebrates. It spawns in April (Marseille) or July (England); eggs are laid under mussel-shells or stones and guarded by the male (Zander 1986).

threats:
There are no known major threats. Blennius ocellaris is often caught by trawlers, but is discarded. It may be impacted locally by dredging in parts of the Mediterranean.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, it may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its range. Blennius ocellaris was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Found in public aquaria, but not utilized commercially.


taxonomicNotes:
Further taxonomic study is required to determine the status of the eastern Atlantic populations (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Coryphoblennius galertia is widespread from Ireland to Morocco and the Canary Islands, as well as throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It lives in shallow, rocky areas and is considered a common species. This species may be locally impacted by pollution; however, this is not considered a major threat at this time. Therefore, C. galerita is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Coryphoblennius galerita ranges from the southwestern coast of England and southern Ireland to Morocco, including the Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores, Madeira and Canaries), the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Zander 1986; Quéro et al. 1990; Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985). It is also present in throughout the Mediterranean Sea (except north of Libya and Egypt), the Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea (Dooley et al. 1985). It was recently recorded from the central Turkey coast of the Black Sea (Bat et al. 2006), and its occurrence the eastern Black Sea is uncertain but is possible. Coryphoblennius galerita is found primarily in the intertidal or surf zone (Zander 1986), typically to about 0.5 m (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007).

population:
This is a common species (Dooley et al. 1985).

habitat:
This species lives in shallow waters with rocky shores (Bath 1990). It also may remain out of the water under rocks and seaweeds (Martin and Bridges 1999), where it can breathe air. This species is at least sometimes found in vacant barnacle tests (M. Craig pers.comm. 2011). Juveniles of this species are found in small tide pools (Nieder 1993). The territories are protected by males and include depressions, crevices or piddock holes (Zander 1986). There is distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). During mating, the male fans the nest as if it was cleaning and ventilating the area. Males release sperm during periodic quivers to fertilize eggs in the nest much like other blennies (Gibran et al. 2004). Males guard the egg-masses of various females (Zander 1986).

threats:
It is a shallow water species and therefore could be impacted by pollution. However, there is no current evidence that this constitutes a major threat.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, it may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its range. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). The eastern Atlantic populations may differ from those in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Domingues et al. 2007), and further research is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Hypleurochilus bananensis is widely, but patchily, distributed from the southern Iberian peninsula to the Congo River. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, there are only scattered records from the southern Iberian peninsula and the Mediterranean, though H. bananensis is likely to be under-reported. It may be an introduced species to the Mediterranean, as most of the records from the Mediterranean are from around harbors. There are no known, widespread threats for this species. Therefore, H. bananensis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Hypleurochilus bananensis is known from the eastern Atlantic (southern Atlantic coast of Spain) and from off Western Sahara south along the west coast of Africa to the Congo River (Almada et al. 2001). In the Mediterranean Sea, H. bananensis is known from scattered records: the north coast of Algeria, Lebanon, Tunisia, and it has recently been reported from the Ionian Sea (Langeneck 2013). Although the range of this species is large, its distribution is extremely patchy, especially within the Mediterranean. Hypleurochilus bananensis is known from 5 to 10 m depth (Langeneck 2013).

population:
There is no population information available for this species, but it is thought to be rare (Langeneck 2013).

habitat:
A near-shore species, strongly associated with hard substrate. This species is found in rocky areas of the intertidal zone, where it shelters in crevices and under rocks (Nieto and Alberto 1990) and in shallow waters near harbours (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous. The maximum recorded size is about 10.5 cm (Bath 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas. It was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011), due to the small number of specimens collected there. However, globally it was listed as Least Concern in 2009.  Basic research on the population status, distribution, and trends, and ecology of H. bananensis is required, especially in the Mediterranean.

useAndTrade:
Hypleurochilus bananensis is not utilized commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Lipophrys pholis is found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the western Mediterranean Sea. It is a widespread species that is locally abundant. There are no well-documented major threats across its entire range, and the population seems to be stable. Therefore, L. pholis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lipophrys pholis is found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Norway to Morocco, including Macaronesia (Almada et al. 2001). It is also found in the western Mediterranean to the Balearic Islands (Zander 1986). Lipophrys pholis has been recorded from 0 to 8 m (Zander 1986).

population:
Lipophrys pholis is a common and locally abundant species in tide pools along the northeastern Atlantic coast (Nieder 1993, Faria and Almada 1999, Lima et al. 2008).

habitat:
Lipophrys pholis is a resident intertidal species with homing behavior (Gibson 1999) found in shallow waters of rocky coasts. It may remain out of water under rocks or seaweeds (Martin and Bridges 1999), and is mostly active at daytime during high tide. This species feeds on small benthic invertebrates, especially gastropods, barnacles, amphipods, and algae. It breathes air when out of water (Martin and Bridges 1999). Spawning takes place in April - August (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Male guards eggs from several females (Zander 1986).

threats:
Lipophrys pholis is a shallow water species and therefore could be impacted by coastal development and pollution. It is particularly sensitive to organic pollution (Lima et al. 2008) and is likely to be impacted locally. However, there is no current evidence that this constitutes a major threat for this species across its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species, but it is widespread and likely occurs in protected areas.

useAndTrade:
This species can thrive in marine aquariums.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Paralipophrys triloides is widespread and common in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and in most of the Mediterranean Sea. The population appears stable and it has no widespread threats. Therefore, P. trigloides is considered Least Concern.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, L. trigloides is present along the coasts of France (from the Bay of Biscay), the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco, southwards to Senegal, including the Canary Islands. It is known from the coast of Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (although not known from Egypt and Libya), including the Levant Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Balearic Islands (Fischer et al. 2007). It is typically found in the surf zone, from about 0 to 1 m (Zander 1986).

population:
Paralipophrys trigloides is a common species with a stable population.

habitat:
Paralipophrys trigloides is a shallow water species, inhabiting rocky shores (Bath 1990). It may remain out of water under rocks and seaweeds where it can breathe air (Martin and Bridges 1999). This species is very inactive except during spawning. It feeds on mussels, other benthic invertebrates and algae (Zander 1986). This is the only known nocturnally active combtooth blenny (Nieder and Zander 1993). The maximum known size is about 13 cm (Zander 1986).

conservationAction:
No species specific conservation measures are in place or required for the species, and it occurs in marine protected areas. It was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Paralipophrys trigloides is not utilized.

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Bariche, M., Massuti, E., Craig, M.T., Williams, J.T., Bizsel, K. & Bilecenoglu, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Microlipophrys adriaticus is restricted to the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Limited population information is available for M. adriaticus. The known range of M. adriaticus has increased since it was last evaluated as Data Deficient. Although it is likely impacted locally by pollution and habitat degradation, this does not impact its entire range. Therefore, M. adriaticus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microlipophrys adriaticus is known from the Mediterranean and Black Sea (Almada et al. 2001). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas (Zander 1986, Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007), and has also been observed in the Gulf of Genoa (Molinari 2005) and in Turkey (Keskin 2010). Microlipophrys adriaticus is mainly found at 0.1 to 1.0 m (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007).

population:
This species is probably widespread in the Mediterranean Sea but there is no known population information. It was infrequently recorded (as Lipophrys adriaticus) during a survey of the Gulf of Trieste (Orlando-Bonaco and Lipej 2007).

habitat:
Microlipophrys adriaticus lives in shallow rocky areas and occurs on filamentous algae-covered rocks in brackish water, in crevices, in mollusc and crustacean shells, and in holes. It is found from 0.1-1.0 m depth (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Several females spawn at hole guarded by a resident male (Zander 1986). The maximum recorded size is 5.2 cm (Zander 1986).

threats:
Microlipophrys adriaticus is likely to be impacted locally by pollution and habitat degradation, but not threatened across its range.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range. Microlipophrys adriaticus was listed as Data Deficient globally (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in Turkey, and as Endangered in Georgia.

useAndTrade:
Microlipophrys adriaticus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Microlipophrys canevae is restricted to the northeast Atlantic and most of the Mediterranean Sea. It is locally abundant throughout its range. Although M. canevae is likely to be impacted locally by pollution, this not considered a major threat. Therefore, M. canevae is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microlipophrys canevae is known from the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. In the northeast Atlantic, it is present off the coast of Portugal (Oliveira et al. 1992, Carneiro et al. 2014). Microlipophrys canevae is found throughout the Mediterranean basin, except for central and eastern African coasts, although known from eastern Libya and northwestern Egypt (Zander 1986). It is also present in Israel, Lebanon and Gaza (Goren and Galil 2001, Golani 2005), and off the Balearic Islands (Fischer et al. 2007). It is typically found at depths of 0.5 to 2.0 m (Zander 1986).

population:
Microlipophrys canevae is locally common throughout its range. This species was recorded as the second most abundant species of blenny at one sampling site along the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy (Nieder et al. 2000).

habitat:
Microlipophrys canevae lives on exposed steep rocky walls in holes made by molluscs and in crevices. It feeds on small invertebrates (especially crustaceans). It may also feed predominantly on algae (Zander 1986). Males guard the eggs in the hole spawned by several females (Zander 1986). The maximum recorded size is 7.5 cm (Zander 1986).

threats:
This species is not thought to face major threats across its range but may be locally threatened by pollution.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, this species is found in marine protected areas within its distribution range. It was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Microlipophrys canevae is not utilized commercially.

redListContributors:
Bilecenoğlu, M., Di Natale, A., Barriche, M., Bizsel, K., Masuti, E. & Craig, M.T.


redListCategoryRationale:
Microlipophrys dalmatinus is a very shallow-water species and is known primarily from the Mediterranean Sea, with a single record from southwest Portugal. The wide distribution of M. dalmatinus is fragmented, but this is likely a sampling artifact. Although there are no data on the population size or status of M. dalmatinus, there are no known major threats to this species. Therefore, M. dalmatinus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microlipophrys dalmatinus is known from throughout the Mediterranean Sea, except for the southeast (Golani et al. 2006), and off Portugal (Zander 1986, Carneiro et al. 2014). It is widespread in Slovenian waters, in the northern Adriatic Sea (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007), and has recently been recorded from Malta (Bilecenoglu et al. 2013). The fragmented distribution of M. dalmatinus may be a sampling artifact, as it is not a commercial species and it is difficult to study. It is typically found at depths of less than 1.5 m (Zander 1986) but has been collected to 4.4 m depth (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007).

population:
Microlipophrys dalmatinus is probably widespread in the Mediterranean Sea but there is no known population information. It is common throughout parts of its range (Bilecenoglu et al. 2013).

habitat:
Microlipophrys dalmatinus lives in shallow rocky areas, on filamentous algae-covered rocks in brackish water, in crevices, in mollusc and crustacean shells, and in holes. It appears to be relatively indiscriminate in its microhabitat utilization (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007). It is found to 4.4 m depth (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007). This species is predominantly active during sunlight, otherwise it can be found in piddock holes or barnacle shells (Zander 1986). It feeds on benthic meiofauna, especially harpacticoids, and also on algae (Zander 1986). The maximum recorded size of M. dalmatinus is 4.1 cm (Zander 1986).

threats:
No major threats are known throughout its range.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, this species is found in marine protected areas within its distribution range. Microlipophrys dalmatinus was previously listed as Data Deficient, both globally and in the Mediterranean, as the extent of occurrence and population status were not known (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Bariche, M., Massuti, E., Bizsel, K. & Bilecenoglu, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Microlipophrys nigriceps is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is widespread. It is found in almost all coastal areas where there is suitable habitat, though not in high densities. Although there are no data on the population status or trends, it is widespread and there are no major threats. Therefore, M. nigriceps is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microlipophrys nigriceps is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Golani 2005, Golani et al. 2006), where it is found in most coastal areas, including Syrian waters (Saad 2005), except for the extreme west, and apparently absent from parts of the north African coast (not known from Tunisia, Libya and Egypt). Southern records are based on a described subspecies (L. m. portmahonis Castanos, 1933; Zander 1986), but only present in suitable (rocky) habitat. Microlipophrys nigriceps is found to no deeper than six metres (Zander 1986).

population:
Frequently found in surveys in suitable habitat, but not in high densities.

habitat:
Microlipophrys nigriceps is a cryptic benthic species that occurs in rocky caves and crevices in shaded areas, and also in coralligenous habitats. It is not found in areas with sandy substrates. It is a tourist attraction in some areas. This fish is active during daytime. It mainly feeds on small sessile invertebrates and algae, and to a lesser extent on harpacticoids (Zander 1986).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, this species is found in marine protected areas within its distribution range. Microlipophrys nigriceps was assessed globally and in the Mediterranean as Least Concern (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
Western Atlantic subpopulations are now recognized as a separate species (Ophioblennius macclurei).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Ophioblennius atlanticus is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, but is only known from Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Although no population data are available, O. atlanticus is common and likely locally abundant. There are no known major threats to O. atlanticus, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Therefore, O. atlanticus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ophioblennius atlanticus is found in the eastern Atlantic from Senegal to Angola, including the offshore islands. In the northeastern Atlantic, O. atlanticus is restricted to the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985), Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). It is typically found to 12 m depth (Dooley et al. 1985).

population:
Ophioblennius atlanticus is likely to be locally abundant (J. Williams pers.comm. 2014) and can be considered stable.

habitat:
Ophioblennius atlanticus is likely to share habitat and ecology characteristics with its western Atlantic sister species O. macclurei (J. Williams and M. Craig pers. comm. 2011) for which the following is known: "This species is common in shallow water reef habitats, in particular the forereefs, the rubble/algae zones and the offshore rocky areas (Labelle and Nursall 1992). Larvae are frequently taken in deep water column (Bath 1990). The adults are restricted to shallow waters and dwell among rocks and coral reefs where there is considerable wave action (Smith 1997). Feeds on algae (Randall 1996)."

threats:
It is a shallow water species and therefore could be impacted by coastal development and pollution.  However, there is no current evidence that this constitutes a major threat for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required, and it occurs in protected areas. Further taxonomic study is required.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Parablennius gattorugine is a widely distributed species found from Ireland to Morocco, including the Mediterranean Sea and Canary Islands. It is common, and there are no known major threats towards it at this time. Therefore, P. gattorugine is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the northeast Atlantic, Parablennius gattorugine is present from Ireland to Morocco (Zander 1986). It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, including the Balearic Islands (Fischer et al. 2007) and the Sea of Marmara (Wheeler 1992), though it is absent from large parts of the north African coast due to the absence of suitable habitat. Parablennius gattorugine is also reported from the Canary Islands (Almada et al. 2001). Some past papers reported this species present in the Azores and Madeira, however it has been concluded that the occurrences were misidentifications of Parablennius ruber (Oliveira et al. 1992). It can found to 32 m (Zander 1986).

population:
Parablennius gattorugine is locally common in suitable habitat throughout its range. The average fish density was 0.18 and 0.08 fish per 100 m2 in sampling areas in the Gulf of Trieste, Northern Adriatic Sea (Lipej et al. 2003).

habitat:
Parablennius gattorugine is found on rocky reefs and nearby areas. It spawns from March to May, and the spawning males will reside in holes where several females spawn. Males guards the eggs from several females, until larvae are about one month old (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It can be found to 32 m depth (Zander 1986), but is most common at depths of 5-6 m (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Parablennius gattorugine was assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean, in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011), but is considered Vulnerable in Turkey.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Parablennius incognitus is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Iberian peninsula to Morocco, including Macaronesia and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It is locally common, though no specific population information is available. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. incognitus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius incognitus is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the Iberian Peninsula to Morocco, including the Mediterranean, the Sea of Marmara, and the northern and eastern Black Sea (Zander 1986, Bogorodsky 2006). It is apparently absent from large areas of north African coast, but has been recorded from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014), the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985, Zander 1986), and Victoria, Cameroon (Bath 1990). It has been found at depths of 0 to 2 m (Bath 1990).

population:
Parablennius incognitus is locally common, but there is no specific population information.

habitat:
Parablennius incognitus is found on rocky shores of shallow coastal waters (Bath 1990) and feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, and also feeds on algae (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). It appears to be relatively non-selective in terms of microhabitat utilization (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species but it is widespread and it occurs in many protected areas. Parablennius incognitus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Parablennius incognitus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Parablennius parvicornis is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic from the Macaronesian Islands, and along the coast of Africa from Morocco to the Congo River. In the northeastern Atlantic, P. parvicornis is known only from the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, where it is very common and locally abundant. Whilst possibly impacted, locally, by pollution, this is not considered a major threat at this time. Therefore, P. parvicornis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius parvicornis has been recorded from Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde), and from the west African coast from Morocco to the Congo River (Almada et al. 2005). It is typically found in the shallow littoral zone, preferably at 0.5-1.0 m (Zander 1986).

population:
Parablennius parvicornis has been described as one of the most abundant fish species in the intertidal zone of Gran Canaria (Brito 1991). It was described as numerically dominant in 41% of all the surveyed pools (Cody 1993).

habitat:
Parablennius parvicornis is found in areas of volcanic rock (R. Fricke pers. comm.) in tidepools to a depth of 2 m. It is a demersal species that feeds exclusively on algae and is found in areas exposed to sunlight. Breeding takes place in male-constructed pebble nests and after eggs are laid, males continue to guard the nest and provide care for the eggs (Santos and Nash 1996).

threats:
Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it is likely that in certain areas of its distribution it is undergoing localised declines due to coastal pollution and development; however, at present there is no indication that these pose a significant threat to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Parablennius parvicornis. This species may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the potential threats to this species should be carried out. Parablennius parvicornis was assessed as Least Concern globally in 2009.

useAndTrade:
Parablennius parvicornis is of value to the aquarium trade as a reef cleaner (Calado 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Parablennius pilicornis is widely distributed in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is present from Spain and Portugal to the western Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. It appears as though P. pilicornis may be expanding its range in the Mediterranean. There are no known major threats at this time. Therefore, P. pilicornis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius pilicornis is widely distributed on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and the western Indian Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, the species is found from Spain to South Africa (Zander 1986), including the western part of Mediterranean Sea (Morocco, Algeria, Spain, Tunisia and in the Ligurian Sea (Balma et al. 1989) and the western Adriatic (Pastor and Francour (2010)). This species is also found in France: Port-Cros (Dufour et al. 2007), Saint-Raphael and Monaco (Francour and Seytre 2006, Francour 2007). There are also records now in Italy (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2007), including Apulia, in the marine protected areas of Porto Cesareo (Ionian Sea), Tremiti Islands and Torre Guaceto (Southern Adriatic Sea) (Guidetti pers. comm. 2007). It is typically found from 0.3 to 6 m (Zander 1986), but has been recorded to 25 m.

population:
The range of this species may be expanding in the eastern Atlantic and in the Mediterranean (Pastor and Francour 2010). Where present it is very common, but there is no specific population information for this species.

habitat:
Parablennius pilicornis occurs in rocky shores, often at steep walls of surf-exposed sites (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).  In Monaco, this species is very abundant between 2 and 10 m depth and recorded up to 25 m depth. All the records in Port-Cros and Saint-Raphael are from shallow waters (5-10 m) (Francour and Seytre 2006, Francour 2007).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. The species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). It occurs in marine protected areas.

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Bizsel, K., Massuti, E. & Bariche, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Parablennius rouxi is present throughout the northern and eastern Mediterranean Sea and along the southern coast of Portugal. It is a common species, although specific population data are not available. There are no major threats and the population is thought to be stable. Therefore, P. rouxi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius rouxi is known from the northern Mediterranean coast, and from Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine coastal waters (Golani et al. 2006, M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). There are also records of P. rouxi from the eastern Atlantic along the south coast of Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). Parablennius rouxi can be found from zero to 42 m depth (Zander 1986).

population:
This is a common species, but there is no specific population information available. The abundance below 10 m depth ranged from 0.5-1 individuals per m2 (Zander 1996).

habitat:
Parablennius rouxi occurs in the littoral zone to 42 m (Zander 1986), over light rocks or pebbles without algal cover and on secondary hard bottoms of coralligenous origin. This species is relatively indiscriminate in its choice of microhabitats (Orlando-Bonaca and Lipej 2007). Parablennius rouxi feeds on periphyton, harpacticoids and algae. Males inhabit narrow piddock holes, they court by nodding, jumping out of hole and back again, and swimming in a vertical position. Rivals are threatened by yawning, lateral display and circling, and are attacked by ramming and biting. It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Reproduction takes place from May to July. Attracted females spawn in resident hole of a male which guards eggs from several families (Zander 1986).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It occurs in marine protected areas. Parablennius rouxi was assessed as Least Concern globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
Based on molecular data, Parablennius ruber is a sister species of Parablennius gattorugine, with which it forms a very differentiated clade within the genus Parablennius (Almada et al. 2005). Its validity as a separate species has been confirmed by Almeida (1982) and Bath (1982).

redListCategoryRationale:
Parablennius ruber is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is locally abundant and widespread. There are no known major threats towards this species at this time. Therefore, P. ruber is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius ruber is found in the eastern Atlantic. It was thought to be restricted to Portuguese waters (mainland Portugal, Azores, and Madeira). However, P. ruber has been recorded from western Britain and Ireland (Goodwin and Picton 2007) and is therefore likely distributed more widely along western Europe (Almada et al. 2007). It is found from two to 30 m, but preferably at five metres (Zander 1986, Harmelin-Vivien et al. 2001). As this species has previously been confused with Parablennius gattorugine, a revision of the distribution of Parablennius ruber is needed.

population:
Parablennius ruber is commonly observed in rocky shores of the Azores, most frequently to 10 m depth, but down to 30 m. The number of individuals observed per census (350 to 450 m2) was 2.56 (0 to 10 m), 1.00 (11 to 17 m), and 0.87 (18 to 25 m) (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 2001).

habitat:
Parablennius ruber inhabits rocky shores and is found solitary or in groups of five to 15 (Zander 1986). The size of first sexual maturation is estimated to be equal or greater than six centimetres for females and the maximum reported size is 14.1 cm total length (Azevedo and Homem 2002, Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). The diet of P. ruber is dominated by red algae, sponges and amphipods, though it may also consume gastropods and isopods (Azevedo and Homem 2002).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for the species and it occurs in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Parablennius sanguinolentus is widespread and common in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, and in the western Black Sea. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. sanguinolentus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius sanguinolentus is widespread and common in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. In the east Atlantic, P. sanguinolentus is present from the Loire, France to Morocco. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean in appropriate habitat, and known to occur in the western part of the Black Sea (Zander 1996). It is typically found at depths of 0.5 to 1.0 m (Zander 1996), but can be found to 5 m.

population:
This is a common species, although there is no known specific population information about this species.

habitat:
Parablennius sanguinolentus inhabits coastal areas with pebbles and on photophilic algae-covered rocks at depths of 0.5 to 1 m (Zander 1996). It feeds almost exclusively on algae and spawns from May to July (Zander 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place or required for this species. Parablennius sanguinolentus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Parablennius tentacularis is widespread and common in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea and the western Black Sea. The population of P. tentacularis is considered to be stable, and it can be locally abundant. There are no known major threats to P. tentacularis at this time. Therefore, P. tentatcularis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius tentacularis is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal south to Guinea. In the northeastern Atlantic, P. tentacularis is found along the coasts of Portugal, Spain, and Morocco, including the Canary Islands. It is also present in all parts of the Mediterranean Sea except parts of the north African coast, the Sea of Marmara, and the western Black Sea (Zander 1986). The species is also found in the Balearic Islands - Ibiza (Fischer et al. 2007). It is typically found to 15 m depth (Zander 1986).

population:
Populations are considered to be stable and locally abundant.

habitat:
Parablennius tentacularis occurs over rocky substrata with boulders and light vegetation. It hides in crevices (Zander 1986). Males are territorial, make nests in empty bivalve shells and provide solitary parental care for the eggs (Giacomello and Rasotto 2005). It is typically found at 3 to 15 m (Zander 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place or required, and it occurs in marine protected areas. The species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Parablennius tentacularis is not utilized commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
Parablennius zvonimiri is a shallow-water species, endemic to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, where it is locally abundant. The population is considered stable. Although P. zvonimiri may be subject to localized impacts from coastal developments or pollution, there are no known major threats at this time. Therefore, P. zvonimiri is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Parablennius zvonimiri is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (Golani et al. 2006). It is distributed throughout the northwest and eastern Mediterranean Sea, and known from the western and some northern parts of the Black Sea (though it has not been recorded from most of the Turkish Black Sea coast). It is found also in the Balearic Islands (Fischer et al. 2007). Parablennius zvonimiri is known to 12 m depth (Kovačić et al. 2007).

population:
There is no specific population information available for Parablennius zvonimiri. The population is considered to be stable and it has been found at deeper depths than previously recorded.

habitat:
Parablennius zvonimiri inhabits rocky shores and dimly lit biotopes such as overhanging rocks or caves. It is common in rocky reefs along the Israeli coast. Parablennius zvonimiri is found in shallow water, primarily zero to two metres, among algae (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007, Goren and Galil 2001); recently it has been recorded to 12 m depth (Kovačić et al. 2007). Parablennius zvonimiri grazes on periphyton (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen, 1966). The female deposits eggs inside an empty mussel and the male tends the clutch (Schönfelder 2002).

threats:
Parablennius zvonimiri may be locally impacted, but there are no known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Parablennius zvonimiri was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
Lipophrys basiliscus (Valenciennes, 1836) is a commonly used synonym in the literature.

redListCategoryRationale:
Salaria basilisca is widely, but patchily, distributed in the Mediterranean Sea. It can be locally common, but no specific population data are available. There are no known major threats. Therefore, S. basilisca is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Salaria basilisca is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It has a patchy known distribution in the Adriatic Sea, Tunisia (Gharred et al. 1998) and Turkey (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). It is absent from the Levant Sea (Golani et al. 2006) but known from Sardinia (Patzner 1985). It is typically found from two to 15 m depth (Zander 1986).

population:
There is no population information for S. basilisca. It can be locally common, including off Tunisia (Messaoudi et al. 2009).

habitat:
Salaria basilisca inhabits mainly soft bottoms and can be found in seagrass beds. Eggs produced by several females are guarded by the male. Individuals develop first into females then change to males (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Paternal care is the usual behaviour (Zander 1986).

threats:
Salaria basilisca has no commercial value and there are no other known major threats.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Salaria basilisca was assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, K. & Massuti, E.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was previously classified under the Blennius and Lipophrys genus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Salaria pavo is widespread in the eastern Atlantic from France to Morocco, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Although there is no specific population information for S. pavo, the population is thought to be stable. There are no known major threats towards it at this time. Therefore, S. pavo is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Salaria pavo is known from the eastern Atlantic, from France to Morocco (Zander 1986). It is also present in the Mediterranean and western Black Sea in suitable habitat, though it is not known from Libya. It has invaded Suez Canal and northern Red Sea. Salaria pavo is typically found in the intertidal zone and very shallow bottoms, from 0 to 2 m (Zander 1986).

habitat:
Salaria pavo occurs in the intertidal zone and shallow bottoms, on rocks or sand between pebbles and vegetation (Zander 1986). This species is tolerant to different a range of salinity (euryhaline) and is often found in brackish waters down to 5 ppt (Zander 1986). It inhabits crevices or piddock holes; males remain in cavities above water-level during low tide (Zander 1986). Salaria pavo feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly mollusks, and algae (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). It has been reared in captivity (Patzner and Brandstaetter 1989). Males court by nodding and undulating movements and drive females to spawning place by biting and butting (Zander 1986). The male guards eggs from several females (Zander 1986).

conservationAction:
No species specific conservation measures are in place or needed, and found in marine protected areas. It was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, K., Massuti, E. & Craig, M.T.


taxonomicNotes:
Scartella cristata is generally recognized to be a species complex. Currently it is under taxonomic review. The eastern Atlantic and Brazillian populations may represent separate species (Williams pers. comm. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Scarrella cristata is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, it is known from the Bay of Biscay south to the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It can be locally common, and the population is thought to be stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, S. cristata is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Scartella cristata is found on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, S. cristata is present from the Bay of Biscay to Möwe Bay, Namibia, including the Mediterranean Sea and Macronesia (but not Cape Verde). Scartella cristata ranges throughout much of the the Mediterranean Sea, including: Torremolinos and Taramay near Motril (Spain), Sicily, Kyra Island (Gulf of Aigina) and near Epidavros, Peloponnese (Greece) (Bath 1990). It is very common along the coast of Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). It is also found along the Ligurian sea (Nieder et al. 2000). Scartella cristata is typically found in the surf zone (Zander 1986).Elsewhere, it is found from  Bermuda, Florida (USA), and northern Gulf of Mexico to Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986) and in the Northwest Pacific:, in Japan (Fukao 1985) and Taiwan.

population:
There is no specific population information for this species. It is common throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea.

habitat:
Scartella cristata inhabits shallow rocky areas and tide pools. It hides in empty Strombus gigas shells (Cervigón 1994), holes or between rocks or algae (Zander 1986). This species is herbivorous (Randall 1996). It has an unusual erectile nuchal crest (Nieder 1996). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, and found in marine protected areas. Scartella cristata was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). It is currently recognized that S. cristata is likely a species complex, and taxonomic study is required.


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy and key characteristics of Brama spp. are in need of review (Haedrich in press).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern Brama brama has a wide distribution in tropical to warm temperate waters. It is an oceanic species which is found in small schools over the continental slope. Longevity is thought to be at least 25 years. In northeastern Atlantic waters this species is concentrated to the west of Scotland, and is also occasionally found in the North Sea. Brama brama is a targeted commercial species in parts of Spain, Portugal and northwestern Africa and is considered economically important in Spain and Portugal. It is also taken as bycatch in a number of longline fisheries throughout its range. Species-specific landing statistics declared to FAO have increased from 2000-2011. The abundance of B. brama in the northeastern Atlantic may have increased, and there is no known management of this species within the assessment zone. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its broad range. Therefore, B. brama is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Brama brama is distributed worldwide in tropical to warm temperate waters (Thompson 2002). In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, B. brama occurs from central Norway to Algoa Bay, South Africa. In the Mediterranean, larval B. brama have been reported in the Adriatic Sea (Dulčíc 1999) and adult B. brama have been recorded from the Syrian coast (Saad 2005). In Northern waters, this species is mainly found to the west of Scotland, and also occasionally in the North Sea (H. Heessen pers. comm. 2014). Brama brama is found from shallow waters to 1000 m in depth (Kells and Carpenter 2011).

population:
Regional population information: Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea The official Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) name for B. brama is Atlantic Pomfret. The overall trend in landings reported to FAO is driven by the Northeast Atlantic, which accounted for 75% of global landings in 2011. Recent data show an increase in landings from the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone, from 82 thousand tonnes (kt) in 2003, to 13299 kt in 2011. Landings are also declared from the Mediterranean, although these comprise a minor portion of global landings (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 January).  Brama brama is particularly abundant in the eastern Atlantic portion of its global range. Off the south coast of Portugal, B. brama is the second most abundant commercial species in the hake (Merluccius merluccius) semi-pelagic longline fishery (Erzini et al. 2001). Length-frequency data from Portugal revealed that the most frequently captured length ranged from 38–42 cm, corresponding to age classes 5–7 (Lobo and Erzini 2001). In certain years, this species is caught in large number from the Strait of Gibraltar, where they are known to take bait from handlines. It is likely that this species undergoes irregular migrations up the coast from Africa  (J. Gil Hererra pers. comm. 2014). It is possible that species has become more abundant in the northern parts of its range from 2005 onwards (P. Fernandes pers. comm. 2014). Global population information: Atlantic Pomfret is reported from the following FAO fishing regions, in order of decreasing reported landings. Northeast Atlantic, Eastern Central Atlantic, Southeast Atlantic, Southwest Pacific, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean/Antarctic. Other regions where landings have increased include the Southeast Atlantic and the Eastern Central Atlantic (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 January).

habitat:
Brama brama is an oceanic species which is found in small schools on the continental slope (Briggs 1960, Richards 2006). This species embarks on vertical migrations daily (Haedrich 1986, Dulčić 1999, Lobo and Erzini 2001). Seasonal migrations have been linked to water temperature (Kells and Carpenter 2011). Its diet consists of myctophids, other small bony fishes, and invertebrates (Bianchi et al. 1999, Kells and Carpenter 2011). Brama brama is a dominant component, by mass, of the diet of the Northeast Atlantic Swordfish (Xiaphias gladius) off the Bay of Biscay (Chancollon et al. 2006) In the Mediterranean, B. brama spawning season occurs in August and September (Haedrich 1986, Dulčić 1999). Brama brama is oviparous with planktonic eggs and larvae and spawns in the summer months (Richards 2006). Paul et al. (2004) estimated B. brama longevity to be at least 25 years. The maximum total length (TL) is 101 cm (Claro 1994, Vakily et al. 2002).  Bramids are epi- and mesopelagic fishes found throughout temperate and warm-temperate oceans that feed on small fishes and macroinvertebrates including squid. They are year-round batch spawners that undergo significant morphological changes with growth (Haedrich in press). Vakily et al. 2002 describes B. brama as benthopelagic with a maximum size of 100 cm TL off of West Africa. Species of the Bramidae family are important prey items of tunas, mackerels, marlin, and other large pelagic predators (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).

threats:
Brama brama is a targeted commercial species in parts of its range. Additionally, this species is taken as bycatch in the Northeast Atlantic and in the Mediterranean in a number of fisheries including: the hake pelagic long-line fishery, legal and illegal drift-net fisheries targeting Blue-Fin Tuna (Bănaru et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific management efforts for this commercially utilized species in the northeast Atlantic or Mediterranean.

useAndTrade:
In the Northeast Atlantic, B. brama is targeted as a seasonally important fisheries resource in semi-pelagic longline fisheries in the northeast Atlantic and western Mediterranean (Lobo and Erzini 2001). Directed fisheries exists in Galicia, northwestern Spain, and it is also fished in Portugal and off northwest Africa. A commercial fishery for Brama spp. exists off of the northern Iberian Peninsula (Haedrich in press). It is also taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries. Off the south coast of Portugal, B. brama is the second most abundant commercial species in the hake (Merluccius merluccius) semi-pelagic longline fishery (Erzini et al. 2001). It is also taken as bycatch in legal and illegal tuna driftnet fisheries (Bănaru et al. 2010). Brama brama is of great economic importance in Spain, where it is usually marketed fresh (Pérez-Alonso et al. 2004). It has been used as a replacement for higher-cost species in the production of smoked fish products (Pérez-Alonso et al. 2003).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Herrera, J., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Heessen, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern Pterycombus brama is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. Despite its wide distribution there is little population information available. It does not appear to be common in the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. Pterycombus brama isn't utilized and there are no reported threats. Further research is needed on population information and trend for P. brama. Therefore, P. brama is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pterycombus brama is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, where it is found along both the eastern and western coasts. In the northeastern Atlantic, P. brama is distributed from Iceland and Norway to the Canary Islands (Haedrich 1986, Gomes 1990). It is found at depths ranging from 25 to 300 meters.

population:
Pterycombus brama is considered rare in British waters (Swaby and Potts 1990).

habitat:
Pterycombus brama is an offshore, highly migratory pelagic species that occurs at depths of 25–300 m over continental shelves (Richards 2006, Kells and Carpenter 2011). The maximum total length (TL) is 46 cm (Haedrich 1986). Kells and Carpenter (2011) noted that P. brama are reported to spawn year-round over continental shelves in Florida. Pterycombus brama migrate seasonally. Pterycombus brama is oviparous with planktonic eggs and larvae (Richards 2006). Fishes of the family Bramidae are epi- and mesopelagic and are found in temperate and warm temperate oceans. Bramids are predators on small fishes and macroinvertebrates such as squid. They appear to be nearly year-round batch spawners. Several genera are taken by longline and vertical line (Thompson 2002).

threats:
There are no reported threats to Pterycombus brama.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for P. brama. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Taractes asper is widely distributed throughout the temperate north and south Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Despite its wide distribution, population information for T. asper is limited. It does not appear to occur regularly in the region. It is occasionally taken as bycatch in longline and pelagic fisheries. Therefore, T. asper is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Taractes asper is widely distributed in temperate latitudes of the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and in the southern hemisphere, off southern Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and South Africa (Last and Moteki 1999). It has been recorded as far north as the Barents Sea, however, these may be vagrants (Karamushko 2008). In the northeastern Atlantic, T. asper is found from Norway and Iceland south to Madeira, but it is not known in the Mediterranean (Haedrich 1986). It is found at depths of 0–450 metres.

population:
Teractes asper appears to be rare in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea Assessment region. Tetractes asper is considered a vagrant in the North Sea (Jiming 1982).

habitat:
Taractes asper is epipelagic to mesopelagic and oceanodromous. It is found in the open ocean and over continental shelves and slopes (Moteki and Nagasawa 1998). The maximum total length (TL) is 50 cm (Thompson 2002). Fishes of the family Bramidae are Epi- and mesopelagic and are found in temperate and warm temperate oceans. Bramids are predators on small fishes and macroinvertebrates such as squid. They appear to be nearly year-round batch spawners. Several genera are taken by longline and vertical line (Thompson 2002).

threats:
This species is taken as bycatch in longline and pelagic fisheries.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for T. asper. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Taractes asper is not directly targeted, but is occasionally caught by longline and vertical line in parts of its range (Thompson 2002, Patrick et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Taractichthys longipinnis is widely distributed in the epipelagic and mesopelagic zones of the Atlantic Ocean. It appears to be poorly known throughout its global range. In the eastern Atlantic it has been recorded from Iceland and Norway south to Namibia. It does not occur in the Mediterranean. It is found at depths ranging from 42–200 m. Taractichthys longipinnis is considered highly migratory and is apparently solitary, but it is also known to occasionally form small schools when close to shore. The probability of catching this species increases closer to seamounts. There is little species-specific population or life history information available for T. longipinnis and it does not appear to be well known from the northeastern Atlantic. However, it is valued as a food fish and is taken as a commercially important, yet poorly characterized bycatch species in a number of trawl and longline fisheries. Taractichthys longipinnis is assessed as Least Concern, however there is a clear need for more research concerning the basic biology, population trends and harvest level trends of this species.

range:
Taractichthys longipinnis is widely distributed in the epipelagic and mesopelagic zones of the Atlantic Ocean from 60°N (North Sea) to 35°S. In the northeastern Atlantic, T. longipinnis has been recorded from Iceland and Norway south to Madeira and the Canary Islands (Haedrich 1986). It does not occur in the Mediterranean (Gomes 1990, Thompson 2002, Richards 2006, Carvalho-Filho et al. 2009, Kells and Carpenter 2011). It is found at depths ranging from 42–200 m.

population:
Taractichthys longipinnis is considered a vagrant in the North Sea (Jiming 1982). There is little species-specific information concerning T. longipinnis in the northeast Atlantic. This species is not well known. Fifty-eight T. longipinnis have been deposited in museum collections (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2013 October). Bramiids are generally difficult to identify (W. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Taractichthys longipinnis is epipelagic to mesopelagic and highly migratory (Briggs 1960, Richards 2006, Kells and Carpenter 2011). Carvalho-Filho et al. (2009) noted that T. longipinnis is apparently solitary, but it is also known to occasionally form small schools when close to shore. The probability of catching this species increases closer to seamounts (Morato et al. 2010). The stomach contents in the T. longipinnis collected by Carvalho-Filho et al. (2009) suggest T. longipinnis feeds on or near the bottom. The contents consisted mainly of benthic oplophorid shrimp species. Species of the Bramidae family are important prey items of tunas, mackerels, marlin, and other large pelagic predators (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004). The maximum total length of T. longipinnis (TL) is 92 cm (Thompson 2002).    Fishes of the family Bramidae are epi- and mesopelagic and are found in temperate and warm temperate oceans. Bramids are predators on small fishes and macroinvertebrates such as squid. They appear to be nearly year-round batch spawners. Several genera are taken by longline and vertical line (Thompson 2002).

threats:
Taractichthys longipinnis is not a targeted species, however it is occasionally taken as bycatch on longline and vertical lines, as well as in trawls. This species may have a heightened intrinsic vulnerability to extinction (O’Malley 2010).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for T. longipinnis. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Taractichthys longipinnis is generally considered a highly-desirable food fish (Haedrich in press). Taractichthys longipinnis occasionally occurs as bycatch in trawl fisheries, including deepwater trawl fisheries (Bianchi et al. 1999). It is also taken as commercially important bycatch in longline fisheries; it is taken in small numbers in the the hake deepwater semi-pelagic longline fishery in the southern Portugal (Erzini et al. 2001) and in the Black scabbardfish (Aphanopus spp.) fishery off the Canary Islands (Pajuelo et al. 2010)


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern because it is a moderately deep water species that is widespread and appears to be common throughout its range, it appears only incidentally in fisheries and is not targeted. However, further research is needed to establish the status of this species throughout its range, as it is caught as bycatch and inhabits sensitive habitats such as gorgonian gardens and coralligenous assemblages which are directly threatened by fishing.

range:
Callanthias ruber occurs in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, it appears from the English Channel (occasional occurrences) to Mauritania, including Madeira, the Azores and the Canary Islands, while in the Mediterranean it is present from northern Africa to the Levant, through European riparian countries from Spain to Greece, including the Adriatic Sea (Fishbase 2011). Its depth lower limit is 500 metres, while its upper limit is 50 metres.

population:
There is no information available for the population size and trend of this species, since this is a small, deepwater species for which there are no fishery statistics available. However, the species seems to be widespread and occurs in a number of museum records, appearing to be common within its range.

habitat:
This demersal species is found on rocks and muddy substrata at depths from 50 to 500 m. It is most frequently caught in trawls between 300 and 500 m in Turkey (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). Callanthias ruber is present on seamounts and knolls (Stocks et al. 2009), with a preference for rocky substrate between 200 and 400 metres depth (Costa 1991). The species is known on Mediterranean and Atlantic deep-gorgonian gardens (Aguilar et al. 2010, Marín et al. 2011, Bo et al. 2012, Gomes-Pereira et al. 2013) and Mediterranean coralligenous assemblages (Cardinali et al. 2014). In the Condor Seamount summit (Azores Islands), the species also shows a preference for coralligenous habitats to non-coralligenous ones (Porteiro et al. 2013). Larvae of the species has been collected in the summer in the Aegean Sea and in the Azores Islands waters among February and March (Aguilar et al. 2009). Its maximum size is 60 cm (TL).

threats:
In the South Thyrrenian Sea (Italy), the species is potentially threatened by local fishing activities (Bo et al. 2012). Similarly, the species is caught by purse seine fisheries in Portugal (Feijó 2012). Since the species is related to sensitive habitats, such as a deep-sea gorgonian gardens and coralligenous assemblages, impacts such as abandoned gears or debris from fishing boats are potential threats.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. However, reefs are listed under the Habitats Directive as habitats of community interest, so they are to be protected under management measures. Gorgonian gardens on rocky areas, underwater caves, coralligenous assemblages, seamounts and knolls are considered reefs. Coralligenous assemblages are also protected under the Regulation CE 1967/2006, in which bottom trawling and similar fishing activities are prohibited over phanerogams, coralligenous and maërl beds. Although the species is present through these habitats, community legislation is poorly applied, resulting in poorly effective conservation measures for this species. It is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
This is a non-targeted fishing species, but is caught incidentally in the Thyrraenian Sea and Portugal.


redListCategoryRationale:
Callionymus fasciatus has a wide range in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is common in the Black Sea and is not commercially fished. Therefore, C. fasciatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Callionymus fasciatus is endemic to the Mediterranean and Black seas. It has been recorded from the Gulf of Genoa (Ligurian Sea) to the western Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and from the southern and eastern Black Sea. The species is absent from the Levant (Golani et al. 2006), and apparently absent from the southern Mediterranean.

population:
Nothing is known about the population in the Mediterranean. It is common in the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).

habitat:
This is a demersal species, occurring on sandy substrata. In the Black Sea it prefers sandy substrata, but in the Sea of Marmara it prefers fragmented shells and sand. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans (Fricke 1986). It occurs in shallow inshore waters.

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. It is not a commercial species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for this species. It was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Callionymus lyra is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic, from Iceland to Mauritania, including the Mediterranean and Black seas. It can be locally abundant. Although it is found in fisheries, this is not considered a major threat at this time. There are no other known threats, and no evidence of population declines. Therefore, C. lyra is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Callionymus lyra is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is found from southern Iceland to Mauritania, including the Mediterranean and Black seas (Fricke 1986, Vakily et al. 2002). It is present throughout the Mediterranean except parts of the southern coasts (from Libya to southern Turkey), and found in western parts of the Black Sea. It is also known from all of Macaronesia except Cape Verde. The depth distribution of C. lyra is 5 to 400 m (Fricke 1986), though it is typically found at less than 50 m depth (King et al. 1994).

population:
Callionymus lyra has been described as common in European waters (Chang 1951). In 1990, the population of the species in the North Sea mainly consisted of age 1, 2, and 3 individuals with mean lengths of 7.5, 15, and 19 cm. Although the species did not appear to be impacted by eutrophication which had occurred since 1948, a comparison of the 1990 specimens with specimens from 1948 indicated fewer large individuals, probably as a result of increased fishing in the area (Van der Veer et al. 1990). An analysis of International Bottom Trawl Survey Data show higher abundances of this species in the 1970s than in the 1990s (Heessen 1996). The species was present in moderate to high densities throughout the Tagus estuary in Portugal, and considered a dominant component (Prista et al. 2003). Populations are considered to be stable.

habitat:
Callionymus lyra is a sexually dimorphic, benthic species with a maximum size of 30 cm TL that occurs over sand bottoms (Vakily et al. 2002, Fricke FAO ECA Guide in press). It is typically found in shallow waters less than 50 meters, is very common in waters of 10 meters or less, and becomes less abundant with depth (King et al. 1994).  The species is of interest because the males display markedly different secondary sex characteristics. Species of the Callionymidae family spawn in pairs. Males mature at different ages and die after spawning; eggs, larvae, and postlarvae are pelagic (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004). Longevity has been estimated at five years for males, and seven years for females (Chang 1951).

threats:
There are no indications of population decline in the species. Species of the Callionymidae family are taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries and marketed locally. Some are also utilized in the aquarium trade (Fricke FAO ECA Guide in press). In the North Sea, the abundance of the species did not appear to be affected by eutrophication, however an observed reduction in larger size classes may be due to increased fishing pressure in the region (Van der Veer et al. 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Callionymus lyra was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
The species a component of small-scale demersal fisheries in Portugal (Gonçalves et al. 1997). This species and other dragonets are taken as bycatch in bottom trawls and marketed locally. Some species are commercially used in the aquarium trade (Fricke FAO ECA Guide in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Callionymus maculatus is widely distributed throughout the eastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean. It can be locally abundant, and populations of C. maculatus are considered stable. There are no known widespread threats, though they are sometimes taken incidentally in trawl fisheries. Therefore, C. maculatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Calliionymus maculatus is found in the eastern Atlantic, from Iceland and Norway south to Senegal, including throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Fricke in press). It is not known to enter the Black Sea. Callionymus maculatus is typically found at depths ranging from 22 to 630 m (Fricke 1986).

population:
An analysis of 40 years of International Bottom Trawl Survey Data show that the species was relatively more abundant in the 1990s than in the 1970s (Heessen 1996). Callionymus maculatus was the third most abundant species in the demersal fish assemblage over soft substrates off the west coast of Scotland (Gibson and Ezzi 1987).

habitat:
Callionymus maculatus is a sexually dimorphic, benthic fish with a maximum size of 16 cm TL that lives on sand bottoms (Fricke FAO ECA Guide in press). It is also found in estuaries (Cabral et al. 2001). Callionymus maculatus primarily feeds on polychaetes and amphipods, and is prey for a number of commercially important fishes, including Zues faber (Stergious et al. 1991). Species of the Callionymidae family spawn in pairs. Females reach sexual maturity earlier than males, and they are serial spawners. Males may reach first maturity at different ages, at 3, 4, or 5 years of age, and die after spawning. Males live 3 to 5 years, while females live up to five years (Gibson and Ezzi 1979). The eggs, larvae, and postlarvae are pelagic (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).

threats:
The species is taken as by-catch and discarded in a number of fisheries, including the Norway Lobster Fishery (Sartor et al. 2003) and various trawl fisheries. This is not considered a threat to the species at this time.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the species. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Callionymus maculatus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no species-specific use and trade information available for the species. Dragonets are taken as by-catch in bottom trawls and marketed locally.


redListCategoryRationale:
Callionymus pusillus is widely distributed in the Mediterranean and Black seas, and its range extends to the eastern Atlantic to Portugal and Spain. Although specific population data are not available, the population is assumed to be stable. Callionymus pusillus is occasionally caught as bycatch in demersal fisheries, but this is not considered a major threat at this time. There are no other known widespread threats. Therefore, C. pusillus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Callionymus pusillus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic, where it is found from off the coasts of Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014) and Spain, and throughout the Mediterranean. It occurs in the northern Mediterranean basin, including the Adriatic and Aegean Seas, as well as Lebanon and Israel, but has not been recorded from most parts of the southern Mediterranean coasts. It has been found to 100 m, but is typically very shallow, from one to five metres (Fricke 1986).

population:
Callionymus pusillus appears to be the most common Callionymid in the Mediterranean Sea, as it is the only species noted in studies of marine protected areas in the region. It is recorded relatively infrequently in the northeastern Aegean Sea (Keskin et al. 2011). This species was irregularly observed off the coastal islands of Ibiza, Spain. When observed it was found over sandy bottoms (Fischer et al. 2007). It was observed at one of four sampling sites in the Gulf of Trieste and there is was observed infrequently (Lipej et al. 2003). The population trend is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Callionymus pusillus is a demersal species, inhabiting shallow waters with sandy substrata. It has been reported occasionally from depths of up to 100 m (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987), but generally found at much shallower depths (one to five metres; Fricke 1986). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans (Fricke 1986). Individuals ranging in size from 25 to 55 mm SL were recorded in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon in Spain (Verdiell-Cubedo et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. It is likely taken as bycatch in a number of demersal fisheries, but is not caught commercially.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or required for this species and it is found in marine protected areas. Callionymus pusillus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Sea in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
The species is not used but may be found in fishery bycatch.


redListCategoryRationale:
Callionymus reticulatus is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from the North Sea to Portugal and the Azores. It is also found in the western Mediterranean Sea, though little information is available as to the distribution and population status in the Mediterranean. Populations are considered stable. Callionymus reticulatus is caught incidentally in demersal fisheries, but this is not considered a major threat at this time. There are no other known widespread threats. Therefore, C. reticulatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Callionymus reticulatus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from Norway to the western Mediterranean Sea (Fricke 1986), including the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). While recorded on the west coast shelf of Ireland, it was not found in trawl surveys at Rockall Plateau (Neat and Campbell 2011). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is known from Spanish coast to at least Málaga, but possibly occurs further into the western basin of the Mediterranean. Callionymus reticulatus has a wide depth distribution, to 110 m (Fricke 1986).

population:
There are no recent estimates of population trends available, but it is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Callionymus reticulatus is a demersal species that occurs in inshore waters, even inter-tidally, on sandy shores (Wheeler 1979). Its preferred habitat is shallow, soft substrata within estuaries, but it has been recorded to 110 m (Fricke 1986). In a survey comparing seagrass beds and unvegetated habitats, it was not found in seagrass beds and was present in low numbers in the unvegetated habitat (Ribeiro et al. 2012). The eggs and larvae of C. reticulatus are pelagic. The maximum recorded size is 11 cm (Fricke 1986).

threats:
There have been no confirmed population declines and there are no known threats across its range. It is taken as bycatch in a number of demersal fisheries, including the scallop dredge fishery (Craven et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Callionymus reticulatus was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 as little information was available regarding the population status and distribution in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no species-specific use and trade information available for C. reticulatus. Dragonets are taken as by-catch in bottom trawls and sometimes marketed locally. Some species are commercially used in the aquarium trade (Fricke in press).

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Bizsel, K., Kara, M., Goren, M. & Pollard, D.


redListCategoryRationale:
Callionymus risso has a wide range in the Mediterranean and Black seas, and its range extends to the eastern Atlantic. Although specific population data are not available, populations are considered stable. Localized declines due to an invasive species from the Red Sea are possible in the eastern Mediterranean, but this is not considered a major threat at present. There are no other known widespread threats. Therefore, C. risso is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Callionymus risso is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It is known from the the coast of Portugal and through most of the Mediterranean and Black seas. In the northern Mediterranean, C. risso has been recorded from Gibraltar to the coast of Israel, including the Adriatic and Aegean seas. In the southern Mediterranean, C. risso has been recorded from Tunisia, but not from Egypt or most of the Libyan coast. Callionymus risso is also found in the western and northern Black Sea. The depth distribution of C. risso is typically 10 to 150 m (Fricke 1986).

population:
Callionymus risso may have undergone localized declines in the eastern Mediterranean, as a result of invasive species, but is considered stable across its range.

habitat:
Callionymus risso is a little-known demersal species, found on sandy substrata in shallow coastal waters. It feeds on small bottom invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans. It is oviparous; the eggs and larvae are pelagic (Fricke in press). It has been recorded at depths ranging from 10 to 150 m (Fricke 1986). The maximum size is about eight centimetres, but typically individuals are only four to five centimetres (Fricke 1986).

threats:
The only potential threat known to this species in the Mediterranean region is from competition with Red Sea immigrant species in the eastern Mediterranean (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007), and this may have resulted in localized declines.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or required for this species and it is found in marine protected areas. Callionymus risso was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information available on the population size, trend and ecology of the species. Further research should also be conducted on the potential threats to the species.

range:
Protogrammus sousai is known only from the type material (the holotype and three paratypes) collected in 1967 on the Great Meteor Bank (29º50'-30º01'N, 28º24'-28º30'W), and a few more specimens collected in the same area. They were collected at depths between 310 and 320 m.

population:
There is no information available on the population, as this species is only known from a few specimens.

habitat:
It is a benthic species that is present on sandy and muddy bottoms. It may feed on bottom invertebrates and small fishes, although there is no specific information available.

threats:
As the species is endemic to the Great Meteor Bank, which is an intensively fished area, bottom trawling is a likely threat to this species, due to its benthic nature.


taxonomicNotes:
Heemstra and Heemstra (2004) describes the taxonomy of Callionymidae as unsettled and the genera as poorly defined.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as this species has a wide range in the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Atlantic. Although there is no information available on the population size and trends of the species, it is a relatively small species taken only as bycatch and there is no indication of any major major threats at present. However, research should be conducted in order to determine the ongoing status of this species as bycatch, as it may be threatened by increased trawling.

range:
Synchiropus phaeton occurs in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Portugal and the Azores to Gabon. It has been recorded from Gorringe Seamount, Great Meteor and Josephine Seamounts (Fishbase 2011). The species is present from Portugal including the Azores (Yokes et al. 2011) and Madeira (Fishbase 2014) to the Canary Islands (Aguilar et al. 2010) In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs from the Alboran Sea across the northern African coast, including the eastern Algerian coast, to the Levant and the Adriatic, although it is not present in the northern Aegean. It has been recorded in several seamounts (Aguilar et al. 2008, Marín et al. 2011a, 2011b), such as Palos Seamount, Chella Bank, Morrot de Formentera, Mallorca Channel Seamounts, Sabinar Seamount and Baronie Seamount. Its depth lower limit is 848 metres, while its upper limit is 80 metres.

population:
There is no information available for the population size and trend of this species although it is known to be widespread through the Mediterranean Sea.

habitat:
The species is present in sedimentary bottoms of several Atlantic and Mediterranean seamounts, although it has also been found in the continental shelf of the Balearic Islands (Guijarro et al. 2011), and in the continental margin of the Iberian Peninsula on Isidella elongata (Maynou and Cartes 2011) and Leptometra phallangium beds (Colloca et al. 2004). Two individuals were also found on French submarine canyons in the Mediterranean continental slope (Fabri et al. 2014). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms, snails and crustaceans. This is a territorial species, and males act aggressively towards each other. Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Fricke 1986). Its maximum size is 17 cm (TL).

threats:
While the species is not commercially fished, its distribution overlaps with trawled bottoms, so the species population may be affected by this activity. Likewise, it is known to be discarded in Argelia (Belhabib et al. 2013) by shrimp fisheries and in the Thyrrenian Sea (Sartor et al. 2003). It may also be discarded in other areas, but no statistics are available.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species, but it is likely to be present in existing marine protected areas, such as Plaja submersă Eforie Nord - Eforie Sud in Romania, where it is common. Besides, several seamounts are planned to become marine protected areas in Spain (i.e. Chella Bank) and Portugal (i.e. Gorringe Seamount), so the species will benefit from these conservation measures. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
While this species is not commercially fished, it is discarded in the Thyrrenian Sea (Sartor et al. 2003) and by shrimp fisheries in Algeria (Belhabib et al. 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
The higher taxonomy of this species is currently uncertain, though it is currently included in the family Caproidae (Perciformes). However, there is currently no evidence to suggest that the genera Antigonia and Capros belong in the same family (Heemstra in press). Some authors suggest that it should be placed in the Beryciformes due to otolith shape (Zehren 1987).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as, although there is little or no information available on the population size and trends, this species occurs in mainly deep waters and is widely distributed. Information on threats to the species is scarce but, except for a report of it being fished off Ireland, it does not appear to be targeted commercially or widely traded, and there do not appear to be any major threats to the species at present. However, monitoring of deepwater fisheries is needed in order to determine the ongoing status of this species. 

range:
The species is found worldwide in subtropical and tropical oceans (Fishbase 2014). In Europe, A. capros is present through the east Atlantic Ocean, from the Canary Islands (Aguilar et al. 2010), the Azores and Madeira islands and Portugal (Fishbase 2011) to the Bay of Biscay (France and Spain). It has been observed in the Condor Seamount (Porteiro et al. 2013) and the Great Meteor Seamount (Zidowitz and Westernhagen 2004). Its depth lower limit is 900 metres, while its upper limit is 50 metres (Fricke et al. 2009), although the species is more commonly found among 100 and 300 metres depth (Fishbase 2011).

population:
There is a lack of information on this species at the European level (Zidowitz and Westernhagen 2004). There have been fluctuations in the number of catches of individuals in the European area during the last decades. Recruitment irregularities can be a characteristic of the species, in that the total length has been very variable among catches along different years in the northeast Atlantic (Bay of Biscay and Great Meteor Seamount; Zidowitz and Westernhagen 2004). There is no information available for the population size and trend of this species.

habitat:
In a trawl survey conducted off the northwestern African coast between the years 1962-1973, this species was caught over the continental shelf edge and slope between 60-390 m depth, with the most significant aggregation occurring at 130 m (Maurin and Quero 1982). Vakily et al. (2002) describes A. capros as demersal, with a maximum size of 31cm TL off of West Africa. In European waters, their larvae occur in the pelagic realm (Zidowitz and Westernhagen 2004), and while juveniles are present in mid-water, the adults are found near the bottom (Fricke et al. 2009). Since it is a near-bottom species, juveniles of the species were caught in the Bay of Biscay (Zidowitz and Westernhagen 2004), at 53 m depth. At the Condor Seamount (southwest of the Faial Island in the Azores), two specimens were caught at 221-230 m depth only in coral areas (Porteiro et al. 2013). At the Great Meteor Seamount, spawning may occur during September and October, based on available data of capture of larvae during those months in the area (Zidowitz and Westernhagen 2004). Antigonia capros was observed forming small to large schools (three to 60 individuals) during a survey in the Azorean Archipelago (Pakhorukov 2008). Antigonia capros feeds on gastropods, molluscs and crustaceans (Fock et al. 2002)

threats:
It is a by-catch species, and it has been captured abundantly in some places in and out of European waters.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any marine protected areas throughout its range, although it is likely that the species is found both close to fisheries and protected areas. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends and threats to the species, and monitoring of fisheries is also recommended to understand the status of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is not traded or exploited commercially, but the by-catch of the species has been reported to occur in USA (ICES 1999) and West African waters (Bravo de Laguna et al. 1976). In 2010, the species was the most important catch in weight in Ireland fisheries (European Parliament 2013), but no management measures have been implemented.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and very common, occurs in moderately deep water and is not believed to be subject of any major threat. However, research should be undertaken on the population trends, as catches have been declining in the Atlantic for the last two years; this may be due to measures to reduce bycatch, or a reflection of a population decline. In addition, its status is completely unknown in the Mediterranean.

range:
Capros aper is widely found in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, including oceanic island waters from Norway to Senegal (Blanchard and Vandermeirsch 2005, Quéro 1986). In the Mediterranean Sea, records include the Catalan Sea, Gulf of Lion, Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Strait of Sicily, Adriatic Sea, Aegean and Ionian Seas and around Crete (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is also present in the Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002) and in the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 1999). Its depth limits range from 40 to 600 m, although it has also been found a shallower (zero metres; ICES 2014) and deeper waters (700 metres; Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
Capros aper is widespread and very common in the Mediterranean Sea, and it is locally abundant throughout its range. However, its population trend is completely unknown. The population status in the Atlantic is not well known, however available survey indices and exploratory assessments indicate that the stock is now declining after a decade of increasing, therefore further development and validation of assessment models are required (ICES 2014). 

habitat:
Capros aper is a small, laterally compressed, well-armoured, gregarious, mesopelagic species, distributed mainly at depths of 40 – 600 m (Whitehead et al. 1986, Heemstra 1999) although it is also found in shallower (zero metres; ICES 2014) and deeper waters (700 m; Mytilineou et al. 2005). It is locally abundant throughout its range and is particularly associated with the shelf edge (Tidd and Warnes 2006) and zones of high offshore productivity (Lopes et al. 2006). The species occupies a wide range habitats including over rock or coral, and also over sandy bottoms. It feeds mainly on crustaceans, worms and molluscs (Quéro 1986).In the Northeast Atlantic, spawning aggregations form off the southwest coast of Ireland from June to August (Blanchard and Vandermeirsch 2005) and on the Celtic Sea shelf edge during June and July (ICES 2014). In the Atlantic Ocean, Farrell et al. (2012) claimed that Boarfish spawn between April and September. In the Mediterranean Sea, available studies point to reproduction occurring between April and August (Yapici and Filiz 2014). Boarfish are asynchronous batch spawners with indeterminate fecundity and thus, under optimal conditions, are capable of spawning over an extended period of time (ICES 2014).Boarfish exhibit size-related sexual dimorphism. Females are slightly larger than males (Maigret and Ly 1986), with the largest female caught to date in the Atlantic (140 mm total length; 91 g total weight; White et al. (2011) and in the Mediterranean (101 mm total length; 17 g total weight; Filiz and Bilge 2004). However, ICES (2014) states that the maximum size of this species is about 18 cm.In many cases age estimates are limited to those made from whole otoliths with an estimated maximum age of 30 years and mature age ranging two to five years.·         White et al. (2011) estimated maximum age of 26 years and mature age at five years (8.05 cm) in Atlantic waters.·          Kaya and Özaydin (1996) estimated maximum age of four years and mature age at two years (8.50 cm) in Mediterranean waters.·         Hüssy et al. (2012a, 2012b) stated that boarfish recruit to the fishery around three to four years of age (9.72 cm), although the maximum age of boarfish is about 30 years.·         Farrell et al. (2012) stated that maturation occurs at 3.5 years, corresponding to a total length of approximately 10 cm.·         Yapici and Filiz (2014) stated that individuals become sexually mature at around 6.69 cm total length (TL) (a size that can be reached on 1.84 years) for both sexes.

threats:
The exploitation rate in Atlantic waters in recent years has decreased, and the current exploitation rate is considered not detrimental to the stock if it is kept at this level or reduced (ICES 2014).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Boarfish are managed since 2011 through catch limits in areas of the north and southwestern waters of the Northeast Atlantic. It is encouraging that measures introduced to reduce the potential Boarfish bycatch, such as including the establishment of a closed season or by-catch limits of other fisheries, have brought a reduction in catches; and this reduction appears to have reversed the biomass downtrend in the Northeast Atlantic. Nonetheless, ongoing research is needed into the population size and trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
Boarfish have no commercial value in the Mediterranean Sea (Yapici and Filiz 2014), while in the Atlantic Ocean, Boarfish catches are currently used as fish meal and oil. However, development of a human consumption market is underway (ICES 2014). The majority of landings to date in the Atlantic have come from the ICES Division VIIj Southwest of Ireland - East (69%) and the South of the Celtic Sea (18%). Catches in these regions increased from 100 t (2001) to 143,900 t (2010) but since then they have been reduced to 75,400 (2013) (ICES 2014). The recent development and expansion of the fishery was enabled by developments in the pumping technology for Boarfish catches. These changes made it easier to pump Boarfish aboard vessels. The fishery for Boarfish is conducted with pelagic trawls in the Atlantic.The estimated late age at maturity may be an important life-history feature of this species and, therefore, it may be more sensitive to fishing pressure, when compared with that of more typical pelagic species also converted to fish meal, which are all characterized by fast growth and early maturation.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Alectis alexandrina is found in the eastern Atlantic from Morocco south to Angola, including the southern parts of the Mediterranean. It is a solitary species which is found in coastal waters, in mid-water over sandy bottoms to depths of at least 70 m. It is a bycatch species of small pelagic fisherie throughout its range, however there are are no species-specific landing statistics available. Large individuals are considered gamefish. There is a paucity of basic biological information available. There have been no recorded population declines in this species. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Therefore, A. alexandrina is assessed as Least Concern. There is a need for more research concerning the basic biology of this species.

range:
Alectis alexandrina is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Iberian peninsula south to Angola, including the southern parts of the Mediterranean (Smith-Vaniz in press). Within the Mediterranean, A. alexandrina is present in Adriatic Sea (Dulčić 2005), as well as off the coasts of Israel (Golani et al. 2002), Egypt, Lebanon and Syria (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). This species has been reported at depths ranging from 0–70 metres.

population:
Regional population information: Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea Although it is a species of minor commercial importance throughout its range, species-specific landings for A. alexandrina are not declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Aggregate landings of  "Carangidae nei" in the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone were first declared Spain and Portugal in the early 2000s, and increase throughout the time series (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 January). The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) does not collect species-specific data on carangids for mapping purposes. All carangid data are aggregated to the family level, indicating that these species are not likely to be commercially important in Northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Alectis alexandrina is present but not common in the Mediterranean Sea. Large specimens have been observed in Turkey (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). Although large specimens have been reported from the Mediterranean, it is worth noting that in several Mediterranean countries it appears that only small individuals, which may be juveniles, are landed. Off the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, individuals ranging in size from 5–16 cm total length (TL) are captured in daytime purse seine fisheries, which operate at a maximum depth of 40 m, during all seasons in Abu Qir Bay (El-Haweet 2001). In Lebanon, only juveniles of around 20 cm TL are caught (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007).  A search of museum collection record databases revealed only 2 lots (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 January). Global population information This species closely resembles the congener Alectis ciliaris, which is a commercially important species fished in the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA) fishing zone. It is likely that this species, like A. ciliaris, is used for local consumption in West Africa and is taken as bycatch in ECA waters by international vessels. There are no species-specific landing statistics available for either species in the ECA, however is is likely that it is included under the aggregate "pompanoes nei" or "Carangidae nei". Documents generated by the Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic (CECAF) show some evidence of declines in landings of Carangidae spp. (FAO 2009).

habitat:
Alectis alexandrina is a solitary species which is found in coastal waters, in mid-water over sandy bottoms to depths of at least 70 m. Juveniles are usually pelagic and drifting, sometimes occurring in brackish water (Daget and Smith-Vaniz 1986). Alectis alexandrina feeds on squid and other fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1986). Spawning occurs in the summer (Smith-Vaniz 1986). The maximum size is unknown, and it is reported to attain at least 70 cm FL (85 cm TL) (Smith-Vaniz, unpubl.).

threats:
Alectis alexandrina is a minor commercial species throughout its range. In the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone, this species is landed as bycatch in purse seine fisheries targeting small pelagics. In several Mediterranean countries where this species is landed, only small individuals, which may be reproductively immature, are landed. There is a need for more species-specific research concerning the basic biology of this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for A. alexandrina. Although it is a species of minor commercial importance, there are no species-specific landing statistics reported to FAO for A. alexandrina from the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea. The range of A. alexandrina overlaps several marine protected areas within the assessment region. There is a need for species-specific biological research.  Alectis alexandrina was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Regional IUCN Red List workshop (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
In the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea, Alectis alexandrina is a species of minor commercial importance. In the Mediterranean it is regularly landed in purse seine fisheries in Egypt (El-Haweet 2001) and in Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). Throughout its range, A. alexandrina is is a minor commercial species caught with various gears including bottom and pelagic trawls, various boat seines and lines. It is utilized fresh, dried-salted, smoked and for fish meal (Smith-Vaniz, unpubl.). It is also considered a gamefish (African Angler website accessed 2014 January).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Campogramma glaycos is found in eastern Atlantic, from the British Isles south to Senegal including the Mediterranean, Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is found at depths ranging from 15–30 metres. Although it is sometimes found in local fish markets, it appears to be relatively rare in the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea assessment region. There is a paucity of basic biological information available for this species. It is of minor commercial importance in the Mediterranean, where it can be found in some local markets. This species appears to be associated with upwelling zones, and, like many carangids, is likely taken as bycatch in industrial, semi-industrial and/or artisanal fisheries in the Eastern Central Atlantic fishing zone. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. glaycos. Campogramma glaycos is assessed as Least Concern in Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea assessment region

range:
Campogramma glaycos is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from the Bay of Biscay south to Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. Vagrants are reported as far north as the British Isles (Smith-Vaniz 1986). It is also found in the western Mediterranean Sea, with recent records extending the northern-most occurrence of this species in the Mediterranean to Piran Bay, Gulf of Trieste, Adriatic Sea (Duli et al. 2003). It has been recorded at depths ranging from 15–30 metres.

population:
Regional Population Information: Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea Landings for C. glaycos, under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) common name "Vadigo" are reported from the following two FAO fishing areas: Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA), Mediterranean and Black Sea. Only about 1% of these landings originate in the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone, and these are declared by Morocco. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) does not collect species-specific data on carangiids for mapping purposes. All carangiid data are aggregated to the family level, indicating that these species are not likely to be commercially important in Northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Smith-Vaniz (Smith-Vaniz in press) states this species is rarely found north of the Bay of Biscay. Survey data from the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) in the Gulf of Cadiz suggest this species is rare in the region, however this could be an artifact of sampling. From 1993 to 2014, 17 specimens ranging in size from 12–25 cm total length (TL) were collected. All specimens were collected in the spring of 1999. This species is not commercially important in the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Herrera pers. comm. 2014). Global Population Information The majority (>99%) of C. glaycos landings declared to FAO originate in the ECA, and within the ECA, the large majority of landings are declared by Morocco. Campogramma glaycos, like many carangids, is taken as bycatch in the pelagic industrial and artisanal fisheries off the coast of West Africa (Palomares and Pauly 2004). There is evidence of declining commercial landings and declining biomass of many species taken in these fisheries, and pelagic stocks are considered overexploited in the CECAF North Assessment Area (Gascuel et al. 2010, CECAF 2009). In the ECA species appears to be associated with upwelling zones (Gushchin and Fall 2012).

habitat:
Campogramma glaycos adults are pelagic or epibenthic and are mostly found in shallow waters ranging in depth from 15–30 m. The diet consists primarily of schooling fishes. The maximum size is unknown, however it attains at least 60 cm fork length (Smith-Vaniz in press).

threats:
There is little species-specific data available for C. glaycos in the NEA and Mediterranean portion of its range. This species is of minor commercial importance in the Mediterranean. It is taken as bycatch in fisheries targeting small pelagics.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. glaycos within the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea. This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Campogramma glaycos is of minor commercial importance in the Mediterranean. It is marketed in the fish markets of Istanbul, although typically in small numbers (Tekinay et al. 2003). This species feeds on small fishes, and it is inferred that it is landed as bycatch in Mediterranean fisheries targeting small pelagics such as sardine and anchovies. Carangids are a commercially important bycatch of industrial small pelagic fisheries off the Atlantic coast of West Africa. This species is also considered a gamefish.


taxonomicNotes:
In the tropical Eastern Pacific, Caranx crysos is replaced by Caranx caballus (Günther 1869)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Caranx crysos is found in the eastern and western Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from England south to Angola including the Mediterranean at depths ranging from 0–122 m. The northward extension of this species' range may be related to increasing sea temperatures in the North Atlantic. It is a non-targeted bycatch species in the Mediterranean. There is a paucity of basic biological information available, however there is interest in developing sustainable management practices for this species in the Mediterranean and relevant life-history information is becoming available. There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. crysos. In the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone, C. crysos has been assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Caranx crysos is found in the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, C. crysos is recorded from Newfoundland south to Brazil, including the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico (Devine and Fisher 2014). In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from Dorset and Cornwall in England (Swaby et al. 1996) south to Arcachon, Bay of Biscay (Quero et al. 1994), the Mediterranean, and along the African coast to Angola (Froese and Pauly 2006). The northward extension of this species' range may be related to increasing sea temperatures in the North Atlantic (Stebbing et al. 2002). It is found at depths ranging from 0–122 metres.

population:
Regional Population Landings: Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea Species-specific landings for C. crysos, under the common name "Blue Runner", are declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) from the following fishing regions, in order of decreasing landings: Western Central Atlantic, Southwest Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic. Species-specific landings are not reported to FAO from the assessment region. Caranx chrysos is expanding its range northward in the Eastern Atlantic (Stebbing et al. 2002). Recent records from the coast of Dorset and Cornwall in England (Swaby et al. 1996) brings the British records to 13 individuals (D. Herdson pers. comm. 2007), and it has recently been recorded from the Bay of Biscay (Quero et al. 1994). In a study of changes to Mediterranean fish diversity over time, this species, and carangids in general, were perceived by fishermen to have increased in abundance in the Mediterranean. Caranx crysos was numerically second among the six species which contributed most to the increase in numbers of fishes over time (Azzurro et al. 2011). It was the most abundant carangid collected at experimental Fish Aggregating Devices (FAD) off the coast of Sicily; it was the most abundant carangid at FADs placed at depths of 24–70 metres, and the second-most abundant carangid at depths of 122 meters (D'anna et al. 1999). The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) does not collect species-specific data on carangids for mapping purposes. All carangiid data are aggregated to the family level, indicating that these species are not likely to be commercially important in Northeastern Atlantic Ocean.Global Population Information The majority of landings declared to FAO originate from the Western Central Atlantic fishing zone. Since the late 1990s landings of C. crysos have continually increased, driven by increases in landings from Mexico and Brazil (FishStatJ queried January 2014). This species appears to be abundant in the western Atlantic (Rountree 1990, Swaby et al. 1996).

habitat:
Caranx crysos is a pelagic species which forms schools, primarily inshore to depths of 120 m. It is not thought to be common around reefs (FAO 2002). Juveniles are found beneath floating Sargassum mats, which provide prey and protection from predators. It feeds on shrimps, fishes and other invertebrates (Wells and Rooker 2004). Spawning periodicity varies by region. In the western Atlantic, off Florida and the Mississippi Delta, two spawning peaks have been identified for this species: the main occurring in June, July and August, with a secondary peak in October (Swaby et al. 1996). However, due to the presence of larvae in plankton samples, it has also been suggested that spawning occurs throughout the year (McKenney et al. 1958, Goodwin and Finucane 1985). In the Eastern Mediterranean, off the coast of Tunisia, the age at 50% maturity for this species was 2.4 years for males (21 cm) and 2.8 years for females (22 cm). Spawning occurs at the end of August to beginning of September, which is concordant with the timing in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Goodwin and Finucane 1985, Sley et al. 2012).    In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 42.4 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 26.3 cm TL  and for males is 24.9 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
There is little species-specific data available for C. crysos in the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean portion of its range. The population of C. crysos appears to be increasing in the Mediterranean and Northern Atlantic. Caranx crysos is not a targeted species, however it is taken as valuable bycatch. There is interest in developing sustainable management practices for this species in the Mediterranean and relevant life-history information is becoming available (Sley 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. crysos; however, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas. Catch statistics are not declared to FAO in the Mediterranean or NEA fishing zones, although it is a commercial species. Caranx crysos has undergone Red List assessment at the Global Level, and was assessed as Least Concern. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Caranx crysos is captured commercially throughout its range using haul seines, lampara nets (a type of surrounding net), purse seines, gillnets and by hook and line, trammel net (Sley 2010). It is considered a marketable species in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Tsagarakis et al. 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Caranx hippos from the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean was recently split into two species. A new species, C. fischeri, was recently described by Smith-Vaniz and Carpenter (2007). Caranx hippos and C. fischeri are largely sympatric, however it is C.fischeri which is found in the Mediterranean. There have been no confirmed records of C. hippos in the Mediterranean.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: DD Caranx fischeri was recently described and is only known from a few records within the assessment region. Therefore, it is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Caranx fischeri is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where is it known from the Mediterranean Sea and along the coast of Africa from Mauritania to Angola. In the Mediterranean, C. fischeri has been recorded from several localities, including the Balearic Islands, Spain (DeBelius 1997), Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, and Ionian seas, as well as the Strait of Sicily (Smith-Vaniz and Carpenter 2007). It appears to be absent from the Eastern Mediterranean (Golani et al. 2006). Records of C. hippos from the Mediterranean are based on misidentifications of C. fischeri (Smith-Vaniz and Carpenter 2007, Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014). It is assumed to be found at depths of 0 to 200 m, based on the depth range of C. hippos.

population:
Given that it has been recently described, there is little species-specific population information for C. fischeri.

habitat:
Caranx fischeri occurs in moderate to large schools in coastal areas. Estuaries and lagoons are essential habitat for juveniles and young. There are unconfirmed records of this species ascending far up coastal rivers to spawn. True freshwater occurrence is doubtful but there are verified collections of juveniles from three separate coastal river drainages. This species feeds primarily on fish, shrimp, and other invertebrates. This species size can be at least 100 cm fork length and approximately 26 kg (Smith-Vaniz in press).

threats:
Caranx fischeri is not confirmed to be a targeted species, however its is taken as bycatch and utilized throughout its range.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for C. fisheri. Its distribution likely overlaps marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
There are no major threats known for this species. There are no indications at present time of regional declines from harvesting. Most commercial catches of C. fischeri are made by haul seines and gillnets. It is also caught with trawls and often caught by anglers. Species-specific catch statistics for this species are unavailable because of past confusion with C. hippos. This species is utilized fresh, frozen, smoked, dried-salted and for oil and fishmeal. Edibility reported as poor to good (Smith-Vaniz in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Caranx latus is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Caranx latus is widely distributed across the Atlantic Ocean. Within Europe it is known from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canaries (REF?). Its depth range is 1-57 m.

population:
Caranx latus is well represented throughout its range in museum collections and can be locally abundant, especially around offshore islands. There is a lack of information on its population within Europe.

habitat:
Caranx latus is found mostly in small schools around islands, offshore, and along sandy beaches, but may enter brackish waters and rivers. A study on movement of reef fishes captured in Antillean fish traps in the Barbados Marine Reserve show lack of recapture of this species, suggesting that C. latus does not remain associated with particular reefs. In addition, a study by Randall (1962) in the U.S. Virgin Islands also showed zero recapture of this species (Chapman and Kramer 2000). It forms spawning aggregations in the Cayman Islands (Whaylen et al. 2004). In Belize, it spawns in April, July and August, with subgroups of 15-20 fish swimming away from a larger school of about 150-700 individuals and ascending in a vertical twisting rush to release gametes 1-2 m below the surface (Heyman and Kjerfve 2008, Colin 2012). Feeding habits in a subtropical reef in Brazil indicate C. latus foraged along or in small groups of up to three individuals during daytime and employed two main feeding styles: searching for prey while swimming in mid-water and following individuals of other fish species which disturbed the substrate while foraging among the rocks. The feeding strategy of this species allows flexibility and consumption of both crustaceans from the water column and benthic rocky dwelling fishes (Silvano 2001). Maximum size is at least 80 cm (TL); common to 50 cm (FL) (Smith-Vaniz 2002).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. Inherent biological traits such as aggregate spawning behaviour may predispose this species to a heightened risk of exploitation, however, there are no indications at present time of global population declines from harvesting. There may be some localized declines in parts of this species' range.

useAndTrade:
Caranx latus is caught mainly with hook-and-line by anglers, while commercial catches are made with purse seines and traps. In Cuba, Jack landings ranged from 300 to 560 tonnes from 1959 to 1997 (Claro et al. 2001). Aggregate catch data for carangids, jacks, crevalles in the Eastern Central Atlantic from 1950-2010 indicate an increasing trend in catch with a peak in 1978 at 42, 174 tonnes. Catch subsequently declined by 46% (at 22,821 tonnes) in 1980 and further decreased by 37% between 1980-1981. Catch landings fluctuated between 1981-1999. A second peak was recorded in 1999 at 30,938 tonnes, representing a 27% decrease from the first peak in 1978. Catch has since declined with a 67% decrease recorded in 2004, a period of five years from the last peak in 1999. Catch has since fluctuated since (2004-2010).

redListContributors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Williams, J.T., Pina Amargos, F., Curtis, M., Brown, J., Sagna, A., Sylla, M., Camara, K., Carpenter, K.E., Djiman, R. & Nunoo, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Caranx lugubris is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira and the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Caranx lugubris is distributed in tropical waters worldwide. Within Europe, it is known from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). The depth range for this species is 12-354 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).

population:
This species is common and abundant in offshore habitat in most parts of its range (B. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2012).

habitat:
Caranx lugubris is uncommon in shallow waters, and usually occurs in depths of 24-65 m or deeper, mostly in clear waters. This species is sometimes observed near drop-offs at outer edge reefs. It occasionally forms schools and primarily feeds on fishes (Fischer et al. 1990, Smith 1997). There is little information available on early life history characteristics. Prey items primarily consist of fish. The maximum recorded size of this species is 90 cm FL, but it is common to 70 cm FL (Smith-Vaniz 2002). No juveniles have been identified (B. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2012). The all-tackle IGFA world angling record is 17.9 kg (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in prep).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species and there are no indications at present time of regional declines from harvesting.

useAndTrade:
Caranx lugubris is caught mainly by hook-and-line (Smith-Vaniz 2002). Separate statistics are not reported for this species. Its edibility is uncertain and has been linked to ciguatera poisoning in Cuba and in the Indo-Pacific (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in prep). In the Eastern Central Atlantic, catches for this species are not reported separately, and Caranx spp. are mainly caught in the inshore fishery using purse-seines and in artisanal fisheries. It is rarely found in minor commercial fisheries in Jamaica (M. Curtis pers. comm. 2012). Based on the CECAF south working (2009) which covers Guinea Bissau to Angola, catch landings for Caranx spp. from 1990-2008 show and increase from 4,000 to more than 16,000 metric tonnes (Williams pers. comm. 2103). In most countries in the Eastern Central Atlantic, this species is reported within Caranx spp. which are generally caught in artisanal fisheries. There is indication that catch may be declining as effort increased. In Cape Verde, this species group is considered more or less stable. From the 1960s until the present, landings have fluctuated around 4,000 metric tonnes per year, with short spikes in production (based on Jacks, Crevally nei in FAO Statistics for the region).

redListContributors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Williams, J.T., Pina Amargos, F., Curtis, M. & Brown, J.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is likely to belong to a monotypic genus (B. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: DD Caranx rhonchus is found in the Eastern Atlantic, from the Mediterranean Sea south to Namibia at depths ranging from 30–200 metres. In the Northeast Atlantic, in the Gulf of Cadiz, IBTS survey data ranging from 1993–2013 indicates that this species appears to be declining in abundance. There is currently no available survey data from the Mediterranean, however sources indicate that this species has expanded its range in that basin, and is becoming more abundant. Caranx rhonchus exhibits behavior which is similar to Trachurus spp. and is likely to be taken in fisheries targeting small pelagics. There is little additional species-specific information available and is not currently possible to quantify population trends across the region. However, it is worth noting that the large majority of fish stocks assessed in the Mediterranean are considered overexploited, and throughout the basin there have been reductions in the mean abundance of piscivores in general. There is no age at maturity or size at maturity information currently available from the region. Pending additional survey information to clarify population trends in the region, C. rhonchus is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Caranx rhonchus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is known from the Mediterranean Sea south to Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1993). Within the Mediterranean Sea it has been reported throughout the basin (Ben Souissi et al. 2005). It is found at depths ranging from 30–200 meters.

population:
Regional population information: Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea Caranx rhonchus was reported for the first time in 1994 in the Balearic Islands and subsequently the abundance has increased (Grau and Riera 2001). The population appears to be stable in eastern Mediterranean (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007), and it is relatively common at small sizes in Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). It is caught in the Strait of Italy but is relatively rare there (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). Caranx rhonchus varied between being the the third to the fourth most abundant carangid collected at experimental fish aggregating devices off the coast of Sicily. It was more likely to be found at FADs placed at depths of 24–70 m than at FADs placed at deeper waters from 91–122 m (D'anna et al. 1999). Caranx rhonchus is common off the Tunisian coast, where individuals ranging in size from 6.5 to 30.6 cm are fished (Sley et al. 2008). This size range is below the common reported size of 35 cm (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press). Caranx rhonchus may exhibit diurnal changes in depth range similar to those seen in Trachurus spp. During the day, it is found near the bottom, and at night it is epi-pelagic. International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) data from in the Gulf of Cadiz (which was collected during the day when this species is likely to occur near the bottom and it thus appropriately sampled) show decreasing trends in biomass (g/hr and n/hr) from 1993 to 2013 (Spring) and 1997 to 2013 (Autumn) (J. Herrera IBTS unpublished data). It was absent from both spring and autumn surveys from 2008 onwards to 2013 (J. Herrera and W. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014). Data from the International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) showed low fluctuations in biomass below 0.1 ind/haul-1 from 1994–2009 but peaked in 2010 around 1.5 ind/haul-1. Landings for C. rhonchus, under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) common name "False Scad" are reported from the following two FAO fishing areas: Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA), Southeastern Atlantic. Although it is commercially important in the Mediterranean (Sley et al. 2008), official landings for this species were not found for the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fishing Region (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 January).The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) does not collect species-specific data on carangids for mapping purposes. All carangiid data are aggregated to the family level, indicating that these species are not likely to be commercially important in Northeastern Atlantic Ocean. There are 45 available museum records from the Fishnet2 database (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 January). Global Information In the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA), C. rhonchus is taken as marketable bycatch in industrial fisheries targeting large and small pelagics.

habitat:
Caranx rhonchus is a schooling species which may exhibit diurnal changes in depth range similar to those seen in Trachurus spp. During the day it is found near the bottom to depths of 200 m, and at night it is epi-pelagic (W. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014). It is considered common over muddy and sandy bottoms (Sley et al. 2008). Caranx rhonchus feeds on small fish and invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz and Berry 1981). It is a primarily opportunistic piscivorous species. Fishes comprised 52.7% of the diet, with the anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus emerging as the most important prey item. Crustaceans were the second most-important food category consumed (47.1%) (Sley et al. 2008). The maximum size of C. rhonchus is at least 60 cm total length. It has been reported as common to 35 cm FL (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press), however in the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia, individuals ranging in size from 6.5 to 30.6 cm TL were fished (Sley et al. 2008), indicating that the commonly observed size in this area is smaller than 35 cm TL (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press)

threats:
Caranx rhonchus appears to be undergoing populations declines in parts of its range, which may be due to fisheries exploitation. Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) form a major component of the diet of C. rhonchus (Sley et al. 2008) and it is likely that C. rhonchus is taken as bycatch in fisheries targeting anchovy and other small pelagics. This species is an economically important pelagic species in Tunisia, and may be overfished in the small pelagic fishery this region (Sley et al. 2008). Additionally, data from IBTS from the Gulf of Cadiz suggest a trend of continuously declining abundance from 1997 to 2013, with the species failing to appear in surveys from 2008 to 2013 (J.G. Hererra pers. comm. 2014). Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and as such Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species. As such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes. There are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40-56% of the catch taken in waters <150m) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are overexploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. rhonchus. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. Efforts to collect basic biological information are underway in light of possible overexploitation of C. rhonchus in parts of its range, particularly the Mediterranean coast of Tunisia (Sley et al. 2008). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Caranx rhonchus, like Trachurus spp., is taken as bycatch in small-pelagic fisheries using large purse seines. It is likely to be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries. Fisheries targeting small pelagics are particularly important in the ECA fishing zone. In the Mediterranean this species is caught as purse seine bycatch seasonally. Small carangids are often utilized fresh, frozen, smoked, dried-salted and for fishmeal and oil (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)Decapterus macarellus is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira and the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Decapterus macarellus has a circumtropical distribution. Within Europe it is known from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014, Santos et al. 1997). The depth range for this species is 1-400 m but it is common from 40-200 m (Smith-Vaniz 1986, Mundy 2005).

population:
There is a shortage of information regarding the population of this species in the European region. South of the region, in Cape Verde, there is an important fishery that exists for this species, constituting almost 40% of total catches at the peak of the fishery in 1997 and 1998 (~3700 tonnes). Stock assessment using Bayesian approach to biomass dynamic modelling indicate that the current level of fishing for this species is sustainable even though catches have been stable at a much lower level of about 2100 tonnes in recent years. These results are, however, considered as preliminary and should be approached with caution (Stobberup and Erzini 2006).

habitat:
Decapterus macarellus is found mainly in schools in open water, occasionally over outer reefs and frequently around islands. It feeds primarily on zooplankton (Cervigón et al. 1992, Smith-Vaniz 1995). The maximum size is 46 cm (TL) and is common to about 25 cm (FL) (Smith-Vaniz 2002, Jiménez and Béarez 2004). In Japan, the spawning period was observed from April to July. The length at 50% maturity of females was estimated at 25.8 cm and age at maturity at 2 years old (Shiraishi et al. 2010). In Cape Verde, length at first maturity is 22 cm (Monteiro pers. comm. 2012), and the reproductive period is from August to September.

useAndTrade:
Decapterus macarellus is an important component of fisheries in some parts of its distributional range (e.g. Cape Verde) and it is caught with haul seines, some purse seines, bottom trawls, gillnets and hook-and-line. It is an important subsistence food source in Bali and is harvested for use as bait for handline fishing and for the developing longline tuna fishery in neighboring East New Britain (Hair and Magea 1995, Smith-Vaniz 2002). It is sold locally for food at about US $0.08 for three fish (Hair and Magea 1995). It is a minor component of the fishery in Cuba (F. Pina-Amargos pers. comm. 2012). 

redListContributors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Williams, J.T., Pina Amargos, F., Curtis, M., Brown, J., de Morais, L., Sagna, A., Sylla, M., Camara, K., Carpenter, K.E., Djiman, R., Nunoo, F. & Sidibé, A


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size, trend and threats to this rare species. Further research should be conducted to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
Decapterus punctatus is widely distributed across the Atlantic Ocean, although in European waters it is rarely found in the Canaries and Madeira (Brito et al. 2002, Wirtz et al. 2008). It is found at depths ranging from one to 110 m.

population:
There are no data on the population size and trends of this species in European waters. There are only three specimens in the collection of the Funchal Natural History Museum, taken from a fish market in 1956. A few specimens were caught in the western islands of the Canaries, where it is considered rare (Brito et al. 2002).

habitat:
Decapterus punctatus is primarily a schooling species in midwaters or near the bottom in shallower waters. It is also found in pelagic waters and near the surface, especially as juveniles. Prey items include planktonic invertebrates, mainly copepods (Smith-Vaniz 2002). Decapterus punctatus is a small, short-lived carangid that reaches a maximum size of 21.3 cm FL and maximum age of about four years (Houde et al. 1983).

redListContributors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Williams, J.T., Pina Amargos, F., Brown, J., Curtis, M., de Morais, L., Sidibé, A, Nunoo, F., Carpenter, K.E., Camara, K., Djiman, R., Sagna, A., Sylla, M., Polidoro, B., Comeros-Raynal, M. & Strongin, K.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Elagatis bipinnulata is a widely distributed species which appears to be rare within the assessment region encompassing the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is known from the offshore Islands of the Canaries and the Azores, however there is little published information from these regions indicating that it is perhaps rare from those localities as well. Therefore, E, bipinnulata is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Elagatis bipinulata is circumtropical in marine waters. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the distribution of this species not well known. Records have been confirmed from the Azores, Canary islands (very rare), Cape Verde, Ascension and St Helena islands, and the Côte d’Ivoire Coast to Angola (Smith-Vaniz in press). The only record from the Mediterranean is from 1846, when ten animals were caught near Genoa (Debelius 1997). Depth range 1 to at least 150 m.

population:
In the eastern Atlantic this species is only known from tropical offshore islands. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) does not collect species-specific data on carangids for mapping purposes. All carangid data are lumped to the family level, indicating that these species are not likely to be important in European waters. Aggregate catch data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for the Rainbow Runner from 1950 to 2010 indicate an increasing trend in catches with peaks in 1968 at 11,200 mt, fluctuations in landings followed this peak. The overall trend is increasing catches with the highest peak recorded in 2010 at 20,754 mt. Elagatis bipinnulata is well represented in museum collections (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 August).

habitat:
Elagatis bipinnulata is a pelagic species which is found mainly near the surface, over reefs or sometimes offshore. It may form large schools. Prey items include invertebrates and fish. This species reaches a maximum size of 107 cm (FL), however it is common to 80 cm (FL) (Smith-Vaniz 2002). Spawning is thought to occur throughout the year in the Indo-Pacific and Western Atlantic, with a peak in larval/juvenile capture in March in the Indo-Pacific and in every month except May and December in the Western Atlantic (Okiyama 1970, Aprieto 1974, Yesaki 1979). Elagatis bipinnulata may form spawning aggregations; It has been observed to exhibit pair courtship in Belize, in schools of up to ~300 fish (Graham and Castellanos 2005). In São Pedro and São Paulo Archipelago, length at first sexual maturity for females was estimated at 64.6 cm (FL). Spawning period in the area occurs during the first semester of the year (Pinheiro et al. 2011). Maximum size is up to 107 cm (possibly even 120 cm) fork length and 10.5 kg, however it is common to 80 cm fork length. All-tackle International Game Fish Associationg (IGFA) world angling record 17.05 kg (Smith-Vaniz in press).

threats:
Elagatis bipinnulata is taken as bycatch in the tuna purse seine fisheries (Rajruchithong et al. 2005). There are no indications at present time of regional and global declines from harvesting.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for E. bipinnulata. Its distribution likely overlaps with marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Elagatis bipinnulata is a commercially important species in parts of its range (Yesaki 1979). However it is poorly known from the northeastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone and does not appear to be utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Lichia amia occurs from southern Bay of Biscay to South Africa, including the Mediterranean. It has been recorded in the Canary Islands, however records from the Azores are unconfirmed. It previously occurred in the Black Sea, however there are no known recent records and it may have been extirpated from this part of its range. It is a pelagic, oceanadromous species which occurs to depths of 50 m. It is found in coastal waters and in estuaries. It is primarily piscivorous, feeding on small fishes. Commercially important small pelagics, such as Sardinella aurita, were found to form a major portion of the diet. Lichia amia appears to be a targeted commercial species in eastern Mediterranean driftnet fisheries. Additionally, it is taken as bycatch in various fisheries, including tuna driftnet fisheries and purse seine fisheries throughout the Mediterranean. It is inferred that L. amia is taken as commercially-important bycatch of industrial and artisanal fisheries targeting small pelagics throughout its range. Aggregated global landings of L. amia, declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), have declined roughly 80% since the 1980s, and this declining trend is reflected in varying degrees in every fishing region from which this landings are declared (Eastern Central Atlantic, Mediterranean/Black Sea, Northeast Atlantic, Southeast Atlantic). In the northeast Atlantic, landing statistics are driven primarily by the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fishing Region, where landing statistics may be unreliable due to misidentification issues. The only known minimum size restrictions in place are from Turkey, and are below the size at first maturity for this species. Additionally, this species may have been extirpated from the Black Sea since the 1960s. It is found in marine protected areas and has been shown to benefit from their creation. Although the reported landings have declined substantially since the 1980s, these are not thought to reflect true population declines. Therefore, L. amia is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lichia amia is found in the western Indian Ocean and eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, L. amia occurs from southern Bay of Biscay to South Africa, including the Mediterranean. It has been recorded in the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985) and at the offshore islands of São Tomé and Príncipe islands, Gulf of Guinea (Wirtz et al. 2007). Records from the Azores may be mis-identifications of Seriola spp. (Santos et al. 1997).  In the Mediterranean, Lichia amia occurs in the Iberian waters (Dempster et al. 2002), in the southern Tunisia (Souissi et al. 2005), in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Romanelli et al. 2002), in the central Adriatic Sea (Dulčić and Glamuzina 2006), and in the Aegean waters (Akin et al. 2005). In 1959, this species occasionally occurred in the Black Sea (Slastenenko 1959); however, there are no recent confirmed records. This species has been recorded at depths of up to 50 meters.

population:
Population Structure There is no information on the population structure of L. amia in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment region. A study using mitochondrial control region found that L. amia in South Africa and Angola represent genetically structured, distinct stocks across the Benguela current (Henriques et al. 2012).  Regional population information: northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea Lichia amia was not recorded before 1950 to the north of Portugal, and is thought to be undergoing north-wards range expansion (Quero 1998). In the Mediterranean Sea, this fish is widespread but not common and abundant only seasonally in certain areas. In the Adriatic Sea, eastern Mediterranean, Lichia amia was described as being among the most commonly collected fishes in the early 1990s (Dulčić and Kraljević 1996).  Lichia amia accounted for 0.1% by numbers of the fishes collected in the central portion of the Libyan coast, and 0.02% of the fishes collected in the eastern portion of the range (Shakman and Kinzelbach 2007). It was the least abundant carangid collected at experimental fish aggregating devices placed at depths of 24–70 metres off the coast of Sicily, and was not collected at devices placed in deeper waters of 120 metres (d'Anna et al. 1999). Romanelli et al. (2002) states that 15 juvenile specimens were collected in the Gulf of Salerno in the fishing season of 1997, with 52 hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m). According to Dulčić and Glamuzina (2006), 68 specimens ranging in size from 33.6 to 49.5 cm TL were collected from three eastern Adriatic estuarine systems, using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps). Thirteen individuals ranging in size from 16.6 to 102 cm, with a mean of 35.60 cm, were collected in a study of the weight length relationships of fishes of the littoral to lower slope habitats of the Balearic Islands and the Iberian coast, western Mediterranean (Morey et al. 2003). The mean length is below the length at first maturity of 55 cm for this species (Smith-Vaniz in press). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings for this species in the Mediterranean show dramatic declines, however the available landing statistics are an aggregation of at least two species. In Turkey, this species is sometimes reported under the FAO name Greater Amberjack. In 2000, the Leerfish and Greater Amberjack were separated by statistics in Turkey and therefore it appears as if the dramatic declines may be due to a statistical anomaly (Di Natale et al. 2011). Global Population Information Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions, in order of decreasing landings: Eastern Central Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea, North East Atlantic, South East Atlantic. The overall trend in landings is one of gradual decrease from peaks of 6000 to 8000 tonnes the mid-to-late 1980s to 1000–2000 tonnes from the year 2000 onwards - a decline of roughly 80%. The declining trend is reflected in the landings of each fishing region.

habitat:
Lichia amia is a pelagic and oceanodromous species. It is found in coastal waters and occasionally enters the lower reaches of rivers (Okeyo 2003) and estuaries (Dulčić and Glamuzina 2006). As adults L. amia feed mainly on fishes while juveniles prefer crustaceans (Van der Elst et al. 1991). Dietary studies indicate that, in some areas, commercially-important small pelagics, such as Sardinella aurita, dominate the diet (Potts et al. 2010). Off the coast of Angola, females attain sexual maturity at 2.4 years (Potts et al. 2008). Lichia amia reproduces during the April to June in the Mediterranean (Lloret et al. 2000). This species is reported to attain 200 cm total length (TL). It is common to 100 cm total length. This species attains sexual maturity at about 55 cm total length (Smith-Vaniz in press). The All-tackle IGFA world angling record for this species 23.7 kg (IGFA 2014).

threats:
Lichia amia is poorly characterized in terms of use and trade. It appears to be a targeted commercial species in eastern Mediterranean driftnet fisheries. It is also taken as bycatch in various additional fisheries, including tuna driftnet fisheries and purse seine fisheries throughout the Mediterranean. This species feeds on small pelagics, and it is inferred that L. amia is taken as commercially-important bycatch of industrial and artisanal pelagic fisheries throughout its range. Lichia amia, described as a voracious piscivore feeding on schools of small fishes, appears to display similar habitat and ecology characteristics to the bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, which is suspected to be undergoing population declines in the region and may face similar levels of fishing pressure. The only known a minimum-size limit in place for Lichia amia is 20 cm in Turkey, and is below the size at first maturity of  for this species. The aggregated global declared FAO landings for L. amia have declined roughly 80% since the 1980s, and this declining trend is reflected in varying degrees in every fishing region from which this landings are declared (Eastern Central Atlantic, Mediterranean/Black Sea, Northeast Atlantic, Southeast Atlantic). Misidentification issues have been highlighted from the FAO Mediterranean fishing zone, making landing statistics from the region unreliable. The mean size Additionally, this species may have been extirpated from the Black Sea, and there is concern about overfishing of stocks in South Africa (Potts et al. 2008). Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and, therefore, Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species, making stock assessments difficult and expensive. There are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40-56% of the catch taken in waters <150 m) and the generalized reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are overexploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions in F between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013).

conservationAction:
There is a minimum size limit of 20 cm TL in Turkey. Additionally, because it is an important recreational species, there is interest in developing management plans in Angola and South Africa (Potts 2008). This species is found in marine protected areas, and its population has been observed to benefit from their creation (Gómez et al. 2006). Lichia amia was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). There is a need for more research to better characterize harvest and population levels within the Mediterranean. Monitoring of harvest levels is recommended.

useAndTrade:
Lichia amia is taken in low numbers in a number of Mediterranean fisheries utilizing various gears including, gillnets, and purse seines (Coll et al. 2004). Lichia amia ranging in weight from 6 to 13 kg are taken in small numbers as bycatch in tuna driftnet fisheries of the northwestern Mediterranean (Bӑnaru et al. 2010). They are also taken with specialized driftnets in the eastern Mediterranean (Akyol et al. 2003) Small numbers (0.4% of catches) are also taken in the purse seine fishery in Iskenderun Bay, Turkey (Zengin and Karakulak 2009). This species is targeted by recreational spearfishing in the northwestern Mediterranean, and there is concern that this may be in direct competition with artisanal fisheries operating in the region (Lloret et al. 2008).  It is an important recreational species off the coasts of Angola and South Africa (Potts et al. 2010), however whether or not this is the case in the northeastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment region is unknown. Many carangids are utilized fresh, frozen, smoked, and/or dried-salted (Smith-Vaniz in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Naucrates ductor is found in tropical and subtropical marine waters. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from the British Isles to Namibia, including the Mediterranean, at depths ranging from 5 to 30 m. This species is generally common in most of its range. It is pelagic and has a semi-obligate commensalism with large sharks, rays, other fishes, and turtles. It can also be found underneath ships, driftwood, and near Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs). Juveniles are often associated with Sargassum and jellyfishes. It is a fast-growing species which reaches a maximum age of at least three years. This species is exploited by different seasonal small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean as bycatch in the dolphinfish fishery. There are no major threats known for this species and its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in many parts of its range. Therefore, N. ductor is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Naucrates ductor is found circumglobally in tropical and subtropical marine waters. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, N. ductor is known from the British Isles, where it is rare (Smith-Vaniz 1986), to Angola. It is also found in the Mediterranean, and has occasionally been caught in the Black Sea (Bauchot 1987). It is found at depths ranging from 5 to at least 30 m.

population:
Naucrates ductor is one of the most characteristic of the pelagic fish assemblage associated with Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs). In a study that compared the catch efficiency of an experimental purse seine and that of nets used in the Coryphaena hippurus fishery in Majorca, N. ductor was among the most abundant and frequently caught species from experimental net catches, and appeared in 32% of the hauls and  along with Trachurus picturatus and Seriola dumerili, represented 95% of the specimens caught and 67% of the biomass. Capture in commercial catch nets show that this species along with Coryphaena hippurus represented more than 85% of both abundance and biomass (Massuti et al. 1999). Catch trends from 1981 to 1996 show an increase to a peak of 30 metric tonnes in 1989, followed by a decrease to 5 metric tonnes in 1995. Since 1992, annual captured have been less than the mean value of the available historical time series, however, the fishery is not directly dependent on the abundance of the species, but rather on the migratory behavior of the dolphinfish (Reñones et al. 1999).

habitat:
Naucrates ductor is pelagic in oceanic water. This species has a semi-obligate commensalism with large sharks, rays, other fishes, turtles, ships, and driftwood. Juveniles are often associated with seaweeds, jellyfishes and Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs). Larvae are epi-pelagic in ocean waters. Prey items include host's food scraps and small invertebrates. Age and growth studies in Majorca Island indicate that there are two peaks of recruitment during the year. The only available data on maximum age (3 years) is based on a few specimens kept in captivity. Individuals ranging in size from 15 to 31.2 cm fork length (FL) were captured from 1990 to 1997 in the seasonal dolphinfish fishery off Majorca (Reñones et al. 1999). This species reaches a maximum size of 63 FL, 70 cm total length (TL), and is common to 35 cm FL. At 33 cm FL this species weighs 5 kg (Smith-Vaniz in press).

threats:
Naucrates ductor is taken as by-catch of the dolphinfish fishery in the Mediterranean (Pipitone et al. 2000, Reñones et al. 1999). Worldwide reductions of large pelagic species may have some effect on the populations of this species. This species is potentially vulnerable to local overfishing in FADs (Reñones et al. 1999).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is exploited by different seasonal small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean, the most important of which takes place in Malta, Sicily and Mollorca from the end of summer to the beginning of winter. It is taken as by-catch of the dolphinfish fishery using Fish Aggregating Devices (Reñones et al. 1999).


taxonomicNotes:
Common names for non-Atlantic and non-South African localities probably are missapplied. The scientific names applied to non-Atlantic and non-South African localities are probably misapplied (B. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Pseudocaranx dentex is found on both sides of the Atlantic, and has also been recorded in upwelling areas off Somalia and Japan. In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from the southern Mediterranean south along the African coast to South Africa including the Canaries, Azores and Madeira. The northern-most limit of viable populations of P. dentex is the Azores. It is a coastal species which is found at depths ranging from 10–238 metres. It is an inshore, schooling species which appears to be found over a variety of bottom types, and may form spawning aggregations over offshore reefs. There is little species-specific population information available for P. dentex within the assessment region. It appears to be a seasonally targeted species in parts of its range, particularly in the Azores where there is anectotal evidence of population decline, however there is little information from the remainder of its range within the assessment zone. It is expanding its range northwards and may be increasing in abundance within the assessment area. Therefore, P. dentex is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pseudocaranx dentex is found along both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, and has also been recorded in upwelling areas off Somalia and Japan. In the eastern Atlantic, this species is distributed from the Iberian peninsula south along the African coast to South Africa. It has been recorded in the Canary Islands, the Azores and Madiera (Dooley et al. 1985), as well as Cape Verde, Ascension and St. Helena Island. It is also found from Australia, Lord Howe and Norfolk islands, New Zealand, as well as New Caledonia.  The northern-most limit of viable populations of P. dentex is the Azores. Populations in the Mediterranean are found along the southern coast of the basin, with the northern-most confirmed occurrence of this species being the coast of Izmir, Aegean Sea, Turkey (Akyol et al. 2011). It is found at depths ranging from 10–238 metres.

population:
Regional population information: northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea This species is common and can be locally abundant in the eastern Atlantic. It is described as common in the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985). It is a commercially important shallow reef-fish in parts of its range. The Azores are the northern distribution limit for viable populations of P. dentex. In the Azores Islands, fishermen target spawning aggregations of P. dentex over offshore reefs during the summer months. This practice has been implicated localized population declines, as evidenced by the presence of fewer and smaller individuals in areas. Anecdotal information from local fishermen indicates that, prior to local increases in fishing intensity, catches of large schools and very large individuals occurred frequently (Afonso et al. 2008). Pseudocaranx dentex ranging in size from 2 to 20 cm were the most abundant species recorded at fish aggregating devices off the Grand Canary Islands (Castro et al. 1999). Pseudocaranx dentex may be extending its range northwards. It it is considered a non-native species in the Mediterranean. A re-examination of specimens confirmed the presence of this species in the southern Mediterranean, and more recent collections along the coasts of Izmir, Aegean Sea, Turkey suggest that it is expanding its range northwards (Akyol et al. 2011). Global population information Pseudocaranx dentex was the least abundant of three carangid species inhabiting nearshore rocky reefs of Western Ghana, comprising 18.64% of the total carangid abundance. During upwelling seasons in Ghana, when schools of large-bodied pelagic fishes, including P. dentex, migrate close to the shore and the water surface they are targeted by illegal dynamite fishing. Even non-fishers engage in this practice during times of upwelling (Ateweberhan et al. 2012).

habitat:
Pseudocaranx dentex is found in inshore schools, feeding on the bottom. Younger White Trevally use suction feeding to prey on invertebrates and small fishes that live in sand and algae (Sazima 1998, Afonos et al. 2008). In a study of habitat preferences of this species in the Azores, small, immature individuals were observed to occur almost exclusively in sheltered inshore habitats, whereas large individuals (51–70 cm total length (TL)) occurred in offshore reefs. There were also seasonal differences observed with offshore reefs having the highest abundance of mature fish in the summer whereas in the winter, only one mature fish was observed in the inshore exposed reef. In the Eastern Mediterranean, sizes ranged from 20–35 cm (max 40 cm; elsewhere 80 cm). This species is typically found small groups or solitary depths of 5 to 40 metres (Golani et al. 2006). There is no age-and-growth information available for this species. However, the congener P. georgianus has been studied, and was found to have a fast growth rate for the first 5 years of life, followed by a long period of slow growth to a maximum of around 40 years (Rowling and Raines 2000). Reproduction In the Azores islands, central north Atlantic, the sex ratio was observed to be close to 1:1 and fish matured at about 30 cm (FL). There were no differences in the maturation or length-weight relationships between sexes. The spawning season lasts from June to September. Fish undergo the maturation process throughout late winter and spring, and become reproductively active in June. This species is an annual spawner that most probably releases gametes in multiple events during the summer. Pseudocaranx dentex form spawning aggregations around the summits of offshore reefs. Although there was no direct evidence of spawning in offshore reef aggregations (spawning behavior, presence of hydrated eggs or post-ovulatory folicules in the females from reef aggregations), intensive social interaction between schooling individuals in offshore reefs was observed on various occasions. Pseudocaranx dentex may also exhibit a surface spawning behavior (Afonso et al. 2008).

threats:
Pseudocaranx dentex is expanding its range northwards in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean. It is likely taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, however there is little information available. There is informal evidence of population declines in the Azores, which have been attributed to the targeting of offshore spawning aggregations that form around reef structures. Aggregate spawning behavior may render this species vulnerable to overexploitation (Afonso et al. 2008). Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and as such Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species, making it difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes. There are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40-56% of the catch taken in waters <150 m) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are over-exploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013).

conservationAction:
There are few species-specific conservation measures in place for P. dentex in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. Offshore spawning aggregations of this species have been identified for protection in the Azores. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Pseudocaranx dentex is a commercially important species in the eastern Atlantic, however fisheries are poorly characterized (Smith-Vaniz in press). Pseudocaranx dentex is an important component of both commercial and recreational fisheries in many areas (Rowling and Raines 2000).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Selene dorsalis is known from a few records in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. It is likely expanding its range into the region. Therefore, S. dorsalis is assessed as Non Applicable.

range:
Selene dorsalis is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is not well known. It is definitely known from the Canary islands (very rare) and Cape Verde islands and along the African coast from Senegal to Walvis Bay, Namibia. There are also unconfirmed records from Portugal and Madeira (Smith-Vaniz in press). Recent records from the Maltese Islands, Mediterranean (Vella and Deidun 2009) and the Gulf of Cádiz, Atlantic coast of Spain (Juárez et al. 2008) suggest that this species may be expanding its range. It is found at depths ranging from 20 to 100 metres (Smith-Vaniz 1986).

population:
There is limited population information available for Selene dorsalis. It is rare in the Canary Islands (Smith-Vaniz in press). It may be more common in warmer waters off the coast of Western Africa, as it was commonly observed in fish markets in Ghana (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm 2014).

habitat:
Selene dorsalis is a schooling species, which is usually found near the bottom over shelf waters from inshore waters to at least 100 m depth. Off the coast of Angola, this species was found to be more common at depths of 24 m or less, and became gradually less common in deeper waters, not being found at depths greater than 112 m (Bianchi 1992). The young of less than 3 cm fork length (FL) occur near the surface, and juveniles may be found in bays and river mouths. This species feeds on small fishes and crustaceans. The largest individual examined was 32.5 cm FL (36 cm total length (TL)), 0.4 kg. This species is common to 24 cm FL (Smith-Vaniz in press).

threats:
There is no species-specific threat information available for S. dorsalis from the assessment region. Off the western coast of Africa, Selene dorsalis is caught with pelagic and bottom trawls (Smith-Vaniz in press).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. dorsalis.

useAndTrade:
Selene dorsalis is a commercial species off the coast of West Africa, where it is utilized fresh and for fish meal and oil (Smith-Vaniz in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Seriola carpenteri is widely but irregularly distributed in the Eastern Atlantic. There is little species-specific population information for S. carpenteri from the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea. There are no known threats within the assessment region, however it is a commercially important species off the coast of West Africa. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Seriola carpenteri is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the Bay of Biscay and Agadir, Morocco south to Angola, including Cape Verde (Smith-Vaniz 1986). It has recently been recorded from Lampedusa Island in the Mediterranean at depths of 20 meters (Pizzicori et al. 2000). This species is found to depths of 200 m.

population:
There is limited population information available for this species. Seriola carpenteri is likely to be misidentified as S. dumereli. It is relatively common along the African Atlantic coast (Valls et al. 2011).

habitat:
Seriola carpenteri is generally found in coastal waters over continental shelf, from the surface to at least 200 m. It feeds on squids and fishes. This species also confines to areas where surface temperature exceed 25°C, its distribution perhaps influenced by seasonal movements of the 18–27°C water mass along the African coast. Eggs are pelagic (Smith-Vaniz 1986). This species is thought to have a protracted spawning period. Sexually mature individuals were collected from the Mediterranean. The maximum observed size is 60.5 cm (Pizzicori et al. 2000).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to this species within the assessment region, however it is a commercial species off the coast of West Africa, and is likely taken as by-catch in a number of fisheries. It is caught by fishermen around Lampedusa Island, in the Mediterranean Sea (Pizzicori et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. carpenteri.

useAndTrade:
Serioloa carpenteri is a commercial species off the coast of West Africa. This species is likely to be taken in fisheries landing S. dumerili.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is commonly misidentified for both Seriola rivoliana and S. carpenteri, making market data unreliable (B. Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: LC Seriola dumerili is a widely distributed species which has been described as relatively common in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. It is a schooling species which is found over a variety of habitats, most often at depths ranging from 17 to 82 m. Observed longevity is at least 10 years within the assessment region, which is lower than the observed longevity of 15 to 17 years in the western Atlantic. Maturity occurs at age 4 to 5. This species forms spawning aggregations in shallow waters which are targeted by fishermen. Species-specific population information is limited, however available information suggest that S. dumerili may be increasing in abundance within the assessment region due to climate change. Seriola dumerili is a sometimes-targeted component of a variety of industrial, artisanal and recreational fisheries in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. Both juveniles and adults are taken as bycatch in multi-species fisheries, and are sometimes discarded. Both juveniles and adults are taken in a number of multi-species fisheries. Interest in the captive culture of S. dumerili is increasing. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for S. dumerili, however it is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefor, S. dumerili is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Seriola dumerili is nearly circumglobal in tropical and warm temperate waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. dumerili is found from England to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean (Smith-Vaniz 2002). It has been reported from depths ranging from 0–360 metres.

population:
Regional population information: Seriola dumerili is commonly misidentified as both S. rivoliana and S. carpenteri, making market data unreliable (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2013). Landings of S. dumerili are declared from the following Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fishing regions, in order of decreasing landings: Mediterranean and Black Sea, Western Central Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic. The overall trend in total landings is one of continual increase to a peak of roughly 3393 tonnes in 2001 followed by a series of large fluctuations. Landings in the Mediterranean mirror global landings, and exhibit a series of large fluctuations from 2005 to 2012. Seriola dumerili is the most common Seriola spp. in the Mediterranean (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014). In the Mediterranean, except in the Black and north Adriatic seas, amberjack is considered to be a generally abundant species (Bini 1968, Andaloro et al. 1992). In Algeria, S. dumerili comprised 10% of artisanal fisheries landings and there was little change in the % contribution, or the total amount captured between 1998 and 2002 (Belhabib et al. 2013). Global population information: This species has been overfished in Western Central Atlantic (Stephen and Harris 2010).

habitat:
Habitat and ecology Seriola dumerili is an epibenthic and pelagic species. Fish less than 3 kg may be taken in shallow water (<10 m). Larger fish are usually taken at depths of 18–72 m and have been taken as deep as 360 m. It is often found on reefs or at deep offshore holes or drop-offs, usually in small or moderate-sized schools, but may be solitary (Smith-Vaniz 2002). It is also found over rocky outcrops and wrecks (Harris et al. 2007). Juveniles associate with sargassum or flotsam in oceanic and offshore neritic waters. Prey items include fishes, invertebrates and sometimes live, dead, and artificial bait. Seriola dumerili undergoes marked shifts in diet with growth. Small specimens up to 18.5 cm have a planktonic diet based on decapod larvae, pelagic amphipods and gastropods, while larger individuals are piscivorous. This diet shift corresponds to a shift in habitat which brings larger fishes closer inshore in pursuit of small pelagic prey such as the round sardinella Sardinella aurita (Pipitone and Andaloro 1995). In the Western Mediterranean this species was found to feed on a variety of commercially important species, including Engraulis encrasicholus, Sardina pilchardus, and Merluccius merluccius. The diet was 96.40% fish Teleostei (Matallanas et al. 1995). Seriola dumerili is a migratory species; migratory patterns of S. dumerili are likely to be impacted by global warming, as evidenced by the increasingly longer stays in the northern and central Mediterranean waters (Bombace 2001). Life history and reproduction Seriola dumerili has a rapid growth-rate, reaching 6 kg in 2.5 years in culture (Jover et al. 1999). Maturity occurs at 3 years of age, however in captive environments functional breeders are 4 and 5 years old for males and females, respectively. Reproduction in captivity is difficult, so most research and commercial culture activities are based on wild-caught juveniles or eggs produced from hormone-induced mature breeders obtained in the wild (Jover et al. 1999). Age, growth and mortality of S. dumerili in the southeastern Mediterranean Sea were determined by Kožul et al. (2001) based on 298 specimens collected from the 17 May to 26 June 1997. Total length ranged from 32.0 to 160.0 cm and weight from 0.5 to 46.5 kg. There were ten age classes.  For comparison, in the coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean longevity ranged from 15 to 17 years (Thompson et al. 1999). The overall sex ratio was 1:1.06. Total (Z) and natural (M) mortality were found to be 0.41 years -1 and 0.30 years-1. All individuals are sexually mature by the fifth year. Seriola dumerili form spawning aggregations (Kožul et al. 2001, Graham and Castellanos 2005). Seriola dumerili begins to aggregate near the coast at the beginning of the spawning season (May–June) when the sea temperature exceeds 18 °C (Kožul et al. 2001).  This species reaches a maximum size of 188 cm (TL), however it common from about 70 cm (FL) to 110 cm (FL) (Smith-Vaniz 2002).

threats:
Seriola dumerili is a sometimes-targeted component of commercial and recreational fisheries in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. Both juveniles and adults are taken as bycatch in multi-species fisheries, and are sometimes discarded. Both juveniles and adults are taken in a number of multi-species fisheries (Pipitone and Andaloro 1995). There is evidence of the targeting of spawning aggregations in shallow waters (Kožul et al. 2001), and it is likely that spawning aggregations are targeted throughout the assessment zone.  Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and as such Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species. As such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes. There are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40-56% of the catch taken in waters <150 m) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are overexploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013). This species is known to have undergone localized population declines due to overfishing in the western portion of its range (Stephen and Harris 2010),

conservationAction:
Eastern Atlantic: There do not appear to be any species-specific management efforts in place for S. dumerili in the Mediterranean or in the eastern Atlantic. Western Atlantic: Seriola dumerili is included in the snapper-grouper complex and is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC). Current regulations include: Commercial: - limited access permit required-36 in (FL) size limit, no coring-Trip limit is 1,200 lbs.-Commercial fishery closure in April; 1,169,931 pound quota. No sale after quota is reached. No sale in April- Gear restrictions apply (http://www.safmc.net/Portals/6/Library/allowablegear.pdf) Recreational - 28 in (FL) size limit, no coring-Daily bag limit = 1-Gear restrictions apply This species distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (WDPA 2010). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
In the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone, S. dumerili is typically referred to as either Greater Amberjack, Mediterranean Yellowtail, or Mediterranean Amberjack. It is taken as bycatch in commercial, artisanal and recreational fisheries (Morales-Nin et al. 2005). In Turkey, 90% of landings of S. dumerili are taken by the large-scale fisheries sector, and 10% by the small-scale artisanal sector (Ulman et al. 2013). It is taken in purse seines targeting pelagics, long-lines targeting large pelagics, and trawls (Pipitone and Andaloro 1995, Edelist et al. 2011). It is regularly taken as bycatch in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Tsagarakis et al. 2012). In the Mediterranean, both juvenile and adult S. dumerili are exploited by purse seine (Pipitone and Andaloro 1995).  Seriola dumerili is highly valued and explicitly targeted or retained as commercially important bycatch in some parts of the Mediterranean (i.e. Spain, Repullés-Albelda et al. 2013). In the Aegean Sea, this species is the target of a commercial fishery totaling about 20 tonnes per year. Fishing mortality in that region (E=0.27) was relatively low (Kožul 2001). In some areas, such as Donji Molunat Bay, Adriatic Sea, fishermen target spawning aggregations of S. dumerili as they move into shallow waters (Kožul et al. 2001). However, it is not always retained when taken as bycatch. For example, in Israel individuals averaging 13 cm in size are discarded at a rate of 7.9% from the Israeli trawl fishery (Edelist et al. 2011).  There is interest in rearing S. dumerili in captivity, and it has been the subject of rearing experiments both in concrete ponds and floating cages (Papandroulakis et al. 2005). Italy is the largest producer of S. dumerili in European waters, producing 500 tons per year, which represents one-sixth of global capture production (FAO 2012). There has been interest in culturing this species in the Canary Islands (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Seriola fasciata is widely distributed on both sides of the Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Mediterranean, Azores, Madeira, Canary, Cape Verde, and St. Helena islands. It appears to be expanding its range northwards, and is increasing in abundance within the northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. It is found at depths ranging from 55 to 130 metres. It is likely that S. faciata is taken in the same fisheries which land the commercially-important congener, S. dumerili, and that it is discarded from those same fisheries. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. fasciata, however it is likely found in marine protected areas througout its range. Therefore, S. fasicata is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Seriola fasciata is widespread in the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, S. fasciata is known from the Iberian peninsula south to the Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea. Within the Mediterranean Sea, S. fasciata has been reported through the western basin, including the Gulf of Lion (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), Gulf of Gabes (Bradai 2000), the Balearic Islands (Massuti and Sefanescu 1993), in the Ionian and southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Costa 1999; Andaloro et al. 2002, 2003), and on the east Tunisian coast near Monastir (Andaloro et al. 2005). It is also known from Maltese and Sicilian waters (Andaloro et al. 2005). Recent records extend the known range northwards to Galician waters (Bañón et al. 2011) and into the eastern Mediterranean (Corsini et al. 2006). It is found at depths ranging from 55 to 130 m.

population:
There is little species-specific population available for S. fasciata in the eastern Atlantic. Seriola fasciata is sometimes misidentified as the more common S. carpenteri, which is a commercially important species, and also as S. carpenteri (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014). There are no species-specific landing statistics reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for S. fasciata, and it is likely that this species is taken in the same fisheries as S. fasciata. This species is expanding its range northwards and has recently become established in the Mediterranean. The high frequency of records and large range of sizes recorded indicate that this species may have established a stable populations in the western Mediterranean (Andaloro et al. 2005). This species was once considered to be rare in the Mediterranean, however surveys carried out between 2001 and 2002 indicate that this species may not be as sporadic as previously thought (Andaloro et al. 2005). This species is locally abundant in Madeira (Deidun et al. 2011).

habitat:
Seriola fasciata juveniles are epipelagic under floating objects in oceanic or offshore neritic waters. Larger juveniles are bentho-pelagic in shelf waters, and adults are found mostly near the bottom at depths of 55 to 130 m depth. Prey items consist mostly of squid and fishes, but it will take dead bait. Maximum size to 68 cm (FL) (Smith-Vaniz 2002).

threats:
Seriola fasciata is likely taken incidentally in fisheries targeting other species, including the Greater Amberjack S. dumerili and the dolphinfish Coryphaena hippurus. There are no species-specific landing statistics available. There are no indications at present time of regional declines from harvesting. Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and as such Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species. As such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes. There are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40-56% of the catch taken in waters <150 m) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are over exploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation or management measures in the Eastern Atlantic for either S. fasciata or the commercially important congeneric S. dumerili. It is likely that S. fasicata is found in marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Seriola fasciata is not explicitly targeted in the eastern Atlantic, however it is caught incidentally in a number of fisheries, including Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) fisheries, which use Fish-Aggregating Devices (Andaloro et al. 2002), and Greater Amberjack (S. dumerili) fisheries. Greater Amberjack fisheries are diverse and operate at the artisanal, industrial and recreational levels. Sometimes S. dumerili is explicitly targeted, however it appears to most often be taken as bycatch in mixed multi-species fisheries using long-lines, trawls and purse seines. Additionally, S. dumerili spawning aggregations are targeted in shallow waters. It is inferred that S. fasicata is taken in these same fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Seriola rivoliana is a circumtropical species. In the Eastern Atlantic this species is known from Portugal to West Africa and the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. It has been reported at depths ranging from 3 to 250 m. There is little species-specific population information available for S. riviolana, however it may be expanding its range into the Mediterranean basin. It is a primarily oceanic species which is found offshore. This species is known to feed on a number of commercially-important small pelagics, and it is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, particularly those utilizing purse seines. There is no species-specific conservation information available for S. rivolinana, and its distribution likely overlaps with several marine protected areas. Therefor, S. rivoliana is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Seriola rivoliana is circumtropical in marine waters, entering temperate waters in some areas. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from Portugal to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean (Smith-Vaniz in press). It is occasionally reported from southern England and the Bay of Biscay (Barreiros et al. 2003), but populations are not thought to be established in the area. In the Mediterranean, S. rivoliana has been recorded from the southern Tyrrhenian Sea off Sicily and Lampedusa in the Sicily Channel, Gulf of Lions, Gulf of Gabés, Rhodes and Israel (Golani et al. 2002). It has been recorded off the Balearic Islands (Vall et al. 2011), Lanpedusa Island, and from a shoal located 35 nautical miles west of Lampadusa Island off the coast of Tunisia (Castriota et al. 2004). It is found at depths ranging from 3 to 250 metres (Allen and Erdmann 2012).

population:
In the Azores, S. rivoliana is a common coastal pelagic predator where it occurs with the congeneric S. dumerili. This species is expanding its range into the Mediterranean (Valls et al. 2011), therefor it is inferred that the population of S. rivoliana within the assessment region is increasing. There are no species-specific catch data available for this species.

habitat:
Seriola rivoliana is mostly pelagic and epibenthic in oceanic waters; it is rarely found inshore. It feeds primarily on fishes. In the Azores, this species feeds on fishes including chub mackerel Scomber japonicus, blue jack mackerel, European pilchard Sardina pilchardus, snipefish Macroramphosus scolopax, and the bogue Boops boops (Barreiros et al. 2003). This species typically reaches a maximum size to 80 cm (FL), it is common from about 55 cm (FL) (Smith-Vaniz 2002). There is an International Game Fish Association (IGFA) record of 119 cm (TL) from Golfito, Costa Rica (IGFA 2013). This species has been reported to form spawning aggregations in Gladden Spit, Belize (Heyman 2001).

threats:
There is little species-specific threat information available for S. riviolana. This species is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, including small pelagic fisheries, fisheries landing Trachurus picturatus (Barreiros et al. 2003), and purse seine tuna fisheries (Amande et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation actions for S. rivoliana. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
Seriola rivoliana is considered one of the most important emerging marine finfish species in Japan, Australia and the United States. It has not been utilized in Europe, however there is recent interest in using this species for marine finfish aquaculture diversification (Roo et al. 2012). There is little species-specific use and trade information available from the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black sea assessment zones.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Trachinotus ovatus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic where it is found from British and Scandinavian waters, south to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea and offshore islands at depths ranging from 50 to 200 metres. This species appears to be common, however there is little species-specific population information available. It is not explicitly targeted, however it is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however it is likely to be found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, T. ovatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachinotus ovatus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, T. ovatus is found from British Isles and Norway south to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean T. ovatus occurs in Spanish waters (Dempster et al. 2002), Ligurian sea (Tunesi et al. 2002, Molinari 2005), southern Tyrrhenian sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Adriatic Sea (Dulčić et al. 1997), Aegean Sea and Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002). It is found at depths ranging from 50 to 200 metres.

population:
Landings for "Trachinotus spp." are declared for the following Fisheries and Agricultural Organization (FAO) fishing regions: Eastern Central Atlantic, Mediterranean. The overall trend in landings is one of continual increase with large fluctuations. In 2010, 463 tonnes were reported. This species is common but not abundant throughout most of its range. Its population is considered stable in Turkey, at least during the last 10 years (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). Abdallah (2002) surveyed the Egyptian waters, during eighteen cruises using commercial bottom trawlers in 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30 to 200 meters between 29° 30' and 30° 22' E. Forty-five specimens were caught from a total of 162 fishing hours, ranging from 3.4 to 23.3 cm TL.

habitat:
Trachinotus ovatus is a pelagic species which is also moderately common in shallow water in areas of surge. It is generally found in clear waters over sand or mud substrata (Reiner 1996). It forms schools. Small specimens are regularly caught at night from steep rocky shores. It feeds on small crustaceans, mollusks and fishes in the water column (Smith-Vaniz 1986). Juveniles are found along the coast of Israel in summer months (Chervinski and Zorn 1977). Individuals will aggregate to feed upon food pellets lost through the cages of fish farms (Demspter et al. 2005). Inshore pelagic schooling fish, adults swim close to the surface while juveniles (up to 7cm) live in shallow sandy beaches which are used as nursery grounds (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
Trachinotus ovatus is of minor commercial importance, although it is not explicitly targeted. In the Atlanto-Mediterranean species is fished commercially and can be locally important. Large schools are caught by purse seine and trammel nets. This species can be locally commercially important (Golani et al. 2006). It is usually caught by gill nets, surrounding nets, hand lines, beach seines, and bottom long line (Smith-Vaniz in press).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for T. ovatus. There are no fisheries management efforts directed towards this species. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachinotus ovatus is of minor commercial importance. Landings are seldom declared to FAO for this species. The FAO name for this species is "Pompano". It is not considered a priority species by the General Fisheries Commission of the Mediterranean. This species is absent from the MEDITS fisheries-independent trawl survey program. It is also absent from the ICES FishMap Atlas of North Sea fish, which includes the Bay of Biscay. Trachinotus ovatus is a component of hand-line fisheries in the Canary Islands where it is not subject to any management efforts (García-Martín et al. 2011). It is landed by purseseine and beach-seine (Mourad et al. 1999). There has been interest in the aquaculture of this species in the Mediterranean since at least 1977 (Chervinski and Zorn 1977), however there are no indications of large-scale culture.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the eastern Atlantic, T. mediterraneus is found from the Bay of Biscay to Mauritania including the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. It is found at depths ranging from very shallow waters to 500 m, although it prefers depths of 20 to 80 m. This species is primarily landed in the Food and Agriculture Organization Mediterranean and Black Sea Fishing Zone. Within this zone, fishing effort is highest in the Black Sea, followed by Eastern Mediterranean, then Western. It is less abundant than T. trachurus in the Eastern Mediterranean, but is 3 to 4 times more valuable than T. trachurus in that region. Populations within the Mediterranean, and between the Mediterranean and Atlantic are well connected. There may be some restricted gene flow between the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the degree of which is unresolved. The subspecies T. mediterraneus ponticus is sometimes recognized in the Black Sea. The Black Sea population/subspecies accounts for a large portion (54%) of landings of Trachurus species within the Black Sea. Stocks have been historically overfished in this region, leading to stock collapses during the 1960s and also during the 1980s when landings as high as 120,000 tonnes were declared. From 2004 to 2012, landings from the Black sea ranged from 1000 to 250000 tonnes. The recent trend in landings in the Black Sea over the last 10 years is one of increase. There are no biological reference points available, and stocks in the Black Sea could not be evaluated in 2013. This species appears to be somewhat resilient, having recovered from several historical periods of severe over-fishing and stock collapse. Additionally, this species is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, Trachurus mediterraneus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachurus mediterraneus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, T. mediterraneus is found from the Bay of Biscay to the Iberian peninsula, including the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean Sea, T. mediterraneus occurs from Iberian coasts (Garcia-Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, Valle et al. 2007), Balearic islands (Deudero 2001), Gulf of Lions (Ruitton et al. 2000), Ligurian Sea (Romanelli et al. 2002, Tunesi et al. 2005), central Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2003 Carpentieri et al. 2005) southern Tyrrhenian sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006, Santic et al. 2006), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000), Aegean Sea (Karlou-Riga 2000, Moutopoulou and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Stergiou et al. 2004, Karakulak et al. 2006, Yuksek et al. 2006, Ozaydin et al. 2007, Tzikas et al. 2007) and Lebanese coasts (Bariche et al. 2006, 2007). The subspecies Trachurus mediterraneus ponticus occurs in the Marmara and Black seas, southern and western parts of the Azov Sea. It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 500 metres.

population:
Population structure Karaiskou et al. (2004) examined the population structure of T. picturatus, T. mediterraneus, and T. trachurus using mitochondrial control region. They found no sign of Atlantic-Mediterranean division in any of the species, which was attributed to the ability of Trachurus spp. to migrate long distances, and to flexibility to oceanographic constraints. Within the Mediterranean, meristic and morphometric analysis suggest discrete, self-recruiting stocks in the Sea of Marmara (most discrete), the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea stocks (some degree of connectivity). Genetic evidence from the mtDNA 16s rDNA region provided evidence or the existence of three populations: Sinop (Black Sea), Trabzon (eastern Black Sea) and Iskenderum Bay (Mediterranean). Karaiskou et al. (2003) found no significant heterogeneity among T. mediterraneus populations from the Aegean, Ionian and west Mediterranean seas using the same marker. Karaiskou et al. (2004) examined the population structure of T. picturatus, T. mediterraneus, and T. trachurus using mitochondrial control region. They found no sign of Atlantic-Mediterranean division in any of species, which was attributed to the ability of Trachurus spp. to migrate long distances, and to flexibility to oceanographic constraints. Regional population information Landings are declared from the following Food and Agriculture (FAO) fishing regions: Mediterranean and Black Sea, Northeast Atlantic. The Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone accounts for over 90% of declared landing throughout the time series. The overall trend in landings is one of continual increase to a peak of 122,827 tonnes declared in 1986. Beginning in 1990 landings decline sharply, driven by a decline in landings by Turkey, and then stabilize around 20,000 tonnes. This is an 83% decline, which seems to correspond with a period of stock decline in the Black Sea. Landings declared by Greece also show a similar pattern of sharp decline, although it occurs in the mid-late 1990s (FAO 2011). In the Black Sea, landings of this species reached 141077.8 tonnes in 1985. Landings decline abruptly from 97,741 tonnes to 15, 906 tonnes from 1986, and continue to decline from 1996 to 2002 (9146.5 tonnes in 2002). From 2002 to 2012, landings begin to increase to 24931.4 tonnes (STECF 2013). Trachurus mediterraneus is less abundant than T. trachurus, but more abundant than T. picturatus in the eastern Mediterranean (Karlou-Riga et al. 2000). The contribution of T. mediterraneus to local fisheries differs in each sea. It accounts for 54% of the total catch in the Black Sea (2919 t), 39% in the Marmara Sea (562 t), 4% in the Aegean Sea (247 t) and 3% in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea (272 t). In 1988, in the Black and Marmara Sea, the total catches of T. mediterraneus have declined to nearly zero due to over-fishing in previous years (State Institute of Statistics, fishery Statistics, Ankara, Turkey). Fishing effort is highest in the Black Sea, and lower in the Northeastern Mediterranean. In the strait of Sicily, the mean density and mean biomass of T. mediterraneus from 1994 to 2002 was low, and a reduction in the mean size of both male and female T. mediterraneus was observed throughout the time series. Biomass was relatively high in Corsica and along the coast of Spain. From 1994 to 2002, an increase in biomass was noted in the Tyrrhenian and Ionian Seas, and the Greek continental coast (Ragonese et al. 2003). Trachurus mediterraneus is difficult to distinguish from other species of Trachurus (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014). Populations of T. mediterraneus are recruitment-driven, and it is common to see fluctuations due to recruitment pulses. International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) survey data show fluctuations from 1994 to 2010, which are mirrored in the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) survey data results in the Gulf of Cadiz and in Northern Spain (J. Hererra pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species which can usually be found near the bottom but is also at times in surface waters. It is a migratory species which forms large schools, often with other species of Trachurus (T. trachurus, T. picturatus). In the northwestern Mediterranean (Ligurian sea), juveniles of T. mediterraneus occur in shallow waters (< 30 m) during the summer (Tunesi et al. 2005). This species feeds on other small-pelagic fishes especially sardines, anchovies, etc. and small crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1986). It has a relatively narrow preferential depth range of 20 to 80 metres, although its reported depth range is 0 to 500 metres. Trachurus mediterraneaneus ponticus stomach contents include Crustacea (Copepoda, Cladocera, Mysidacea, Amphipoda, Isopoda, Decapoda), Polychaeta, fishes. Mysids are the most important prey item for small and medium sizes. The proportion of fishes in the diet increases in proportion to body size. The lowest feeding intensity was recorded in spring and highest in summer (Yankova et al. 2008). In the eastern Mediterranean, Trachurus mediterraneus is sexually mature at age 2. The spawning season lasts from approximately April to June (Karlou-Riga 2000). It reaches a maximum age of 10 to 12 years (Ragonese et al. 2003). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 39.3 cm TL and the length at maturity is 19.1 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Trachurus mediterraneus is a commercial species. It can be caught by various gears such as seines and fixed nets. The contribution of T. mediterraneus to local fisheries differs in each sea. In the Black Sea, this species makes up 54% of the total catch (2919 tonnes), whereas it makes up 39% in the Marmara Sea (562 tonnes), 4% in the Aegean Sea (247 tonnes) and 3% in the northeastern Mediterranean Sea (272 tonnes) (State Institute of Statistics, fishery Statistics, Ankara, Turkey). The total landings of T. mediterraneus drastically declined to nearly zero in the Black and Marmara Seas in 1988 due to overfishing in previous years (State Institute of Statistics, fishery Statistics, Ankara, Turkey). Management uncertainty Stocks of T. trachurus, and of fishes of the genus Trachurus, are particularly difficult to assess. Aging is difficult (Abaunza 2003). Additionally several stocks,  such as the Western horse mackerel stock (T. trachurus), are characterized by spasmodic recruitment, that is, good recruitment only once in a generation. Additionally, T. trachurus, like other members of the genus, are likely indeterminate spawners, and therefor total fecundity is unknown. The strength of a year class cannot be confirmed before it is fully recruited to the fishery and has reached the age of 5 years. The only fishery-independent data available is based on triennial egg surveys. For these reasons, recommended Total Allowable Catches are advised to remain conservative (Roel et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
Trachurus mediterraneus is considered a priority species for the General Fisheries Commission of the Mediterranean. Minimum length requirements for the EU is 15 cm TL, 13 cm in Turkey, 10 cm in Ukraine, and 12 cm in Bulgaria and Romania. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachurus mediterraneus is a commercial species, and is one of the most important commercial resources in the Mediterranean Sea (Turan 2004). It is landed with pelagic and bottom trawls, long-lines and purse seines (using light), traps and on-line gear. The the largest catches were reported by Turkey (9220 tonnes) and Greece (3534 tonnes). The average catch of Trachurus mediterraneus accounts for 6.5% of the total yield of the country of Greece. In eastern Mediterranean fish markets, the value of T. mediterraneus, which is less abundant than T. trachurus, is 3 to 4 times greater than that of T. trachurus. In the Atlantic Ocean, this species is an important component of pelagic trawl and purse-seine fisheries in the Iberian Peninsula and Bay of Biscay. Catches of Trachurus spp. are often mixed in this region, but all are utilized (ICES 2004). It is utilized fresh, canned and for fishmeal.

redListAssessors:
Herrera, J., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Heessen, H., Fernandes, P. & Collette, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the eastern Atlantic, T. picturatus is found from the southern Bay of Biscay to southern Morocco including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Tristan de Cunha and Gough Islands. It is more abundant in the Western Mediterranean than in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is found to depths of 370 m over a variety of substrates. It is a commercially important species, particularly off the Iberian Peninsula and also at the offshore Islands of Madeira, the Canaries and the Azores. There are no indications of population decline, and recent surveys indicate that this species may be increasing in abundance in the Western Mediterranean and Iberian region of the Atlantic, as well as in the Azores. Additionally, T. picturatus is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, T. picturatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachurus picturatus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from the southern Bay of Biscay to southern Morocco including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Tristan de Cunha and Gough Islands. It is reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005). In the Mediterranean Sea, T. picturatus is known from Spain (Deudero 2001, FAO-GFCM 2007), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur et al. 2001), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2001), central and southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005, Andaloro et al. 2007) and also in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). This species is not known from the Black Sea (Smith-Vaniz 1986). This species is found to depths of at least 370 metres.

population:
Population structure  Karaiskou et al. (2004) examined the population structure of T. picturatus, T. mediterraneus, and T. trachurus using mitochondrial control region. They found no sign of Atlantic-Mediterranean division in any of the species, which was attributed to the ability of Trachurus spp. to migrate long distances, and to flexibility to oceanographic constraints. Regional population information  This species is most abundant between southern Bay of Biscay and Mauritania including the Azores, Canaries, Madeira and Western part of Mediterranean (Vasconcelos et al. 2006). Trachurus picturatus co-occurs with T. trachurus off the Iberian Peninsula. The two species co-exist during their spawning seasons, from November until April with a peak around January-February and were caught in the same haul at depths of 133 metres (Gonçalves et al. 2013). This species appears relatively frequently in trawl hauls taken off the coast of northwestern Spain and the northern Spanish shelf (Santos et al. 2013). Off the coast of Portugal, this species is the second-most abundant species of the genus Trachurus, following T. trachurus (Borges et al. 2003). Landings for this species are generally lumped with other species of Trachurus in parts of its range, such as in Spain (J. Hererra pers. comm. 2014). Trachurus picturatus is a commercial species which varies in economic importance by region. It has been reported as the principal species used as bait in the tuna fishery of the Azores, where it is reportedly caught with small purse seines pulled to shore or from small boats. In the Azores, this species accounts for 70% of bait fish species, and is considered a low-value species. However, it is worth noting that the quantity of  small pelagic species, including T. picturatus used as bait is considerable and that these captures are not accounted for in the official landings and hence all landings by the tuna fleet are considered for human consumption (Carvalho et al. 2011). The Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) of T. picturatus increased in the Azores from 2008 to 2010 (STECF advice 2014). Trachurus picturatus is economically important in the Madeiran archipelago, and may be experiencing some overfishing. In the face of rising economic value, the annual landings of blue jack mackerel have decreased from 2006 tonnes in 1986 to 653 tonnes in 2005, a decline of 67%. Additionally, there was shift towards smaller sizes classes in the length frequency distribution of T. picturatus from 1984 to 1986 (Vasconcelos et al. 2006).  In the Canary Islands, Trachurus picturatus was the third most important species by weight landed by weight, 15% of the total small pelagic landings by the above-mentioned artisanal fleet (Jurado-Ruzafa and García Santamaría 2013). Trachurus picturatus is the least abundant fish of the genus Trachurus in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is less abundant than T. mediterraneanus and T. trachurus (Karlou-Riga et al. 2000). This species is uncommon, however populations are stable in Turkey (M. Bilecenoglu and C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). In the western and central Mediterranean Sea it is common in bottom trawls (A. Di Natale and E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007), and juveniles are very common in Fish Aggregating Device (FADs) in western Mediterranean (E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007). Six-hundred and fourteen specimens were caught by means of purse seine (133 hauls) around FADs, with TL ranging from 3.5 to 13.5 cm (Deudero 2001).

habitat:
This is a demersal and pelagic, oceanodromous species. It has been found at depths ranging from 50 m or less to 370 m (Smith-Vaniz 1986). It is confined to neritic zones of inland shelves, banks and seamounts. It is known to migrate between the coast of Sahara and the offshore seamounts, possibly reaching the Cape Verde Islands. It feeds mainly on crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1986) such as copepods (Deudero 2001). This species is known to spawn off of Madeira and the Iberian Peninsula (Gonçalves et al. 2013). The oldest specimen of T. picturatus collected in commercial landings in Madeira was 9 years old (Vasconcelos et al. 2006). In the Canary Islands spawning season occurred between January and April, peaking in February. Length at first maturity was found to be 21.20 cm for males and 23.05 cm. for females.

threats:
Trachurus picturatus is a commercial species which is mostly caught by bottom trawls in deep water. Juveniles are caught by Fish Aggregating Device (FADS). It is taken in deep-water trawl fisheries targeting deep-sea rose shrimp and Norway lobster in the western Mediterranean at depths of 300 metres (Moranta et al. 2000). Trachurus picturatus is likely taken as bycatch in fisheries which harvest from seamounts (Christiansen et al. 2009).  Stocks of fishes of the genus Trachurus, are particularly difficult to assess. Aging is difficult (Abaunza 2003). Stocks of this species may be characterized by spasmodic recruitment, that is, good recruitment only once in a generation. Additionally, T. trachurus, like other members of the genus, are likely indeterminate spawners, and therefor total fecundity is unknown. The strength of a year class cannot be confirmed before it is fully recruited to the fishery and has reached the age of 5 years. The only fishery-independent data available is based on triennial egg surveys. For these reasons, recommended Total Allowable Catches are advised to remain conservative (Roel et al. 2007).  A minimum length requirement of 15 cm was established by EU in 2007. However, the size at first maturity of specimens from the Canary Islands was found to be 23.05 cm for females (Jurado-Ruzafa and García Santamaría 2013).

conservationAction:
Trachurus picturatus, and all Trachurus spp. are subject to Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations in the North Sea (STECF advice 2014). A minimum length requirement of 15 cm was established by EU in 2007. However, the size at first maturity of specimens from the Canary Islands was found to be 23.05 cm for females (Jurado-Ruzafa and García Santamaría 2013).  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachurus picturatus is a commercial species. It is an important fishery resource in the Macaronesian region. It is the principal species used as bait in the tuna fishery of the Azores, accounting for 70% of bait fish species. Here, T. picturatus are caught with small purse seines pulled to shore or from small boats (Zeller et al. 2001). Also in the Azores, T. picturatus is taken in the small pelagic fishery which also targets Scomber japonicus. Trachurus picturatus is economically important in the Madeiran archipelago (latitudes 32º30’ to 33º30’N and longitudes 16º30’ to 17º30’W), where it is captured with purse-seine nets during the night using chumming combined with spot-light fishing (Vasconcelos et al. 2006).

redListAssessors:
Herrera, J., Heessen, H., Fernandes, P., Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors recognize a second species in the southern portion of the range, T. capensis (Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Trachurus trachurus is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from Norway to South Africa, around the coast to Maputo (Mozambique) including the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas. It is typically found to depths of 200 m, however there are records extending the depth range to over 1000 m. Trachurus trachurus is a widespread species, and is the most abundant Trachurus spp. throughout its range. It is managed to varying degrees throughout its range, however management in the Mediterranean may be less effective. In some parts of the Mediterranean, this species is overfished. Recommendations for the management of T. trachurus include the implementation of catch limits, as attempts to control fishing effort may be insufficient. Additionally, the increased proportion of juveniles in Mediterranean catches may be cause for concern. Trachurus trachurus is capable of rapid reproductive turnover, as it matures at relatively young ages. Additionally, this species is likely to be found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Trachurus trachurus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachurus trachurus is distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and along the coast of South Africa into the western Indian Ocean (Smith-Vaniz 1986). In the northeastern Atlantic, T. trachurus is found from Norway to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea. Although the southern limit of the Atlanto-Iberian stock is currently set at the Gulf of Cadiz, the distribution range of horse mackerel in the Northeast Atlantic includes the Mediterranean Sea and part of the African coast (Whitehead et al. 1986). In the Mediterranean Sea, T. trachurus occurs from the Alboran Sea (FAO 2003), Spanish coasts (Deudero et al. 2001), Gulf of Lions (Carlier et al. 2007), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2005), Central Tyrrhenian Sea (Ozaydin et al. 2007), Lebanese coasts (Bariche et al. 2006), Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002) and Tunisian waters. It is usually found to depths of 200 m to over 1000 m (FAO-FIGIS 2004).

population:
Population structure Karaiskou et al. (2004) examined the population structure of T. picturatus, T. mediterraneus, and T. trachurus using mitochondrial control region. They found no sign of Atlantic-Mediterranean division in any of species, which was attributed to the ability of Trachurus sp. to migrate long distances, and to flexibility to oceanographical constraints. Allozyme analysis showed that of all T. trachurus population studied from across this species' known range were genetically homogenous, connected by high levels of gene flow. There was only slight differentiation between eastern and western Mediterranean samples versus the western Mediterranean and Atlantic samples. Additionally, genetic variability in this species was found to be very high, among the highest recorded in the literature for many pelagic and demersal species, and the genetic structure was found to be stable over time. It is worth noting that the lowest levels of genetic variability were found in the heavily-exploited north-western stock, corroborating information seen ICES analytical assessments of the stock (Cimmaruta et al. 2008). In the Northeast Atlantic, Trachurus trachurus is divided into three stocks, in order of decreasing biomass: the North-western horse mackerel in the Norwegian sea, northern North Sea, west and south of the British Isles, western English Channel, and west of France; the southern horse mackerel around the Iberian peninsula; and the North Sea horse Mackerel, restricted to the central and southern parts of the North Sea and eastern English Channel (Abaunza et al. 2003). Regional Population Information Mediterranean Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics for this species are incomplete from the Mediterranean and are most probably mixed with T. mediterraneus. Trachurus trachurus is the most abundant fish of the genus Trachurus in the Eastern Mediterranean. it is more abundant than T. mediterraneanus and T. picturatus (Karlou-Riga et al. 2000). The bulk of the catches come from Turkey, the Sea of Marmara and western Black Sea. Landings appear to be stable. This is a widespread, common and abundant species throughout most of its range.  In Turkey, however, this species is overfished as evidenced by only younger age classes appearing in the catch (0 to 1 year age class) (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). Trachurus trachurus in the southern Alboran Sea has no available SSB estimates, and no reference points, however landing restrictions as a more effective management tool for small pelagics in the Mediterranean have been proposed (STECF 2014). Horse mackerel recruitment is characterized by infrequent and extremely large year classes. International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) survey data from the Mediterranean coast of Spain from 1993 to 2014 shows fluctuations with a slight increase in abundance. Atlantic The status of the T. trachurus stock in the North Sea is unknown.  Landings have been decreasing in the North Sea, however this is likely due to reductions in fishing effort. In division IXa this species is caught in mixed fisheries, and fishing pressure has on average been below Fmsy. However, SSB has decreased gradually since 2007 and is at around 30% below the long term average. There is no stock assessment information available from Madeira or the Canary Islands.Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) for the Western Stock, which is the largest stock, has varied between .65 and 1.7 million tonnes between 1995 and 2012 was estimated to be at .84 million tonnes in 2013 (ICES Advice 2013), The western T. trachurus stock (ICES divisions IIa, Iva, Vb, Via, VIIa-c, e-k, and VIIIa-e) is experiencing fishing pressure which is above the target Fmsy, and SSB is qualitatively evaluated as declining. Fishing mortality on younger ages has reached record high levels (STECF 2014).Global Population Information The Saharo-Mauritanian stock size decreased, along with landings, from 1984 to 1995 due to fishing pressure and weak recruitment (Abaunza et al. 2003). Reported captures for this species in the Eastern Central Atlantic reached a high of 550,000 tonnes in 1995, and have since declined to approximately 200,000 tonnes in 2010 (FAO Fishfinder, Species Datasheet).

habitat:
Trachurus trachurus is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It forms large schools. Stocks differ in their distributional patterns. Western and southern horse mackerel stocks are shelf-attached, while the North Sea stocks tend to be distributed in coastal areas of the central and southern North Sea. This species feeds on fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods. In the Adriatic Sea, T. trachurus feeds mainly on crustaceans, cephalopods and fishes (Jardas et al. 2004). Juveniles of this species were caught in very shallow waters (<10 m depth) in the Ligurian Sea during November by means of purse seines (Tunesi et al. 2005). Life history and reproduction Trachurus trachurus is a long-lived species, reaching up to 40 years of age. Spawning fraction is estimated to be between 8.3% and 20.9%. Horse mackerel have a relatively long spawning season of up to 8 months which varies according to geography. Length at first maturity is between 16 and 25 cm, most commonly around 21 cm. Males mature at a smaller lengths than females. Aging of Horse Mackerel is particularly difficult, however the age at first maturity has been estimated at between 2 and 4 years, depending on geographic areas. Horse mackerel have distinct areas for spawning, feeding, and over-wintering, and undergo migrations. Based on estimates made from regional samples, there has been a decrease in the mean length-at-age of the northeast Atlantic Ocean horse mackerel (western stock) from 1982 to 2000. This decrease in size has been attributed to a strong-year class, which likely increased competition between individuals of similar size (Abaunza 2003). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 43.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 22.0 cm to 39.0 cm TL and for males ranges from 22.0 cm to 37.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Trachurus trachurus is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and seines. FAO (2003) reported that in the southern part of the Alboran Sea the stock status of T. trachurus was fully exploited. In the Mediterranean Sea it is caught mostly by purse seine and bottom trawl but also by hand line. This species is also targeted by the recreational fishery. According to an assessment review by FAO (2005) this species is fully exploited in the Mediterranean and is also heavily exploited in the Black Sea. Stocks of T. trachurus, and of fishes of the genus Trachurus, are particularly difficult to assess. Aging is difficult (Abaunza 2003). Additionally, several stocks,  such as the Western horse mackerel stock, are characterized by spasmodic recruitment, that is, good recruitment only once in a generation. Additionally, T. trachurus, like other members of the genus, are likely indeterminate spawners, and therefor total fecundity is unknown. The strength of a year class cannot be confirmed before it is fully recruited to the fishery and has reached the age of 5 years. The only fishery-independent data available is based on triennial egg surveys. For these reasons, recommended Total Allowable Catches are advised to remain conservative (Roel et al. 2007). It has been suggested that management of small pelagics by effort control alone may not control the exploitation rate. This species is not subject to TAC restrictions in the Mediterranean (STECF advice 2013)

conservationAction:
Trachurus trachurus is a commercially important species which is managed to varying degrees throughout its range. Management efforts in the Mediterranean are perceived as being somewhat less effective overall. It has been suggested that the management of this species through effort control alone may not be effective in the Mediterranean, and that catch limits are a more effective means of managing this species. The EU minimum size 15 cm TL. Turkey has a closed season from the end of April to the beginning of September and also minimum size limit of 13 cm TL (STECF 2014).  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachurus trachurus is a species with high commercial importance. In the Mediterranean Sea the catches of T. trachurus are much smaller than in Atlantic waters, particularly in north African Atlantic waters where an important horse mackerel fishery appears to take place (FAO 1995). Due to an exceptionally strong year class, T. trachurus became an important commercial species in the 1980s and 1990s and, in the early 2000s, was one of the three most important pelagic species in the European fish industry (Abaunza et al. 2003). It is utilized fresh, smoked, canned and frozen, can be fried, broiled and baked (Frimodt 1995).

redListAssessors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Heessen, H., Collette, B., Fernandes, P. & Herrera, J.


taxonomicNotes:
The Caristiidae family is in urgent need of revision due to confusion of the number of genera, species, and distributions (Britz in prep FAO ECA guide). This issue has recently been remedied by Stevenson and Kenaley (2011) and Kukuev et al. (2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
Europe Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Platyberyx opalescens is only known from a small number of specimens, and there is little known about the species' population size, trends and threats. Research should be conducted to determine the status of this species. Therefore, P. opalescens is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
The distribution of Platyberyx opalescens is uncertain, but it is may be restricted to the Atlantic Ocean. It has been found from Greenland and Iceland (Møller et al. 2010) to Portugal, the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Porteiro et al. unpublished). Reliable catches of P. opalescens are known from Portugal to northern Mauritania. There are few records from the eastern central Atlantic, off Cape Verde and south to near the equator (Britz in press). We suggest that the range of the species includes near-bottom waters of the continental slope (bathialpelagic ichtyocene) of the east Atlantic Ocean. According to Parin et al. (1976), the range of the species is wider than is specifically described. Platyberyx opalescens is found in the mesopelagic zone from 200 to 900 m. 

population:
The species in the family Caristiidae are rare (Britz in press). There are very few specimens known of this species.

habitat:
Platyberyx opalescens is an oceanic fish found in the mesopelagic zone with a maximum size of 18.5 cm total length (TL) (R. Mouritsen pers. comm. 2003). The species of the Caristiidae family are known to feed on small fish and a variety of invertebrates including squids, salps, and crustaceans. Juveniles are found in the epi- and mesopelagic zones sometimes with siphonophores, while adults are found in the meso- and bathypelagic zones (Britz in press). This is a poorly understood species and family. The fecundity, spawning periodicity, and early life history are not well known.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range intersects with a number of marine protected areas across its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size, trends, habitat, ecology and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Species of the Caristiidae family have no commercial importance (Britz in press).


taxonomicNotes:
The family Centracanthidae will soon be subsumed under the family Sparidae, because the centracanthid fishes are highly polyphyletic with sparid fishes (Chiba et al. 2009, Hanel and Tsigenopoulos 2011, Santini et al. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is relatively widespread and can be locally moderately abundant. It is of only minor commercial importance and its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range. There are no known widespread threats, and it is is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the Mediterranean basin the species has been reported from the southern and central Tyrrhenian Sea (respectively by La Mesa and Vacchi (1999) and Colloca et al. (2004)), in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), in the northern Adriatic Sea, and in the northern Aegean Sea (Cicek et al. 2006), but is more common in deeper water and around offshore islands, and is probably more widespread throughout the Mediterranean. The species also occurs in the Eastern Atlantic from Portugal to southern Morocco, including the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. It has also been reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005) and from Western Sahara (Arkhipov 2009). The depth range for this species is 30 to 464 m (Louisy 2002, Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
The species is common to uncommon throughout various parts of its Mediterranean range; it is generally more common around offshore islands, and can be locally moderately abundant. Separate catch statistics are not reported for this species within the Eastern Central Atlantic Area (Carpenter in press). Cicek et al. (2006) carried out a study of length-weight relationships in the Babadillimani Bight at the western entrance of Mersin Bay (northeastern Mediterranean). Monthly sampling was carried out from May 1999 to April 2000, and 102 specimens, with lengths varying from 8.7 to 13.7 cm total length (TL), were caught from depths of 20 to 100 m. Gristina et al. (2006) sampled this species during two trawl surveys (in autumn 1997 and 1998) in the Strait of Sicily. Mean density values varied from 247 to 300 specimens over 62 hauls (trawls).

habitat:
This is a demersal to midwater, neritic species. It is typically found over rocks or gravelly substrata (Heemstra 1990), especially around offshore islands. It must also occur over soft substrata since it is caught mostly by trawls. It occurs to a depth of 200 m (Heemstra 1990), and from 327 to 464 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It is most common at 30 to 80 m depth (Louisy 2002).  Ozaydin et al. (2000) studied age and growth in northern Cyprus waters. Otoliths from 251 specimens were read for age determination. Total length ranged between 7.2 and 15.9 cm, while weight varied from 2.2 g to 31.2 g. The von Bertalanffy growth constants were calculated as W=32.3 (g), L=16.8 (cm), k=0.47 (year-1) and to= -1.14 (year). Weight increased allometrically and the length-weight relationship estimated for all fish was W=0.0052 L3.097 (r=0.946). This is a short-lived and fast growing species; the oldest specimen was estimated to be five years old. Growth in length is rapid, and it attains 61.2% of the asymptotic length during the first year of life. The maximum length for this species is 34 cm (Magnússon and Magnússon 1987).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is of low commercial importance, but is locally moderately abundant in fisheries. It is caught with trammel nets and bottom trawls. It is probably marketed fresh or dried salted, but its flesh is not highly esteemed; it is also reduced to fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).

redListReviewers:
Allen, D.J., Comeros-Raynal, M. & García, M.


taxonomicNotes:
The family Centracanthidae will soon be subsumed under the family Sparidae, because the centracanthid fishes are highly polyphyletic with sparid fishes (Chiba et al. 2009, Hanel and Tsigenopoulos 2011, Santini et al. 2014).  Most often, Spicara flexuosa has been confused with S. maena in identifications, and they are typically lumped in fisheries statistics and in markets. Spicara flexuosa is currently considered a synonym of S. maena (Pollard and Pichot 1972, Heemstra 1990, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Minos et al. 2012), although genetic studies using the mtDNA 16S rRNA gene are inconclusive. Recent genetic work by Imsiridou et al. (2011) indicates that there is a clear discrimination between the two species, and Minos et al. (2012) distinguished the two based on morphological differences.  However, Turan (2011) found genetic divergence to be only 0.005 and previous work by Arculeo et al. (1996) using protein electrophoresis found no discriminating genetic markers. Pending further taxonomic studies, we here continue to regard S. flexuosa as a synonym of S. maena (Pichot and Pollard 1970, Pollard and Pichot 1971, Pollard and Pichot 1972).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This is a widespread species in the European region and is locally abundant in some parts of its range. Although it can be important in fisheries, there are no indications of any substantial population declines, and therefore it is listed as Least Concern. However, because of increased landings of this species,       we recommend continued monitoring of its population status and harvest levels.

range:
The species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara and a small part of the southwestern Black Sea (UNESCO 1996). In the eastern Atlantic it is known from northern Portugal to southern Morocco including the Azores and the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985). Records from Madeira are erroneous (Wirtz et al. 2008).

population:
FAO catch statistics were not recorded for this species until the late 1980s and then mostly from Tunisia and later from Greece. The catch mostly fluctuated between around 200 and 500 mt per year in Tunisia over the last 20 years. FAO capture production figures in 2012 were: Croatia - six tonnes; Cyprus - 30 t, Greece - 240 t, Russian Federation - 12 t.  Length-weight relationships were determined by Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, Greece); Valle et al. (2003) along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postinguet, San Juan, Campello, Villajoyosa); Karakulak et al. (2006) at Gökceada Island in the northern Aegean Sea, Turkey; Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) from the eastern Adriatic; Ozaydin et al. (2007) in Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) and by Cherif et al. (2008) along the Tunisian coast of the Mediterranean. Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003) investigated mouth size in relation to length in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean). Net selectivity was investigated by Petrakis and Stergiou (1996) in the south Euboikos Gulf (western Aegean Sea), and by Gokce and Metin (2007) in Izmir Bay, Turkey. Age, growth and mortality of the Blotched Picarel were determined by Dulcic et al. (2000)  from specimens (N=1130) collected on the eastern central coast of the Adriatic Sea from 16 September to 10 October 1996. Total length ranged from 7.8 to 27.5 cm, while weight varied between 5.2 and 298.0 g. The von Bertalanffy growth equation was fitted on the basis of mean length-at-age data resulting in parameter values of L∞=24.82 (S.E.=0.469), K=0.532 (S.E.=0.0302), and t0=−0.089 (S.E.=0.0321) (R=0.9985). Weight growth constants were: W∞=211.17 (S.E.=14.843), K=0.504 (S.E.=0.0424), and t0=0.099 (S.E.=0.0.076) (R=0.9627). Weight increased allometrically for both sexes together with b=3.12 (S.E.=0.025). The Blotched Picarel is a relatively long-lived species. The oldest male and female were estimated to be eight and three years old, respectively. Total (Z) and natural (M) mortality were 1.18 and 0.98 per year, respectively. The exploitation ratio E=0.17 revealed an underfished stock. The sex ratio was skewed in favour of males (1.41:1). Sex reversal was mainly observed between 17.5 and 18.0 cm. Females were observed up to a total length of 19.8 cm.  Çiçek et al. (2007) studied the population characteristics and growth of Blotched Picarel in the northeastern Mediterranean. Growth and reproduction were studied by Soykan et al. (2010), based on specimens (n = 2547) collected from the central Aegean Sea between July 2004 and June 2007. The samples consisted of 71.9% females, 16.2% males, and 11.9% immature individuals. The sex ratio of females to males was 1:0.23. The length-weight relationship was W = 0.011L3.02, W = 0.011L3.00, and W = 0.011L2.99 for the combined sexes, females, and males, respectively. For all samples and both sexes the length-weight relationship showed isometric growth. The von Bertalanffy growth equation was fitted on the basis of mean length-at-age data, resulting in parameter values of L∞ = 21.99 cm, k = 0.255 year-1, and t0 = -1.165 year, and weight at infinity (W∞) was calculated as 123.35 g. Length at first maturity was 8.1 cm in males and 8.5 cm in females. On the other hand, first reproduction length was 11.51 cm and 13.12 cm for females and males, respectively, both corresponding to two years of age. It was observed that spawning occurred between March and June.

habitat:
This is a demersal to midwater, neritic species. It is common over Posidonia beds and on sandy or muddy substrata (Tortonese 1986). It occurs from shallow water to a depth of 50 m (Louisy 2002), although reported also in depths of 30 to 90 m (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005), and in the Ligurian Sea this species was caught to down 110 m depth (Relini et al. 1986). It feeds on zooplankton and is a protogynous hermaphrodite. In the Ligurian Sea, juveniles were sampled with purse seines in shallow waters.

threats:
This species is subject to small-scale fishing and FAO catch data specifically for this species indicate a steady increase in landings over the last 20 years. However, overall picarel landings from FAO data that includes three species, including potentially Spicara maena / Spicara flexuosa, do indicate an overall decline in landings over the last ten years of perhaps around 20 to 30%. As these are mixed species statistics, it is difficult to determine any population trends. It is recommended that separate statistics be kept and that population studies be carried out for all picarel species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2009).

useAndTrade:
This species is of minor commercial fisheries importance. It is mainly caught with trawls, seines, gill nets, trammel nets and lines. It occurs over trawlable bottoms of 100 to 200 m. It is marketed fresh (Carpenter in press).


taxonomicNotes:
The family Centracanthidae will soon be subsumed under the family Sparidae, because the centracanthid fishes are highly polyphyletic with sparid fishes (Chiba et al. 2009, Hanel and Tsigenopoulos 2011, Santini et al. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in the European region, present throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas, and extending into the eastern Atlantic. It is locally abundant in some parts of its range, and although it can be important in fisheries and there is some evidence of increasing exploitation and decreased landings of all picarels, there are no specific indications yet of any substantial population declines for this species, and therefore it is listed as Least Concern. However, we recommend continued monitoring of its population status and harvest levels.

range:
The species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean, the Adriatic Sea including the Velabit Channel in northern Croatia (Matašin and Vučinić 2008) and Slovenia (Marceta 1999), the Black Sea (Heemstra 1990, Carpenter in press) and the southern Sea of Azov. It also occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from northern Portugal to the Canary Islands. It was mistakenly recorded from Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008).

population:
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch statistics from the Mediterranean Sea are aggregated for all species of picarels and show fluctuations of around 15,000 mt in the late-1950s, down to around 10,000 mt in the early-1990s, and then fluctuations between 7,000 and 9,000 mt from the late-1990s to 2005. It is assumed the average age of mature individuals for these species is probably less than four to five years (FishStat 2007). FAO capture production figures in 2012 were: Croatia - 183 tonnes.  The species is common to very common and abundant throughout its range in Mediterranean, where it is common also in the eastern Adriatic, especially in the central part (FAO 2003); but it is less common in Sea of Marmara and Black Sea. Vidalis et al. (1997) discriminated two different population groups in the Aegean Sea. Length-weight relationships were determined by Valle et al. (2003) for populations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juna, Campello, Villajoyosa); Karakulak et al. (2006) at Gökceada Island in the northern Aegean Sea, Turkey; Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) from the eastern Adriatic; and Ozaydin et al. (2007) in Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea). Stergiou et al. (2004) investigated length-frequency distribution in catches using various fishing gears (trawls, beach-seines) in Cyclades (Aegean Sea) during 1995 to 2000. Tokac et al. (2004) investigated net gear selectivity on catches of different code end mesh sizes in trawls in the north Aegean Sea. Gokce and Metin (2007) estimated numbers and biomass of discarded and landed catches from the commercial prawn trammel net fishery in İzmir Bay, Turkey. Vidalis and Tsimenides (1996) sampled 2,614 specimens, collected on a monthly basis off Iraklion (Fishing Grounds N.4 and N.51), from April 1988 until June 1989. Furthermore, 5,688 specimens were collected on a seasonal basis, almost in all fishing grounds, trawled by commercial boats, off Crete, from April 1988 until August 1990. The pooled total sample amounted 7,302 specimens. Marginal increment analysis together with length-frequency distribution analysis (LFDA) and comparison of age readings of otoliths and scales were used to validate age determination. The validation revealed that annuli were formed once a year between March and July. The relationship between scale radius (Rs) or otolith radius (Ro) and the fish length (FL) was linear. For the first two years of its life, Spicara smaris showed a relatively rapid growth, followed by a low growth rate after that. The maximum life span was five years for females and seven years for males. The von Bertalanffy growth formula was estimated for males (Lm = 192.3, k = 0.154, t, = - 3.522); females (k = 128.4, k = 0.921, t, = - 0.215); and the sexes combined (Lsc = 137.8, k = 0.393, I, = - 0.678). A modified model for hermaphrodite fishes was also tested for estimation of the theoretical growth in length at each age. The modified model was best fitted to observed lengths at age. Length-weight relationship was calculated for male, female and the sexes combined. This relationship showed allometric growth in weight (slope b = 3.17 - 3.25 > 3.00). Dulcic et al. (2003) studied age, growth and mortality of specimens collected in the eastern middle Adriatic during April and May in 1999. The total lengths of individuals ranged from 6.3 to 19.8 cm, and the weight from 2.2 to 78.3 g. The slopes (b values) of the total length–weight regressions indicated negative allometric growth for females (b=2.8± 0.03) and isometric growth for males (b=3.08±0.04). The oldest female and male were four and six years, respectively. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the sexes combined were (L∞=22.76 cm, K=0.277, t0=−0.793). The overall sex ratio was 1:4.1 in favour of females. Individuals larger than 17.9 cm were all males. In the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean report (FAO/GFCM 2005), fishing operations in the Saronikos Gulf conducted with trawls and beach seine in 1998 caught 70 t and 59 t respectively. The stock was considered moderately exploited.

habitat:
A midwater and demersal species, occurring at a depth range from 15 to 170 m, but down to a depth of 328 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It inhabits Posidonia beds and muddy substrata. It occurs in schools except during breeding (Tsangridis and Filippousis 1992). It is a sequential protogynous hermaphrodite, which shows sexual dimorphism only during the reproductive period (Vidalis and Tsminidis 1996). It spawns on detritic sandy substrata and Posidonia beds, where the nests are excavated. A brightly coloured male actively guards each nest, while females and some males swim above the area. At the end of the incubation period, the males lose their colouration, group into large schools and move to feeding places. Tunesi et al. (2005) recorded juveniles occurring in the Ligurian sea (sampled with purse seine) from May to August and in November. Growth is characterized by a pattern which is affected by the sex change of the individuals (Tsangridis and Filippousis 1992). This species feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Carpenter in press).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. However, FAO capture production in overall picarel landings that include three species do indicate an overall decline over the last ten years of perhaps around 20 to 30%. As these are mixed species statistics it is difficult to determine any population trends. It is recommended that separate statistics be kept for the three species, and that population studies be carried out for all picarels.

useAndTrade:
This is a species with minor, but increasing, commercial fisheries importance. Of the 13,000-18,000 metric tons mean annual Mediterranean landings of picarel (1979-1991), more than 50% of the total catch (6.7-9.8 thousand metric tons) was landed in Greece (Vidalis and Tsinemidis 1996). It is mainly caught by bottom trawls, beach seines, gill nets, trammel nets, pots and purse seines.


taxonomicNotes:
Preliminary molecular studies suggest that the genus Schedophilus is not monophyletic (Milana et al. 2011)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the northeast Atlantic (including the Mediterranean and Black Seas), Centrolophus niger is not uncommon and is widespread throughout the region. It is predominantly a deep water fish, with adult and juvenile individuals often congregating in schools near the bottom. There are no known, major threats to this species, although there is an interest in commercializing Centrolophus niger. It is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Centrolophus niger is widely distributed with records from the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans (Haedrich 1990, Pethon 2005). In the north west Atlantic, it is found from Nova Scotia and the Grand Banks (Canada) to Massachusetts, USA (Robbins and Ray 1986), and may also be found in the southeast Atlantic (Pethon 2005). In the northeastern Atlantic, C. niger occurs from northern Norway to southern Iceland, and along the European coast to the Iberian peninsula. It is also found off the Azores and Canary islands, assuming a continuous distribution from Mauritania to southern Norway (F. Uiblein pers. comm. 2014), and in the Mediterranean Sea (Pethon 2005, Akyol 2008, Golani et al. 2006, Haedrich 1986).  The depth distribution of C. niger seems to vary by geography. In the northeast Atlantic Ocean, it occurs from the epipelagic zone to at least 700 m. Elsewhere it has been recorded at depths of 40 to 1,050 m, but usually between 300 and 700 m (Piotrovsky 1994, Haedrich 1986).

population:
Centrolophus niger is not uncommon. Onofri (1997) noted an increase in the frequency of occurrence of  Centrolophus niger in the Adriatic Sea which has been attributed to climate change (Dulčić and Grbec 2000). In the Mediterranean Sea, especially in the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Ionian Seas, it is occasionally taken over the continental shelf in bottom trawls (Sartor et al. 2001, Politou et al. 2003, D’Onghia et al. 2003). Recent records of this species in Izmir Bay represent the northeastern-most record of C. niger in the Mediterranean (Akyol 2008).  In Norway this species occurs irregularly and most likely it does not reproduce there (Artsdatabanken-Red List of Fishes). There is no additional information on the population size of the species in the remaining areas. The population trend is unknown.

habitat:
Centrolophus niger is a pelagic, mesopelagic, and epibenthic deep-water fish that inhabits warm and temperate seas. It is often in deep water at the edge of the continental shelf, in submarine canyons or near oceanic islands .  The maximum recorded length for this fish is 150 cm (Haedrich 1986) but is most commonly found at 60 cm (Bauchot 1987, Haedrich 1986, Haedrich in press).   Juveniles occur in surface waters with plankton and are associated with pelagic jellyfish and salps. Juveniles and young adults commonly associate, often in loose but large schools, with pelagic jellyfish or floating objects such as boxes or barrels. They feed predominately on jellyfish, crustaceans, salps, and small fishes (Haedrich 1986). There are little data available on the spawning, fecundity and early life history traits for this species.

threats:
Centrolophus niger is discarded from swordfish long-line fisheries (Marín et al. 1998). It is also taken as by-catch in decapod crustacean fisheries in the north-western Mediterranean. It became more prevalent in the by-catch as depth increased from 300 to 616 meters (Moranta et al. 2000). Apart from potential fisheries pressure, there are no other known threats affecting this species.   Besides the known destructiveness of bottom trawlers to benthic habitats and ecosystems, Centrolophus niger also faces threats to its sustainability and well-being by solid-waste dumping into the Mediterranean (Maynou and Cartes 2011). The extraction of minerals from the bottom of the Mediterranean disturbs the substrate and introduces foreign and potentially noxious compounds into the deep-water environment (Maynou and Cartes 2011), of which the effects on fauna have not been measured or distinguished.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The species distribution probably overlaps with protected areas. Further research into the biology and ecology of this species is needed.   This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Although it is marketed in other parts of its range, there does not appear to be any  use-and-trade information available for C. niger in the Northeastern Atlantic or Mediterranean. It is taken as by-catch in a number of fisheries in the region, but it does not appear to be utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
Preliminary molecular studies suggest that the genus Schedophilus is not monophyletic (Milana et al. 2011). In the Mediterranean, this species is frequently confused with the con-familial Schedophilus ovalis (Stefanescu and Massutí 1992).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Hyperoglyphe perciformis has a scattered distribution with rarely reported localities in the region. There is a lack of taxonomically verified identifications for this family. The species is of potential interest for fisheries but little population information is available. It grows and develops slowly, and very limited information is available on the ecology and reproductive aspects of Hyperoglyphe perciformis. It is, therefore, assessed in the region as Data Deficient. 

range:
Hyperoglyphe perciformis is restricted to both coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, H. perciformis is known from scattered locations including the British Isles, Bay of Biscay, off Portugal (locality unknown), the Azores, Canary Islands (locality unknown), and the Mediterranean (Haedrich 1986, Brito 2002, Porteiro et al. 2010, Casamajor and Morandeau 2013, Carneiro et al. 2014).  In the Mediterranean, H. perciformis was recently recorded from the coast of Samandag in Iskenderun Bay (southern Turkey) (Ergüden et al. 2012). There are occasional occurrences from Norway and southern Iceland (Pethon 2005). The depth range for this species is 200 to 400 m (Filer and Sedberry 2008, Casamajor and Morandeau 2013). Western Atlantic: Nova Scotia in Canada to southern Florida in USA and eastern Gulf of Mexico (Robins and Ray 1986.)

population:
Population information for Hyperoglyphe perciformis in the northeastern Atlantic region seems to be rare and indeterminate, with very scattered occurrence and often unknown localities. A few specimens have been caught west of the Azores and in the western Mediterranean Sea (Filer and Sedberry 2008). Adults are known to be found to depths of 400 meters, and have been reported as unusual and occurring at the edge of its range in the southern Bay of Biscay (Casamajor and Morandeau 2013). In the western Atlantic, Hyperoglyphe perciformis seems to be more common and abundant. It made up almost 8% of the total catch from 1999 to 2004 on commercial vessels operating off the coast of the Carolinas, USA. This species is often landed in the vicinity of deep-water topographic structures, such as the Charleston bump (375 to 700 meters), in fisheries targeting the Wreckfish, Polyprion americanus (Haedrich 1986).

habitat:
Hyperoglyphe perciformis is a pelagic species that lives over the continental slope. Adults live in deepwater canyons while the juveniles prefer surface waters and may occasionally be found in coastal waters, usually during the summer/autumn months, sheltered in large groups under floating debris.  The maximum recorded length of this species is 91 cm (TL) (Robins and Ray 1986). This species diet consists of small fish and crustaceans. Adults are often seen schooling. (Bauchot 1987). Hyperoglyphe perciformis is a long-lived species with an extremely slow growth rate and a high age of maturity. Filer and Sedberry (2008) aged specimens caught from commercial fishermen off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, USA, and found the specimens sampled ranged from 5 to 85 years, with a mean age of 12 years. Estimates of age at 50% maturity were 6 years for females, and 100% maturity was 16 years. The peak spawning time at the Charleston Bump, western Atlantic, was between September and April.

threats:
Due to its long life span, slow growth rate and high age at maturity, as well as uncertainty about the size of the population H. perciformis may be intrinsically vulnerable to over-fishing (Filer and Sedberry 2008).  The harvesting of Hyperoglyphe perciformis as a food source, has recently commenced off the coast of the United States (Filer and Sedberry 2006). The age-frequency distribution of individuals landed by commercial fishermen off the coast of the Carolinas and Georgia was skewed towards individuals ranging in age from 2-16 years. The age at 50% maturity is estimated at 16 years for females (Filer and Sedberry 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Hyperoglyphe perciformis. Its distribution probably overlaps with protected areas.  In the light of developing fisheries for this species (Casamajor and Morandeau 2013), research should be carried out to improve the taxonomic identification of the species in the area, biology, ecology, harvest levels, population size and trends as well as potential threats to the species. In light of recent findings confirming that H. perciformis is intrinsically vulnerable to overfishing, there has been recent interest in managing the fishery for H. perciformis off the eastern coast of the United States.

useAndTrade:
Hyperoglyphe perciformis is a species of possible commercial interest; however, in its northeastern regional distribution, there is very little species-specific information available. In the western Atlantic, there is interest in the management of this fishery. Hyperoglyphe perciformes are landed in small numbers by commercial vessels off the coast of the Carolinas and on both coasts of Florida, USA. They are landed as by-catch in fisheries for deepwater snappers (Lutjanidae), groupers (Serranidae) and other deep reef species (Filer and Sedberry 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Schedophilus maculatus has a circumglobal distribution. In the European region, it is recorded from Madeira and the Azores. This   species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in   Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of   the global population.

range:
Schedophilus maculatus has a circumglobal distribution. In the European region, it is recorded from Madeira and the Azores.

population:
Schedophilus maculatus is relatively uncommon (www.fishnet2.org, Accessed on 2 March 2015) to rare (Parin and Piotrovsky 2004) in parts of its range.

habitat:
Schedophilus maculatus is a pelagic species occurring in depths from 300 -- 1,110 m. There is limited information available on its life history characteristics. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Schedophilus medusophagus has a wide distribution in the northeastern Atlantic, and in the western Atlantic, as well. It is probably not uncommon. There is no commercial interest in S. medusophagus, and no other known threats exist for this species. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, but the range of S. medusophagus intersects with several marine protected areas. Therefore, this species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Schedophilus medusophagus is restricted to the North Atlantic, where it is found along both coasts. In the northeastern Atlantic, S. medusophagus has been recorded from northern Norway and Iceland to the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands. It is found in the western Mediterranean, including the northern Adriatic Sea (Jonsson 1992, Dulčić et al. 1998, Haedrich 1986, Brito et al. 2002), but not the eastern basin (Ergüden et al. 2012). This species occurs at depths ranging from 200 to 360 m (Scott and Scott 1988) but has been recorded to 900 m (Bañón et al. 2012).

population:
This is a relatively uncommon species and the population trend is unknown. Schedophilus medusophagus is considered a relatively rare mesopelagic species in the Northeast Atlantic. Adults are mainly found in medium-depth waters (300 to 900 m) (Bañón et al. 2012). There was an increase in the number of stations at which this species was sampled in warming Icelandic waters from 2004 to 2007 (Stefansdottir et al. 2010). The presence of S. medusophagus for the first time in 35 years in the Tyrrhenian Sea may be an indication of changing climatic conditions (Milana et al. 2011).

habitat:
This is a pelagic species that feeds on jellyfish and ctenophores (Macpherson and Roel 1987). The maximum length attained by this species is 51 cm total length (TL) (Robins and Ray 1986). The habitats, ecology, fecundity, spawning periodicity and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
Schedophilus medusophagus is sometimes taken as by-catch (Goujon et al. 1996) but it is not known if this is a threat to the species.

conservationAction:
There are not any species-specific conservation measures in place for S. medusophagus. Its range intersects with a number of marine protected areas. Further research on the biology and ecology of this species is recommended. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is a species of no commercial interest.

redListContributors:
Kara, M., Bizsel, K., Yokes, B., Pollard, D. & Goren, M.


