# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to the Azores, where it is uncommon. While subpopulations are not directly under threat, it may suffer from neglect and destruction of old stone walls and the renovation of paths along which it occurs. However, considering its stable population trend and its large population size, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Asplenium azoricum is restricted to the Azores (Rumsey et al. 2004, Hortal et al. 2005, Schäfer 2005), where it is found on all nine islands. It has a relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO >20,000 km²), but its area of occupancy (AOO) is around 50 km².

population:
The total estimated population is over 100,000 individuals (Schäfer 2005). Its current population trend is stable. The species is abundant in the eastern part of the island of Santa Maria, but on all the other islands it is rare (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
This species occurs in laurel forests and ravines (Schäfer 2005). It grows between stones of the terrace walls and in the crevices of volcanic rocks oriented to the north and northwest. Its altitudinal limits are from sea level to 650 m.

threats:
There are no major threats to the species, but it suffers from collapse and removal of old stone walls along tracks and between pastures, its main habitat.

conservationAction:
Asplenium azoricum is widely distributed throughout the Azorean archipelago and is the most common representative of the A. trichomanes complex on these islands. It is able to survive even in dense plantations of invasive species, although on islands where it is very rare, e.g. Corvo, its few localities should be afforded protection (Rumsey et al. 2004). It is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and it is also protected by regional law in Portugal (Regional Decree 15/2012).

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is assessed as Near Threatened as it has a small area of occupancy (AOO) (149 km²) and the population is considered to be severely fragmented, being thus close to qualify as threatened under criterion B. Habitat protection is needed.

range:
This is central Mediterranean species, being found on Menorca (Spain), Porquerolles and Port-Cross (France), Corsica (France), Capraia (Italy), Sardinia and Sicily (Italy), and on Ponza and Palmarola (west of Naples, Italy). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 148 km².

population:
The species is uncommon but the population trend is probably stable. The population is severely fragmented since the subpopulations contain a small number of individuals and the localities are far apart from each other.

habitat:
This warmth-loving species is found at low elevations (up to 100 m) close to the Mediterranean Sea, near shaded springs in cavities of non-calcareous rocks (granites or metamorphic rocks) (Prelli 2001). In the islands of Ponza and Palmarola (Italy) the species grows on volcanic rocks (A. Troia pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
This species is not abundant and as such is of conservation concern. It is best preserved by habitat protection. It is present in protected areas and listed on the following national Red Lists:
France: Vulnerable, Criteria D1+2 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Spain: Vulnerable, Criterion D2 (Moreno 2008)

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment:Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species is only known from four islands in the eastern Aegean, where it has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 9,000-12,843 km² and a maximum area of occupancy (AOO) of 56 km². Based on tourism, recreational activities and collection there are probably less than ten locations. Thus, the species is assessed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion B. There is the possibility of emigration of gene flow between the neighbouring population on the Turkish mainland, although this rarely happens.

range:
This species is present in Lebanon, southern Turkey and in the adjacent East Aegean islands of Halki, Karpathos, Rhodes and Kastellorizo (Greuter et al. 1983). Some of the records appear to be from the 1980s, but the species has been rediscovered in Rhodes. It has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of less than 13,000 km², and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 56 km² (calculated from known occurrences) although this AOO may be an overestimation because it includes many historical records that need verification.

population:
There is no information on population size and trend. The species is very rare (Schulze et al. 2001).

habitat:
Asplenium bourgaei grows on crevices of shady limestone rocks at elevations between 1,000-2,000 m (Schulze et al. 2001).

threats:
Destruction of its limestone habitat is the main threat to this species. The species may also be threatened by collection, recreational activities and tourism. Based on tourism, recreational activities and collection there are probably less than ten locations.

conservationAction:
It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. Habitat protection is the best way to preserve this species.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Asplenium ceterach is widespread and locally common. It is found in both natural and urban settings and occurs in several nature reserves. Even though it seems to diminish in climatically marginal regions, it is unlikely that the core populations will become threatened. The effects that climate change could have on this species need further research.

range:
This broadly distributed species is found across the western and southern half of Europe, extending southwards and eastwards to North Africa, Yemen, Djibouti, India and China. In tropical Africa it is replaced by other species of the 'A. ceterach-complex'. In Europe it is locally abundant, particularly in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic (Van den Heede et al. 2004), and is less common in colder regions where it is often restricted to old walls in towns and cities. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is c. 7,000 km2.

population:
Although it is present in scattered localities, Asplenium ceterach can occur in large numbers on certain sites, particularly in the west of Britain and Ireland and in the Mediterranean, where they can cover entire rock faces and walls (Page 1997). The population trend is stable.

habitat:
Asplenium ceterach is a strongly calcicolous species, growing in lime-rich crevices on natural rock (limestone and oolite) and in mortar of well-matured walls (Page 1997). It is frost sensitive and therefore usually does not occur at high elevations but mostly below 180 m, although specimens have been found as high as 1,800 m. Plants are tolerant of sun and occur in both sunny and lightly shaded situations. It needs conditions of free draining. Plants are slow-growing and long-lived, thriving best where there is year-round humidity and a long growing season, preferring an absence of drying winter winds and limited frost (Page 1997).

threats:
Subpopulations in urban areas may be threatened by renovation practices. It is advisable that, where this species occurs on walls, particularly in climatically marginal areas, they are spared during renovation projects and when walls are re-grouted. It is possible that extreme (cold) temperatures due to climate change may have an effect on this species, but this needs further investigation. In general it is a resilient, adaptable species that would benefit from a warming climate.

conservationAction:
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. Asplenium ceterach is fairly common in the core of its distribution area, but is rare and threatened on the margins. The population on Gotland (Sweden) is of particular concern as it is geographically disjunct from the main populations. Several sites in central Europe have disappeared or the species is Critically Endangered there. Marginal populations are in need of research and monitoring, and conservation actions should be undertaken where appropriate. It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Czech Republic: Critically threatened and rare (Grulich 2012)
Germany: Endangered (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Ireland: not threatened, locally common (Page 1997)
Malta: Endangered (Lanfranco 1989)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000) and protected by law in the Netherlands (Flora en Fauna Wet 1998)
Romania: not threatened (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Slovakia: extinct (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Sweden where it is only found on the island of Gotland: Critically Endangered (Gärdenfors 2000, 2005, 2010)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: not threatened, locally common (Page 1997)
The species is present in several protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
The species is not utilised. It is occasionally cultivated in specialist collections.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
This fern species has a very restricted distribution with a very small extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO). Although there is no information available on population size and trend, there are certainly fewer than 1,000 mature individuals. Thus, this species is assessed as Vulnerable. Further research is needed into the population size and trend and threats, as this species may actually be at a higher risk of extinction than currently estimated.

range:
This species is endemic to Mount Dhikti in Crete, but it is possible that it also occurs in Asian Turkey (to be confirmed). It is derived from the hybridisation between A. aegaeum and A. viride (Brownsey 1976). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and its area of occupancy (AOO) are both 4 km².

population:
There is no information on the population size and trend for this species. However, there are certainly fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.

habitat:
This rare species occurs on limestone rocks at high elevations, between 1,800 and 2,200 m (Reichstein et al. 1973).

conservationAction:
The species is protected as it occurs in a nature reserve, but specific protection and fencing off of the site is advisable. Studies on population size, trends and threats are needed.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment:Near Threatened (NT)

This species is listed as Near Threatened since the area of occupancy (AOO) is 300 km² and its population is severely fragmented, thus being close to qualify as threatened under criterion B.

range:
Asplenium fissum is patchily distributed in Italy, the Alps and the Balkans, from Austria throughout the Balkans to mainland Greece and western Bulgaria. It is presumably extinct in Switzerland. Outside of Europe it has been recorded once from Iran, but this occurrence is doubtful. The species is found at elevations between 800 and 2,400 m. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 300 km².

population:
This species is rare throughout its range, but can be locally abundant. It is less common at its  western limit, becoming more common in the eastern Alps and the Balkans. The population trend is unknown. Its population is severely fragmented, considering that it has small subpopulations that are isolated since they are restricted to high elevations.

habitat:
Asplenium fissum grows in deep fissures of calcareous or dolomite rocks in shade (Tutin et al. 1964).

conservationAction:
It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas throughout its range, but the species is listed on the following national Red Lists:
France: Vulnerable D2 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Germany: Extremely rare (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Switzerland: no information available (Moser et al. 2002)
Its habitat should be protected and further research is needed on its population trend and threats.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Listed as Least Concern because, although it has a small area of occupancy (AOO) of 608 km² and is threatened in certain countries, the species is locally common and has a stable population trend.

range:
Asplenium fontanum occurs in western and central Europe in patchy subpopulations. It is extinct in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, and presumably extinct in Belgium and Hungary. A related taxon (known as A. pseudofontanum) occurs in central and east Asia, but it is now considered a separate species and is therefore excluded from this assessment. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 608 km².

population:
This species is locally abundant, although it has disappeared from Belgium, Slovakia and Hungary and its extent of occurrence (EOO) is decreasing. It appears to be stable at the core of its distribution, especially at higher elevations, although it is declining at the edges. The overall population trend is considered to be stable.

habitat:
Asplenium fontanum inhabits cracks and fissures in cool and shaded calcareous rocks (very rarely siliceous), with a preference for relatively high mountain areas, much rarer at lower elevations and then on north-facing rocks or deep overhangs (Tutin et al. 1964). Its elevation limits are 300-2,400 m.

threats:
This species may be threatened by climate change in the future, as it is sensitive to high temperatures and droughts. Destruction of its habitat by various human interventions, such as mining, road building and urban development have resulted in local extinctions.

conservationAction:
Asplenium fontanum is frequent in the French and Italian Alps, Jura and the pre-Alps; it is also often found in the Pyrenees, and as such it is not threatened in France. Habitat protection is needed and ex-situ conservation and reintroduction can be attempted where subpopulations are threatened. Population trends need to be studied and a recovery plan is advised in appropriate areas. It is present in protected areas and has been assessed on the following national Red Lists:
Germany: Extremely rare in Baden-Wuertemberg (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Critically Endangered (Király 2007), but also listed as Extinct (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Netherlands: Extinct, last found in 1988 along a canal in Amsterdam, but the site is now destroyed (Van der Meijden 2005)
Slovakia: Extinct (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Spain: Vulnerable in the Murcia region (Sánchez Gómez et al. 2002)
Switzerland: Near Threatened (Moser et al. 2002)


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Asplenium foreziense is listed as Least Concern, because it is widespread and has a presumed large population size. However further research is needed on its threats and population size.

range:
Asplenium foreziense has a patchy distribution in western Europe and north-western Africa. In Europe it is found from the Netherlands southwards to Spain and from Switzerland to Sardinia. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 268 km2.

population:
The majority of its subpopulations are situated in France, particularly in the Massif Central where it is locally frequent. Elsewhere it is localised and uncommon. In the Netherlands it is only known from a single subpopulation at the edge of a canal in Eindhoven (Van der Meijden 2005). The population trend is probably stable.

habitat:
Asplenium foreziense inhabits shady crevices of siliceous rocks (schists, granites, basalts), often on laterite or other red soils (in Spain), usually in deep valleys, rarely on old walls in gardens or urban areas (Tutin et al. 1964, Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 200 - 2,000 m.

conservationAction:
The species is assessed as not threatened in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It is present in protected areas throughout its range. Habitat protection is advised and research on its threats and population trends are needed.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
Asplenium hemionitis is considered to be restricted to the western Mediterranean (Portugal, northwest Africa) and the Macaronesian islands. Records from Italy and Malta belong to Asplenium sagittatum.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is assessed as Least Concern due to its wide distribution and its stable population trend, especially in the Azores and Madeira. However, it is of conservation concern in the Canary Islands and mainland Portugal, where subpopulations should be monitored.

range:
This species is native to Portugal (Estremadura), the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Morocco and Algeria. The records from Italy, Sicily and Malta are erroneous, based on misidentifications of other species (most commonly confused with A. sagittatum).
In Spain, the species occurs on the Canary Islands of La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, and its range covers around 2,100 km². Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 62 km². In Portugal, the species is found in Mafra and the Sintra mountains and occupies an area of 569 km² (Castroviejoet al. 1986, Commission of the European Communities 2009). It occurs on the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo and Desertas (Borges et al. 2008) and is found on all islands of the Azores (Borgeset al.2005), including Graciosa (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016).

population:
In Portugal, the species is known from 18 localities and counts on c. 9,800 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is frequent in northern Madeira, but rare in Porto Santo and on Ilheu dos Garajaus off Deserta Grande (Press and Short 1994). In Spain, the species is rare in the Canary Islands and at least five subpopulations are known (Sanchez Velazquez 2002). In the Azores, it is very rare on Corvo, Graciosa and Santa Maria. On the remaining six islands, it is scattered to locally common (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016). It is scattered and uncommon throughout its range (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016), but the population trend seems to be stable overall.

habitat:
Asplenium hemionitis is found on shady or sunny but damp places in humus-filled rocky fissures in laurisilva, on basaltic rocky cliffs and moist gravelly stream banks and in roadside ditches. It also grows in caves and human-made wells and reservoirs (Castroviejo et al. 1986, Press and Short 1994). It also grows in mixed forest plantations, acid siliceous inland cliffs, thermo-Mediterranean scrub, large-scale ornamental garden areas ­and park flower beds, shrubbery and moss-covered levadas and stone walls. The species is found from sea level up to 655 m elevation in Macaronesia (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016), up to 1,300 m in the Portuguese mainland. In the Azores, it is most common in forest dominated by the invasive Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporaceae) and in old plantations of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica, Cupressaceae; H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
Considering that this species occurs in lowland habitats, subpopulations may be destroyed by forest plantations and urbanization. In the Azores, the species thrives in certain types of forest plantations (particularly of Cryptomeria and Pittosporum), but plants may be threatened when the timber is harvested or when the forest is converted into pasture (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), and it is protected by regional law in Portugal (Regional Decree 15/2012). It is listed as Near Threatened on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). No conservation measures are in place, but the subpopulations in mainland Portugal and the Canary Islands are of concern and should therefore be monitored. In the Azores, the very small subpopulations on Corvo, Graciosa, and Santa Maria should be specifically protected. Further research is needed on the threats to this species. It is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though the species is sensitive to habitat disturbance and climate change and it has a small range, there is no evidence that the population is in decline and it is therefore listed here as Least Concern.

range:
Asplenium hispanicum occurs in southern Spain (Andalusian mountains), and in northern Morocco and Algeria (Atlas Mountains). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is c. 8,000 km2 and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 44 km2.

population:
Although very localized, the subpopulations are large in number of individuals. This species experiences fluctuations in the number of mature individuals due to changes in humidity and similar climatic causes, although these are not extreme. The population trend is probably stable.

habitat:
This species grows only in shady places in fissures and crevices on calcareous rocks in mountainous areas (Tutin et al. 1964, Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 0 - 500 m.

threats:
Habitat destruction due to human intrusions is the main threat to this species.

conservationAction:
Large parts of the subpopulations in Spain are inside the Parque Natural de Grazalema, but they are sensitive to disturbance and further site protection may be needed.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to Croatia and is listed as Near Threatened on the Croatian Red List (Nikolić and Topić 2007), although the reasons for this assessment remain not available. In view of the available information there is little knowledge on the population size and trend or possible threats and therefore this species is listed as Data Deficient. Further research is needed to clarify the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
This Croatian endemic species is restricted to the Kvarner Islands in Dalmatia (Tutin et al. 1964). It is known from Cres, Losinj, Krk, Prvic and Rab.

population:
This species is extremely localised. The population trend is assumed to be stable, but may also be declining. Further research is needed. The population size is unknown.

habitat:
Asplenium hybridum occurs mostly in the aerosaline maritime rock walls of semi-evergreen maquis-type vegetation (Tutin et al. 1964). It is very resistant to high soil salinity. It is thus found in coastal caves and maritime spring habitats. However, it can be easily confused with A. sagittatum, which also has salt-tolerant forms.

threats:
The preferred habitats of this species are unlikely to be affected by any anthropogenic disturbance, although sea level rise due to climate change may cause habitat loss in the future.

conservationAction:
This species is endemic to islands in Kvarner, Croatia, where it is listed as Near Threatened (Nikolić and Topić 2007), although the reasons for this assessment do not seem to be available. As there is still little available information on population trends and threats, it may be advisable to study these subpopulations and their possible threats, and protect their habitat in the meantime. It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
Asplenium jahandieziihas an extent of occurrence (EOO) less than 900 km², an area of occupancy (AOO) of 20-30 km², and it is present in eight locations. It is therefore assessed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualifying as threatened under criteria B and D2. The subpopulations appears to be stable and its cliff habitat currently is well protected, but there are potential threats from mountaineering, changes in hydrological regime and road infrastructure that could rapidly drive the taxon into a threatened category if these threats begin to take effect.

range:
Asplenium jahandiezii is endemic to the department of Var (southeastern France), where it is only found in the Gorges du Verdon (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is no more than 830 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is between 20-30 km².

population:
This plant is present at eight locations with a total of over 100,000 individuals estimated. The population trend is apparently stable and its habitat is well protected and stable.

habitat:
This species grows in crevices of large calcareous rocks, on overhangs of limestone cliffs (Tutin et al. 1964, Frey et al. 2006), and in shady spots in deep gorges (Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 600-800 m.

threats:
The main described threats are mountaineering, rock climbing, and modification of hydrographic functioning. Roads and motorways also pose a threat. On the basis of these threats, eight locations are calculated.

conservationAction:
Asplenium jahandiezii is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected at the national level in France, under Annexe I (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010). It is listed as Near Threatened under Criteria D2 (Olivier et al. 1995, Valentin et al. 2010, UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is present in protected areas.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment:Near Threatened (NT)

This is a localised species with an area of occupancy (AOO) of 292 km², but it is widespread, with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of over 1.6 million km². Declines have been observed in Bulgaria, but the overall population trend is unknown. However, the species has a severely fragmented population and is therefore assessed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion B.

range:
This is an eastern and central Mediterranean species that extends to the Caucasus and northern Iran. In Europe it is found across the Balkans, westwards to southeastern France and across Italy, and southwards to Sicily and Crete. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 292 km².

population:
It is an uncommon and localised species with a severely fragmented population since it is found on small and isolated subpopulations. The overall population trend is unknown, but there is evidence of some decline in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).

habitat:
Asplenium lepidum is found in small numbers in fissures of calcareous or dolomitic rocks, on cliffs or under overhangs, usually in semi-shade, often in gorges, at the bases of large boulders, on the north sides of cliffs, etc. (Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 300-1,000 m.

threats:
This species may be threatened by recreational activities such as rock climbing.

conservationAction:
Asplenium lepidum is protected by law in France (Prelli 2001), found in protected areas and listed on the following national Red Lists:
Austria: species present but not threatened (Witkowski et al. 2003) 
Czech Republic: species present but not threatened (Witkowski et al. 2003) 
Bulgaria: Critically Endangered, Criteria B2ab(iii);C2a(ii);D (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)
France: Endangered, Criterion D (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Hungary: Critically Endangered (Witkowski et al. 2003, Király 2007) 
Romania: Vulnerable (Witkowski et al. 2003)

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a hexaploid taxon derived from Asplenium aureum and A. ceterach.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is assessed as Vulnerable due to its small area of occupancy (AOO) of around 20 km², the fact that there are less than 10 locations, and that there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals and habitat quality. In addition, its population size is estimated to be between 250 and 1,000 mature individuals. Site protection is advised and research on the threats to this species is needed.

range:
This species is endemic to the Macaronesian islands of Madeira (Portugal), La Palma and Gran Canaria (Spain). On Madeira it is rare around Funchal, and it is also uncommon on the Canary Islands. It has been suggested that it is derived from the hybridisation of Asplenium aureum and A. octoploideum, the latter of which does not occur in Madeira (Gibby and Lovis 1989, Van den Heedeet al. 2004). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is ca 53,686-85,710 km², but the area of occupancy (AOO) within this range is estimated to be around 20 km².

population:
The population is estimated to be between 250 and 1,000 individuals (Martín et al. 2008). The number of subpopulations and of mature individuals in each subpopulation is unknown. The overall population trend is declining (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016), since the species is found on the drier parts of the islands, which are more subject to infrastructure development.

habitat:
This species is found in decaying Selaginella and moss on volcanic rocky substrates, on roadside and garden walls and on some stream banks (Press and Short 1994). There is a continuing decline in habitat quality as a result of infrastructure development.

threats:
The species is threatened in Madeira and the rest of the islands due to urban development. On the basis of this threat, fewer than 10 locations are estimated. In addition, it may be potentially threatened by renovation of the walls where it occurs or the widening of the roads along which it is present.

conservationAction:
Asplenium lolegnamense is rare in areas around the largest town in Madeira, where it is found on roadside walls. Half of the population falls within a nature reserve. It is advisable to protect the remaining sites and when development is planned that may threaten these subpopulations, ex-situ conservation and reintroduction should be considered. Research on the threats to this species is needed.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) 
EU 28 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

This species has a restricted range, but part of it is situated within a nature reserve and the population trend appears to be stable. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This fern species is only found in the Former Yugoslavic Republic of Macedonia (FYRO Macedonia), in the lowland belt of the Prilep vicinity (Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning 2004). It occurs in the Mariovo and Treskavec Selecka Mountain Key Biodiversity Areas (Melovski et al. 2012). It is closely related to A. foreziense, with which it forms occasional sterile hybrids (Herrero et al. 2002). Based on point data, its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 20-35 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 28 km²; the EOO calculated around the limits of its distribution shown in the distribution map is 224 km². Melovski estimates its range to be 8-500 km².

population:
This is a species that 'triggers the irreplaceability criterion by its highly restricted range of <500 km²' (Melovski et al. 2012). Its population trend is believed to be stable.

habitat:
Asplenium macedonicum grows in granite rocks cracks (Matevski 2010).

threats:
The threats to this species are not known, but habitat destruction because of human intervention is a real concern.

conservationAction:
Asplenium macedonicum is included on the national CORINE list, a list of species of national importance to FYRO Macedonia (Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning 2004). It occurs in the Prilep-Pletvar reserve, but the population extends across the border of the reserve and not all plants are protected (Melovski et al. 2012). It is advisable to protect the full extent of the population, create awareness regarding this endemic species, and perhaps protect it by law at national level. Research is needed on its threats and population trends.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is possibly derived from ancient hybridisation between A. fontanum and A. petrarchae.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to Spain, where it has a restricted distribution. Although it seems to be currently stable, a continuing decline in the population size is projected in the future. The population size is smaller than 10,000 mature individuals, with less than 1,000 individuals in each subpopulation. Therefore it is assessed as Vulnerable. Further research and monitoring of population trends and threats is needed.

range:
Asplenium majoricum was for a long time thought to be restricted to the northwestern half of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain), but it is now also known from the adjacent mainland of Spain near Valencia, Alicante and southern Catalonia.

population:
This fern species is an allotetraploid derived from hybridisation between A. petrarchae and A. fontanum. It has a very local occurrence, and although the current population trend is probably stable, it is projected to decline in the future. There are less than 10,000 mature individuals, with less than 1,000 in each subpopulation.

habitat:
This species inhabits sunny corners of limestone rocks in medium or low mountains in humid, shady environments, often also on walls of cultivated terraces and in rock fissures. This species grows through winter to spring and desiccates in summer, when its leaves can be revived in case of rain (Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 0 - 500 m.

threats:
The threats to this species are not known. However, as its secondary habitat is walls of cultivated terraces, the renovation or demolishing of these old walls could pose a threat to this species.

conservationAction:
Aplenium majoricum is listed as Vulnerable under Criteria A1e; B1ab(i)+2ab(i); C2a(i) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). The subpopulations are not protected and it is not found in protected areas throughout its range. Further research is needed on its population trend and threats. As it is a species with a restricted range, it is advisable to protect at least some of its sites.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though this fern species has declined in marginal habitats, within its core range it can be found frequently and in large numbers, and its current population trend is stable. It has therefore been assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Asplenium marinum is restricted to coastal habitats of Atlantic and western Mediterranean Europe, extending into coastal North Africa. In Europe, it is found as far north as western Norway and as far east as Italy. It is more abundant in Atlantic Europe, particularly in western Norway, western France, most of coastal Britain and Ireland (except in the east), and Atlantic Spain and Portugal. It is also frequent in Macaronesia, extending west to the Azores. In the Mediterranean it is less abundant, mostly found in coastal Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, northern Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and in a few stations in mainland Italy. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 3,280 km2.

population:
This species occurs in small patchy subpopulations in a narrow zone between sea level and 30 m Asl, and sometimes occurs more abundantly as small plants on favourable sites (Page 1997). Even though the species has declined in the past, the current population trend is stable.

habitat:
This fern species grows in crevices and rock fissures on steep rocky cliff faces and beneath cliff overhangs and around moist sea caves, usually down to a meter above the high-tide level, up to c. 30 m above the sea. It is also rarely found in the mortar of shaded harbour walls. It requires a cool, moist habitat, sheltered from full sun in the summer and frost-free in the winter, usually where the sea is warmer than the land in the coldest weather and where fine sea spray carries the water's warmth onto the rock faces (Page 1997). Plants are salt-tolerant, but they do not require salt to grow well and can grow on a large variety of rock types, both acidic and alkaline. In Ireland it is also found in several inland sites, where the climate mimics that of its coastal preferred habitat.

threats:
There are no currently known threats to this species, but it has a narrow climatic niche and the effects of climate change on the species are unknown. It may also be impacted by water and air pollution, but further studies on this are needed since it appears to be fairly resilient. It may be locally threatened by cliff erosion, but this will not have an effect on the overall population size.

conservationAction:
Asplenum marinum is much less frequent in many of its habitats today than it was in the nineteenth century (Page 1997), and the collection of specimens during the 'Victorian fern craze' doubtlessly had an effect. Contamination of seepage water, land drainage and climate change may have contributed to this decline too. Further research is needed on the effect that potential threats could have on this species. 
The protection of its habitat and the limitation of groundwater pollution should contribute to the conservation of this species in the short term. It is listed on the Red List of Norway as Near Threatened (Kålåset al. 2010) and as Endangered in the Comunidad de Valencia in Spain (Aguilella et al. 2010). It is extinct in Malta (Lanfanco et al. 1989), where it used to occur at a few localities on the islands of Malta and Gozo. However, it seems to have gradually disappeared and has not been recorded there for the last 50 years. It is Endangered in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002).

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Asplenium monanthes has a wide distribution with stable subpopulations on Madeira and on seven islands of the Azores. There are no threats to the species, and it is therefore assessed here as Least Concern.

range:
Asplenium monanthes is a very widespread species found across the Neotropics, southern North America, tropical Africa and Madagascar, with some regional variability. Its occurrence is marginal in Europe, where it is only found in the Macaronesia, most frequently on Madeira (Portugal) and on seven of the Azores islands (not on Graciosa and Santa Maria). It also occurs on La Palma (Canary Islands, Spain). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 120 km2.

population:
This species is uncommon throughout Madeira and the Azores (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016, H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016), although it is more frequent there than in the Canary Islands, where it is rare. Its overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This species always grows in damp places, usually in the shade of cliffs, in rocks and lava fissures, in rocky roadside ditches and on stream banks, walls of levadas in the cloud regions and among mosses in laurisilva and juniper forest (Press and Short 1994, F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 200 - 1,050 m Asl.

conservationAction:
Even though this is a fairly rare species in Europe, no conservation actions seem to be needed. It is present in protected areas throughout its range. The species is Endangered in the Canary Islands and Spain under Criteria B2ab(v); C2a(i) (Sanchez Velazquez 2002, Moreno 2008).

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is more commonly known across Europe as A. billotii.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed overall large and stable population and no major threats. However, the species is decreasing in parts of its range and further research is needed on its possible threats.

range:
This species is widespread in the Mediterranean and western Europe, extending into Northern Africa and eastwards to Ukraine. In Europe, it is found mainly in France and the Iberian Peninsula, with some stations in Great Britain, Ireland and the Macaronesia (Page 1997). In Great Britain and Ireland it is a southwestern, largely maritime species (Page 1997). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,160 km2.

population:
It is often a solitary species, seldom occurring in large numbers (Page 1997). The population trend is probably stable.

habitat:
This species is a slow-growing, evergreen fern that occurs exclusively in fissures and crevices of sheltered rocky sites, often on steep rock faces, ledges or walls, such as the upper parts of sea cliffs, rocky outcrops on headlands and sometimes in hedge banks or on inland rocks. It is found on a wide range of non-calcareous rocks, sheltered from the sun, severe winds and frosts, and where slight seepage of permanent moisture occurs with very free drainage and good air movement (Tutin et al. 1964, Page 1997). In the Channel Islands it grows in steep often sunny slopes in banks of granite and clay with slight surface erosion and habitat openness. Its elevation limits are 0 - 300 m Asl. Subpopulations occasionally hybridise with A. adiantum-nigrum or A. scolopendrium.

threats:
There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, in Ireland and southwest England, the subpopulations of A. obovatum have decreased considerably in numbers in the last hundred years. The cause of this decline is unknown, although it seems likely that air and groundwater pollution may have had an effect (Page 1997).

conservationAction:
As this species is restricted to specialised habitats, the protection of these habitats, including the provision of clean seepage groundwater, would be the best incentive to maintain healthy populations. Fortunately, many subpopulations are in already protected coastal habitats. The species is listed in the following national and regional Red Lists:
Germany: extremely rare (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Spain: Vulnerable under Criterion D2 (Moreno 2008)
United Kingdom: Near Threatened and nationally scarce (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)
Canary Islands: probably endangered (Sanchez Velazquez 2002)
Further research and mornitoring is needed on the population size and trends, threats and habitats trends.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
This fern species is assessed as Near Threatened since its population size is estimated to be around 1,000 mature individuals and thus is close to qualify as threatened under criterion D. Further research on its population size is needed.

range:
This species is endemic to the Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, La Palma, Tenerife). It is an autopolyploid derived from hybridisation between A. ceterach and A. aureum. It was formerly known as A. parvifolium, an incorrectly applied name. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 4,109-13,451 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 48 km².

population:
Due to the lack of surveys and introgression with related species, the exact number of plants in the population is unknown, although it is estimated to be around 1,000 mature individuals. The population trend is stable.

habitat:
The species grows, often together with its tetraploid cousin A. ceterach, in rock fissures in natural pine forests and open savanna-like habitats dominated by Pinus canariensis (Van den Heede et al. 2004). A sterile hexaploid hybrid is also often present. Its elevation range is 700-2,000 m (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
There are no current threats to this species. Hybridisation could be a potential threat, but since the hybrids are sterile this is not a major threat to the species. Other potential threats include infrastructure development and fire.

conservationAction:
Asplenium octoploideum was listed as Vulnerable on the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002). It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas. Habitat protection is the only solution to preserve this species. Further research on its population size is needed.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has two subspecies: one diploid called A. petrarchae subsp. bivalens with a chromosome number of 2n = 72 and one autotetraploid (spontaneous doubling of the genome) called A. petrarchae subsp. petrarchae with 2n = 144. The autotetraploid form is much more abundant and widespread than diploid bivalens.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a localised but widespread fern species with a stable population trend, and it occurs in many areas that are fairly well protected from human intervention. It is therefore unlikely to be threatened and is listed here as Least Concern.

range:
This species is distributed across the western Mediterranean, from Spain to Greece and in northwest Africa. In Europe, it is found along the Mediterranean coast in eastern Spain, southern France, Italy, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and along the Adriatic coast to Greece. It is also known from a few stations in Atlantic Portugal. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 2,424 km2.

population:
This species is usually very localised and never common, but the subpopulations appear to be stable.

habitat:
Asplenium petrarchae inhabits warm crevices of limestone rocks in areas that are not too high nor too cool (thermo- to meso-Mediterranean), preferably on sunny exposures. It avoids excessive sunshine, occupying warm but not too dry hollows (Tutin et al. 1964, Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,000 m.

threats:
Recreational activities (e.g. rock climbing) and the destruction of its habitat for the production of cement or road building will have a significant effects on local subpopulations.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), but it only has a marginal occurrence there. Within its distribution area it is not threatened as there is usually little activity on its preferred habitats, although rock climbing may have a local effect. It is found in protected areas throughout its range, and it is advisable to protect the subpopulations from disturbances.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Asplenium ruta-muraria is a widespread and locally common fern species with a stable population trend. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Asplenium ruta-muraria is a widespread species with a mainly European distribution. However, it extends into North Africa and fragmentarily eastwards into China and the Himalayas. While it ranges from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, most sites are located in central and western Europe. In Europe, its area of occupancy (AOO) is 7,772 km2.

population:
This is a fast growing species and perhaps rather short-lived, and re-establishment occurs in most places (Page 1997). It produces spores in abundance, making it competitive on more eroded mortar. Natural rock face sites are rare, but the species occurs abundantly on old walls throughout its range. The species is fairly common throughout Great Britain, France, Germany and the Alps. The population trend is stable.

habitat:
The Wall-rue is a strongly calcicolous fern, that in natural situations is confined to steep faces of lime-rich rocks and in grykes of limestone pavement (Page 1997). However, it is more widespread in lime-rich mortar of old walls of church yards, gardens, fields, ruins, bridges, viaducts, canal sidings, etc. Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,600 m.

threats:
The renovation of old walls and the refinishing of these with modern mortar instead of the traditional lime is a local threat to its subpopulations and all other wall flora. It is also susceptible to air pollutants and it is a bioindicator of air quality. It is threatened by mining, sand and gravel quarrying, road building and the construction and renovation in towns, rural areas and shores, and by changes in tree species composition (Lilleleht 1998, Rassi et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. City air pollution needs to be reduced. It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Estonia: Vulnerable (Lilleleht 1998)
Finland: Vulnerable (Rassi et al. 2001), and later uplisted to Endangered (Rassi et al. 2010)
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
The species is present in protected areas throughout its range. Research is needed on the life history and longevity of individual plants and subpopulations, and there are also some taxonomic issues to resolve.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Although this fern species has a small area of occupancy (AOO), its population trend appears to be stable and there are no major threats. Therefore it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is distributed across the Mediterranean, from Spain and Morocco to Turkey, Syria and Israel. In Europe it is found in Spain, southern France, Italy, Croatia, Greece, Malta, and the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and the Balearics. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 700 km2.

population:
This is an uncommon or rare species, but the subpopulations can have many individuals. The population trend is probably stable.

habitat:
Asplenium sagittatum is a warmth-loving species that inhabits moist, shady crevices of limestone rocks in low-lying areas, occasionally found in nooks of wells, caves, gullies, gorges, etc. (Tutin et al. 1964, Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,000 m.

conservationAction:
The species is present in protected areas and listed on the following national Red Lists:
Croatia: Critically Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2007)
France: Vulnerable under Criterion D1 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is protected by law in France. 
Malta: Endangered (Lanfranco 1989)
The species is not of conservation concern in Spain, Italy and Greece. In areas where it is of concern, the habitat needs to be protected or the species can be cultivated ex-situ.

useAndTrade:
This species is occasionally grown as an ornamental in specialist collections.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This gregarious fern is listed as Least Concern as it is widespread and occurs in large numbers in both urban and natural settings. The current population trend is stable and the species faces no immediate threats.

range:
This is a widespread species occurring from the Azores to Japan (where it is tetraploid), with a much rarer form in North America (which is diploid). In Europe, it is distributed widely from Ireland and the United Kingdom to the Azores and northern Portugal, throughout Spain, France, Italy, much of Germany northwards to coastal Norway, Gotland island and through the Balkans southwards to Crete and eastwards to Ukraine. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 6,212 km2.

population:
This is a gregarious fern which is often found in large numbers in both natural and anthropogenic settings. The population trend is considered to be stable, and possibly increasing.

habitat:
Hart's-tongue fern occurs in a wide range of mainly lowland habitats, often abundant in western and coastal habitats, being much more local in continental settings. It is found on shaded rocks in woodland, stream banks, hedge banks, lane banks, stonework, cliffsides, steep ravines, grykes and fissures of limestone pavements, around cave mouths and mining adits, and on damp, shaded walls and other masonry. The species is markedly calcicolous, requiring habitats that are more or less permanently moist with a high humidity, good shelter and shade (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,800 m.

threats:
There are no immediate threats to this species in natural settings, and it may benefit from milder wetter winters predicted under various climate change scenarios. However, in urban settings it may be threatened by wall renovation projects.

conservationAction:
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting, particularly in marginal populations. The species is present in protected areas throughout its range and listed on the following national Red Lists: 
Albania: Vulnerable (Zoological Society of London 2014)
Czech Republic: Critically threatened, rare (Grulich 2012) 
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Norway: Vulnerable under Criterion D1 (Kålås et al. 2006, 2010)
Sweden: Endangered under Criterion D (Gärdenfors 2005, 2010)
It is protected by law in the Netherlands (Flora en Fauna Wet 1998).

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, apart from occasional cultivation as a garden plant from horticultural stock.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species has a small area of occupancy (AOO) of 864 km²and a severely fragmented population. It is therefore close to qualify as threatened under criterion B and it is listed here as Near Threatened. The population trend is not known and there is substantial geographical variability, so further studies on its taxonomy, habitat, threats and population trends are needed.

range:
This is a montane species found in the Moroccan Atlas, the Pyrenees, Andalucía (Spain) and the Alps, extending to the Dolomites, Slovenia and Bavaria (Germany). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 864 km².

population:
This is a rare plant that occurs on isolated and small subpopulations, and its population is therefore considered to be severely fragmented. The population trend is unknown.

habitat:
Asplenium seelosii is found in fissures and under overhangs of calcareous and dolomitic rocks, rarely in places that are slightly sunnier (Tutin et al. 1964, Prelli 2001, Frey et al. 2006). Its elevation limits are 200-2,400 m.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Near Threatened on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). In France, subsp. glabrum is listed as Critically Endangered (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012), where it is protected by law. It is present in protected areas throughout its range. Subpopulations are best protected through habitat preservation. Research on its population trends, habitat, taxonomy and threats are needed.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread fern species that is locally common and has a stable population trend, and it is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This widespread species occurs throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from western Europe to Japan and in western North America. In Europe, it is mostly found in colder regions of northern Europe or at higher elevations in the central European mountains. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 6,264 km2.

population:
Asplenium septentrionale is widespread and locally common in continental habitats. In western Europe it is rare, it is found in only one locality in Ireland (Co. Galway) and it is present at a single site in Iceland, where it reaches its oceanic limits (Page 1997). In Britain, the subpopulations have been greatly reduced during the last century due to the collection of specimens for horticulture and the upgrowth of vegetation in formerly open habitats. In the Netherlands, it was first recorded from a lock wall in Zwolle and a second subpopulation was recorded in Rotterdam (Van der Meijden 2005). The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This is a species of continental climates, which is tolerant of cold winter conditions and relatively hot summer temperatures. It generally grows on steep, sometimes vertical rock faces, usually on old weathered volcanic or metamorphic rocks, slate, basalt or granite, and as a consequence it is usually found in mountainous areas, but not necessarily at high elevations (Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,900 m Asl. It is often positioned in full sun on well-drained places, including steep roadside walls and canal sidings.

threats:
Specimen collecting can be a threat to the species, but this is not frequent and affects only single individuals. Construction activities (including road building), and the over-shading by natural or exotic vegetation and mining (Lilleleht 1998) are its greatest threats. As this species prefers cool climates, the climate change with extreme temperatures may be a threat to this species.

conservationAction:
Habitat conversion is the major threat to the species, considering that vegetation grows up to shade out the subpopulations. In order to maintain the subpopulations, the habitat needs to remain locally open, and management may be needed. The species is present in protected areas throughout its range and listed in the following national and regional Red Lists: 
Estonia: rare (Lilleleht 2001) and Critically Endangered (Lilleleht 2008)
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: Near Threatened and nationally scarce (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)
Canary Islands (Spain): Endangered (Sanchez Velazquez 2002). 
In places where the species occurs in urban situations, subpopulations need to be protected by law to prevent them from disappearing during renovation works of old walls. Further research is needed on ecology, threats and population trends.

useAndTrade:
Although it is not commonly used, this fern is sometimes uprooted and transplanted into rock gardens, although this is rarely successful due to the peculiar requirements this species needs to thrive.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.


taxonomicNotes:
In the past, A. terorense was not accepted as a good species and was synonymised with Asplenium ovovatum subsp. billotii. This subspecies is a tetraploid, while one of its parents is a diploid that has been called Asplenium obovatum var. protobillotii, so some experts believe that A. terorense is a synonym of this variety, in which case it would not be a Canarian endemic as it would also be present in mainland Spain, Turkey and probably elsewhere in the Mediterranean (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). For the purposes of this assessment, the Euro+Med checklist is followed (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013), which treats A. terorense as a separate species.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is assessed as Endangered since there are fewer than 250 mature plants, it has a restricted area of occupancy (AOO), the population is considered to be severely fragmented, and there is a continuing decline in habitat quality. It may experience fluctuations that depend on the use or abandonment of agricultural sites. Habitat preservation and restoration are recommended to protect this species.

range:
This species is endemic to the Canary Islands (Spain), where it is known from the islands of Gran Canaria (where the majority of subpopulations are found) and El Hierro (where only few are present). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 1,212-9,649 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 16 km².

population:
The population consists of 48 plants at 13 localities on Gran Canaria, with a few more plants on El Hierro (Marrero and Sanchez Velazquez 2013). The population trend is assumed to be stable. The population is considered to be severely fragmented, as it is found on small and isolated subpopulations. The population size is estimated to be between 50 and 250 mature individuals.

habitat:
Asplenium terorense grows at the foot of walls or chalky slopes in deep soil, often in the understory of laurisilva (Pruno-Lauretea azoricae), but currently more commonly on secondary laurel, elm, chestnut or fig forest remnants, due to human activities, and it is sometimes found even in the shade of bushes like Chamaecytisus proliferus of Rubus ulmifolius. It also grows together with A. billotii at the foot of agricultural or natural walls and at the base of lava sheets, in humid, shaded environments. It is found at altitudes between 750-1,250 m (Marrero and Sanchez Velazquez 2013).

threats:
The species is found in an area of traditional agricultural use. Although the gradual abandonment of these activities since the 1980s has led to some recovery of that habitat through the forming of thickets or copses of secondary laurisilva, some agricultural activities persist and the continued habitat destruction, maintenance of tracks and roads, grazing and ploughing has negatively affected some subpopulations (Marrero and Sanchez Velazquez 2013).

conservationAction:
Asplenium terorense was listed as probably endangered in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002), but insufficient data were available at the time, resulting on its listing as Data Deficient in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). Further studies have been carried out (Marrero and Sanchez Velazquez 2013) and its population has been found to consist of less than 50 clumps in small subpopulations, limited to a few isolated locations (10-15). Some of the subpopulations are in protected areas which are not under immediate threat. The species is best protected through habitat preservation and restoration.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This represents a species complex with different subspecies that have various ploidy and could in theory be treated as separate species. However, for the purposes of this assessment, the Euro+Med checklist (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013) is followed, in which these taxa are considered as a single species.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This fern species (complex) is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable population trend and absence of major threats. Its uses are limited and it is a common fern found in much of Europe. An assessment of the different subspecies is provided below:
 
Diploid A. t. subsp. trichomanes is classified as Least Concern, as it is widespread on siliceous rocks
Diploid A. t. subsp. inexpectans is classified as Least Concern, as it is widespread on calcareous rocks
Hexaploid A. t. subsp. maderense is classified as Data Deficient, as it has been only recently discovered and the population trend are unknown. 
Tetraploid A. t. subsp. quadrivalens is classified as Least Concern, as it is widespread in northern Europe on calcareous rocks
Tetraploid A. t. subsp. pachyrachis is classified as Least Concern, as it is widespread in central Europe on calcareous rocks
Allotetraploid A. t. subsp. coriaceifolium (also known as species Asplenium azomanes) is classified as Least Concern, as it is found locally frequently in the Balearic Islands and Andalucía on karst-limestone rocks.

range:
Asplenium trichomanes is native to temperate Asia, Australia, North America, Africa and Europe (USDA 2012). In Europe it is widespread, found from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean. It is variable and a number of cytotypes are accepted as subspecies or species under different taxonomies. For the purposes of this assessments, these have been considered under a single species A. trichomanes, however acknowledging that in the future the various cytotypes (e.g. subsp. coriaceifolium, subsp. hastatum, subsp. inexpectans, subsp. maderense, subsp. pachyrachis, subsp. quadrivalens, subsp. trichomanes) may need to be treated and assessed separately as many have different ecological preferences. For instance, typical subsp. trichomanes prefers more continental climates, whereas subsp. quadrivalens prefers to grow in climates of a more oceanic nature. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 9,324 km2.

population:
Asplenium trichomanes is a very widespread and common species found in several continents. The tetraploid subspeciesAsplenium trichomanesssp.quadrivalensis one of the most common and widespread ferns in Europe and is very abundant, whereas the diploid subspeciesAsplenium trichomanesssp.trichomanesis much rarer (Suter et al. 2000, National Museums of Northern Ireland 2010), although the latter is more frequent in northern and mountain habitats (Page 1997). Subpopulations are often numerous, although some cytotypes are rare and infrequent. It is more common the western fringe of its distribution. Its overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This is a perennial evergreen fern species found in oceanic and montane areas growing in rocky habitats such as cliffs, screes and mines. It is commonly found growing on masonry, grikes and limestone pavements (Castroviejo et al. 1986, Page 1997, Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2012). It is found in natural rock habitats, often under ledges, but occurs in abundance on all types of natural and human-made walls, bridges, wells, viaducts, railway stations, ruins, garden walls, steep rocky roadside banks, preferring humid, free-draining situations, usually lime-rich for subsp. coriaceifolium, subsp. hastatum, subsp. inexpectans and subsp. quadrivalens, and more neutral to even acidic substrates for subsp. trichomanes and subsp. maderense. It occurs from sea level to 2,500 m elevation.

threats:
There are no known significant threats to this species. However, in the United Kingdom its subpopulations have been reduced due to the loss of natural limestone pavements and the grazing pressure, although light grazing favours this species' spread beyond grikes (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2012). It occurs frequently on human-made walls, and the restoration of these structures may cause loss of the subpopulations. Re-grouting of walls needs to be carried out with traditional lime mortar and plants need to remain in situ as much as possible throughout renovation projects. In general the species is gregarious and often occurs in large numbers.

conservationAction:
Asplenium trichomanes (and its various subspecies) is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Estonia: Vulnerable (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) 
Lithuania: Endangered (Rašomavičius 2007).
Luxembourg: Least Concern (Colling 2005)
Malta: possibly extinct (Lanfranco 1989), it has not been seen there for ca 70 years.
Norway: Least Concern (Artsdatabanken 2010)
Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) 
United Kingdom: Least Concern (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)
It is protected by law in the Netherlands (Flora en Fauna Wet 1998). In the United Kingdom, the species is protected in certain areas (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2012). 
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
The medicinal uses of this plant are limited. The fronds are used to make a sweet tea to relieve pain and discomfort of mucous membranes and as a laxative. It has also been used in the treatment of chest complaints and to promote menstruation (Plants for a Future 2011). It is sometimes cultivated as a rock-garden plant.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is widespread, it has a stable population trend and is not affected by any current major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. Further research on the impacts of climate change on this species is needed.

range:
This fern species can be found in cold climates and montane environments throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from Greenland and Iceland through Europe, southwards to the Iberian Peninsula and Turkey, discontinuously through north and Central Asia to Japan, with outlying stations in the mountains of North America. In Europe, it occurs mostly in mountainous regions of Scandinavia, Great Britain, the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans and Greece. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 5,684 km2.

population:
Asplenium viride is locally common throughout its range, and its population trend appears to be stable. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it is mostly found in mountainous areas (Page 1997). In the Netherlands, it is only known from a canal in Amsterdam (Van der Meijden 2005).

habitat:
This species grows mostly in hilly upland areas on calcareous rocks, mostly in the shade (Komarov 1968). They thrive in moist, jaded, sheltered crevices of basic rock, especially limestones, base-rich shales and mica schists, but also on rhyolitic lavas, andesites and dolomites and occasionally on ultra-basic rocks. It mainly occurs on damp, shaded cliff-faces, screes and rocky sides of ravines, sometimes in grykes of limestone pavement at lower elevations (Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 200 - 2,800 m Asl.

threats:
There are no immediate threats to this species. Climate change may have an effect on this species, as it is known to prefer cool summers, but established plants seem to be resilient. Mining poses a local threat in Finland.

conservationAction:
Asplenium viride is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Czech Republic: Vulnerable (Grulich 2012)
Estonia: Vulnerable (Estonian Environmental Investment Center & Estonian Academy of Science Commission for Nature Conservation, assessed in 2008)
Germany: Not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Endangered (Zoological Society of London 2014)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
It is protected by law in the Netherlands (Flora en Fauna Wet 1998) and it is found in protected areas throughout its range. When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. Further research on the impacts of climate change on the species is needed.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Athyrium alpestre (Hoppe) Clairv. has nomenclatural priority over the younger name A. distentifolium Tausch ex Opiz. It includes also A. flexile, a taxon from Scotland of dubious status.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though this is a locally scarce fern that is listed as Near Threatened in some countries, the species has a broad distribution, a stable population trend and is present in several protected areas. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This is an Arctic-Alpine species found from southern Greenland throughout northern and central Europe and in scattered localities through Siberia eastwards to Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka (Page 1997). In Europe, it is found in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Highlands of Scotland, the Scandic Mountains, Lapland, and the mountains of central and southern Europe it is present in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Massif Central (France), Bohemia (Czech Republic), the Carpathians, the Balkans, Bosnia and Corsica, where it is locally abundant. It is also present in the Urals and the Caucasus.

population:
The species is locally abundant and subpopulations are currently not declining. The population trend is stable.

habitat:
This fern is found in mountainous or Arctic regions, usually growing scattered in moist gullies, damp pockets on boulder slopes and hollows on acidic rock, where there is appreciable winter snow-lie, covering the plants well into spring, protecting them from severe cold and winter desiccation (Page 1997). It occurs at altitudes between 550 - 2,800 m Asl.

threats:
The dependence of this species on cold climates and winter snow coverage may result in difficulties to cope with climate change, although no studies have been carried out on whether climate change will have an effect on this species in particular. However, it is expected that the species would have to move its range upwards and northwards (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).
The formerly accepted, but now synonymised species Athyrium flexile, has become much less frequent during the last 50 years, partly because of the use of herbicides, but more because of the abandonment of fallow land on chalk slopes and the spread of course grass, scrub and secondary woodland (Wigginton 1999).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for this species, but it is present in protected areas in many parts of its range. If climate change proves to have an effect on this species, assisted migration could be considered as an option, but this is not a high priority at the moment. Habitat and population fluctuations need to be studied and monitored. Athyrium alpestre is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Bulgaria: Near Threatened (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: nationally scarce (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)
The formerly accepted Athyrium flexile is listed as Vulnerable on the U.K. Red List (Wigginton 1999). Its habitat should be protected and population trends should be studied. However, this form falls within the morphological and molecular variability of A. alpestre and thus it is not assessed here as a separate taxon.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern is a widespread and common species in many places and has an increasing population trend. It is frequently present in protected areas and resilient to disturbance and pollution. In addition, it is a good coloniser and there are no major threats to the species. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a common and very widespread species which is distributed from Iceland to Mongolia and southwards to north Africa and Lebanon. It has a closely related species in the Americas, Athyrium asplenioides, which is sometimes treated at a subspecific level of Athyrium filix-femina, which would extend the distribution across the northern hemisphere. In Europe it is common and widespread, often almost of weedy proportions when in suitable habitats. It is more common in the west and north of the continent, becoming less abundant in Mediterranean latitudes as it prefers wetter and colder climates.

population:
When in suitable habitats, this species can be very abundant, occurring in large numbers. The more humid summers in western Europe have resulted in local increase in numbers (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2015), although it is rare on the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002). The population trend is increasing.

habitat:
This species is frequently found on understory vegetation of deciduous and lighter patches in coniferous forest and in broadleaved woodland, hedgerows, rocky gorges, marshlands and swamps, usually on damp or wet soil, often along stream courses and in moist rocky habitats in the mountains. It can also be found in less natural sites, such as in the shade of walls, gardens, alleyways, drainage ditches and shady wet roadsides (Page 1997). It is usually found on soils that have good drainage but are permanently moist. Its altitudinal range is 0 - 2,300 m Asl. 
It is a vigorous species that can easily colonize disturbed habitats by spores on many types of wet soil and is tolerant to mild disturbance and pollution, even high concentrations of heavy metal contaminants. In heavily polluted areas, its rapid growth and density of vegetation cover may be of particular ecological importance (Page 1997).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are currently in place and none are needed as the species is common and gregarious throughout its range. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996).

useAndTrade:
The species is sometimes grown as a garden ornamental and may naturalise from usage in gardens. A rootstock infusion was used medicinally as a vermifuge in Russia (Komarov 1968). Other uses in traditional medicine and folklore also exist.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is common in large areas of its range and is likely to expand due to climate change. It is found in several protected areas and most existing sites are generally not under threat. It is rare in marginal areas of eastern and northeastern Europe, but this is due to the climate being less suitable there. In general, it is locally abundant and its population trend is considered to be stable. It is thus listed as Least Concern.

range:
Blechnum spicant occurs predominantly in Europe, extending eastwards to Anatolia and Iran. It is also present along the north Pacific, from Japan through the Aleutian Islands and the Pacific northwest of North America, southwards to central California, widely disjunct from the European distribution. In Europe, it is widespread throughout the moister middle and northwestern part of the continent, becoming less abundant in the Mediterranean and continental parts of Europe (Page 1998). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 7,248 km2.

population:
This species can occur in great numbers in the more western and wetter parts of Europe, becoming more local elsewhere. It is abundant in the western parts of the UK, Ireland and western France, where it is characteristic of acidic woodlands (Page 1997). In the Netherlands, it is mostly restricted to stream sides and ditches in beech forests, and the changes of management have resulted in the return of many plants in formerly sparse populations, particularly in eastern Overijssel (M. Christenhusz pers. obs. 2016). Its overall population trend seems to be stable.

habitat:
This species occurs on shaded, wet, acidic forests, both broadleaf and coniferous, growing up to 1,220 m Asl in the UK (Page 1998). In the Netherlands it is locally frequent in ditches in beech forests (Van der Meijden 2005). In Europe it occurs from sea level to 2,400 m elevation.

threats:
Locally the subpopulations can be under threat by drainage of wet forests and bogs and poor forest management. The warming and moistening of the climate due to climate change may have a beneficial rather than detrimental effect on the species, but this needs to be investigated.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are currently needed, although old moist forests on acidic soil should be protected from logging. In Finland where it grew in a spruce mire it has become extinct due to a combination of forest management activities, peatland drainage and peat harvesting, and probably also collecting by plant enthusiasts (Rassi et al. 2001). 

Blechnum spicant is listed on the following national and regional Red Lists:
Canary Islands (Spain): Vulnerable (Sanchez Velazquez 2002)
Czech Republic: Near Threatened (Grulich 2012)
Estonia: Extinct (Rašomavičius 2007)
Finland: Extinct (although vagrant) (Rassi et al. 2001, 2010)
Germany: Not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Critically Endangered (Király et al. 2007)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2005)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
It is common and not of conservation concern in Ireland, UK, Norway, France, Germany, Switzerland and Spain. It is present in protected areas throughout its range. Further research on the effects of climate change on the species is needed.

useAndTrade:
The species is occasionally cultivated as an ornamental plant and is usually propagated from cultivated stock.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is a polyploid complex which comprises diploid to octoploid cytotypes, however a global revision is currently not available. Some authors recognise several species (four or five) in the European area (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016), but these are not accepted in general floras of the area, nor in the Euro+Med checklist. For the purposes of this assessment, these cytotypes will all be considered under C. fragilis as the information available for this taxon does not allow to treat these cytotypes as separate.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is gregarious, fast-growing and common in much of its widespread range. Its current population trend is stable and there no major threats to the species. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species has a nearly worldwide distribution, although it is restricted to temperate climates. Hence, it is found in the temperate zones in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, and in mountains and on oceanic islands in the tropics and sub-tropics. In Europe it is widespread throughout northern and moister middle latitudes, spreading to the Macaronesia but becoming less abundant in the Mediterranean (Page 1997), where it is ecologically replaced by Adiantum capillus-veneris (Pteridaceae).
This assessment includesC. fragilis subsp. dickieana, which receives legal protection in Britain on its extreme rarity. However, there has been considerable debate about its taxonomic status in the Cystopteris fragilis complex, and allozyme studies proved it not to be distinct (Parks et al. 2000).

population:
In many places this is a common and gregarious fern, which is fast-growing and occurs in small groups or large numbers. The current population trend is stable.

habitat:
This species occurs in calcicolous, shaded rocks in wet mountainous and rocky lowland areas. It also occurs in rocky woodlands, wet ravines, mountain cliffs, screes, cave mouths, sink holes, gyres of limestone pavements, sandstone cliffs and on masonry in mortar on shaded walls, ruins, gardens, under bridges over streams and rivers, canal sidings and other brick-work in shade, where they have no competition from other vascular plants (Page 1997, Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). In Macaronesia, and sometimes elsewhere, it is also found on acid substrates (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,700 m.

threats:
There are no major threats to this species, however the subpopulations on walls in urban settings may be threatened by renovation activities.

conservationAction:
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. Cystopteris fragilis is found in many protected areas throughout its range.
The species is generally considered not to be of conservation concern, but it is listed as Vulnerable in the Netherlands (Van der Meijdenet al. 2000), where it is protected by law (Flora en Fauna Wet 1998). Several forms appear on national Red Lists: Cystopteris fragilis subsp. dickieana is listed as Vulnerable in the United Kingdom (Wigginton 1999, Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and as critically threatened in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012; where its occurrence may be dubious). Cystopteris fragilis subsp. huteri is listed as Endangered in Andorra (Carrillo et al. 2008). In England, Cystopteris fragilis subsp. alpina is listed as Extinct, and Cystopteris fragilis subsp. diaphana is listed as Vulnerable (Stroh et al. 2014). In Ukraine, Cystopteris fragilis subsp. alpina is included as a Rare species. 
Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern has a wide distribution and occurs in remote areas that are not immediately under pressure from human development. Even though the species is rare throughout its range and the effects that future climate change may have on its subpopulations are uncertain, the current population trend is stable, it can be locally abundant and it is found in protected areas throughout its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cystopteris montana is found on mountainous areas throughout the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, although discontinuously. In Europe it has an arctic-alpine distribution, centering on Fennoscandia, northern Britain, the Pyrenees, the Alps and other central and eastern European mountains. It is also found in the Caucasus (Page 1997).

population:
The species has a patchy distribution and often occurs sparingly. It is rare, but can be locally fairly abundant. The species seems to be stable across its range, especially in the northern part of its distribution area.

habitat:
The species grows mainly on dripping rock ledges on north facing steep gully sides and rocky slopes in areas where the summer maximum does not exceed 28 degrees Celsius. It usually occurs on mountain woodland in montane areas. It prefers basic soils and can be found on unstable, micaceous wet rocky screes with plenty of seepage water and where they are protected from sun and wind (Tutin et al. 1964, Page 1997). In Fennoscandia and Russia the species is also found in lowland calcareous moist spruce (Picea abies) and mountain birch (Betula pubescens subsp. czerepanovii) forests (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 700 - 2,500 m.

threats:
The threats to this species are unknown, but considering its climatic preference for cool mountain and arctic habitats, it may be under threat from future climate change. However, as it occurs on the lowlands in the north of its distribution, it may be less affected by climate change there. The sites where it occurs are often remote.

conservationAction:
Cystopteris montana is listed as nationally rare in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and as Near Threatened in Spain (Moreno 2008). It is not of conservation concern in Germany and Switzerland (Ludwig and Schnittler 1997, Moser et al. 2002). No conservation measures are currently in place and none appear to be needed. The species is found in many protected areas throughout is range.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe, this widespread fern species is assessed as Near Threatened since it has an area of occupancy (AOO) is 452 km² and its population is considered to be severely fragmented. In the EU 28, excluding the large subpopulations in Norway, Switzerland, Ukraine and Russia, it is assessed as Vulnerable in view of its small AOO of 204 km2, its severely fragmented population and the fact that there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals.

range:
Cystopteris sudetica is a continental species found from central Europe to east Asia. In Europe it occurs on the hills and mountains of southern Norway, at one site in Estonia and in sporadic places in the Alps. It is also present from the Czech Republic across Slovakia, southern Poland and the Carpathian mountains in Romania and Ukraine. It occurs in Belarus, throughout north, northwest and central European Russia to the Urals, from where its distribution continues patchily throughout the mountain regions of Central Asia, the Caucasus and China, eastwards to Korea and Japan. In Europe, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is over 4 million km², but its area of occupancy (AOO) is just 452 km². In the EU 28, its AOO is 204 km².

population:
The subpopulations are typically small and widely dispersed and thus the population seems to be severely fragmented. The overall population trend is stable even though the subpopulations in Norway, Germany, Czech Republic and Estonia are declining. It is a rare species.

habitat:
This species grows usually at high elevations on chalk and other basic rocks, on dry to humid slopes in mountain forests ravines and in rock fissures at middle elevations (Tutin et al. 1964, Komarov 1968, Prelli 2001). In the Leningrand region in European Russia, it is found in wet conditions along river streams (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,300 m.

threats:
The threats to this species are not known, but its ravine habitats are usually not threatened unless the substrate is mined, but there has not been any evidence that mining activities pose a direct threat to this species in particular.

conservationAction:
The species is present in several protected areas. It is under threat in most of its western range, although the status of more eastern stations is more stable. It may locally be common in the Carpathians and the Ural Mountains. No conservation measures are currently in place, but it is advisable to protect the species and its habitats and specific sites at national and international levels, since it is threatened and rare in much of its range. Ex-situ conservation, reintroduction and possible alternative measures that could be set in place. It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Czech Republic: critically threatened (Grulich 2012)
Estonia: Endangered (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012)
Germany: extremely rare (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Norway: it was listed in 2006 as Vulnerable A3c and as Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,iv)+2ab(ii,iii,iv) in 2010 (Kålås et al. 2006, 2010)
Belarus: Critically Endangered (Khoruzhyk et al. 2005)

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Diplazium caudatum is assessed as Least Concern because its population is stable overall. Even if it is rare in the Canary Islands and in danger of extinction in Andalucía, it is locally abundant on all the Azores islands.

range:
This species is only found across the Macaronesia (Cape Verde, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores) and in southern Spain (Algeciras). The area of occupancy (AOO) is 212 km2.

population:
The species is rare in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002). In Madeira it is frequent but confined to small areas (Press and Short 1994). In the Azores is known to be abundant (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Its overall population trend is considered to be stable.

habitat:
Diplazium caudatum occurs on slopes and ravines in subtropical evergreen forest (laurisilva), in dark, damp habitats. Its elevation range is from 250 to 900 m, although it mainly occurs at lower elevations (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
Invasive Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae) crowds out the species and is the main threat in sites that are protected by law. Outside protected areas, the species can be threatened by natural or anthropogenic disturbance (especially at lower elevations) and deforestation.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Spanish Red List under Criteria A2a; B2ab(ii,iii,iv) (Moreno 2008). It is in danger of extinction in Andalucía, Spain (assessed in 1999; Zoological Society of London 2014). The species is easily grown from spores and ex-situ propagation and reintroduction in lost sites is a viable option for the survival of this species, together with the management of invasive Hedychium from the natural habitat of Diplazium caudatum. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is known to be declining in Norway and Russia and is only known from two sites in Sweden, although it is widespread and has a stronghold in Finland, where the species is protected by law and found in several protected areas. However, it has a restricted area of occupancy (AOO), which is projected to experience a continuing decline. It is therefore assessed as Near Threatened (NT) in Europe, since it is close to qualify as threatened under Criterion B. In the EU 28 (Finland and Sweden) it is not experiencing a decline and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern (LC).

range:
Diplazium sibiricum is native to Norway, Finland, Sweden, extending eastwards into Russia, Central Asia and western China. A separate subspecies himalaicum, is found in the Kashmir and the Indian Himalayas.

The geographic range in Finland is 27,825 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, it is found at three localities, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is 932 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 8 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, the extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 44 km². It is known from around 20 occurrences in the stream and river gorges in Gudbrandsdalen (Artsdatabanken 2010). The overall EOO is 2,964,911 km2 and its AOO is 1,396 km2.

population:
In Finland and Sweden the population trend is stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Nearly 200 sites are known in Finland. In Norway, a decline of the subpopulations of 15-30% based on a decline of the habitat is expected to occur in the next 30 years. A continuing decline in the AOO is therefore projected. Four of the 20 known localities have disappeared, but new ones have been detected in recent years (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is common in central and eastern Russia, although it has a scattered distribution.

habitat:
Diplazium sibiricum grows in spruce or fir-dominated taiga woodland, temperate-montane acid siliceous screes and temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, both subpopulations are found in spruce forests. In Finland, the species is found in calcareous spruce forests (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). In Russia, it is also known to occur on damp grassy and mossy spruce forest and in mixed forests (spruce, aspen and birch), slopes of river banks, lake shores, ravines and on outcrops of calcareous rocks (Tzvelev 2000, Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016), often in rather dry mossy soil (Komarov 1968). Its elevation limits are 30 - 3,000 m.

threats:
The main threat toDiplazium sibiricum is habitat loss due to forest clearance and other forestry activities. This species only grows in shady environments and does not grow in the open, therefore logging affects its survival (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Deforestation and quarrying are the main threats in Norway and Russia. Road construction has been named another threat for Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010).

conservationAction:
Diplazium sibiricumis listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is assessed as Near Threatened in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Sweden, it is listed as Vulnerable D2 (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected under national law. All the Swedish subpopulations are in nature reserves. In Norway, it was first assessed as Vulnerable A3c (Kålås et al. 2006), but has been re-assessed as Near Threatened A4c; B1b(ii,iii,iv,v)+2b(ii,iii,iv,v) (Artsdatabanken 2010, Kålås et al. 2010).The species is assessed as Least Concern in Finland (Rassiet al. 2010), where it is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). Around 70% of the known Finnish localities are situated in Natura 2000 sites.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread fern species that is locally abundant and whose population trend is stable. There are no major threats to the species, and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gymnocarpium dryopteris is widely distributed across the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It is found throughout North America, Greenland, Europe and northern Asia. In Europe, it is found across northern and central Europe, and elsewhere mainly in colder montane regions. It is rarer in the Mediterranean and Atlantic seaboards.

population:
The species can occur in large numbers and locally cover large areas of forest ground. The plants are clonal and thus it is often difficult to count the individuals in a subpopulation. The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
The species is most commonly found in shady situations in coniferous and deciduous woods (Komarov 1968), on shady slopes, rocky slopes and sometimes on humid shaded masonry, often on siliceous substrates, but also sometimes on chalk where organic matter has sufficiently acidified the soil (Page 1997, Prelli 2001). It has a wide range, down to sea level in northern Europe, but in France it is mostly found at medium elevations (G. Rouhan pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,500 m.

threats:
There are no major threats to the species. It is abundant, and even though deforestation can eradicate a certain subpopulation, it can recover and returns when the forest is regenerated.

conservationAction:
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. The species can also be assisted by reintroducing it to new forest plantations, if required. It is not considered of conservation concern and it is found in protected areas throughout its range. It is assessed as Near Threatened in England (Stroh et al. 2014) and Least Concern in Serbia (Jakovljević et al. 2015).

useAndTrade:
It is grown occasionally for ornamental purposes, generally from horticultural stock.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was previously included in Gymnocarpium robertianum (e.g. Atlas Florae Europaeae), or considered as a separate species from G. jessoense as G. continentale, in which several subspecies were considered. Here it is treated as the single widespread species G. jessoense.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, the species is restricted to very small areas where it is rare. Even though it has an area of occupancy (AOO) ofc. 52 km2 and it occurs in isolated, small subpopulations, its population trend is stable and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a circumarctic species found in North America, from Alaska and Canada to the midwestern and northeastern USA, Greenland, and northern Eurasia from the Atlantic to the Pacific across Siberia and south to the Himalayas. The European taxon is G. j. subsp. parvulum, which is known from a few localities in northern Norway, Finland and Russia.The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 52,406 km2 and the area of occupancy (AOO) is c. 52 km2, although it may be larger as this is based on historical specimens and not on actual current records.

population:
This is a rare species which is found in a few places in the far north of Europe where it is very localised. Subpopulations are scattered, but the overall population trend seems to be stable. The species may be more common, but it is difficult to identify and often overlooked (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
Gymnocarpium jessoense is found on shady coniferous woods among mossy undergrowth (Komarov 1968), usually on calcareous or dolomitic substrates in Europe, although other subspecies occur on granite in Asia and North America (Prelli 2001). In Finland and Russia it often grows on rock outcrops (Y. Ivanenko and H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). It occurs at altitudes between 100 - 250 m Asl.

threats:
There are no currently known threats, but climate change may have an effect on this geographically restricted, northern species. The main threat to the species in Finland is the natural hybridisation or replacement with Gymnocarpium dryopteris.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Near Threatened in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010) and as Critically Endangered A2ac;B1ab(iii);D1 in Norway (Kålås et al. 2010). Site protection and assisted migration to mitigate for climate change are probably the best ways to protect this species from extinction. It is found in protected areas in many parts of its range. Research and monitoring of its population sizes is needed, together with studies on its viability and the effects of climate change.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though the species may be of conservation concern in marginal sites (at the northern and western fringe of its distribution), the species is widespread and its overall population trend is stable. In its main distribution area, across central European mountains and hills, it can be locally abundant. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The Limestone Oak-fern is a widely distributed species found across the temperate and cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, across North America south to the mid-west, on Greenland, and throughout temperate and montane Asia eastwards to northern Japan. In Europe, it occurs in the northern and central parts, particularly in the mountain regions, and patchily across the southern mountains. It is less abundant in the Atlantic fringe and the Mediterranean, although it is found across northern Spain, in Corsica, the Apennines (Italy) and the Balkans southwards to northern Greece.

population:
The subpopulations and the overall population trend of the species appear to be stable. It is locally common in the calcareous mountains of central Europe, particularly the Pre-Alps, the Jura, the Massif Central, the Pyrenees, the Apennines and the Ardennes, and it is more local at lower elevations in places like the Alsace (Prelli 2001) and in Britain (Page 1997).

habitat:
This species occurs most exclusively on calcium-rich substrates, usually on broken limestone rocks and scree, in ledges and crevices of limestone cliffs and scars, and in the grykes of limestone pavement, in exposed areas or in open woods (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). It sometimes occurs on masonry.
It may form extensive colonies due to its clonal nature, amongst grasses and under shrubs or under open woodland cover. In Fennoscandia, it is restricted to calcareous spruce forests (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,500 m.

threats:
The species is threatened by forest management and road building activities (Lilleleht 1998). When it occurs on masonry, it can also be threatened by wall restoration projects.

conservationAction:
When walls housing this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. The species is found in protected areas throughout its range and protected by law in the Netherlands (Flora en Fauna Wet 1998). It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Estonia: 'care demanding' (Lilleleht 1998)
Finland: Least Concern (Rassi et al. 2010)
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Near Threatened (Király 2007)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000)
Serbia: Least Concern (Jakovljević et al. 2015). 
Sweden: Vulnerable; B2ab(ii,iii,v) (Gärdenfors et al. 2005, 2010)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: Least Concern, although it experienced a historical decline of 46% (Stroh et al. 2014)

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Onoclea struthiopteris (L.) Roth is often treated in its own genus as Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. It is merged with Onoclea by Christenhusz et al. (2011) and is accepted as such by the Euro+Med checklist (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013).

Onoclea is sometimes placed in its own family Onocleaceae (Smith et al. 2006, Christenhusz et al. 2011), but they are closely related to Blechnum and Woodwardia and were therefore placed in Aspleniaceae subfam. Blechnoideae by Christenhusz and Chase (2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The moist woodland habitats of this fern are undoubtedly threatened in Europe, but it is a widespread species with a large extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and population size. While it is declining in certain parts of its range, this decline is insufficient to be listed in a threatened Category. It also occurs in several protected areas where threats to these subpopulations are minimal, and it is thus assessed as Least Concern. However, surveys, monitoring and management of the subpopulations, habitats and threats in some parts of its range are recommended due to ongoing declines. The effect of introduced subpopulations also needs study.

range:
This fern is native across the Northern Hemisphere and it is found in the USA, Canada, Europe, the Russian Federation and eastwards to China and Japan. The North American subpopulations are often treated as a separate variety (var. pensylvanicum). 

In Europe, it is native to Scandinavia and the Baltic states, central and eastern Europe from northeastern France to parts of the Balkan Peninsula and northern Italy (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). It is often cultivated and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish native populations from naturalized ones.

population:
Onoclea struthiopteris is an extremely widespread species, but there is little population data available. It is known to grow in dense stands and it is reported to be common in parts of western Norway, southern Sweden and Finland (Odland 1992, Øllgaard and Tind 1993, Pinkka 2014). It is suspected to be less common in the southern countries of its range in Europe and is noted to be uncommon in Belgium and Germany and rare in Denmark and Italy (Rose 1989, Øllgaard and Tind 1993, Marchetti 2004). It is also rare in Croatia, where it is known only from a few localities (Hrsak 2000). Ongoing threats are noted in some parts of its range which are suspected to be leading to a decrease in population. On the other hand, it is cultivated throughout Europe and easily escapes from gardens, from where it may persist for many years. Within its natural range it is often difficult to separate truly wild from naturalised subpopulations. Naturalization outside its natural range is expanding its EOO substantially. The overall population trend is stable, since the core of the population, which is found in Scandinavia and Russia, is considered stable.

habitat:
This fern is found in damp woodland habitats often beside streams and lakes, like riverside woods, riverbank brush, alder groves, wet forests, etc. (Komarov 1968). It spreads vegetatively via long stolons and can form dense stands. It is found in a variety of habitats, mainly birch and spruce taiga woodland and swampy ash-alder woodland (EUNIS 2014). In Poland it is noted to be a character species of Alno-Ulmion, Stellario-Alnetum and Alnetum incanae habitat types and to be a sub-montane species (Stachurskka-Swakon and Towpasz 2008). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,550 m.

threats:
In Germany it is noted to have been threatened by the management of small rivers and streams, such as straightening and damming and by conversion of forests (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014). The Finnish Environment Institute (2008) considers 70% of forests where this species occurs to be threatened, with threats noted from forestry activities and clearing for agriculture, which is likely to have some impact on this species. In Poland the subpopulation is noted to be declining due to river engineering, creation of lakes, desiccation resulting from the lower water tables, road construction and building. Six subpopulations are also noted to be threatened by invasive species such as Fallopia japonica and Soldago gigantea (Stachurskka-Swakon and Towpasz 2008) in the Carpathian region. In Denmark it is rare and declining because of forestry activities and conversion of areas for cultivation (Øllgaard and Tind 1993).

conservationAction:
This fern is listed from 121 Natura 2000 sites in many countries, for example France, Italy, Finland and Poland. It is found within protected areas, such as the Pallas-Yllästunturi National Park, Finland (IUCN 2010) and a good natural stand is found on Ruissalo Island, a cultural and natural heritage area near Turku, Finland (M. Christenhusz, pers. obs. 2015). In Machowa, near Pilzano (Poland), a floristic reserve was created especially to protect this species (Stachurskka-Swakon and Towpasz 2008).

It is conservedex-situ in 150 botanic gardens worldwide, but it is not known whether any spores are stored (BGCI 2013). It is assessed as Vulnerable in the Red Lists of Switzerland, Hungary (Zoological Society of London 2014), Slovakia and Denmark (Øllgaard and Tind 1993, Feráková et al. 2001). It is considered endangered in Germany and protected by the Federal nature Conservation Act (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014). It is also protected by law in France (Prelli 2001). 

Further research may be needed on the population size and trends, particularly in areas where this species is less common and considered threatened. Management of some protected areas may be needed, for example in the Machowa reserve in Poland it is threatened by invasive species and the lowering of the water table (Stachurskka-Swakon and Towpasz 2008). The effect of naturalized plants on native subpopulations has not been studied but should receive attention.

useAndTrade:
This fern is considered to be edible. The rootstock can be peeled an roasted. The young fronds, known as fiddle-heads, before they unroll can be cooked and eaten as a delicacy and substitute for asparagus, or eaten raw in salads. They are canned and are particularly popular in Canada (Øllgaard and Tind 1993). It is possible that it may contain some undesirable chemical compounds and is considered by some only as a famine food. The leaves are cut for fodder in Scandinavia as the stems have starch-rich bases but it is only used when other fodder is scarce (Øllgaard and Tind 1993), as it is also stated that the plant is harmful to livestock (Komarov 1968).

A decoction of the leaf stalk base from sterile fronds has been used in folk medicine to treat back pain and to help speed the expulsion of the afterbirth (Plants for a Future 2014). A rootstock infusion serves as a popular vermifuge and was used in the past against bedbugs (Komarov 1968).

It is a popular garden plant in moist shady areas as it has and attractive shape and decorative fronds. It has a clonal habit and as such often escapes into neighbouring natural areas, or plants are thrown out as they grow too large and may establish themselves where discarded.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Chadburn, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread, common and resilient species whose current population trend is stable. It is thus listed as Least Concern.

range:
The Beech Fern is a pan-Arctic species found throughout the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, North Asia and North America, becoming more common at higher latitudes and higher elevations. In Europe, it is widespread across the north, extending south to England and Ireland, and throughout central Europe between eastern France and Romania, south to Bulgaria, Corsica and the Pyrenees.

population:
This is a frequent species in deciduous or coniferous forests, often occurring in large sways due to their clonal nature. Its current population trend is stable.

habitat:
The species is mainly found in areas with cool summers and cold winters. It is usually associated with north temperate deciduous or coniferous forests, usually in shady areas with beech, oak and beech/fir or spruce woodland and on sheltered rocky banks (Komarov 1968, Fedorov 1999, Frey et al. 2006). It thrives especially on deep, moist, often semi-stable, unconsolidated mineral soil banks with steep slopes and gently irrigated by slight seepage (Page 1997). Its altitudinal range is 0 - 2,300 m.

threats:
There are no immediate threats to this species. Although logging activities may have a temporary effect on the species, it usually rebounds well as it does not mind some slight disturbance.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place and none appear to be needed. It is present in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Least Concern in England although there has been a historical AOO decline of 31% (Stroh et al. 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is not used. It is very rarely grown as a garden plant.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is sometimes treated in the genus Christella or Cyclosorus, but is here included in a broad concept of Thelypteris.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a gregarious species that easily invades disturbed sites and its subpopulations are therefore persistent. It is not frequent in Europe, but this is more due to a lack of suitably warm climates. It is common in Macaronesia and also frequent in a few places on the mainland. It grows readily from spores in greenhouses and in urban settings in most warm climates. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a pantropical species (often treated under synonymous genera Cyclosorus or Christella). This species has been often accidentally introduced, and this has happened so frequently that in tropical regions natural or naturalised populations are difficult to discern. In Europe it occurs locally (native or naturalised) in the Mediterranean and Atlantic regions in Spain (Andalucía, Galicia), Sicily, Malta and western Crete and in the Macaronesian Islands (Canary Islands, Madeira). It is also reported from the Azores where its status is uncertain, but it is most likely introduced (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016). It frequently appears in greenhouses from spores imported with other plants and may escape from there into sheltered and warm (heated) places in cities. Its area of occupancy (AOO) in Europe is 80 km2.

population:
Natural subpopulations usually do not consist of many plants. The species is widespread but not abundant on Madeira (Press and Short 1994). The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
Thelypteris dentata is found in moderately damp places, in shady or exposed areas often beside streams, usually in coastal mountains in hot or mild climates (Tutin et al. 1964, Press and Short 1994, Prelli 2001). It often naturalises from cultivation, growing from spores that lifted along on plants imported from the tropics, and as such it is often found in greenhouses and in urban settings in warm countries, but also may naturalise in places of a completely natural setting and thus this species can occur in places outside of its natural range (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
This is a common and resilient species that faces no threats.

conservationAction:
Some conservation measures are in place in Los Alcornocales Natural Park in Cadiz (Spain). The effect of introduced plants on natural subpopulations is not known and research should be undertaken to clarify them. It is present in protected areas throughout its range. The species is assessed as Vulnerable in Andalucía (Blanca et al. 2000) and as Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v) in Spain (Moreno 2008).

useAndTrade:
This species is not used. However, it is frequently found in cultivation, usually being unintentionally cultivated.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is sometimes placed in the genus Oreopteris, but is here placed in a broad concept of Thelypteris.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is locally abundant, has a wide geographical range, its population trend is stable and lacks major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a Palearctic species which extends from Atlantic Europe through montane regions eastwards to Japan. In Europe, it is mostly confined to wet Atlantic regions and mountain slopes in the west and south of the continent.

population:
Thelypteris limbosperma is very abundant locally on wet mountain slopes. Its current population trend is stable.

habitat:
The Lemon-scented fern is found in montane, damp, acidic woodland, on moorland and heathland, especially by streams. It is also found in wet alder woods and in relatively open situations such as screes (Tutin et al. 1964, Frey et al. 2006). Its altitudinal range is 0 - 2,000 m.

threats:
There are no current threats to this species.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place or are needed. The species is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though this aquatic fern species occurs sparsely across its range and is threatened by habitat destruction in part of its distribution area, it is still locally abundant and the species is widespread, so it is listed here as Least Concern.

range:
This is a pan-Arctic species, with a separate subspecies (subsp. pubescens) in North America and the typical subspecies found in Eurasia. The two subspecies overlap in east Asia. The species used to occur in Morocco although it has experienced a large decline there and may now have disappeared. In Europe the species is widespread and locally abundant.

population:
Some subpopulations are decreasing due to pollution and the drainage of waterways, but its overall population trend is stable. When it occurs it is often abundant.

habitat:
The Marsh Fern occurs mainly in exposed sedge fens, marshes, alder and willow carr (Page 1997, Frey et al. 2006) and in peat bogs, scrub bogs, wet meadows and overgrown lake shores (Komarov 1968). Its elevation limits are 0 - 360 m Asl.

threats:
This aquatic species is threatened by water pollution and the drainage of swamps and waterways.

conservationAction:
The habitats of Thelypteris palustris may need to be protected, and when land is drained, the subpopulations should be maintained either through site protection or ex-situ conservation/re-introduction. The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Taking part in peat formation, the rhizomes and roots provide a substrate for greenhouse orchid culture (Komarov 1968).

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is sometimes placed in the genera Cyclosorus or Stegnogramma, but it is here included in a broad concept of Thelypteris (Christenhusz and Chase 2014)

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is assessed as Least Concern in view of its stable population trend. However, there is a projected continuing decline in the habitat quality, and although it is not enough for the species to qualify as threatened, protection of the sites is needed in parts of its range.

range:
Thelypteris pozoi is a widespread species found across sub-Saharan Africa and the Macaronesian Islands (Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Cape Verde). In Europe, it reaches its northern limit in the far southeast of France (where it is only known from three localities in the Nive basin, Pays Basque Occidental) and in Spain (Cantabrian Coast, western Galicia). The subpopulations in India, Sri Lanka, China, Korea and Japan belong to a related species (sometimes included in this species at varietal level).

population:
The population trend is probably stable. It is locally common on the Macaronesian Islands, although it becomes more scarce in the western range of the Azores. Subpopulations elsewhere in Europe are few and far between and are composed of few individuals.

habitat:
Thelypteris pozoi is found in sheltered valleys, in Europe usually near the sea (Tutin et al. 1964). In general, it prefers gullies that are always humid and warm, often on rocky, wooded slopes along streams, near cascades, on sandstone, schists or conglomerates, sometimes on calcareous rocks. A continuing decline in the habitat quality is projected as a result of competition with invasive species.

threats:
This species may locally be threatened by habitat destruction as a result of deforestation, hydroelectric constructions, and other human activities and climate change that affects humidity levels. In the Azores and Madeira, the species may face competition with Deparia petersenii (an invasive fern from east Asia).

conservationAction:
This species has a broad distribution and is locally common, but the subpopulations in mainland Europe are small and far apart. It is more abundant on the Macaronesian Islands. Habitats and populations in mainland Spain and France may need protection, but in the Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira the species is of no conservation concern. It is listed on the French Red List as Critically Endangered under Criterion D (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is protected by law in France and should perhaps also be considered for protection by law in Spain. The species is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The broad distribution and number of localities render this species as Least Concern, but it should be noted that the subpopulations are fragile and that in certain subpopulations the numbers have been reduced in the past due to over-harvesting and that these subpopulations have not recovered 170 years later. Re-introduction measures may be needed locally.

range:
This circumboreal species is found mostly on colder northern regions and mountains across the Northern Hemisphere. In Europe it has an arctic-alpine distribution, being found on the arctic regions and in high mountain ranges (the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Balkans, the Carpathians, the Caucasus and the Urals), with outlying stations in Iceland and Britain.

population:
Plants occur naturally as gregarious small colonies, spreading along small fissures by rhizome growth and re-establishing in neighbouring fissures from spores (Page 1997). The species is not common and it is scattered, but it is overall stable (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
Woodsia alpina is a moderately basiphilous species growing in rock crevices on a range of hard volcanic or metamorphic rock such as granite, nepheline, basalts and slates. They are found on exposed cliff ledges, steep craggy cliff and rock faces, often southerly facing, where they have a free drainage and minimal competition (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). They rarely grow also on masonry (Tutin et al. 1964). Its elevation limits are 1,000 - 2,800 m.

threats:
Formerly this species was collected in Britain and Ireland during the 19th Century 'fern craze', which reduced subpopulations substantially and from which they have not recovered in the United Kingdom. The number of plants in some places is now so few and their genetic basis so limited that it is doubtful that viable breeding subpopulations are able to form. Elsewhere there are currently no major threats to the species.

conservationAction:
It is protected by law in the UK since the subpopulations there are declining. The species should be reintroduced there to broaden its genetic basis. In the Scandic Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees this species is not so much of concern as they are safe from gathering and have a broader genetic basis. It is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is assessed as Least Concern in view of its stable population trend. The species is Endangered in Norway and Near Threatened in Finland, and it can be assumed thatWoodsia glabella is also rare elsewhere. Further research is needed on its population size and trend and possible threats, and assisted migration may be needed to mitigate for climate change in case it is found to be a threat.

range:
This is an arctic-montane species found throughout the colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere, as far south as the Indian Himalayas. In Europe, it is found on the polar areas of Norway, Arctic Russia and adjacent Finland and Sweden (Lapland), and it is known from one site in Romania. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,784 km2.

population:
Plants are scarce, but the subpopulations appear to be stable.

habitat:
This is a mountain-loving species found in crevices of calcareous, rarely granitic rocks (Komarov 1968, Tutin et al. 1964). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,300 m.

threats:
The threats to the species are unknown. However, it is uncertain which effects could climate change have on this montane-arctic species.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place. It is found in protected areas throughout its range. The species is uncommon in northern Europe and it is listed as Near Threatened in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010), and as Endangered (Criterion D1) in Norway (Kålås et al. 2010). Since threats and population pressures are unknown, it is advisable to monitor the subpopulations and protect the sites where it occurs when possible. If climate change is found to be a threat, assisted migration may be an option.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though the species is threatened in the United Kingdom, it is widespread across Europe, with many stations particularly in Fennoscandia and the Alps. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a widespread species found across the Arctic and mountain regions of the Northern Hemisphere, often discontinuously across northern Asia, North America, arctic Canada, Greenland and Europe. In Europe it shows an arctic-alpine trend with most of its stations in Iceland, Fennoscandia, the Alps and a few stations in northern Britain (where it is highly threatened). Even though the epithet 'ilvensis' alludes to the Italian island Elba, the species has never been found there.

population:
In the past, the subpopulations were decreasing due to over-harvesting in the United Kingdom, but they are now stable. Its overall population trend is also stable.

habitat:
Woodsia ilvensis occurs on small fissures and crevices on mountain cliff ledges and on sheer, precipitous mostly granite, basalts, pumice tuffs, Silurian grits, slaty shales or other siliceous rock faces. It is present on granite and other mountain rocks (Tutin et al. 1964, Komarov 1968, Page 1997). In Finland, this species hybridises locally with Woodsia alpina (H. Väre pers. comm. 2014). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,315 m.

threats:
The species was previously collected in the UK, but this is now illegal. There are no major current threats to the species.

conservationAction:
Woodsia ilvensis is still common particularly in Fennoscandia, where numerous sites with many individuals can be found and thus no conservation measures are needed there. In the UK, subpopulations have dwindled to two sites with poor genetic diversity and programmes to reintroduce the plant have been carried out. It is protected there by law and is considered Endangered. In England it is Critically Endangered, because there are only 68 natural mature individuals (Stroh et al. 2014). It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
In the past this species was collected in the UK during the Victorian 'fern craze', which reduced its subpopulations a lot and from which it did not recover on its own. It is currently not used, although it is still occasionally grown in specialist fern collections.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was formerly included in Woodsia glabella as a subspecies.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

The species is listed as Near Threatened as its area of occupancy (AOO) is 92 km² and the population is considered to be severely fragmented. It is not known whether there is any continuing decline. It is therefore assessed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualifying as threatened under criterion B. The species is rare throughout its range and research is needed on its population trend and threats.

range:
This species is found on the montane areas of Europe (the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians and Caucasus). It was recently found in the Tatra Mountains in Poland (Kruk et al. 2015), its northern limit. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 92 km².

population:
The species is uncommon, but can be sometimes confused with Cystopteris or other Woodsia species, so records may be unreliable. Population trends are not known, but it may be that this montane species is in decline. Studies on population trends are needed. The population is considered severely fragmented since the subpopulations are few and far from each other.

habitat:
This montane species grows on crevices of calcareous rocks (Tutin et al. 1964). Its elevation limits are 900-2,000 m.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), although the criteria are not provided. It has a restricted range and no conservation actions are in place. Monitoring of population trends and threats is needed and sites will benefit from protection.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 28 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

The species is assessed as Vulnerable since it has experienced a decline of over 30% in the last 150-300 years (three-generation length period). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is likely to be less than 2,000 km², the species is strongly declining in Italy and France and several subpopulations have been lost in the last 50 years. However, in Spain and the Azores, it is still widespread and the subpopulations there are stable. Its forest habitat is generally declining in extent and in quality due to clearing, agricultural activities and pollution. Its dispersal capacity is not fully understood and even though it has a scattered range, the population is not severely fragmented.

range:
Woodwardia radicans is a boreo-subtropical species that is found patchily across southern Europe, from the Azores to Crete. It is found in the Macaronesia, Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Crete and is known from a single subpopulation in Algeria (Quezel and Santa 1962-63). In Portugal, it has been found in the mountains of Gerês, Amarela, Freita, Arada and in the Trovela River valley (Ponte do Lima) (ICN 2006). It is present in all islands of the Azores (Borgeset al. 2005) and it has been recently discovered on Graciosa (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016). It also occurs in Madeira (Borgeset al. 2008) and in the western Canary Islands. In mainland Italy it is foundin two regions (Calabria and Campania) and it is present in Sicily (Pampanini 1911, Piconeet al. 2003, Pisani 2007). In Spain, it only occurs in the north near the coast of Cantabria, Asturias and Galicia (Anthos 2009). In Greece, the species is present in Crete. This species has a wide but fragmented geographical range, occupying only a few sites. Its estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller than 2,000 km².

population:
Woodwardia radicans has always been very rare, and apart from the subpopulations in northern Spain and the Azores, it is known to be declining. It was known from Corsica at two sites: Cap Corse near Siscu and Santo-Pietro-di-Tenda (Olivier et al. 1995, Jeanmonod and Gamisand 2007), but nowadays it is only found in Cap-Corse, where 39 individuals are present. It is considered to be slowly declining there.

In mainland Portugal, it is known from less than ten sites with a calculated number of 2,500 individuals (ICN 2006), but it is common in the Azores (where there are more than 10,000 individuals). In Spain, there are numerous subpopulations in the northwest and the trend there is stable. In Crete, five subpopulations are present, each with ca 10 individuals, and these are under threat. In Italy, there were 62 subpopulations, but 24 of them disappeared during the last 50 years, so it is now present in 38 localities plus a new subpopulation that was found in 2008. The area of occupancy in Italy is ca 132 km², and a reduction of 42% in its AOO and 30% in its extent of occurrence (EOO) has been recorded in Italy in the last 50 years, and the current number of individuals is estimated to be about 6,000. In the next ten years, a reduction of 10% for the number of individuals in Italy is estimated (Rossiet al. 2008).

The generation length of the species is estimated to be 50-100 years, and therefore the three-generation period would be 150-300 years. A decline of over 30% is estimated over this three-generation period.

habitat:
Woodwardia radicans is a long-lived perennial fern that prefers damp ravines (châbas) in forests on siliceous hills or in cave entrances. It is also found in laurisilva and riparian forests. It prefers shady, wet places with mild winters and humid summers (Rossiet al. 2008). It reproduces vegetatively by the plantlets on the tip of its leaves. Its elevation limits are 0-1,700 m.

threats:
One of the main threats to Woodwardia radicans is the clearing of forests. Agricultural activities and water extraction for irrigation also threaten the species in Crete and Italy. In Corsica, the frequent use of hiking tracks, sedimentation in the rivers in wet  years, dumping of garbage and lack of water management also pose threats to the species. The invasion of subpopulations by Rubus species and Robinia pseudacacia (naturalising from plantations) cause competition and may threaten the persistence of these subpopulations. The construction of water reservoirs and general habitat disturbances also impact the species. This species is susceptible to climate change, which could cause fluctuations in the number of mature individuals in the future.

conservationAction:
This species is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected by national law in Portugal and France, and protected under regional legislations in Spain (Romero Buján et al. 2007). It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
France: Vulnerable (Olivier et al. 1995), Critically Endangered (IUCN National Red List 2012) and protected at national (Annex 1) and local levels (Arreté de Protection de Biotope)
Greece: Endangered (Phitos et al. 1995)
Italy: Vulnerable (Conti et al. 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) 
The species is present in Natura 2000 sites. More research on the population trend and preferred habitats (including gametophyte habitats) are needed. Molecular analysis of the genetic diversity of the subpopulations is needed in order to establish the dispersal capacity and potential rescue effects and to evaluate the differentiation of the subpopulations in Italy and Crete.

useAndTrade:
This species is collected for horticulture. However, plants offered for sale generally come from horticultural stock.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.

redListContributors:
Bazos, I.,Spampinato, G.,García Murillo, P.G.,Grillas, P.,Foggi, B.,Abeli, T.,de Bélair, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Bracken is a widespread, common, fern with resilient subpopulations. It has an increasing population trend and there are no threats the species. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Often originally thought to be a cosmopolitan species, it is now much better understood and the taxa from the Americas, Africa, Australia, Hawaii and tropical and east Asia are now excluded from this definition. Pteridium aquilinum in its strict sense is restricted to Eurasia and northern Africa, where it extends eastwards to Russia, Ukraine, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Iran and Central Asia. It is replaced by P. pinetorum in northern Europe.

population:
The plants of this species usually form big stands covering large terrain. It can be very invasive but this is often a result of vegetative spread rather than sexual reproduction. The population trend is increasing.

habitat:
Bracken often grows in deciduous and coniferous woodlands and parklands, coppices, on slopes, in glades, on heathlands, steppes, along forest edges and in meadows. It is often found in dry sandy soil, usually acidic, and sometimes calcareous (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). It can also be a weed in gardens (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2016) and it grows on masonry (particularly juvenile plants) in cities (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). The species benefits from fire to spread. Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,000 m.

threats:
This is a resilient and widespread species without any threats.

conservationAction:
Bracken is widespread and often occurs in abundance, easily colonizing new areas especially after fire. In Malta it is listed as Endangered, as it is only known from one site on Gozo island (Lanfranco 1989). However, elsewhere it is very common and not of conservation concern. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Young shoots of this species are used in some countries for food. The rhizome contains about 60% starch, lathering freely with water (used as soap in the past in French villages). It has astringent properties and can act as a mild vermifuge. Due to its starch content, it was used for making glue and for brewing beer. It is readily eaten by pigs, but is poisonous to other livestock, both fresh and as ensilage. It is excellent as layering for litter, improving the quality of manure. The leaves have a distinctive smell and have rot-preventing properties, they repel insects and are very effective as packaging for the preservation of fruit and vegetables. The ash contains potassium salts and is useful in glass and soap manufacture. If the plant becomes troublesome as a weed, it may be controlled by digging up the rhizomes (Komarov 1968). This plant contains many toxins and its consumption is at one's own risk.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was often treated under the name Pteridium aquilinum subsp. latiusculum, a taxon from North America. It is also sometimes considered a subspecies of Pteridium aquilinum (as Pteridium aquilinum subsp. pinetorum (C.N.Page & R.R.Mill) J.A.Thomson by Hassler and Schmitt (2015)), but it is best treated as a separate species as they are not genetically and ecologically overlapping.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is abundant and common throughout its range, often occurring in large stands and over large areas, and it has a stable population trend. It is resilient to deforestation, fire and other human impacts. Therefore the species is assessed as Least Concern. Research should be carried out to solve the existing taxonomic issues.

range:
This is a boreal species found throughout Scandinavia, Finland, northern Russia and the Scottish Highlands. It is restricted to Europe, and although isolated subpopulations may exist in northwestern Siberia, this has not been confirmed.

population:
The population trend for this species appears to be stable. It is often abundant and because of the clonal nature of this species it is sometimes difficult to know of how many individuals a subpopulation is composed.

habitat:
This species is common in coniferous and mixed broadleaved-coniferous forests, sometimes in open tundra, and it is often a relic of ancient burning. It usually grows on sandy soils at elevations between 0-1,800 m. Disturbance and fire may increase its numbers, but it very rarely propagates sexually as spore production is rare. The species has a very long generation length, probably of several centuries.

threats:
There are no major threats to the species. It is resilient to deforestation, fire and other human impacts.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are needed, and it is found in protected areas throughout its range. Research should be undertaken to solve the existing taxonomic issues.

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, although like its related species P. aquilinum, young shoots and rhizomes are sometimes consumed. As it contains many toxins, consumption is ill-advised.


redListCategoryRationale:
Arachniodes webbiana is an endemic fern species of Madeira where it is locally abundant. It occurs in protected areas where there are no known threats, although elsewhere the species is affected by infrastructure construction, landslides, fires, competition with invasive species fires and future droughts, which have caused habitat destruction. The species has a small extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO), and since there are less than 1,000 individuals the species is assessed as Vulnerable.

range:
This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. It is closely related to A. foliosa, a species (or tetraploid form) from East Africa that is sometimes treated as a subspecies, but is not included in this assessment. Its EOO is estimated to be 150-910 km² and its AOO is ca. 24 km².

population:
This species is locally abundant on its known sites, but uncommon elsewhere on the island of Madeira. Its current population trend is assumed to be stable. The estimated number of individuals is below 1,000 (Farias et al. 2006).

habitat:
This species grows in deep valleys in laurel forests of northwestern Madeira (Press and Short 1994, Frey et al. 2006). The species is found in the northern part of Madeira from 10 to 1,400 m asl.

threats:
Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species as a result of infrastructure construction, landslides, fires, logging and competition with invasive species. There have been many fires that did not affect the laurel forests, but large periods of drought have affected the habitats where the species occurs and this may pose future threats of fire in these areas.

conservationAction:
Even though this species is restricted to forests in northern Madeira, it is abundant there and large areas of its distribution are located in protected areas. Habitat destruction is a threat, so it is best to preserve habitats where this endemic species occurs. The species is was assessed as Vulnerable in Madeira(Farias et al. 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is widespread and locally common, and it does not face any threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is found throughout the southern Macaronesian Islands from Madeira to Cape Verde, and also in the south-western Iberian Peninsula (Frey et al. 2006) near Algeciras, Asturias and the Lisbon region. It is also found in Morocco. It was introduced to Guernsey, where it did not persist (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,668 km2.

population:
The species is locally common, particularly on Madeira and the Canary Islands. Its overall current population trend is stable.

habitat:
This is an epiphytic or epilithic fern growing on rocks, walls and trees (Tutin et al. 1964, Frey et al. 2006). In the Iberian Peninsula, it is found in the corky bark of oaks in decidious woodlands (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation range is 0 - 600 m.

conservationAction:
The species is common and widespread across the Canary Islands and Madeira, and many sites of occurrence are known. No conservation measures are in place and none appear to be necessary. It is found in several protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, apart from the occasional cultivation in specialist collections, usually from horticultural stock.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a diploid species (Juslén et al. 2011). The overall genetic variation is low for this species, although it is higher in the Azorean subpopulations than in the Iberian subpopulations. The overall genetic differentiation is high (Jiménez et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least concern (LC)
This western European fern species is locally common and its subpopulations are not generally under immediate threat. While it is threatened in certain countries, it is widespread and common in Britain, Ireland and the Azores, and has an overall stable population trend. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is an oceanic-temperate element confined to the hyperoceanic zone in western Europe, including Madeira, the Azores, and the island of La Gomera (Canary Islands, Spain). It extends eastwards to the humid Caucasus into Georgia and northeastern Asian Turkey. Dryopteris aemula and D. dilatata are sometimes confused, particularly at the juvenile stage, but it does not have any implications in this assessment (Jalas and Suominen 1972, Gibby and Jermy 1977, Fraser-Jenkins 1982, Press and Short 1994, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 2,788 km2, but this is may be an underestimation based on Atlas Florae Europeae data.

population:
While the population size is not known, the overall population trend is stable. It is frequent and common in the central part of Madeira and in the Azores. It is locally abundant in the west of Ireland, Scotland, Wales and western England. It is scattered in Spain and France.

habitat:
This species grows on moist but well-drained acidic to neutral soils of low base content, banks, sea cliffs and wooded slopes, deep, steep-sided wooded ravines. It is a maritime species with preference for high humidity (The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004). It is generally found in lowland settings, but it reaches 1,550 m elevation on Pico Island (Madeira). In Madeira, it is frequent among rocks, in woods and along levadas (Press and Short 1994). In the Canary Islands it is found only in the laurel forests of central La Gomera (Arto Kurtto pers comm. 2016). In the Azores, it is a typical species of low herbaceous layer of mountain woodland and the of sub-alpine scrubland. It is very common on montane forests and altimontane scrublands (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016). Spores are produced annually and are easily dispersed. The total distribution range is limited to oceanic humid areas.

conservationAction:
Dryopteris aemula is listed as a VU B2ab(iii); D2 in Spain because of the rarity of its habitat, i.e. deciduous, temperate oceanic forests at low elevation close to the sea (Bañares et al. 2004). It is considered to be vulnerable in As Mariñas (Galicia, Spain) (Fragas do Mandeo 2010). It is listed as Vulnerable in France (IUCN 1982), and as Least Concern in the UK and British Red List (Stroh et al. 2014).
The species is present in several protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is sometimes grown as a garden plant in Britain, but cultivation probably does not affect its subpopulations. It is included in the Catalogue of World Economic Plants (Wieresma and León 2013).

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris affinis is an apomictic di-/triploid species which belongs to the D. affinis-group, with many closely related species, including D. borreri, D. cambrensis and D. pseudodisjuncta. Even if these species are sometimes treated as subspecies, for the purposes of this assessment the Euro+Med checklist will be followed, in which these taxa are treated as separate species (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013).

Apogamous ferns contain 32 spores in a sporangium (instead of the usual 64 found in sexual species), with each spore (and resulting prothalli and gametes when formed) containing the same genetical material as the parent fern plant (sporophyte) producing it. Furthermore, a new generation of sporophyte is produced directly from the prothallus without the usual fusion of gametes, a process that produces a new generation of clones (identical individuals). Any minor mutation will be passed on to future generations by the same process and thereby form a new subpopulation, morphologically distinct although with a very limited distribution.

The ancestry ofD. affinis is complicated and thought to involve an unknown species and two sexual diploids, D. oreades and D. caucasica (A. Braun) Fraser-Jenk. The common Male Fern, D. filix-mas, which has evolved through hybridisation between the latter two species, hybridises freely with all forms of D. affinis (Jermy and Gibby 1998), and through this process can introduce the genomes (and thereby characters) of those species into the affinis complex.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This widespread fern species is locally common and its population trend is stable. There are no major threats to the species and it is thus listed as Least Concern. However, further research on its taxonomic status and distribution are needed.

range:
This is a mainly western European species which extends into the Macaronesian Islands, northwards to Norway, southwards to Portugal and Spain and across the Mediterranean to the Carpathian Mountains. It has isolated subpopulations in the Caucasus and southwards to northern Iran. It is found from sea level in the United Kingdom up to 1,700 Asl m in Italy (Fraser-Jenkins 2007, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). It has an area of occupancy (AOO) of 3,780 km2, but this is probably an underestimation.

population:
The overall population trend is stable. In Britain it is frequent and not difficult to find, particularly in the west and north of the island. It is also frequent in Ireland. The abundance of this species decreases from the western to the eastern parts of its distribution.

habitat:
This species can be found in deciduous woodland, rocky forests on mountain slopes, along rides  in coniferous plantations, in ditches, on shady banks and road verges,  usually on acidic substrates. In more oceanic areas with high humidity it grows in the  open on well-drained west- or south-west-facing hillsides, scree slopes and  mountain ledges. It is also rarely found on brickwork in urban areas (The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004). In central Europe, it is found on forested mountain slopes near sea level (Fraser-Jenkins 2007). In Britain, it is restricted to woodlands in the drier parts of its distribution (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
There seem to be no major threat to this species.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place and none appear to be needed. It is assessed as Least Concern in Britain (Stroh et al. 2014) and as Data Deficient in Norway (Kålås et al. 2010), but it is not assessed as threatened in any national Red List. It is present in several protected areas. Further research on its taxonomic status and distribution is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This species is often available in the horticultural trade in many European countries. It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013). Horticulture is unlikely to be a threat to populations of this species.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a diploid species. It is also given for the Canary Islands in the Euro + Med, based on information in Dobignard, A. and Chatelain, C. (2010), but this is based on a past misidentification.

redListCategoryRationale:
As this fern species is endemic to Madeira, it has a small distribution. However, it is locally common and  subpopulations are not under threat. Its population trend is stable. Therefore  this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is endemic to Madeira (Juslén et al. 2011, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013), where it is found from close to sea level to mountain forests (Press and Short 1994). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 800-922 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 180 km².

population:
This species is fairly common and probably locally abundant throughout Madeira. Its population trend is stable.

habitat:
Dryopteris aitoniana is found in woodlands and along shady levadas in Madeira, avoiding wet soil  (Press and Short 1994). Its altitudinal range is 50-1,500 m.

threats:
This species faces no threats as the forests of Madeira where this species occurs are situated on steep mountains slopes that are unattractive for building and the forests are well protected.

conservationAction:
Even though it is a species with a restricted distribution, it is present in protected areas where it faces no threats. No conservation actions are therefore needed.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H., Bento Elias, R., Christenhusz, M., Dyer, R., Ivanenko, Y., Rouhan, G. & Rumsey, F.,


taxonomicNotes:
This taxon is an allotetraploid hybrid apomictic species, between the apomictic diploid D. affinis and the tetraploid sexual D. tyrrhena (Fraser-Jenkins 1981, Fraser-Jenkins and Widén 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
This fern species is endemic to southern France and is assessed as Vulnerable because the population size consists of less than 1,000 mature individuals. Monitoring of its population size and trends is needed.

range:
This species is endemic to the south of France (Ardèche, Gard, Lozère), where it is found at elevations between 100 and 550 m. The number of subpopulations is about 30, and therefore its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be a maximum of 120 km². Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 1,300-5,291 km².

population:
This species has a stable population trend, it is not common and often localised. The number of subpopulations is about 30 (G. Rouhan pers. comm. 2016). The population size is estimated to be less than 1,000 mature individuals.

habitat:
This species is often localised and it is found in very narrow valleys, on shale, or at the base of siliceous rocks and cliffs.

threats:
There are no immediate threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Monitoring of the population size and trend is needed. The species is assessed as Vulnerable in France (UICN France et al. 2012) under criterion D1 since the population size is of less than 1,000 mature individuals.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris borreri belongs to D. affinis group (Fraser-Jenkins 2007), with many closely related species, viz. D. affinis, D. cambrensis, D. pseudodisjuncta.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This is a widespread and common fern species that is locally abundant whose population trend is stable. There are no threats to the species and it is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a predominantly Mediterranean and mild-temperate European species which extends into the Caucasus and the adjacent northeastern Turkey. It is found from sea level up to the tree line in the Alps at 2,770 m (in Austria) and extends westwards to the Azores (Fraser-Jenkins 2007, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The area of occupancy (AOO) is 2,640 km2, but this may be an underestimation.

population:
Dryopteris borreri is a widely distributed, fairly common species of forest and mountain areas. In countries with limited number of forests and mountains like the Netherlands, this species is rare. In general the subpopulations are stable, and there are no reported declines. The species becomes more scarce towards the eastern part of its range.

habitat:
This is a fern species of forests in humid mountain slopes, rarely in the lower alpine belt, usually on moist acidic soil with developed humus layer (Hess et al. 1967, Stace 1997). Its altitudinal range is 0 - 2,770 m Asl.

threats:
The species faces no current threats in large parts of its distribution area.

conservationAction:
The species has not been assessed as threatened in any regional Red Data book except for Luxembourg, where it is listed as Vulnerable (Krippel 2013). It is listed as Data Deficient in Norway (Kålås et al. 2010), a country where more studies are needed on the D. affinis complex.

No conservation actions are currently in place and none seem to be needed. The species is present in protected areas throughout its range.
Further research on its taxonomic status and distribution is recommended.

useAndTrade:
There seems not to be information on the commercial use of this species. However, D. affinis is commonly cultivated, and being very similar to this species, it is unlikely that commercial nurseries keep these two taxa separate.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris cambrensis belongs to the D. affinis group (Fraser-Jenkins 2007), with closely related species, viz. D. borreri, D. affinis and D. pseudodisjuncta.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment:Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This is a widespread fern species that is fairly common locally and whose population trend is stable. It does not face any immediate threats and it is thus listed as Least Concern. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the species.

range:
Dryopteris cambrensis is a widely distributed and locally fairly common species in western and central Europe, extending eastwards to Crimea and northeastern Asian Turkey (Fraser-Jenkins 2007, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,208 km2, but this may be an underestimation.

population:
Dryopteris cambrensis is widely distributed and fairly common in forest and mountain areas where it faces no particular threats. In countries with limited number of forests and mountains, like the Netherlands, this species is rare. The species has a stable population trend.

habitat:
This species is present on forests in humid mountain slopes, rarely in the lower alpine belt, usually on moist acidic soil with a developed humus layer. Its altitudinal range is 0 - 2,400 m Asl.

conservationAction:
As a member of the Dryopteris affinis complex, its distribution patterns and taxonomy needs further study. It is listed as Least Concern in Britain and England (Stroh et al. 2014), and not assessed as threatened in any regional Red List. In Norway it is listed as Data Deficient, showing the need for further taxonomic study on this complex (Kålås et al. 2010). It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Although there seems to be little information on the commerical use of this species (except for a cultivar Dryopteris cambrensis 'Crispa Barnes' that is occasionally offered in the British market), it might still be potentially cultivated because D. cambrensis is closely related and similar to D. affinis and D. borreri, and these are most probably distinguished in commercial nurseries.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris carthusiana, D. dilatata and D. expansa were commonly treated as a single taxon in the former Soviet Union (Jalas and Suominen 1972).

This is an allotetraploid species, whose suggested parents areD. intermedia, D. semicristata, D. tokyensis, D. ludoviciana, D. azorica and D. maderensis.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This widespread fern species is locally very common and its population trend is stable. There are no major threats to the species and it is thus listed as Least Concern.

range:
Dryopteris carthusiana is a circumboreal, disjunctly holarctic, mostly boreal-temperate species that is widely distributed in North America and Eurasia, southwards to the Pyrenees and the Himalayas. It is present in most European countries and is locally very abundant (Jalas and Suominen 1972, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). It is found close to sea level up to 1,700 m in the Tatra Mountains and up to 2,660 m in the Alps, although it is rare in the sub-alpine zone. The area of occupancy (AOO) is approximately 10,000 km2, although this may be an underestimation.
Dryopteris carthusiana occurs frequently and in large numbers, although generally it does not extend beyond the timberline. It hybridises frequently with D. dilatata (D. x deweveri) where both species occur together (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2016).

population:
This species is very common across Europe and occurs frequently and in large numbers. The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This fern is found in a range of damp habitats, including wet  heaths, fens, mires, raised bogs, carrs and wet woodlands. It prefers rich  alluvial soils with a high water table. It extends open moorland more rarely, possibly as a relic of former woodland. It generally occurs on lowlands, but it reaches forests of mountains slopes, although it is rarely present at the lower alpine belt. It is present on moist acidic to moderately acidic soils with developed hummus layer. The species occurs in a wide range of habitats, from exposed, well-illuminated to moderately shaded ones, a species of wetlands and wet woodlands.

Dryopteris carthusiana is characteristic of a seasonally fluctuating or permanently high groundwater level. Its ecological optimum lies between constantly moist or damp and wet habitats, suggesting that the high water-table conditions are required for optimal growth and reproduction. In Scandinavia and central Europe, D. carthusiana occurs over a broader soil moisture range. In southern Europe, the species can also be found in drier habitats, such as stone walls or as an epiphyte on trees (Hess et al. 1967, Stace 1997, Jonsell 2000, The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004, Rünk et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation actions in place and none appear to be needed. It is found in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species was used in the past as a medicine. It is currently planted for ornamental purposes but only occasionally. It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013).

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a diploid species. The name Dryopteris caucasica has been used in a uniform way.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 28 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
This is a predominantly Turkish-Caucasian species, which in Europe is present in Crimea, but the rest of records from Moldova, European Turkey and Romania are doubtful and its distribution needs to be clarified. There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, and further research is needed to clarify the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
This species (possibly an ancestor of the widespread Dryopteris filix-mas) is common in the Caucasus region and in the montane deciduous forests along the Black Sea coast in Turkey, extending eastwards into northwestern Iran. In Europe, it has been reported from Crimea and Moldova (Tzvelev and Geltman 2012). Records from Romania and European Turkey are given in Euro+Med (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013) but this has not been verified and its presence in European Turkey is questionable (Fraser-Jenkins and Corley 1972). According to C. Fraser-Jenkins, its presence in Europe outside of Crimea is uncertain and may refer to hybrids (C. Fraser-Jenkins pers. comm. 2016). Its known extent of occurrence (EOO) in Europe is around 4,605 km². However, if the species was to be confirmed as occurring in the areas where its presence is currently uncertain, its EOO would increase potentially to around 265,695 km².

population:
The population trend is is stable in the Caucasus and in northern Turkey, but the status in Crimea and Moldova is unknown. The overall population trend in Europe is unknown.

habitat:
This species occurs in deciduous forests in montane regions, where it is confined to the more humid, dark, shaded and cloudy areas. Its altitudinal range is 450-2,130 m asl.

threats:
The threats to the species are unknown, although the possible clearing of forests and logging will have an effect on subpopulation sizes.

conservationAction:
It is unknown if any conservation actions are needed, particularly in the European part of its distribution. Research on the population trends and threats in the western part of its range is necessary. It is unknown if it occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
The species is included in the catalogue of World Economic Plants (Wieresma and León 2013). It is seldom grown as an ornamental in specialist collections.


taxonomicNotes:
The allozymic pattern of the allotetrapoloid D. corleyi confirms that it derived from D. aemula and D. oreades (Jiménez et al. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
Dryopteris corleyi is listed as Least Concern because it is a frequently encountered species with a stable and probably increasing population trend. It is not facing any major threats.

range:
This species is endemic to the regions of Asturias and Cantabria, in the forests along the Costa Verde in northern Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), where it is considered to be expanding its range. Its presence has been reported currently in 14 localities (Commission of the European Communities  2009), so its maximum estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is 56 km².

population:
The population trend has been reported to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and is likely to be increasing. It is a locally abundant species.

habitat:
This fern grows in forest clearings, moist heaths and oak woodland on siliceous substrates. It is probably a recent species of hybrid origin (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), but this needs further study. Its subpopulations are currently expanding, colonizing Erica scrub that is abundant in its distribution range. Its altitudinal range is 50-650 m.

threats:
There are no major threats to this species. However, the species may be threatened by degradation of its habitat due to poor forest management (afforestation, reforestation) (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Other threats to the species include fires and communication networks.

conservationAction:
This taxon is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as a 'species of special interest' in the regional catalogue of threatened flora of Asturias, where a species management plan will be developed. It is listed as Least Concern in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).

redListContributors:
Bueno Sánchez, Á., Díaz, T.E., Nava, H.S., Fernández Prieto, J.A. & Jiménez-Alfaro, B.,


taxonomicNotes:
This is an allotetraploid hybrid species whose parents are D. aemula and D. azorica (Juslén et al. 2011), which result into a double chromosome number and therefore into a new species. The name Dryopteris crispifolia has been used in a uniform way.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to the Azores, where it is locally common and the population trend is stable, and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern. However, the species is affected by invasive species, whose control should be a priority.

range:
This species is endemic to the Azores, where it is found on the islands of Corvo (17.11 km²), Faial (172km²), Flores (143km²), São Miguel (744.6km²), Pico (447km²) and Terceira (400.6km²). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is only 38 km², although it is possible that the species may have been overlooked (Gibby and Jermy 1977, Schäfer 2002, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013).

population:
According to the Flora of the Azores (Schäfer 2002) this species occurs scattered on the islands and subpopulations are usually small. The current population trend is stable.

habitat:
This species is found scattered in tree plantations, on slopes and in ravines (Schäfer 2002). It is also found in montane and laurel forests, between 200 and 1,550 m asl (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
In many islands of the Azores invasive species pose a serious problem. Especially worrying are invasive tree ferns (Cyathea) and Hedychium gardnerianum, Cryptomeria japonica, Pittosporum undulatum and Hydrangea macrophylla, which compete directly with this species for light, nutrients and space, and alter the local environment making it less suitable for D. crispifolia (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
The species was previously listed as insufficiently known for the Azores (Threatened Plants Unit IUCN 1982), but nowadays it is known that this species is not under threat. It would be beneficial for the species to establish an ex-situ collection in case invasive species lead the local subpopulations to disappear. It is present in protected areas, where the removal of invasive species should be a priority.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris cristata is an allotetraploid hybrid species of polytopic origin. Its suggested parents are D. ludoviciana, D. "semicristata" and D. goldiana (Juslén et al. 2011).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
Although the subpopulations of this aquatic fern are decreasing in western and central Europe, this is a widespread species which remains stable in its main distribution area in the boreal zone. It is thus listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is widespread across the Northern Hemisphere, where it is found in (mainly northern) North America, northern Europe and northern Asia. In Europe, it is found from Norway to England, across northern and central Europe, southwards to the Alps and eastwards to the Ural mountains, from sea level up to 700 m Asl (Jalas and Suominen 1972, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is over 5,500 km2.

population:
Subpopulations of this species are stable in its main distribution area in the boreal zone. Due to its habitat requirements its population is fragmented, although where it occurs, the species is often locally abundant. In its southwestern European range, D. cristata is decreasing and it is considered regionally extinct in some countries, but the number of subpopulations in these areas has been always low. The overall current population trend is decreasing (Landergott et al. 2000).

habitat:
This fern grows in mildly acidic 'floating' fens, swamps and swampy woods, and in shrubby wetlands. It is characteristic of Sphagnum lawns, where it can tolerate the shade. It can persist in fen carr. It is also found in lowland moist forests in low mountain slopes. It grows on moist acidic soil with a well developed hummus layer. It prefers alluvial soils with a high water table and it very rarely it grows at the lower alpine  belt in central Europe (Hess et al. 1967, Stace 1997, Jonsell 2000, The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004).

threats:
The destruction of its habitats as a consequence of tree logging and soil draining may result into local decreases of the population size.

conservationAction:
Dryopteris cristata has become rare and threatened in southwestern central Europe (Landergott et al. 2000). In Switzerland, at the southern border of its European distribution, 22 (62% of all described) subpopulations are extinct due to habitat destruction, and only 14 subpopulations remained in 1999 (Landergott et al. 2000). It is listed as regionally extinct in Luxembourg (Krippel 2003) It is also regionally extinct in Scotland and Northern Ireland (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).
In England, it is listed as Endangered (EN A2c, based on a 66% decline on AOO; Stroh et al. 2014). In France it is considered Vulnerable under Criterion C2a(i) (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012), and in Norway it is listed as Endangered (EN B2ab(ii,iii,iv); Kålås et al. 2010). In the Komi Republic (Russia) it is classified as threatened due to its rarity (class 3 in Russian ranking; Taskaev 2009).

useAndTrade:
This species is grown occasionally for ornamental purposes, often as a pond-margin plant. It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013).

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a allotetraploid hybrid taxa whose parents are D. intermedia ssp. azorica and D. expansa.

D. carthusiana, D. dilatata and D. expansa were treated as a single taxon in former Soviet Union (Jalas and Suominen 1972).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This is a widespread fern species that is locally common and whose population trend is stable. There are no major threats to the species and it is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
Dryopteris dilatata is found through most of Europe and across temperate Asia, eastwards to Mongolia and Japan. It is a predominantly European species, being most frequent in western and central Europe, where it belongs to the European temperate element. In southern Europe, D. dilatata is less frequent and it occurs mostly in mountains, up to 2,000 – 2,800 m in the Alps. In Britain it grows from sea level up to 1,050 m  (north of Loch Rannoch, Mid Perthshire), and was reportedly as high as 1,125 m in Scotland. It is rarer in southern Finland and Estonia, where it reaches its north-eastern boundary (Jalas and Suominen 1972, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The area of occupancy (AOO) is more than 6,000 km2. 
Dryopteris dilatata hybridises with D. carthusiana (D. x deweveri) where both species occurs together (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2016).

population:
The population trend is stable and there are no reported declines. It is a common and abundant fern throughout its range.

habitat:
This species occurs in many different habitats, but D. dilatata is mostly a woodland species, rarely found in the lower alpine belt. It is very shade-tolerant and is most frequent and abundant on acidic soils with pH <5.0, and on well- to  poorly-drained substrates with a developed humus layer. The species is present in deciduous and coniferous  woodland, hedgerows, ditches, open moorland, rocky slopes, boulder scree  and rock fissures. It occurs mostly in habitats with permanently moist but not wet soils. In wet woodlands and mires with high water-tables, D. dilatata grows in raised microhabitats, with better drainage (hummocks) (Hess et al. 1967, Stace 1997, Jonsell 2000, The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004, Rünk et al. 2012). It can be occasionally found as an epiphyte in mossy tree trunks in damp climates and it is rarely found on masonry (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
There are major no threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation actions in place and none seem to be needed. It is found in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Stroh et al. 2014), and similarly not threatened in any other national Red Lists.

useAndTrade:
This species is grown commercially as an ornamental plant and is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013).

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a diploid taxon whtich hybrideses with D. carthusiana and D. dilatata.

D. carthusiana, D. dilatata and D. expansa were treated as a single taxon in the former Soviet Union (Jalas and Suominen 1972).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This widespread fern is locally common and has a stable population trend. There are no major threats to the species and it is thus assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Dryopteris expansa has a disjunctly holarctic range, distributed in northeastern North America, Greenland and across Eurasia extending across Siberia to Kamchatka and into Mongolia and Japan. Smaller isolated localities have been found in the Caucasus, northern Iran and north-eastern Turkey. It is a circumpolar boreal-montane element and is most commonly found in lowlands from sea level up to 150 m and in mountains, from 600 to 1000 m. It is rarer in the upper arctic-alpine zone. 
In Europe it is widespread, being found from Iceland to the Pyrenees and eastwards to Russia, the Urals and the Caucasus. In central Europe it occurs mostly in mountains up to the alpine region in the Tatra Mountains (up to 2,100 m) and in scattered localities in the lowlands. In southern Europe, it occurs only in mountains, up to 2,660 m in the Alps. In Fennoscandia, D. expansa is widely distributed and becomes rarer only in the most northern latitudes. In eastern Europe its frequency varies. The species is scattered throughout Estonia and Lithuania, more frequent in Estonia but rare in Latvia. In Russia, the distribution of the species extends from the northern and central part of western Russia to the Urals and eastwards (Jalas and Suominen 1972, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The area of occupancy (AOO) is over 4,000 km2.

population:
The population trend is stable, and there have been no reported declines. The species is common and locally abundant throughout its range.

habitat:
This fern grows in open wet woodlands and around rock  outcrops at low elevations. It is also found on damp, sheltered hollows of upland  boulder scree. Its substrates are usually mildly acidic, but it can grow  in scree derived from quite base-rich mica-schists, growing up to 945 m (in Stob  Binnein, west Perthshire). It is present on mountain slopes, but rarely at the lower alpine belt. It mainly grows in lighter, more open habitats, often in the shade of sparse canopies or rocks.

Dryopteris expansa is mainly a species of acidic humus soils, but toletrates also neutral ones. It is mostly distributed in moist or damp soils, with a permanently high level of groundwater, or in moist rock fissures in mountains. The ecological amplitude of D. expansa for moisture appears to be even narrower than that of D. carthusiana, although towards the drier end of the gradient. In colder climates (e.g. Scandinavia), D. expansa occurs not only in moist but well-drained soils, but also in drier habitats, such as stone walls. In central Europe, D. expansa occurs mainly in habitats with moist rather than wet soils as in the British Isles. In Scandinavia it is also found above the tree line in relatively dry mountain heaths amongst blocks (Hess et al. 1967, Stace 1997, Jonsell 2000, The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004, Rünk et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place and none appear to be needed. It is present in several protected areas throughout its range.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris filix-mas, D. affinis and D. oreades are closely related, but currently treated as separate species. However they be confusions with regards to these species in certain databases.
The taxonomy of Dryopteris filix-mas is not well understood. In North America, this fern has been considered both an auto- and an allopolyploid and may be composed of at least two closely related taxa. Plants in the northeast and northwest are tetraploid. These differ morphologically and ecologically from a taxon of unknown chromosome number in the southwestern Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain taxon closely resembles the Mexican D. pseudofilix-mas (Fée) Rothmaler. Dryopteris filix-mas also occurs in Europe, and it is known to be an allopolyploid of D . caucasica (A. Braun) Fraser-Jenkins & Corley × oreades Fomin.

Already Manton in 1950 hypothesized that Dryopteris filix-mas was an allotetraploid species and she identified D. oreades Fomin as one of the parental species. Later researcher have followed Manton  in recognizing D. filix-mas as an allotetraploid, and D. caucasica (A. Braun) Fraser-Jenk. & Corley (Fraser-Jenkins and Corley 1972) or some species from the D. villarii/D. pallida complex (Widén et al. 1971) have been suggested to be the second parental species.
This is an allotetraploid species whose suggested parents are D. oreades, D. villarii, D. pallida, D. marginalis and D. caucasica.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This widespread species is locally common, has a stable population trend and it does not face any major threats. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
Dryopteris filix-mas has a wide circumpolar distribution across mainly temperate and southern boreal zones of the Northern Hemisphere: in North America and across Eurasia, eastwards to China and Japan. Its centre of distribution lies in Europe, where it is widespread and occurs from sea level up to the lower alpine belt (2,400 - 2,540 m) in Austria and Switzerland, and up to 2,300 - 2,800 m in Italy. In Scandinavia it is rarely found above the tree line (600 - 800 m), and it is rather rare also in taiga forests.
Dryopteris filix-mas appears to be the most common species extending up to the alpine belt in the Polish Tatra Mountains. The area of occupancy (AOO) is over 12,000 km2, although this may be an underestimation.

population:
Subpopulations are extensive and continuous except at the northern and southern range of this species in Europe. The overall population is stable or even increasing. The production of spores is normal, but these spread easily and suitable habitats exist widely in natural and anthropogenic settings.

habitat:
Dryopteris filix-mas is a common fern in continental to maritime areas of woodland, rocky forests, both broadleaf and coniferous, in ditches, on roadside verges, along stream banks, on rocky hillsides, cliff ledges and scree slopes. It prefers light, well-drained but moist soils that are mostly acidic to neutral, though sometimes slightly basic. It is also found in urban habitats, including railway embankments, bridges, walls and gardens (Hess et al. 1967, Stace 1997, Jonsell 2000, The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004).
It is primarily a species of moist and particularly fertile deciduous forests, but is also found in a wide range of other habitats including open ground and stone/brick walls in towns, open ground in natural settings and under deciduous scrub in dune hollows and railway track beds. In glacial succession it first appears against boulders and other moist sites on coarse substrates up to 2,540 m elevation in Switzerland. Dryopteris filix-mas grows on somewhat drier sites than other Dryopteris species and can tolerate moderate levels of disturbance. In summary, D. filix-mas is gregarious and grows in a wide range of vegetation types across Europe.

threats:
There are no threats to this species, which can be sometimes weedy in gardens.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation actions in place and none appear to be needed. It is classified as threatened in the Komi Republic, Russia, due to its rarity there (class 3 in the Russian rank; Taskaev 2009). It is listed in the United Kingdom as Least Concern (Stroh et al. 2014), as in most national Red Lists where it is included.

useAndTrade:
This species is often cultivated as a garden plant in many countries. It can be bought online and in many garden centres and nurseries. As this species is very common, this trade does not affect the subpopulations, even though sometimes wild plants are for sale. It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013).

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
Although its distribution range is narrow and disjunct in Europe, the subpopulations are stable. In Finland it is present in a strict nature conservation area, and the subpopulations are not under immediate threat in the EU 28. Its Russian subpopulations are widespread and often in inaccessible sites that are not threatened. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU 28, even though the species has a marginal occurrence in Europe.

range:
Dryopteris fragransis a widespread species in the arctic-alpine belt of the Northern Hemisphere, found across North America and in Asia from the Ural Mountains across Siberia to the Chinese Himalayas. In Europe it is only found in a small area in northern Finland where it has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 800 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 44 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The nearest subpopulations to the Finnish ones are found in the Ural Mountains in Russia (Kalliola 1937), where the species occurs fragmented and over an extensive area. The overall AOO is estimated to be around 350 km². Genetic studies have shown that the Finnish subpopulations are most closely related to subpopulations in Mongolia (Juslén et al. 2011).

population:
There are two subpopulations in northern Finland, one small and and one large, and several others in the northern Ural range (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). In Finland, the subpopulations have been calculated to be around 2,700 tufts, and subpopulations are stable there (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The known subpopulations in Russia are scattered over an extensive area in the Urals and eastwards (Jalas and Suominen 1972). The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This fern grows on alpine rock outcrops and boulder fields. The species grows among stones and boulders, sometimes hidden by rocks. It also grows on the surface of rocks covered by lichens, but it does not grow on recently disturbed rocky landslides. The undisturbed habitat is indicated by a thick cover of lichens and mosses (Kalliola 1937, Jonsell 2000). In Russia, it is often found on screes and in rock crevices and usually on calcareous slopes (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
This species faces no immediate threats, although climate warming might be a future threat considering that this is a cold-climate species.

conservationAction:
Dryopteris fragrans is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. The species is well-protected and no further conservation actions are needed.

In Finland this species is classed as Near Threatened (Rassiet al. 2010) because the  AOO is restricted (44 km²), with a total of 36 sites having been   recorded. There are c. 2,700 mature individuals and the subpopulations are currently stable. All but one Finnish subpopulation are in the Kevo Strict Nature Reserve (open to the public only by permission). Climate change is a potential future threat but may be overcome with well-planned assisted migration. It is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005) in Finland.

In Russia it was also classified as threatened due to its rarity (class 3 in the Russian rank) in the Komi Republic (Taskaev 2009). The Russian subpopulations should be monitored.

useAndTrade:
It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013), but its uses are not documented.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.


taxonomicNotes:
This is an allotetraploid hybrid whose parents are Dryopteris aemula and D. azorica/intermedia.

The nameDryopteris guanchica has been used in a uniform way. D. aemula, D. guanchica and D. corleyi are closely related, the latter two also being allotetraploids, sharing the D. aemula genome (Gibby et al. 1978, Fraser‐Jenkins 1982, Juslén et al. 2011).

redListCategoryRationale:
Although this European endemic species has a restricted distribution, the population trend is stable and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern. Research on its population size and trend are needed.

range:
This species is restricted to Europe, where it is found in Portugal, Spain and the Canary Islands (Gomera, Hierro, Tenerife) (Gibby and Jermy 1977, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The area of occupancy (AOO) is calculated to be 248 km², but this may be an underestimation.

population:
There is no information on the population trend since the taxon was only recently described (1977). However, although in the past the habitats of D. guanchica were turned to fields, which reduced the size of subpopulations, the main ones on La Gomera and Tenerife are stable. The overall population trend is therefore assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Dryopteris guanchica is found in deciduous forests on the Iberian Peninsula, and in laurisilva forests and "barrancos" in the Canary Islands.

The species is considered as a relict, particularly in Iberian refugia, being characterized by a high mean annual precipitation, or in particular along river basins where the subtropical moisture is to some degree substituted by water flowing from mountain headwaters (Fernández-Palacioset al. 2011, Heywood 2014). Its elevation limits are 0-1,000 m.

threats:
Although current threats are unknown, there has been considerable pressure on the subpopulations in the past due to land conversion for agriculture, particularly in the Canary Islands and especially on Gran Canaria (Anonymous 2010).

conservationAction:
The main subpopulations today are on the islands of La Gomera and Tenerife (Anaga region), which are protected following Spanish law. At Anaga, a site with high biodiversity, localities are today strictly prohibited to access without permission. In Spain it is listed as Vulnerable B2ab(iii); D2 (Moreno et al. 2008), and it is also categorized as Vulnerable in A Coruña where it is known from the locality at As Mariñas (Galicia, Spain) (Fragas do Mandeo 2010). It is extinct in Andalucía (Heywood 2014). Research on its population size and trend are needed.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris intermedia and the other taxa in the D . spinulosa complex have long confused taxonomists. Dryopteris  intermedia is diploid and is one of the parents of the allotetraploid D. carthusiana.

Dryopteris azorica (Christ) Alston and D. maderensis Milde ex Alston are considered subspecies of D. intermedia here although they are often accepted as species on their own (Schäfer 2002, Press and Short 1994). As such they would be endemic to Azores or Madeira. 

For the purposes of this assessment, the Euro+Med checklist is followed (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This is a widespread species that is locally common, with a stable population trend, and subpopulations are only mildly threatened by invasive species. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.
The two subspecies sometimes recognised are: 
Dryopteris intermedia subsp. azorica with an area of occupancy (AOO) of 370 km2 in the Azores. As it faces no threats it is listed here as Least Concern.
Dryopteris intermedia subsp. maderenis with an AOO of c. 100 km2 on Madeira. As it faces no threats and is locally abundant it is listed here as Least Concern.

range:
This species is widespread across northeastern North America. In Europe, it is present in the Azores (where it is found between 200 and 1,100 m Asl) and the northern half of Madeira (where it is found between 550 and 1,600 m Asl) (Press and Short 1994, Schäfer 2002). The area of occupancy (AOO) is 370 km2 in the Azores and c. 100 km2 in Madeira, being of 470 km2 in total. The Macaronesian specimens are sometimes treated as separate species from the North American taxon and are then called D. azorica and D. maderenis, respectively, but are here considered on a single assessment.

population:
This species is locally abundant in Madeira and in all islands in the Azores. The population trend is stable, as there are no reported declines.

habitat:
In Madeira it grows in humid, oceanic, nutrient-rich, rocky woods, especially in limestone areas, ravines and levadas (Press and Short 1994).
In the Azores it is commonly found in tree plantations, on slopes and in ravines (Schäfer 2002). It is a typical species of montane and laurel forests and it is also common in montane woodlands (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
There are no main threats to the species, although invasive species (Hedychium gardnerianum) may affect this taxon as they are found on the same strata.

conservationAction:
The species was previously listed species as 'insufficiently known' (IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1982), but according to recent floras these evaluations are outdated (Press and Short 1994, Schäfer 2002). It is locally common and found in protected areas. Management of invasive species, particularly the removal of Hedychium would benefit this and other native species.

useAndTrade:
It is sometimes cultivated and therefore included in the catalogue of World Economic Plants (Wiersema and León 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
This species was described very recently (Jessen et al. 2011). The concept of this taxon is unclear and is not generally accepted. It is a triploid of hybrid origin that belongs to the D. affinis group.

Most British and French specialists do not accept D. lacunosa as a species, generally suggesting that it more or less equates to what they have called morphotype insolens (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). For the purposes of this assessment, the Euro+Med checklist is followed (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
Although there is some taxonomic uncertainty around the validity of this species concept, it is here treated as valid until further taxonomic research can be carried out. Currently it is assessed as Least Concern as it has an overall large and probably stable population. If future taxonomic work results in this species being split into several taxa, it will be reassessed under the revised concept then and its status may change accordingly.

range:
This is a recently described species which is found in the southern and central Alps (Italy, around Lago Maggiore), northwards to Germany (Rheinland-Pfalz, Baden-Württenberg, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Saarland), extending to France and in Austria at elevations between 10 and 1,480 m (Austria, Montafon; Jessen et al. 2011). In Britain and Ireland its presence is uncertain given its uncertain taxonomic status (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). However, in the article in which this species was originally described, material from Britain and Ireland were studied and included in its treatment. Therefore, for the purposes of this assessment, the distribution provided by Jessen et al. (2011) is followed, and the distribution of the species in Ireland is disregarded here.

population:
As this is a very recently described species (Jessen et al. 2011), there are yet no data on population trends. Although subpopulations may be considered to be stable, as is the case for other species belonging to the D. affinis complex, the overall population trend is unknown.

habitat:
Dryopteris lacunosa is found in deciduous lowland forests and lower slopes of mountains where it grows in woodland on acidic to neutral fresh soil with a well-developed humus layer (Jenssen et al. 2011). It is found at altitudes between 10-1,480 m.

threats:
The threats to this species are unknown. Like other taxa in the D. affinis complex, it is unlikely to be particularly threatened.

conservationAction:
Research is needed on the taxonomic status of this species and its distribution. It is unknown if the species is found in protected areas throughout its range.


taxonomicNotes:
There is still some uncertainty as to whether Christopher Fraser-Jenkins was correct in synonymising D. mindshelkensis with D. submontana. Stace (2010) in the New flora of the British Isles chose to retain the name D. submontana. For the purposes of this assessment, the Euro+Med taxonomy is followed (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013), which considers D. mindshelkensis a valid species and D. submontana as its synonym. However, if D. submontana were to be considered a distinct species, its range will be in the east of Europe
 D. submontana is well accepted to be the allotetraploid of the sexual diploids D. pallida and D. villarii.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This is a widespread species that is locally common, has a stable population trend and for which there are no major threats. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species was originally described from Mindshelke, a district in the Karatau Mountains in southern Kazakhstan, but when it was found that this name was also applied to plants that were previously treated as D. submontana, its distribution was expanded across the Caucasus to the mountains in the Mediterranean area and westwards to northwestern Britain. In Britain, it occurs from sea level up to 600 m Asl, while in the Alps it is usually found between 1,200 and 2,000 m Asl, ascending to 2,930 m on Mount Corno in Italy. It reaches 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The area of occupancy (AOO) is calculated to be 692 km2, which is possibly an underestimation.

population:
It is a rare and localized species with a scattered distribution. There is no information available on its population trends, but in its main distribution area, the Alps, the subpopulations are most likely stable. Therefore the overall population trend is assumed to be stable.
The species is distributed in four major areas, with the smallest subpopulation in the British Isles. The subpopulations in the Pyrenees, Italy and the Balkans could well be isolated from each other. However, as there is no information on the size of subpopulations, it is not possible to identify whether the population is severely fragmented.

habitat:
This fern occurs on limestone pavements, screes and rock crevices with moist humus-rich soils. It prefers a certain degree of shelter, but is intolerant to shade. It can extend onto  more exposed rock, but only where low woody scrub provides some  protection. It has also been recorded on limestone walls and from other  base-rich rocks (Stace 2010, The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004, as D. submontana). In Romania, it is found in the sub-montane regions (Negrean 2011). In the Alps, it is confined to mountainous areas in the forest and the lower alpine belts, favoring lower temperatures, high humidity and abundant precipitation.

threats:
There are no current threats to this species. However, it is highly sensitive to grazing in Britain and this may be  the reason for its loss from old sites in Snowdonia and Arran. It is  also highly vulnerable to quarrying, but otherwise there have been few  losses since the 1962 (The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation actions in place, although grazing needs to be controlled in areas where this species occurs. It is listed as Data Deficient on the French National Red List (assessed as D. submontana) (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013), as it is very rarely cultivated as an ornamental plant in specialist collections.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a diploid species (Juslén et al. 2011).

redListCategoryRationale:
This endemic species to the Canary Islands is locally common, its population trend is stable and it does not face any major threats. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is found on all islands except Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. In general it is found between 200 and 1,500 m elevation, but mostly at 800-1,200 m (Gibby and Jermy 1977, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). It has an area of occupancy (AOO) of about 200 km².

population:
This species is fairly common on La Gomera, El Hierro, La Palma and Tenerife (Gibby and Jermy 1977), but rare on Gran Canaria. The population trend is stable.

habitat:
Dryopteris oligodonta occurs mainly in shaded and humid habitats of the laurel forest (laurisilva) zone, where it is often abundant and as such it is a feature of the local landscape. Occasionally it also occurs in more humid parts of the evergreen forest zone (fayal-brezal vegetation) (Gibby and Jermy 1977).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place and none appear to be needed. The species is present in protected areas.

useAndTrade:
This species is locally used as an ornamental, although it rarely adapts well to artificial habitats. It was formerly used as a drug against human intestinal parasitic worms.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread western European and Mediterranean-montane species that is locally common with a stable population trend and no major threats. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is found across Europe and western Asia from Iceland and Norway, southwards to Portugal and Spain, and eastwards to Crimea, the Caucasus and Pakistan. It is found at elevations of 100 and 850 m in Britain and 600-2,400 m in the Alps (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is calculated to be 1,788 km², but this may be an underestimation.

population:
Dryopteris oreades is locally abundant and the population trend is stable. It has moderate intrapopulation genetic variation, which may derive from the expansion of the subpopulations during the last glaciation (Jiménez et al. 2009).

habitat:
In Britain and Ireland this species colonizes well-drained rocky ledges,  steep, loose scree slopes and gullies. Its substrates include relatively  acidic sandstones, slates and mica-schist. It is very sensitive to  grazing, often becoming confined to inaccessible ledges and unstable  scree slopes in heavily grazed areas (The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004). In the Mediterranean, it inhabits rocky forests on oroboreal mountain slopes, and on rocky outcrops in the lower montane belt often among acidic boulders.

threats:
In Scotland there seems to be some pressure due to grazing (The Botanical Society of the British Isles 2004).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place or appear to be needed. The species is found in protected areas throughout its range. Grazing should be controlled in areas where this species is declining.

useAndTrade:
It is included in the catalogue of World economic plants (Wieresma and León 2013), but its uses are not defined. It is rarely grown as an ornamental in specialist collections.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.


taxonomicNotes:
This is a diploid species.

The Pallidae clade (Dryopteris sect. Pallidae) include in EuropeD. aitoniana, D. pallida, D. mindshelkensis and D. oligodonta.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread species that is locally common and has a stable population trend. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern, although the threats to this species are unknown and research is recommended to identify them.

range:
This widespread species is found around the Mediterranean from northwestern Africa, Sardinia and southern Italy, across the Balkans to Greece and coastal western Turkey, extending into Azerbaijan and northern Iran and southwards to northern Israel. It is also found in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain), where it is sometimes treated as a separate subspecies (D. p. subsp. balearica). It extends from sea level up to 1,600 m in the Italian Alps (Nardi 1976, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is calculated to be 444 km², but this is likely an underestimation.

population:
This is a rather scattered and very localised species across its range. The population trend is probably stable.

habitat:
Dryopteris pallida is distinct in its climatic requirements compared to other Dryopteris species, being restricted to  the Mediterranean climatic region and following the area of olive  cultivation, with mild winter rains and summer droughts. It grows on calcareous and non-calcareous substrates in closed and moist lowland forests with rocky soil, often on rocky calcareous outcrops (Nardi 1976).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place and none appear to be needed. It is found in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Corsica (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012), where it should be locally protected. Research on the possible threats to this species is recommended.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris pseudodisjuncta belongs to the D. affinis group (Fraser-Jenkins 2007), with many closely related species, viz. D. borreri, D. affinis and D. cambrensis.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Date Deficient (DD)
EU 28 regional assessment:Date Deficient (DD)
This is a western European species that is locally fairly common in Norway, Britain and the Alps. However, available information on its population size and trend, taxonomy and threats is limited, and further research is needed to clarify the status of this species throughout its range. It is therefore  listed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species was only recently discovered in Britain and the Netherlands (Fraser-Jenkins 2007, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). It is also found in France, Switzerland, Austria and Norway. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is well above the criterion B1 threshold; its area of occupancy (AOO) is 140 km² in Europe. However, this species is under-recorded and the EOO and AOO are both expected to be much larger when the species complex becomes better studied. The available information on this species is limited.

population:
The species belongs to a fairly common complex of species in southwestern Norway and in the Alps, but it is difficult to separate it from other members in the group. The population trend is unknown, but is likely to be stable.

habitat:
In Britain the species is found in semi-shaded, humid forests in a maritime climate, on acidic to almost neutral soil with a humus layer. In the Alps it grows on nutrient-rich and calcareous soils consisting of sand and gravel under deciduous forest (Elven 2005, Stace 2010, Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012). The available information on the habitats of this species belongs to the D. affinis group. Its elevation limits are 0-1,600 m.

threats:
It is not known if there are any threats to this species, but its habitats are generally not under threat.

conservationAction:
Research is needed on its population size and trend, its taxonomy and possible threats. It is listed as Data Deficient in Norway (Kålås et al. 2010). It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.


taxonomicNotes:
This taxon is an apomictic triploid (reproduces by it self) taxon; parents being D. affinis subsp. affinis and expansa or pallida.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread species that is locally common and has a stable population trend. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a mostly central European species that extends to western Asia. It is a sub-Atlantic and sub-Alpine species, recorded from western Ireland, Scotland, England, the Spanish Pyrenees, France, Germany, Switzerland, northern Italy, Austria, the Czech Republic (Moravian Karst), western Hungary, Slovenia, western Croatia, Poland (Biesczady), Ukraine, Romania, Turkey and the west and central parts of the Caucasus (Ekrt et al. 2007, Tlałka and Piątek 2010, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its European distribution is centered on the northern part of the Alps and foothills of the northern Alps in Austria (up to 1,200 m), in Germany and Switzerland, where it is a scattered and relatively frequent species.
Records from Ireland and Scotland relate to single individuals from the Victorian times and a single specimen is known from England, which is probably a garden throw out (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). It did not persist in Britain and Ireland. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 968 km2.

population:
There is no information available on population trends, but it seems to be stable as it faces no threats.

habitat:
This is a European montane element found in sub-alpine areas near forest streams, in ravines and on steep rocky and scree slopes at elevations of (260–)400 to 1,500 m. It grows in mesotrophic and eutrophic mixed forests. Rarely, it occurs in spruce and spruce-fir forests, young spruce plantations, in clearings or openings in the sub-alpine vegetation belt.

threats:
It is not known if there are any threats to this species, but its habitat faces few threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are in place and none appear to be needed. The preferred habitat of this species is not threatened and it is present in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
Dryopteris schorapanensis Askerov is proposed to be a triploid apomict species (Vida in: Fraser-Jenkins 2007), parental taxa being D. affinis and D. caucasica. The type specimens are deposited in TBI (Herbarium Tbilisi). The type specimen was collected in Schorapani, Mesketskii range, Caucasus Mts. in northern Georgia by Medvedev, 18 July 1968.

D. schorapanensis belongs to the D. affinis -complex, with closely related taxa: D. affinis, D. borreri, D. cambrensis and D. pseudodisjuncta. Further taxonomic research is needed on this species.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 28 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)

Due to the lack of information and the dubious taxonomic status of this species, it is assessed as Data Deficient (DD). Further research is needed on its taxonomy, distribution, population size and trend, ecology and threats in order to clarify the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
This is a species of the Dryopteris affinis complex, described from the Caucasus. It is also known from northern Iran and the Transcaucasian countries, particularly the Krasnodar region and Dagestan. However, it has been reported from many European countries (Fraser-Jenkins 2007), although this may be due to misidentifications. Major European herbaria were requested for information concerning this taxon, and only Berlin-Dalhem holds specimens: two from Germany and one from Romania. If these actually refer to this species, then its estimated area of occupancy (AOO) based on these specimens in Europe would be 12 km² (Fraser-Jenkins 2007, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). However, since its occurrence in Europe is so uncertain, it is not really possible at this time to estimate AOO or extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species.

population:
The subpopulations of Dryopteris schorapensis are poorly known. Further research on its occurrence in Europe is needed. Its population trend is unknown.

habitat:
Based on the ecology of related species in the D. affinis complex, this taxon is known from forested lower mountain slopes. It grows in mountain ranges, usually with low human activity.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on its conservation, and it is unknown if it occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed on its taxonomy, distribution, population size and trend, ecology and threats.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This is an apomictic triploid allotetraploid hybrid D. oreades × pallida (Fraser-Jenkins et al. 1975).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a small area of occupancy (AOO) of 100-300 km², with a scattered and severely fragmented population and low number of individuals. Threats to the species are unknown at present. It is listed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion B2. Research on its population size and trend, and threats to the species is needed. Monitoring of its population trend is also recommended.

range:
This is a western maritime-Mediterranean species found in Spain (Sierra Nevada and Mallorca), France and Italy. It is found up to 2,550 m in Spain. In Italy it occurs in Liguria, on Elba, the Tuscan archipelago, and on Sardinia. In France, it is found in the Martitime Alps, the Vallée de la Roya, the Cévennes and on Corsica. In total, the species seems to be present at 86 localities, including two sites in the Balkan Peninsula, which are of dubious status (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its area of occupancy (AOO) in Europe is between 100 and 300 km².

population:
In Spain, the estimation of the number of mature individuals in the Iberian subpopulations is approximate. The Balearic subpopulation has 25 individuals, and the one in Sierra Nevada has around 50 mature individuals (Bañares et al. 2010). In France it is very rare and present in five localities (Institute National de l'Information Geographique et Forestière 2015). Its status in Italy is unknown, but it is probably very rare there. Subpopulations are fragmented and those reported have with low number of mature individuals. The population is therefore considered to be severely fragmented. The overall population trend is unknown.

habitat:
This species is found in the fissures and lines of rocky outcrops, often in caves or deep crevices in silicate rocks. It is found in various types of rock, such as on the mica-schists sediments in Sierra Nevada and in deep fissures of the calcareous lapiaz in Mallorca, in humid environments that are composed of almost always monospecific communities (Fraser-Jenkins et al. 1975, Magrini and  Scoppola 2010, Magrini et al. 2012). It is most likely a Tertiary relict.

threats:
It is not known if there are any threats to this species. Mining activities may have a negative impact, but it is uncertain if this threatens current subpopulations.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are currently in place, although it is present in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed in the following national Red Lists: Spain (CR B1ab(v)+2ab(v); C2a(i)) (Bañares et al. 2010), Italy (Vulnerable) (Magrini and Scoppola 2010, Magrini et al. 2012) and France (Near Threatened, close to meeting D2) (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). Heywood (2014) lists it as Critically Endangered across the Mediterranean area, but providing no details on its explanation. 
Research on its population size and trend, and threats to the species is needed. Monitoring of its population trend is also recommended.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment:: Least Concern (LC)
This is a widespread species that is locally common, whose population trend is stable, and for which there are no major threats. It is therefore  listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is widespread across central Europe, extending east across the Balkans to the Caucasus. It is common in Switzerland, the Dolomites, Slovenia, across the Balkans to Greece, and it also occurs in the Bulgarian mountains, such as Mt. Vihren. The species is also present in Crimea. It is extinct in the Tatra Mountains in the Czech/Polish border (Piękos-Mirkowa and Miechōwka 1992). Its elevation limits are from sea level to 2,100 m Asl (in Austria) (Gilbert 1970, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013).

population:
Subpopulations are stable as there are no reported declines. It is a locally common species.

habitat:
Dryopteris villarii is found in forests on mountain slopes and in the lower alpine belt on soils with neutral to high pH (Hess et al. 1967, Piękos-Mirkowa and Miechōwka 1992). It also grows in closed and moist lowland forests with rocky soil and on oroboreal rocky usually calcareous outcrops.

threats:
There are no reported threats to this species.

conservationAction:
The species has been assessed in Bulgaria as Vulnerable B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii) (Petrova and Vladimirov      2009), and in Poland as Extinct in the Wild (EW) (Zarzycki and Szeląg 2006). Although it may be locally extinct or threatened, no conservation actions are in place and none appear to be needed. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is similar to and sometimes treated as a synonym of the Caribbean species E. hirtum (Sw.) C.Chr.

redListCategoryRationale:
This epiphytic fern species is listed as Endangered (EN) since it has a very small area of occupancy (AOO) of 150 km², its population is considered to be severely fragmented, it is present at seven locations and is experiencing a continuing decline in the habitat extent and quality, and in the number of subpopulations and mature individuals. Adequate protection of its habitat, excluding grazers, logging and road construction is greatly needed to conserve this rare species.

range:
This species is restricted to the Azores, where it is found on Flores, Faial, Pico, Sao Jorge, Terceira and Sao Miguel, and to Madeira. It is closely related to E. hirtum, a Caribbean species, with which it was confused in the past. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 150 km².

population:
The subpopulation in Madeira consists of over 1,000 mature individuals, but the data does not allow to elucidate a trend (Martín et al. 2008). However, the species is rare in Madeira, where it is possibly declining due to collection (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). As it is a small epiphyte, it may be easily overlooked. In the Azores, there have probably been declines in its habitat, but it seems to be currently stable. The species has declined in the past due to the fact that it is sensitive to disturbances, and its current population trend is slightly declining. The population is considered to be severely fragmented since it occurs in very small and isolated subpopulations.

habitat:
Elaphoglossum semicylindricum is a typical epiphyte of montane forest and woodlands (laurisilva), being found on Ilex azorica, Juniperus brevifolia and Laurus azorica in the Azores and on Erica arboreal, Laurus azorica and Ocotea foetens in Madeira (Frey et al. 2006, Press and Short 1994, H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016). It rarely grows on rocks (R. Elias and F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 350-1,200 m asl.

threats:
The species is affected by cattle trampling, goat grazing and the cutting of trees, which are likely to threaten this species, including within protected areas (R. Elias and H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016). In Madeira, the species can be affected by collection for ornamental purposes (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). Since this species occurs as an epiphyte on trees, it is susceptible to fires, and considering this threat the species is present at seven locations (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2017).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures currently in place. It is found in protected areas throughout its range, but it faces threats there as these areas are not excluded from grazing and disturbance. Ecological restoration of degraded areas is needed (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016) and juniper forests in the Azores are in need of real protection (which would mean excluding grazing, logging and road construction) and the enforcement of the law in these protected areas. Further research on its population size and threats is needed.

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, but it is sometimes collected by fern enthusiasts.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is listed as Critically Endangered as there are fewer than 100 individuals in total, with an even smaller number of individuals (<50) per subpopulation. In addition, the species has a small area of occupancy (AOO), it is experiencing a continuing decline on its habitat and number of mature individuals and its population is considered to be severely fragmented, since its subpopulations are small and isolated from each other. Its reproductive success is low and it is affected by the loss of forest on the islands by clearance, grazing and illegal collection. Protection of old growth natural forests and possible planting of native species, together with monitoring of the population and habitats trend, are recommended.

range:
This tiny fern species is restricted to the Azores (Portugal), where it is only found on the islands of Terceira, Flores and Pico (where it is uncertain if it is still present) at elevations between 600 and 850 m, where it is extremely rare. It is closely related to the Caribbean species G. marginella. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 8 km².

population:
In spite of the abundance of suitable habitat, the overall population size of this species is small; it is estimated that there are fewer than 100 mature individuals (Schäfer 2005, R. Elias pers. comm. 2016), occurring in subpopulations far apart from each other (on two separated islands), and it is considered to be severely fragmented. The subpopulations do not seem to reproduce much and are slow-growing. The current population trend is declining, with a 30% loss on Flores due to illegal collection by foreign botanists for herbaria (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
This is a small epiphytic fern that inhabits mossy juniper rain forests, which is found at medium elevations (650-850 m), where it is restricted to the wettest and wind-exposed parts of the juniper forest (Schäfer 2001, 2005, Aguiar et al. 2006).

threats:
Illegal collection poses a threat to the species. The loss of forest on the islands by clearance and invasive tree species (especially Cryptomeria japonica) result in a shrinking of the natural vegetation where this species occurs. Its habitat is also decreasing due to grazing. Since the only subpopulations are situated on the slopes of volcanoes, a volcanic eruption may also be a threat.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in protected areas (Martín et al. 2008), but its habitat is shrinking because these areas are still open to grazing by goats, cattle and invasive rabbits. Illegal collection by botanists for herbarium specimens is also a concern. Strict protection of old growth natural forests and possible planting of native species (juniper) may be needed to increase the area where this species could grow (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016). Monitoring of the population and habitats trend is also needed.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is often segregated in the genus Ceradenia.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU 28 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

This fern species is assessed as Critically Endangered as it has a population size of less than 250 mature individuals, with less than 50 individuals in each of the 10 subpopulations. In addition, it is considered severely fragmented as these small subpopulations occur on three widely separated Azorean Islands, and there is a continuing decline in habitat extent and quality, number of subpopulations and mature individuals.

range:
This is a widespread Neotropical fern species, found from Guatemala and Jamaica to Bolivia and the Brazilian Amazon. It has outlying subpopulations in the Azores (Portugal), where it is present at three localities on the island of Flores, five on Pico and two sites on Terceira. It has a total area of occupancy (AOO) of 40 km².

population:
The species is very susceptible to habitat degradation as a result of cattle damage. Subpopulations are small and rare, and it seems to be declining. There are less than 250 mature individuals across its range, with fewer than 50 individuals per subpopulation (Schäfer 2001, 2005).

habitat:
This is a small fern that grows as an epiphyte on mossy branches on juniper and tree heather in laurel forests (laurisilva) (Schäfer 2001, Frey et al. 2006, F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
Habitat destruction and the effect of storms on the forest may affect the subpopulations. It can be also affected by forest trampling, grazing and cutting of wood (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). It is collected by botanists for herbaria (inside protected areas and without permits). One subpopulation on Flores was lost because of unregulated collection by botanists between 2003 and 2010. The main threat to the species is goat and cattle grazing in the protected areas of Pico and Flores.

conservationAction:
Habitat protection should be put in place to protect this species. Even though most subpopulations are already inside a protected area, grazing and habitat destruction continue to occur here as much as outside these protected areas. Therefore, exclusion from grazing and removal of feral goats and rabbits are needed to preserve these fragile habitats.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.


taxonomicNotes:
Outside Europe this species is very rare and is often treated as a separate species, G. ebenina (which is a later synonym), which is putatively the same, although this has not been confirmed by any studies. If the two taxa are not identical, then G. quaerenda is probably globally extinct. Unless a new subpopulation is found, it is uncertain if the two taxa are the same since molecular data is needed to confirm it.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Regionally Extinct (RE)
EU 28 regional assessment: Regionally Extinct (RE)

This species is Regionally Extinct in Europe, where it formerly occurred in northern Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain). Outside of Europe the species is very rare, localised and fragmented. It is often treated as a separate species (G. ebenina), which is putatively the same, although this has not been confirmed by any molecular studies. If the two taxa turn out not to be identical, then G. quaerenda would be globally extinct.

range:
This is an Atlantic species, which, including its synonym G. ebenina, occurs on the Canary Islands (Tenerife), St. Helena, São Tomé and possibly also in Madagascar. In the Canary Islands, it was last recorded in the 1850s and despite exhaustive searches, it has not been found again.

population:
The subpopulations in northern Tenerife decreased rapidly and the species has not been found again since the 1850s (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
Grammitis quaerenda was an epiphyte of mossy forests, growing on tree ferns and mossy branches in laurisilva (Schäfer 2001).

threats:
Deforestation and habitat destruction through road building, tourism, agriculture, grazing and landslides are the main threats that likely caused this species to become extinct in Europe.

conservationAction:
The species is now extinct in the Canary Islands (Aedo et al. 2014). Outside of Europe the species is very rare. Taxonomic research is needed.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


taxonomicNotes:
Two subspecies (sometimes treated as species) are recognised in Europe. The Macaronesian specimens are treated as P. cambricum subsp. macaronesicum, with a major split between the plants from the Azores (P. azoricum) and the Canary Islands (P. macaronesicum). Continental subpopulations are treated as P. cambricum subsp. cambricum.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread and locally common fern species with a stable population and no major threats. Even though it is nearly restricted to Europe it is listed here as Least Concern. If the subspeciesP. c. macaronesicum is treated as a separate taxon, it would be endemic to Europe and it would be similarly assessed as Least Concern as it is locally very common.

range:
This is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species, distributed from Britain. Ireland and Macaronesia throughout Mediterranean Europe and North Africa, eastwards to Georgia and adjacent Russia and Turkey. In the the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands a separate subspecies (P. cambricum subsp. macaronesicum) occurs.

population:
The overall population of this common fern is stable. The subspecies P. c. macaronesicum is also locally common, with over 100,000 specimens known in the Azores.

habitat:
Polypodium cambricum grows terrestrially on base-rich rocks or epiphytically in oak, ash, elder, hawthorn, laurel or juniper forests over base-rich soil. It is usually found on steep rocky slopes, often close to the sea, on rocky mouths of stream gorges, hinterland cliffs, raised-beach terraces, on walls and in old quarries, especially where there is shelter, shade and seepage. On artificial walls it is found on those constructed of natural limestone rock (Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,400 m.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place and none are deemed to be needed. It is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.


taxonomicNotes:
This is an allohexaploid species derived from the hybridisation between Polypodium cambricum and P. vulgare. The species is thus morphologically intermediate and climatically and environmentally adaptable.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread and locally abundant fern species that does not face any major threats. It is therefore listed here as Least Concern.

range:
Polypodium interjectum is essentially a European species, extending eastwards to Georgia, western Russia and Iran. In Europe it is predominant in the west, from Scotland and southwestern Norway to Portugal and discontinuously throughout the Mediterranean, eastwards to the Caucasus. It is also found on Madeira.

population:
The species forms large, extensive colonies and is locally abundant. The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
The plants are terrestrial and epilithic, sometimes epiphytic, on mildly basic conditions, but absent from acidic rocks, often found on wall mortar, particularly in otherwise acidic areas. In more base-rich regions it occurs on roadside banks, sheltered stream valleys, in the forks and along branches of oak trees, rocky banks, cliffs, covering boulders in open woodland and in turf on rural stone walls, sometimes also in dune systems (Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,000 m.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place and none seem to be needed. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This fern species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable population and absence of major threats.

range:
Polypodium vulgareis a widespread species found from Greenland to the Ural Mountains, southwards to North Africa and eastwards to western China and Kazakhstan. In Europe it is common throughout most of the continent, from North Cape and Iceland to Madeira and Greece.

population:
This species is common and widespread throughout its distribution, although in Madeira it seems to be rare. The overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
Polypodium vulgare prefers well-drained, predominantly  acidic substrates such as grits, granites, gneiss and sandstones, often in small fissures. It also grows on the north side of sand dunes (Van der Meijden 2005, M. Christenhusz pers. obs. 2015). It is often found on rocky outcrops, on boulders, shaded stony slopes or in sandy soil in broadleaf or coniferous woods, it is tolerant of exposure and then can be found on montane scree or on large granite boulders. In the west of its range, in areas with higher rainfall and more humid air, this fern can grow epiphytically on tree trunks, mostly on oak (Quercus) and other  deciduous trees (Komarov 1968, Castroviejoet al. 1986, Page 1997, Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012). In Atlantic Europe it is also frequently found on stone walls surrounding agricultural land, fields, plantations or derelict walls in urban areas. Its elevation range is 0 - 2,300 m.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed, and the species is found in protected areas in many parts of its range. It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
 
Belarus: Near Threatened (Ermakova 2005) 
Belgium: Least Concern (Van Landuyt et al. 2006)
Bulgaria: found in national parks, rare, with few subpopulations occupying small areas, but of no economic importance (Kathe 2003, Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004)
Estonia: Least Concern (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012)
Finland: Least Concern (Rassi et al. 2010)
Germany: Least Concern (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Luxembourg: Least Concern (Colling 2005)
Norway: Least Concern  (Artsdatabanken 2010)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: Least Concern (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Polypody rhizome is used in traditional medicine as an expectorant for cough, cold and short term constipation. It is usually prepared as tea or as herbal preparations in solid dosage forms for oral use (European Medicine Agency 2008). Polypody  stimulates bile secretion and is a gentle laxative. In European herbal  medicine it is traditionally used as a treatment for hepatitis and  jaundice and as a remedy for indigestion and loss of appetite. It  should not be used externally since it can cause skin rashes. The poulticed root can be applied to inflammations (Plants for a Future 2012). The rhizomes contain tannic and malic acids, saponin and glycyrrhizin, which are occasionally used in medicine against bronchitis. It has a sweet taste (Komarov 1968). It is occasionally grown as a garden plant (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

In the early 19th century in Ireland a distinction was made between the epiphytic polypody found on oak and the supposedly different kind found commonly on walls and it was rated so much more effective that, given the scarcity of Irish woodland by then, it had to be imported (Allen and Hatfield 2004).

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread, locally common fern species with resilient subpopulations in much of its range and a stable population trend. Therefore it is here listed as Least Concern.

range:
Polystichum aculeatum is a widespread western Eurasian species that occurs throughout western and southern Europe to Anatolia, the Caucasus, Ukraine, Iran and Central Asia, eastwards to western China. It also occurs on the mountains of Morocco. In Europe it is found along the Atlantic from southern Norway throughout central Europe to Mallorca (Spain), Corsica, Italy and mainland Greece.

population:
The subpopulations are widespread, but often somewhat of local occurrence, a solitary species occurring in small numbers or individually (Page 1997). The species is less common in marginal areas like the drier Mediterranean and the more continental parts in eastern and northern Europe. Its overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This is a calcicolous species, especially found on valleys and glens of mountainous areas, in areas of high rainfall. It is found often on rocky places in river valley woodland, on steep rocky slopes, and on rock face exposures along stream gorges and narrow ravines, often where permanently shaded, normally where lime-rich rocks are exposed or in deeper grykes of limestone pavement (Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,700 m.

threats:
There are no major threat to this species.

conservationAction:
This species is common and abundant in the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Belgium, Switzerland, much of Germany, Norway, Italy, Austria, Hungary and Romania. It is of conservation concern in climatically marginal countries, where protection of its sites is the most effective measure. It is present in protected areas and listed on the following national Red Lists:
Czech Republic: Near Threatened (Grulich 2012)
Estonia: Critically Endangered (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012)
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Least Concern (Király 2007)
Lithuania: Endangered (Rašomavičius 2007)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000)
Spain: locally extinct or vulnerable (Zoological Society of London 2014)
Canary Islands: probably endangered (Sanchez Velazquez 2002)
Sweden: Endangered; C2a(i) (Gärdenfors 2005, 2010)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)

useAndTrade:
The species is not utilized. It is sometimes grown as an ornamental, but that material is derived from cultivated stock.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe the species is assessed as Least Concern because despite being listed as threatened in many European countries with an overall declining population trend, it has a wide distribution and an overall large population size.

In the EU 28, the area of occupancy (AOO) is 564 km2, the population is severely fragmented and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals. In addition, there are probably less than 10,000 mature individuals and  fewer than 1,000 mature individuals in each subpopulation. Thus, the species is assessed as Vulnerable.

range:
Polystichum braunii is a widespread species across the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, being found in Europe, in Asia from the Caucasus to Japan and across northern North America. In Europe it is found throughout the northern central European mountains, particularly in Norway, the Alps, northern Italy, the Sudeten and Carpathians, but with outlying stations in the Black Forest (Germany), the Vosges (France) and the French Pyrenees. In Europe, the area of occupancy (AOO) is 3,120 km2 and in the EU 28 it is 564 km2.

population:
This species is locally abundant and stable in Norway and occurs locally in the Alps. It is extremely rare in France and Germany, where it is probably declining. The overall population trend is declining. 
In the EU 28 (which excludes stable subpopulations in Norway and Switzerland) there are probably less than 10,000 mature individuals and there are fewer than 1,000 mature individuals in each subpopulation. The population in the EU 28 is severely fragmented.

habitat:
This is a plant of acid soils growing among siliceous rocks in dark beech-fir forest with humid atmosphere. It also occurs in deep ravines, along fjords and river edges (Tutin et al. 1964, Komarov 1968, Prelli 2001). Its elevation range is 0 - 2,000 m.

threats:
Polystichum braunii is threatened by forestry practices and clear-cutting (Lilleleht 1998). There is evidence that lower relative humidity and warmer winters have resulted in declines to this species due to climate change.

conservationAction:
Polystichum braunii is most common in Norway, where the majority of its European plants are found. It is rare elsewhere and is listed on the national Red Lists of most other countries it occurs in:
Czech Republic: Endangered (Grulich 2012)
Estonia: Endangered (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012)
France: Vulnerable D2 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Germany: Critically Endangered (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Endangered (Király 2007)
Sweden: Critically Endangered; D (Gärdenfors 2005, 2010)
Switzerland: Near Threatened (Moser et al. 2002)
Habitats should be protected where this species occurs and reintroduction from ex-situ collections should be considered. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is generally not used. It is very occasionally cultivated in specialist fern collections.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Polystichum drepanum is restricted to northeast Madeira, where it occurs at five localities with a maximum extent of occurrence (EOO) of 219 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 52 km². Although the species has a stable population trend, it is threatened by invasive  species, collection,  recreational activities, fires and landslides, and its total population size is smaller than 50 mature individuals. It is therefore assessed as Critically Endangered.

range:
This species is endemic to northern Madeira (Portugal), where it is found at five localities (Jardimet al. in Martín et al. 2008). Its maximum EOO is 219 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and its AOO is 52 km².

population:
The total population size is smaller than 50 mature individuals and has a stable trend. Its subpopulations are very small (Jardimet al. in Martín et al. 2008).

habitat:
This fern is characteristic of the laurisilva forest dominated by Ocotea foetens.It is restricted to a few steep forest areas (Press and Short 1994, Commission of the European Communities 2009). It lives on shady and humid cliff ledges of laurisilva in the northwest of Madeira (Jardim et al. in Martín et al. 2008).

threats:
The main threat to the species is habitat degradation due to the invasion of exotic species that increase competition for this fern. Collection, recreational activities from tourism, fires and natural factors such as landslides can affect the species (Chá-Chá et al. 2005, Jardimet al. in Martín et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Polystichum drepanum is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Its entire population is included in a national park.

Much needed conservation measures are habitat management and protection, species recovery and reintroduction programmes, and campaigns to raise public awareness. The biology and ecology as well as population dynamics need further research (Jardimet al. in Martín et al. 2008). It was listed as Critically Endangered for Madeira. The conservation of spores in germplasm banks is also recommended.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
This fern species has a very restricted range in the mountains of Madeira. It is calculated to be present at less than 15 locations and has a continuing projected decline in the habitat quality and numbers of mature individuals due to forest fires and a dryer climate. Therefore, it is assessed as Near Threatened since it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion B.

range:
Polystichum falcinellum is restricted to the mountains on the Macaronesian island of Madeira (Portugal). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 910 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 68 km².

population:
This species is locally common and subpopulations were stable (Press and Short 1994), but a reduction in the population occurred as a result of the wildfire that took place in 2012 (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
This species is found in dark, moist laurisilva forests, but in somewhat drier habitats than other Polystichum species (Press and Short 1994). It is found at high elevations and its habitats may have been affected by a large fire that occurred in 2012 (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). A continuing decline in the habitat quality is projected since it is likely that forest fires will occur again in this area, particularly if the climate continues to dry (R. Elias pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation range is 500-1,450 m.

threats:
Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species as a result of forest fires and the removal of trees. Although the latter is unlikely because this area is protected, it would have a devastating effect on the species. On the basis of these threats, the species is estimated to be present at fewer than 15 locations.

conservationAction:
This species is locally common and site protection and fire prevention are its best measures of conservation. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is occasionally grown as an ornamental plant in the United Kingdom.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Even though this fern species is listed in some European countries under a category of threat, it is abundant in mountain habitats in Scandinavia, the Alps, the Balkans and the Pyrenees. There are no major threats to this species, it is widespread and found in protected areas, and it is thus assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The Common Holly Fern is a predominantly montane species that occurs in the mountains of Eurasia, where it is found from Iceland, the northern United Kingdom and western Ireland, eastwards to western China and southwards to Italy and Turkey. In Europe it has a distinctly arctic-alpine distribution, centered on the Scandic Mountains, the Pyrenees and the Alps. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is above 5,200 km2.

population:
The species is seldom gregarious on cliffs and ledges, more often occurring as widely scattered individuals. In screes it may occur locally in some numbers (Page 1997). Its current population trend is stable.

habitat:
Polystichum lonchitis occurs mainly in upland habitats, which are cool in the summer and where there are exposures of lime-rich rock (such as limestones and mica-schists). The species is most successful on steep slopes where habitats are well drained, shaded and kept permanently cool and moist by slight seepage of base-rich water. It grows most luxuriantly on the sides of shaded upland ravines, along shady lower parts of moist cliffs, on moist ledges, and especially between angular boulders of large block scree slopes, with cool easterly or northerly aspects (Tutin et al. 1964, Komarov 1968, Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 150 - 2,700 m.

threats:
The species may be affected by collection in Britain (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
This species is listed in the following national Red Lists:
Estonia: Endangered (Lilleleht 1998), and in 2008 it was listed as Critically Endangered (Rašomavičius 2008)
Finland: Near Threatened (Rassi et al. 2001, 2010)
Germany: not threatened (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Endangered (Király 2007)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: Vulnerable: A2c (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In England, it is assessed as Endangered under Criterion D (Stroh et al. 2014).
No conservation measures are needed in core areas like Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Alps or Pyrenees. In more marginal habitats, it is advisable to monitor subpopulations and protect their habitats where possible. The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, apart from very occasional cultivation in specialist plant collections.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a gregarious fern species in many areas. It is widespread, has a stable population trend and faces no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Polystichum setiferum is a western and southern European species, with a somewhat discontinuous range eastwards to the Caspian Sea and westwards to Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is most abundant along the Atlantic seaboard from the western Iberian Peninsula to Britain and Ireland (Page 1997). It can be found from sea level to 1,450 m. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is over 4,400 km2.

population:
In some Atlantic areas this is a very dominant fern, with resilient subpopulations that rapidly re-establish from spores after disturbance. The population trend is stable.

habitat:
Polystichum setiferum occurs mainly in sheltered shaded river valleys of mixed deciduous woodland, but also grows in more open situations on sheltered banks near the sea, or in sheltered lane banks and shady hedgerow communities. It occurs mainly in areas with warm, wet winter climates and year-round high humidity. Further inland it occurs mostly within stream ravines, where the humidity is enhanced by local conditions (Page 1997).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the following Red Lists:
Germany: Endangered (Ludwig and Schnitzer 1996)
Hungary: Near Threatened (Király 2007)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
Canary Islands: rare (Sanchez Velazquez 2002).
No conservation measures seem to be in place, but in more continental, inland areas, it is advisable to protect the habitats where this species occurs, as it is an indicator of a specialised micro-climate in those situations. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is occasionally cultivated as a garden ornamental. There are several cultivars.

redListAssessors:
Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is widespread and common in Mediterranean and Atlantic Europe. It has no current major threats as gathering by people is decreasing and the overall population is stable. Outside its natural habitats it is frequently found in urban settings on wet limestone, masonry, fountains and mortar. Towards the edges of its range, it has been listed as threatened on various national red lists. Those subpopulations might require monitoring or protection by law. Taxonomic studies are needed.

range:
Adiantum capillus-veneris is a cosmopolitan species. Its distribution encompasses tropical, subtropical and mild temperate regions including Mediterranean and Atlantic Europe. The taxonomy of the species is not well resolved and it is likely to represent a species complex including several species worldwide. In Europe, the species is uniform and it occurs from Macaronesia and the Atlantic fringe, northwards to western Ireland and throughout the Mediterranean eastwards to Crimea. At the global level, taxonomic studies may be needed to understand how many species this complex entails. In Europe, it is likely to be formed of one or maybe two taxa, depending on the status of the Macaronesian material.

population:
The species is very common in the western half of the Mediterranean, with numerous localities and populations being stable or expanding. It occurs frequently in the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejoet al.1986), is common in southern France and occurs in all the provinces of Italy and the Vatican Territories. In Ireland and Britain it is rare, local and confined mainly to sheltered calcicolous sea-cliff faces, but in the more western areas like the West of Ireland they can occur in deeper grykes of limestone pavements further inland (Page 1997). In Britain, native populations suffered from collection for horticultural purposes during the fern craze of the 19th Century, but the rapid growth-rate resulted in swift recovery to healthy populations (Page 1997). The species is often cultivated and may naturalise in frost-free, humid, alkaline situations, like walls and fountains in urban situations (e.g. Paris and many Mediterranean cities), although it is easily confused with exotic A. raddianum and A. diaphanum, which also naturalise in similar urban settings (e.g. in Amsterdam) and are more frequently grown as houseplants.

habitat:
Adiantum capillus-veneris inhabits caves, rock fissures and humid rocks, sea cliffs, limestone pavements, banks of alkaline watercourses and springs and also artificial structures such as fountains, wells and wet walls, often near oozing water, waterfalls, banks of mountain streams, etc. It is very tolerant to the chemical nature of the substrate although it prefers alkaline soils. It is sensitive to frost and prefers to be screened from mid-day sun, but it will resprout from the perennial rhizome if leaves are scorched by frost or sun. (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). Its altitudinal range is 0 - 1,300 m.

threats:
In the past the species was collected for horticultural purposes, particularly during the 19th Century 'fern craze', but the species is proven to be resilient and subpopulations have rebounded. There are no major current threats for the species.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place, although it is present in protected areas throughout its range. The harvest of this species for syrup and horticultural practices should be regulated as the species is easily propagated in cultivation, although impact of wild gathering is reducing. When walls inhabited by this species need repair, they are best re-grouted with traditional lime mortar, and when possible, at least some or all plants need to be left in place when grouting. Adiantum capillus-veneris is common in the western and central Mediterranean, but it is listed as Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Serbia (Stevanović 1999), as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moseret al. 2002), as Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and as Rare in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Šilić 1996). However, these are all countries on the borders of the species' distribution. It is considered as Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and is abundant in western Ireland, large parts of France, Spain, Italy, Greece, Vatican City, Malta and Portugal, among others, and of no conservation concern there. Taxonomic studies are needed and the subpopulations around the edges of its distribution may require monitoring or protection by law.

useAndTrade:
The leaves of Maidenhair Fern are used as herbal medicine for respiratory problems. It is prepared as a tea or in form of a syrup made into a refreshing drink. Other uses reported are as a poultice to treat snake bites or bee stings, as a remedy to expel worms from the body and as a treatment against dandruff (Plants for a Future 2012). It is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental and may naturalise in suitable habitats. It is often confused with the more commonly cultivated A. raddianum or A. diaphanum, which also naturalise in urban areas of Europe.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.


taxonomicNotes:
A related taxon (A. asarifolium, sometimes treated as a subspecies of A. reniforme) is found in the Mascarenes (Reunion, Mauritius, Madagascar). It is also reported from isolated stations in southern China, Chad, Malawi and Kenya, but the identity of these samples needs to be confirmed. Within Europe, it is restricted to the Canary and Madeira archipelagos.
The species is decaploid in Madeira, and it was reported to be tetraploid and hexaploid from the Canary Islands (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is assessed as Least Concern in view of its stable population trend and the fact that it is locally frequent, even though it has a very restricted range. There are over 10 locations with many mature individuals. However, locally this species may require conservation actions through law and site protection.

range:
This species is endemic to the Macaronesia, where it is found on the Canary Islands (Lanzarote, Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Gomera, Hierro, La Palma), Madeira (Madeira island, Deserta Grande island) and in one locality in Cape Verde (Santo Antao island). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 424 km2.

population:
The species is common in the north of Madeira, and in the Canary Islands it is locally abundant. Its overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
The species is found on rock crevices, walls and very stony cliffs, especially in the shade of overhangs above levadas, besides roads and in ravines (Press and Short 1994). Its elevation range is 0 - 1,000 m.

threats:
This species is threatened by habitat destruction due to tourism infrastructure.

conservationAction:
Adiantum reniforme should be locally protected when possible as its distribution is restricted. No conservation measures are currently in place, but it occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, although it is sometimes grown as a rarity in botanical collections.


taxonomicNotes:
This is an allotetraploid species derived from the hybridisation between A. pteridioides and A. persicus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Allosorus acrosticus is a widespread fern species and is found in numerous localities where it is often abundant. It has a stable population trend, but further research is needed into the threats to this species. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Allosorus acrosticus is a mostly Mediterranean species, extending from Cape Verde across North Africa and southern Europe to Greece, along the northern Black Sea coast and into Kazakhstan and northern India. On Madeira, it was only known from a single historical collection (Press and Short 1994). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 2,044 km2.

population:
The population trend of this species appears to be stable. It is locally frequent.

habitat:
This species inhabits warm limestone rocks or old masonry, with a preference for sunny exposures and low elevations. It prefers mild winters and survives long periods of desiccation during the summer months (Prelli 2001), after which it can revive. Its altitudinal rangel is 0 - 1,400 m Asl.

threats:
The species may be threatened by collection and by the renovation of old masonry.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place and none appear to be needed. The species is found in protected areas across its range. Further research on its threats, population size and dynamics and local monitoring may be beneficial. It is listed on the Red List of Andorra as Endangered D (Carrillo et al. 2008), because of the small number of plants found there.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is formerly known as Cheilanthes pulchella Willd., and not as Allosorus pulchellus C.Presl.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a stable population. There are many plants in each subpopulation, it occurs in protected areas throughout its range, and it faces no current threats. Even though this species is assessed as Vulnerable under criterion D2 on the Spanish Red List, the criteria used for that national Red List differ from the IUCN Red List Criteria. It is therefore assessed here as Least Concern.

range:
Allosorus fragile is restricted to the Canary Islands, where it is known from all the islands except for Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. The core of its population is found in the slopes of Teide (Tenerife). This species previously was erroneously recorded from Madeira (Press and Short 1994). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is ca 304 km².

population:
This is an uncommon species, but its current population trend is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
The species is found in crevices, rock fissures and mountain slopes, mostly in volcanic soil in areas with mist from the sea (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Vulnerable under criterion D2 on the Spanish Red List (as Cheilanthes pulchella) (Moreno 2008). However, no rationale for this listing is given and the Red List Criteria in this national Red List differ from those of IUCN. It is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread fern species with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of over 4,000,000 km2, but with an area of occupancy (AOO) of just 976 km2. The species is of local occurrence everywhere, and subpopulations do not appear to be under threat. Even though it is locally of conservation concern in Galicia (northwestern Spain), its overall population trend is stable and it is thus listed as Least Concern.

range:
Allosorus guanchicus occurs scattered across the Mediterranean, from Madeira (where it may now be extinct), the Azores (in Pico and Sao Jorge) and the Canary Islands (in all the islands except for Lanzarote and Fuerteventura), through the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, southern France, Italy and Greece. Its estimated area of occupancy (AOO) in Europe is 976 km2.

population:
The overall population trend of this species appears to be stable, although further research on their distribution and abundance is needed. It is very rare throughout its range.

habitat:
Allosorus guanchicus grows on steep siliceous rocks in sunny situations, often on old stone walls or among dry stones or on isolated rock outcrops, usually at low elevations in Mediterranean scrub (Prelli 2001). Its altitudinal range is 0 - 1,200 m Asl (Castroviejo et al. 1986).

threats:
This resilient species faces no major threats, and it has adapted to thrive on walls and harsh environments. However, there have been some local extinctions, and the reasons for these are not well known.

conservationAction:
This species is best protected through habitat preservation and the protection of subpopulations on walls when they are grouted during renovation and building projects. Some disturbance may influence the distribution of this species. No conservation measures appear to be currently in place, but it is present in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Endangered under Criterion D on the French national Red List (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is of conservation concern in Galicia (northwestern Spain; Campo Saavedra and Amigo 2009). Further research on the distribution, abundance and threats to the species is needed.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The resilient species is relatively widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, is locally abundant and it has a stable population, which is why it is listed as Least Concern. It is of conservation concern in southern France and north-west Africa where it is only known from very few sites.

range:
This species is found throughout the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands and southern France. It is also present at a few sites in North Africa.

population:
Subpopulations of this widespread species appear to be stable. It is locally abundant, although it is very rare in France. This is a resilient species.

habitat:
Allosorus hispanicus inhabits siliceous rocky crevices, preferably on hard Palaeozoic quartzites, in shallow soil on rocky cliffs and on dry stone walls, in sunny exposures and it is most abundant at moderate elevations (Tutin et al. 1964, Prelli 2001), and its altitudinal limits are 0 - 1,100 m Asl (Castroviejo et al. 1986).

threats:
The species may be locally threatened by the disturbance of its habitat, collection and the renovation of old masonry.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures currently in place, although habitat protection may be appropriate in areas where this species is rare (e.g. France). It is listed as Endangered under Criteria D1+2 on the French national Red List (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). It is found in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species has a marginal distribution in Europe, given that its main occurrence is in the Middle East. Even though in Europe it has a small area of occupancy (AOO) of 152 km2, it is widespread across the eastern Adriatic, it is locally common and has a stable population trend. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Allosorus persicus is a widespread species which is found across southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and southwestern Asia to India. In Europe, it is present from Italy to European Turkey, across the Balkan Peninsula, southern Ukraine and Crimea. Its area of occupancy (AOO) in Europe is 152 km2.

population:
The species is locally abundant and the population trend is probably stable. It is widespread across the eastern Adriatic.

habitat:
Allosorus persicus grows in rock crevices, especially on calcareous rocks such as gypsum, but also on other substrates, sometimes in dry stone walls. It is present always in Mediterranean climates with mild wet winters and hot dry summers (Komarov 1968, Prelli 2001). Its altitudinal range is 100 - 500 m Asl.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place, but the species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. In its marginal subpopulations, for instance in Italy, habitat protection would seem appropriate. It is listed on the Italian national Red List as Endangered B1ab(iii) + B2ab(iii) (Rossi et al. 2013), and on the Bulgarian National Red list as Vulnerable B2ab(ii,iv,v) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Further research on the threats to this species are needed.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.


taxonomicNotes:
Allosorus pteridioides is sometimes known under its synonym Cheilanthes maderensis.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This common and gregarious fern species has a very broad distribution and where it occurs it is often abundant. It occurs on natural, semi-natural or introduced habitats, and sometimes on heavily degraded sites. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Allosorus pteridioides is a widespread species which is found on Cape Verde, across North Africa from western Sahara to Egypt, across the Levant and Anatolia to Iran. In Europe, it is present in the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands, across the Iberian Peninsula, southern France, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, Sicily, Malta, the Adriatic, the southern Balkans, Greece, Crete and Cyprus. Its area of occupancy is 1,000 km2or larger.

population:
This locally common species has stable or perhaps increasing subpopulations, since it responds well to aridification and local urbanisation. It is rare in the Macaronesia.

habitat:
Allosorus pteridioides inhabits fissures of shaded or exposed, calcareous or siliceous rocky and stony slopes in Mediterranean climates (Komarov 1968). It is also present on dry stone walls in dry sunny or partially shaded environments (Prelli 2001), ranging from sea level to 1,350 m Asl (Castroviejo et al. 1986). On Madeira it occurs rarely on dry basalt walls (Press and Short 1994).

threats:
There are no current threats to this gregarious species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place and none appear to be necessary. The species is present in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Because this is a widespread species with a localised distribution, it is of conservation concern in parts of its range (e.g. Canary Islands, Spain), but in others it is abundant and not threatened (e.g. Corsica). Therefore it is listed here as Least Concern, although populations and habitats should be monitored and protected when possible and appropriate.

range:
This species is found from the Canary Islands and northwest Africa to Italy, and in some localities in Turkey around Istanbul (Frey et al. 2006, Prelli 2001). In Europe, it is found in the Canaries, Madeira, the western half and northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, southern France, Corsica, and in Italy in Liguria, Tuscany, Calabria, Sardinia and Sicily. The presence of this species in Greece needs to be verified. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is around 2,000 km2.

population:
The population trend of this species is not known. It is locally common, particularly in the northeast of Corsica.

habitat:
Allosorus tinaei inhabits siliceous rocks or is found at the base of dry stone walls, in sunny or moderately shady places, at low to moderately high elevations up to 1,200 m (Castroviejo et al. 1986, Press and Short 1994, Prelli 2001).

threats:
Locally this species is threatened by habitat destruction as a result of road building and changes in the land use.

conservationAction:
Allosorus tinaei is listed as Critically Endangered in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002), as Vulnerable in Valencia (Spain; Aguilella et al. 2010) and as Least Concern in Corsica (Prelli 2001). Local habitat protection and public awareness are needed, together with habitat and trends monitoring. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This annual fern species is widespread and locally abundant. It prefers disturbed habitats and thrives in urban and natural sites. It is not considered to be threatened with extinction even though subpopulations may fluctuate dramatically in size from season to season and year to year due to its annual nature. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is an extremely widespread, but curiously disjunct species which is found in many warm-temperate to tropical habitats across the globe, from Mediterranean Europe throughout Africa, India, southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand and throughout the Neotropics, but always patchily. In Europe the species reaches its northern limit in the Channel Islands and occurs south to the Canary Islands and across the Mediterranean east to Cyprus and Crimea.

population:
The species is widespread across the Mediterranean. In its northern limit, it occurs only on two of the Channel Islands, with two subpopulations on Guernsey (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016) and several of them on Jersey (Page 1997). It is also found in the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands and other Atlantic sites along the coast of Portugal, Spain and France, north to Normandy where it can be locally abundant. Because of its annual and ephemeral nature, population studies are difficult. It may not appear for some years, or it may be overlooked when in the gametophyte or spore stage. Subpopulations are also highly mobile as they may easily appear in new areas and disappear in places where they formerly thrived, possibly outcompeted by the succession of vegetation. Thus, subpopulations may fluctuate dramatically from season to season and year to year due to its annual nature. However, spores may be kept in the spore bank, so this would not represent an actual change in the population size of the species. Its population trend is stable.

habitat:
This is the only European species of ferns that is annual, growing in a single season from gametophyte to fully mature sporophyte. In Europe it is often winter-growing, shedding its spores by April or May. It is often found in coastal habitats across the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, mostly on steep, moist, sunny, south or west-facing banks, often on damp shaded granite or clay, sometimes in the shade of shrubs, but usually in areas with some erosion, limiting competition, often also in mortar of walls (Page 1997). It prefers places that are damp in the winter but fairly dry in summer. Its elevational range is 0-800 m.

threats:
The species is affected by the destruction of its habitat due to road construction and urbanisation. However, due to its ephemeral nature and its preference to grow in eroded and disturbed habitats, mild disturbance may result in a fast recolonisation or in the emergence of the species at new sites.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place. Spores can be stored in a spore bank for long-term preservation. It is rare (and possibly extinct) in Macedonia and included as Endangered in the Red List of Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Critically Endangered in Hungary (Király 2007). Marginal populations can be maintained by proper site management. The taxonomy of the Anogramma genus needs attention, but it is not likely that there is more than a single species present in Europe.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This fern species is widespread and still has sizeable subpopulations in some areas of the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean, particularly in Spain, Italy and Greece, and its overall population appears to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cosentinia vellea is a pan-Mediterranean species which is found from Madeira, the Canary Islands and Cape Verde, across northern Africa and the Mediterranean, east to Iran and India, throughout the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa to Ethiopia. In Europe, it is found in the southern Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean coasts north to the Roussillon (France), the south of Italy, Greece and Crete, Cyprus and on most other Mediterranean islands (e.g. Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Aegean Islands).

population:
This is a scattered but widespread species and its subpopulations appear to be stable.

habitat:
This species inhabits sunny, dry rocky crevices, especially dolomitic, calcareous or sometimes siliceous, mostly found in hot, semi-arid, Mediterranean climates (e.g. Tutin et al. 1964). The species can be found on old stone buildings, especially in Madeira (Press and Short 1994). Its elevation range is 0 - 1,000 m.

threats:
This species is locally under threat from habitat destruction due to the demolition of walls as a result of road construction and changes in land use.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in protected areas and is protected by law in France (Prelli 2001). It is listed as Vulnerable D1+2 on the French Red List (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012). Habitat protection and translocation when the habitat is under threat of destruction for road building or other activities is advised.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is locally abundant, is widespread and has no known threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This fern occurs in the more montane areas of Europe and Asia. It is present in scattered areas throughout temperate Asia, eastwards to Japan and Kamchatka. In Europe it has an arctic-alpine distribution, being mostly distributed in northern Britain and Ireland, western and northern Scandinavia and in the mountains of central and southern Europe, southwards to Former Yugoslavic Republic of Macedonia, northern Greece (Thrace) and the Iberian Peninsula (Page 1997).

population:
This fern can occur in great abundances on scree slopes  At the margins of its distribution, subpopulations become smaller. There has been a decline in the southern part of the United Kingdom (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016), but its overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
Parsley Fern is a calcifuge montane plant often forming large patches on steep mountain sides on acidic scree slopes, boulder fields and cliff ledges, avoiding the highly mobile parts of scree slopes and establishing in places that are slightly more stable, along scree flanks and talus fans, and especially among large boulders where movement is slight (Tutin et al. 1964, Page 1997). It is not common at sea level (for instance in north Wales), but it can be found up to 2,900 m. It also occurs on old mine spoils.

threats:
There are no known threats to this locally abundant species. Although in the past it has been affected by mining, eventually this could be beneficial to the species since it is able to invade screes formed by old mine spoils, once stabilised.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed, and it occurs in protected areas throughout its range. In England it is listed as Vulnerable (on the basis of a 34% AOO decline), and in the United Kingdom as Least Concern (Stroh et al. 2014). This species is protected in Wallonia, Belgium (Dufrêne 2016).

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

This is a widespread species that is of marginal occurrence in Europe, its core populations being found in Siberia and Canada. Since the population trend is stable and there are no major threats to the species, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a pan-Arctic species which is found across northern North America and Siberia, southwards to Central Asia and westwards to the Ural Mountains. In Europe, it is restricted to the far northeast of European Russia. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 44 km2, as measured from data from the Atlas Florae Europaeae, but this is probably an underestimate due to the lack of modern data of the subpopulations in that region.

population:
The trend of European populations of this species is not known. However, considering the habitats where it occurs, it is assumed to be stable (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
Cryptogramma stelleri is found in rock fissures and crevices in the shade, often on sheltered calcareous cliffs and rock ledges, typically in taiga or other coniferous forests (Komarov 1968, Tutin et al. 1964). It is also found on rocky slopes (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). Its altitudinal limits are 0 - 3,000 m Asl.

conservationAction:
It is unknown if the species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. There are no conservation actions in place. The species does not seem to be of conservation concern in northeastern European Russia, as it is widespread and its habitat is abundant in the region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species has a rather limited area of occupancy (AOO) of 1,780 km2 and it is experiencing a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals. Therefore it is assessed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualify as threatened under Criterion B.

range:
Paragymnopteris marantae (also known as Cheilanthes marantae or Notholaena marantae) is a very widespread species across North Africa, southern Europe, the Arabian Peninsula wouth to Yemen and across Anatolia, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. In Europe, it is locally common in Madeira (Press and Short 1994), rare on the Canary Islands, and it is found across Mediterranean Spain but also in Galicia (Spain) and northern Portugal, southern France, Corsica, Italy (Apennines, Liguria, Tuscany) and across the Balkans and in the foothills of the Alps in Switzerland, Austria, Moravia and Hungary, where this species is very rare. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,780 km2.

population:
The species has a patchy distribution and is locally common. However, it shows a decreasing trend, particularly in its northern range, and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals.

habitat:
Paragymnopteris marantae inhabits crevices on dry, steep, rocky ledges, rock faces and dry open scree slopes, with little soil, always on siliceous substrates, especially in laterite, often strictly isolated on ultrabasic rocks rich in magnesium (serpentine, peridotite, gabbro) or on basic volcanic rocks (basaltic scoria's lavas), but grows also on more acidic substrates (gneiss, schist, granites), preferring sunny places. It can also inhabit old walls (Komarov 1968, Press and Short 1994, Prelli 2001). Its altitudinal range is 50 - 1,300 m Asl.

threats:
The threats to this species are unknown, but climatic or anthropogenic habitat alterations, mainly due to mining, climate change, road building and urbanisation, may have an effect on this species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are currently in place, but it should ideally be protected in its marginal habitats in the northern edge of its distribution. The species is present in protected areas throughout its range and listed on the following national Red Lists:
Cyprus: Vulnerable (Tsintides et al. 2007)
Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (Grulich 2012)
Hungary: Critically Endangered (Király 2007)
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
Crimea: evanescent (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016)

Further research is needed on its threats and their effects on the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU 28 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

Pellaea calomelanos is widespread in Africa, but in Europe it is only known from two small sites in Spain. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 854 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 36 km², it occurs in four locations, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of the habitat and in the number of mature individuals. It is listed as Critically Endangered under the criteria B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008), but the EOO and AOO are too large to qualify for this category at the European level, and it is thus listed here as Endangered. The causes of the decline in these subpopulations and means to reverse this trend, either by ex-situ conservation, reintroduction, site management and protection or a combination of these, need to be investigated.

range:
This is a predominantly African species, with isolated subpopulations in the Himalayas and in the area of Girona, Spain, which is the only known locality in Europe. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) less than 854 km² (based on a polygon around known occurrence data); its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 36 km².

population:
Only two localities in Europe are known for this predominantly tropical African species. In both sites (eastern Pyrenees at Alt Empordà and La Selva in Catalonia) the species is very rare and a continuing decline is observed (Moreno 2008). In 2001 there were 423 mature individuals, although this may be an underestimation as the survey was carried out following a drought period (Moreno 2008).

habitat:
This fern is found in crevices and fissures of siliceous, granite rocks or among the blocks of steep scree slopes and ledges of acid soil at the base of small rocky overhangs, in sunny, south-exposed sites, usually in evergreen oak forest (Prelli 2001, Tutin et al. 1964). Its altitudinal range is 100-300 m asl.

threats:
The species is threatened by general habitat degradation due to wildfires, changes in land use and competition with weedy plants. Based upon these threats, the species is present in four locations.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish Red List under criteria B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v). The species is present in protected areas throughout its range. Further research is greatly needed to study the causes of this decline and what measures should be undertaken to protect these subpopulations, as they represent an isolated outlying population of this species in Europe.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a gregarious fern with an increasing population trend and no major threats, often growing in urban settings. In part of its range it has naturalised from cultivation and as such its range is expanding, possibly exacerbated by climate change. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a cosmopolitan species, occurring in many countries in the tropics and subtropics. Its natural area is not certain, but is likely to be widespread and native to the Old World tropics. In Europe, it is found patchily across the Mediterranean in Spain (Catalonia), southeastern France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Malta and Greece, and in some localities in the Swiss and Italian Alps. It is possibly extinct in Crimea. It naturalises easily from cultivation, particularly in towns or on buildings in gardens, for instance in Spain, France or the United Kingdom. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 168 km2.

population:
This is a widely distributed and commonly encountered species throughout its range, and its range is expanding due to the wetter and hotter climates across its northern range and because it easily naturalises from horticulture.

habitat:
Pteris cretica is a species of permanently damp, shaded rocks, often in woodland or in deep gorges or on masonry, usually in a humid, warm atmosphere (Komarov 1968, Prelli 2001). Its elevation limits are 0 - 600 m.

threats:
No threats have been reported for this species.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are known or needed for this species and none seem necessary, and it is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas throughout its range. The species is listed on the following national Red Lists:
 
France: Vulnerable D2 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Switzerland: Vulnerable (Moser et al. 2002)

useAndTrade:
This species is frequently grown as a house or garden plant, generally from horticultural stock. It is not harvested from the wild.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 28 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)

Despite its wide global range and fairly frequent occurrence, in Europe this species is restricted to a single island where it is known from only a few localities, having an extent of occurrence (EOO) and an area of occupancy (AOO) of only 16 km². It is listed as Endangered in the Greek National Red List, but unfortunately there is no publicly available information to substantiate this classification. As there is no information on the population size and trend and the threats to this species, it is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
This fern species is widespread across Africa and the Middle East. Two subspecies are often recognised (subsp. dentata and subsp. flagellata). In Europe, the typical subspecies (dentata) is found only on the Aegean island of Ikaria, which may be introduced from former cultivations, although its sites appear completely natural. Its area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) are both of 16 km².

population:
Subpopulations on Ikaria are small but there is no information on the population size and trend for this species.

habitat:
The species grows along streams, cliffs and valleys (Christodoulakis 1996).

threats:
The threats to this species are not known, but its subpopulations are small and fragile.

conservationAction:
This species is protected by law in Greece (Proedriko Diatagma 67/81, Greek Presidential decree 67/81), and it is listed on the national Red List as Endangered. It occurs in a Natura 2000 site. Further research is needed into the population size and trend, habitat, ecological requirements and threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, although it is frequent in horticulture and is often grown unintentionally.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a stable population trend and there are over 10,000 individuals particularly in the Azores and Madeira. However, the area of occupancy (AOO) is very small and there is a continuing decline in the habitat extent and quality. It is under threat in the Canary Islands and the Iberian peninsula and has disappeared from North Africa. It is therefore assessed as Near Threatened (NT) since it is close to qualify as threatened under Criterion B. Protection of its habitat, appropriate management, research and monitoring of the population is needed to improve the status of this species.

range:
Pteris incompleta principally is a Macaronesian species, found on the Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, La Gomera, Tenerife, La Palma), the Azores (Santa Maria, Sao Miguel, Terceira, Sao Jorge, Pico, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Corvo) and on Madeira. There are a few stations in the Mediterranean, on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. In Spain it is known from a small subpopulation in the area of Algeciras and in Morocco (where it used to grow at Jbel Kbir and Cap Spartel, but where it no longer occurs). Considering that the species is extinct in North Africa, it can be considered a European endemic. Its subpopulation in mainland Portugal (at Sintra) is possibly introduced. The species was also reported, most certainly in error, from Turkey, and it is thus not considered for the purposes of this assessment.

Its area of occupancy (AOO) in Spain is smaller than 9 km² (Bañareset al. 2004). Its actual AOO measured on the basis of grid squares, following IUCN standards, would be larger, but presumably under 100 km². Its global AOO is 268 km², but this includes historical specimen data so it may be an overestimation.

population:
The Spanish subpopulations are dynamic, with numerous mature plants and juveniles. Its specific habitat requirements result in a paucity throughout its range, and the subpopulations become small, restricted and decreasing when habitats are altered. Although there are several localities, the number of individuals at each locality is very small, however the overall number of mature individuals is over 10,000 (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). The species has been lost from North Africa and the subpopulation in Andalucía is very small and under threat from drainage and deforestation; however the overall population trend is stable because in the Macaronesia the species fares very well.

habitat:
Pteris incompleta grows along streams in shaded damp coastal laurisilva forests on rocky, acid soils, in a mild, humid oceanic climate, between sea level and 800 m elevation (Prelli 2001, Bañareset al. 2004). Its habitat quality and extent is experiencing a continuing decline due to the ongoing threats.

threats:
The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forestry, drainage, the increase of grazing pressure, competition with non-native species, trampling and the use of herbicides   (Bañares et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
In Spain, P. incompleta is listed as Vulnerable under Criterion C2a(i) in the national Red List (Moreno 2008), and it is protected at the regional level in Andalucía (V) and the Canary Islands (E, Annex II). It is endangered in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002). The Spanish subpopulations are located in the Natural Park of los Alcornocales; the ones of the Canary Islands are located in the Natural Parks of Garajonay, Majona and Tamadaba, and in other protected areas: the Paisaje de las Cumbres, the Natural Reserve Tilos de Moya, Guelguen and del Pijaral, the Rural Parks de Anaga and de Teno, the protected landscapes of los Campeches Tagaiga and Ruiz, and the site of scientific interest Barranco de Ruiz. The species is frequent in Madeira (Press and Short 1994) and the Azores.

Apart from regional protection there are no conservation measures in place, but the following measures are proposed:
Legal protection at the international level
Protection of its habitat and water management
Monitoring of the subpopulations
Evaluation of the size and number of subpopulations
Study of the dynamics of the subpopulations, and the biology and ecology of the species.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
This fern species is assessed as Least Concern as it is widespread with an increasing population trend and does not face any known threats. It often occurs urban environments and these subpopulations are resilient.

range:
Pteris vittata has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, being found from the Mediterranean southwards throughout sub-Saharan Africa to South Africa, and eastwards through the Caucasus, the Middle East, Russia and the Indian subcontinent to the Far East, and southwards through southeast Asia to Australia. It has apparently been introduced to a number of Pacific Ocean island groups, New Zealand, North, Central and South America and in several European contries: the United Kingdom, France, Hungary and Switzerland. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 384 km2.

population:
There is no quantitative information on the population trend of this species. However, it has become naturalized throughout much of the world and it is likely that the overall population is increasing. It is a common species.

habitat:
Pteris vittata typically grows on humid or moist walls, cliffs and rocks near or on the margins of streams and irrigation canals, in wells and on fountains, usually in shaded areas and near permanent waters. It is frequent in urban environments, and its status of natural occurrence is often uncertain in such sites, although these subpopulations are usually resilient. Its elevational range is 0 - 300 m.

threats:
There are no known significant past, ongoing or future threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place and none appear to be needed as in most areas this species is gregarious, grows in both natural and artificial environments and is widespread. However, it is listed on the following national Red Lists:
 
Cyprus: Endangered; B1ab(i-v)+2ab(i-v); D1 (Tsintides et al. 2007)
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)

useAndTrade:
This species is widely sold as a house and garden plant.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Lansdown, R.V.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

Marsilea aegyptiaca is an aquatic fern with a restricted distribution in Europe, where it is only found in the Lower Volga Valley in southern Russia. The species has an area of occupancy (AOO) of only 12 km²and ten locations have been calculated and it is thus listed as Near Threatened since it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion B. Although the current threats are unlikely to cause this species to disappear from Russia in the immediate future, further habitat protection is advisable.

range:
Marsilea aegyptiaca is an aquatic fern found across Africa, from Mauritania to South Africa, in Madagascar, across the Arabian Peninsula, and patchily eastwards to India, and China. Its Mediterranean distribution comprises Egypt, where it is relatively abundant, and Tunisia, where it is rare. It also occurs in Saharan Algeria and Libya. Records for Spain, Greece and Cyprus are based on confusion with other species (Wood 1997, Chaudhary 2001).

In Europe, it is rare in south-east European Russia, in the Lower Volga valley, where it is known from two localities. The species was found more than 150 years ago near Astrakhan, and until 1932 it was not found again in this region. A third locality was found by Galina Klinkova in the Krasnoyarsk district of the Astrakhan region. The last record was made by Leonid Nepomenko in 2013 near the Yamnoe settlement in the Volodarsky district of the Astrakhan region (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 12 km².

population:
Marsilea aegyptiaca is fairly locally abundant in southern Russia and the population trend seems to be stable. It is likely that there may be less than 1,000 mature individuals although no surveys have been undertaken and the population size remains unknown.

habitat:
Marsilea aegyptiaca grows in temporary inundated places, lagoons, canals, pools, flooded fields, rice paddies and depressions among sand. It is resistant to desiccation (Komarov 1968). In Russia, the species is found along car tracks in the soil, in the shallow ditches created by the wheels. Its elevation limits are 0-3,100 m.

threats:
The preference of the species for arid and semi-arid regions limits its possible threats. The main ones are non-intentional destruction of wetlands and their drainage for agricultural purposes, although construction of drainage canals may benefit this species to some extent. On the basis of this threat, there are less than 10 locations. Livestock may also affect the species through trampling and pollution in the water.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place, although it is present in the Astrakhan protected area. At the regional level, it has been proposed to legally protect the species or the sites where it grows.The species is listed on the Russian Red List as (Critically) Endangered (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016), but no Criteria are given, and it is locally abundant. As it is a clonal species it is unknown how many individuals there are, but population trends should be monitored.

useAndTrade:
There is no evidence that this species is used.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Marsilea batardae was recently distinguished from Marsilea strigosa, from which it differs in sporocarp size and form. All subpopulations in Portugal, previously attributed to Marsilea strigosa, belong to Marsilea batardae (Launert 1983).

redListCategoryRationale:
Marsilea batardae is an aquatic fern endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, where it has a small area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 500 km² and is subject to continuing declines in AOO, habitat quality, number of subpopulations and number of mature individuals. It is found on around 25 sites and the population is considered to be severely fragmented due to changes in land management and the fluvial habitat it inhabits.The  main threats are the general destruction and degradation of  standing water bodies, the modifications of hydrological networks such as the construction of dams, the canalisation of streams, the degradation of water quality and alteration of ancient grazing practices. The species is therefore assessed as Endangered.

range:
Marsilea batardae is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, where it is limited to the southwestern quarter, mainly in the hydrological basins of the rivers Tejo, Sado, Guadiana and Guadalquivir. In Portugal, it occurs in the Alentejo region (Alqueva dam) and São Miguel do Pinheiro region, east of the Parque Natural do Vale do Guadania. In Spain it is found in the southwestern provinces of Badajoz, Ciudad Real, Huelva, Cáceres and Córdoba (Bañareset al. 2004). Its presence is uncertain in the provinces of Toledo and Valencia (Rosselló-Graellet al. 2000). The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be smaller than 500 km².

population:
Marsilea batardae has a scattered distribution and the number of localities is about 25.  In Portugal, the number of individuals, although not precisely estimated, may be considered to be low (ICN 2006). About five  locations have disappeared due to the construction of the Alqueva  reservoir in Portugal, but around seven new subpopulations have been found  in Spain since 2004, especially in the area of Andalucía (L. Medina pers. comm. 2010). The subpopulations in Spain have been estimated to have ca 115,800 individuals     (Bañareset al. 2004). In Spain, most of the extinct subpopulations were  in the same area (Extremadura) and became extinct due to river and basin transformations  by dams there. A few subpopulations from other areas disappeared due  to other reasons. In Portugal, some of the subpopulations are disappearing  due to changes in crop areas in the Alentejo province.

The population is considered to be severely fragmented since the propagule exchange is by river water flow and an exchange is therefore mostly taking place downstream and linked to rainfall and associated periods of flooding. In the past, it is suspected that former genetic exchange was due to traditional movements of livestock (in Spanish "trashumancia"), when sheep and cattle move to high green areas in spring and return to low areas for the winter. This kind of livestock movement is not practised any longer and thus subpopulations have become more fragmented.

habitat:
Marsilea batardae is a perennial, aquatic fern species growing at low elevations (between 0 and 300 m), on clay and sand in temporarily flooded areas (e.g., stream banks), but also occasionally in rock fissures and on stony riverbeds. It inhabits muddy or marshy soil that is virtually permanently inundated, in temperate-warm climates, not far from coastal areas. It can occasionally invade rice fields. Its development is dependent on groundwater level and water quality. The species prefers water that is poor in nutrients and salts, although the biggest subpopulation is found in a rather eutrophic reservoir.

threats:
The main threats are related to the general destruction and degradation of water bodies and modifications of hydrological networks, notably through the construction of dams and canalisation of stream banks. Degradation of water quality is also problematic for the survival of subpopulations. All these factors lead to a reduction of the natural habitat of Marsilea batardae, and seriously threaten its long-term survival.

conservationAction:
Marsilea batardae is protected at the European level under the Habitats Directive 92/43/CEE (Annexes II and IV) and included in   Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Spain, it was listed as Critically Endangered (Dominguez Lozano 2000), but this was amended to Endangered A2ace+3ace+4ace; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) (Bañares et al. 2004, Moreno 2008). It is furthermore protected at regional levels in Spain (Andalucía, Castilla-la-Mancha, Extremadura). In Portugal, it was previously listed as Vulnerable (Dray 1985, Walter and Gillett 1997), but due to the construction of the Alqueva dam the listing was amended to Endangered on the basis of the loss of many subpopulations (Rosselló-Graell et al. 2000). This species is protected in Portugal under decree-law n°140/99 (Annexes B-II b/ e B-IV b/) and decree-law n°316/89 (Annexe I). It is included in the seed and spore bank project for the flora affected by the Alqueva dam. It is found in protected areas throughout its range.
The following future conservation measures are being proposed:
Control of the water quality and of the hydrological regimes of concerned streams
Monitoring of the subpopulations, notably the ones affected by the Alqueva dam (Portugal)
Evaluation of the size of the subpopulations
Study of the dynamics of the subpopulations, in relation to drainage, irrigation and other hydrological modifications

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Lansdown, R.V.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 28 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This aquatic fern species is widespread, but declining nearly everywhere in its range, with only a few sites left in most countries where it occurs. The stronghold is in France with 93 localities, but even there the subpopulations are declining. The plant has a clonal structure and it is difficult to determine numbers of individuals in a subpopulation. However, the habitat in which this species is found is continuously degraded, mainly due to changes to hydrological regimes, agricultural runoff and water pollution.

It is estimated that at least 30% of the population has been lost over the three-generation period, even though it is complicated to define a precise generation length. The number of individuals has decreased in the remaining subpopulations due to degradation of habitat quality and the effects of pollutants and fertilisers, which have not ceased. Marsilea quadrifolia is therefore assessed as Vulnerable. It is strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all the data is available.

range:
Marsilea quadrifolia is a Paleo-temperate species that occurs throughout much of southern Europe, extending eastwards to China and Japan. In Europe it occurs along many of the major river valleys, such as the Loire, Po, Rhine and Danube, as well as in complexes of wetlands throughout central and southern Europe. It is introduced to eastern North America. Its area of occupancy (AOO) in Europe is 1,660 km².

population:
This species is rare and is becoming rarer, so the population trend is considered to be decreasing. The country reports for Article 17 under the Habitats Directive presented the following population information for the EU member states (Commission of the European Communities 2009):
France: 93 localities, decreasing subpopulations
Germany: 2 localities with decreasing subpopulations
Greece: formerly in 1 locality, now extinct
Italy: 23 localities with stable subpopulations. The species was recorded in 1867 along the Tirso river in Sardinia but those subpopulations have long disappeared (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) or records could have been based on misidentifications (Gentili et al. 2010).

Netherlands: one locality with unknown population trend 
Poland: extinct in natural subpopulations; reintroduced in 1 locality with increasing population trend (Mirek et al. 2006)

Slovenia 4 localities and a decreasing subpopulation trend

Portugal: 1 locality and a decreasing subpopulation trend

Hungary: 50,000 to 920,000 shoots and a decreasing population trend

Slovakia: 9 localities with decreasing populations trend
Spain: extinct in the wild, reintroduced in one locality
A 30% decline in the last 20 years has been estimated. Its generation length is longer than a decade. Therefore it is estimated that a decline of over 30% has occurred over the last three-generation period.

habitat:
Marsilea quadrifolia typically grows in the stagnant waters and sporadically drying meadows, shallow margins and draw-down zones of lakes, marshes, river margins, oxbow lakes and sometimes ditches. Its elevation range is from sea level up to 400 m. It is intolerant of competition and usually occurs on otherwise bare soils (Komarov 1968). It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats:
3150 Natural eutrophic lakes withMagnopotamion orHydrocharition - type vegetation
3130 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of theLittorelletea uniflorae and/or of the Isoëto-Nanojuncetea
3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (Littorelletalia uniflorae)
This species inhabits more or less fluctuating, shallow backwaters, and can invade flooded rice fields.

threats:
There are several threats that lead to population declines: changes to the hydrological regime of water bodies such as infilling, drainage and drying out, the construction of dikes or embankments and the management of water levels are major threats. Water pollution as a result of fertilization and pesticides used in agriculture, and run-off causing eutrophication also impact the species. Other minor threats are the disposal of household or industrial waste, species invasion, forest planting, aquaculture and abandonment of pastoral systems (Commission of the European Communities 2009).

In Greece, the complete drainage of Lake Kerkini meant the disappearance of this species from its only known locality in that country. The cause of extinction of the Spanish subpopulations was a change in agricultural land use accompanied by a more intensive use of herbicides that led to eutrophication of the species habitat and to its eventual loss    (Bañares et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Marsilea quadrifolia is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and   under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in France (Prelli 2001) and legally protected in Bulgaria by the Bulgarian Biodiversity Act (D. Ivanova pers. comm. 2016). It is found in protected areas throughout its range and present on the following national Red Lists:
Albania: Endangered A1c (IUCN 2013)
Bulgaria: Critically Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)
Croatia: Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2007)
France: Near Threatened, close to B2b(ii,iii,iv) (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012, Olivier et al. 1995)
Hungary: Endangered (Király et al. 2007, Witkowski et al. 2003)
Italy: Endangered A2c; B2ab(i,ii,iii) (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005, Rossi et al. 2013, Gentili et al. 2010)
Poland: Extinct in the wild; missing from natural localities (Mirek et al. 2006)
Romania: Vulnerable (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Serbia: Vulnerable (V. Stevanovič pers. comm. 2010)
Spain: Regionally Extinct (Moreno et al. 2008)
Switzerland: Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
Ukraine: Vulnerable (Witkowski et al. 2003)
The species had become extinct in Switzerland, but has been successfully reintroduced and is now classed as Endangered (Käsermann and Moser 1999, Moser et al. 2002). In Spain, where the species is now possibly extinct, there is a small species recovery programme undertaken in the Parque Natural del "Delta de l'Ebre"   (Bañares et al. 2004). It was recently discovered in the Netherlands. Protection of sites, habitats and watershed quality is important if this species is to be maintained. Spore capsules can be stored in gene banks, and the species can be propagated artificially and reintroduced in sites where it has been lost and where habitats have now been restored..

useAndTrade:
Marsilea quadrifolia is occasionally sold in garden centres in the UK and the Netherlands. It is not clear whether this material is sourced from cultivation or the wild or whether it may have an impact on wild subpopulations. There is a potential for naturalisation of cultivated material.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Lansdown, R.V.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 28 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

Between 30 and 50% of subpopulations of this aquatic fern have been lost during the last 20 years and the last three-generation period, even though it is complicated to define a precise generation length (due to its clonal habit). The number of individuals has decreased in the remaining subpopulations. In addition, the area of occupancy (AOO) is 836 km², the population is severely fragmented and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of the habitat and in the number of mature individuals due to overgrazing, drainage, cultivation, urbanisation and road infrastructures. If more information becomes available on the population trends and levels of threat, this species might prove to be more threatened than currently estimated.

range:
Marsilea strigosa has a mostly western Mediterranean distribution, being found in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria) and southwestern Europe from Spain to Italy, with disjunct localities in Egypt, the Lower Volga (Saratov, Volgograd, Astrakhan), the Black Sea region, western Siberia and central Asia.

In Europe it is restricted to Spain, southern France and southern Italy. In Spain it occurs in 14 provinces, but it is localised especially in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almería, Extremadura, Castilla yLéon and on the Balearic Islands. In France it occurs in Saint-Estève in the Pyrénées Orientales, Plateaux of Roque-Haute and Vendres in the Hérault, and in Italy it can be found in Sardinia and in the south of the peninsula with some localities in the province of Puglia, region of Taranto. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 836 km².

population:
The population is globally in decline and those subpopualtions that appear to be stable are generally threatened due to their biotope being fragile. In France, the species is very rare, with four known localities with small and scattered subpopulations. It disappeared from some sites (e.g., Agde, Aigues-Mortes, Vendres, Saint-Estève) and from the fallow lands of Torremila. In Italy, it is considered as very rare and found at a few localities only. In Spain, there were about 50 localities in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almería and Extremadura, of which many are today extinct (probably more than 50% of the former localities). It is a very rare species on the Balearic Islands with some localities in the south of Mallorca and in the north of Menorca. The species is in regression, in particular in the province of Valencia, but a disappearance of 10% of the sites is expected in the next 20 years. In Russia the population is severely fragmented and declining. There were about 10 subpopulations, but in the last 25 years it has only been found in three.

Overall, between 30% and 50% of the subpopulations have been lost in the last 20 years. It is complicated to define a precise generation length (although it is estimated to be longer than a decade) and number of individuals, because individuals are clonal and can live several decades if not longer. The population is considered to be severely fragmented since it is found on small and isolated subpopulations, and it has very limited dispersal capacity.

habitat:
Marsilea strigosa is an aquatic fern found mainly in oligotrophic and poorly mineralized temporary pools in Spain and perennial ponds in France and Italy. In general it is found in siliceous muddy ground in small water-filled depressions, in shallow river and lake overflows and temporary inundated places that usually dry out in summer (Komarov 1968). It is a perennial hydrophyte (geophyte with rhizomes), but able to behave as an annual (therophyte). The opening of the sporocarps and the sexual reproduction takes place within shallow water or on water-saturated soil. It reproduces mainly by vegetative multiplication (rhizome fragmentation) in Italy and France, but most probably mainly by sexual reproduction in Spain. One individual can live for several decades at least.

This species can occur in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 3170 "Mediterranean temporary ponds" and 3120 "Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals generally on sandy soils of the west Mediterranean, withIsoetes spp."   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its elevation limits are 0-400 m.

threats:
The habitat of Marsilea strigosa encounters numerous anthropogenic threats, such as overgrazing, drainage, cultivation, urbanisation and road infrastructures. In European countries, the abandonment of extensive grazing and the resulting emergence of shrubs and helophytes (e.g., in Roque-Haute, France) threaten the subpopulations by competitive exclusion. Marsilea strigosa is dependent on bright sunshine and overshading will reduce its fecundity. Other threats are related to the dynamics of subpopulations. Their much reduced dispersal capacity results in a weak ability to colonize new sites. This increases the risk of extinction in subpopulations that are genetically isolated.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
 
France: Vulnerable D2 (Olivier et al. 1995, UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Italy: Least Concern (Rossi et al. 2013)
Spain (Andalucía, Valencia): Vulnerable (Blanca et al. 2000, Aguilella et al. 2010)
Russia: under threat of disappearance (Russian Red Data Book)

 
  There are several national level conservation measures in place: 
In France, it is under national and regional protection, and it is protected in a natural reserve in Roque-Haute. There is ex-situ conservation of the sporocarps by the National Mediterranean Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles. 
In Italy, ex-situ conservation is in place, for example in the Botanical Garden of Padova. 
In Spain, there is national legislation to protect the species and it is listed as threatened on five regional lists. Some localities are included in Natura 2000 sites. In addition, the creation of two micro-reserves (Valencia and Balearic Islands) is planned and ex-situ conservation of the sporocarps is in place.
Monitoring of all the subpopulations should be implemented, although this may be difficult due to the tendency of this species to disappear for several years, only to reappear when the growing season is favourable again and lakes are sufficiently filled.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Lansdown, R.V.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In spite of the decreasing population trend and its decline in habitat extent and quality, this rare species is assessed as Least Concern since it has a large distribution area, it is resilient and can remain in the spore bank in the soil for many decades, and it is unlikely to qualify under any of the threatened categories. Further research and monitoring are needed on its existing subpopulations and their habitats.

range:
Pilularia globulifera is endemic to Europe, where it mostly has a western distribution, occurring in southern Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Poland, extending through France to the west of the Iberian Peninsula and southwards through the Alps to Italy and Croatia. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 3,120 km².

population:
Most information suggests that subpopulations throughout its range are declining, although it must be noted that this species is often overlooked, and it has re-appeared from the natural spore bank when canalised rivers were restructured along their original water courses, for instance in the eastern Netherlands (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2016). The Pillwort typically occurs as dynamic metapopulations due to its habitat requirements and that in almost all cases detailed searches have discovered new subpopulations, or subpopulations that were believed to be lost were found again. The overall population trend is decreasing, and these declines happened mostly in the last 50 years.

habitat:
Pilularia globulifera typically occupies bare gravel, silt or muddy flats on the margins of fresh-water lakes, ponds and temporary (vernal) pools, fens, ditches, tracks, etc., usually in areas where fluctuating water levels suppress competition from taller plants. It also grows on silty mud at the edges of slow-flowing river backwaters and river mouths, in wet sandy hollows in dunes and heaths, and sometimes invades muddy ditches and old claypits in shallow, wet situations. It will survive permanently submerged, but only produces spores where the water level drops in the summer (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). It occurs at elevations between 0-380 m.

threats:
The main threats toPilularia globulifera are the stabilisation of water levels and the drainage of temporary wetlands. It is possible that even low-level eutrophication may pose a threat to the species, since it enables colonisation of otherwise unsuitable habitat by more aggressive plants, outcompeting the Pillwort. Invasive macrophytes such asCrassula helmsii pose another serious threat to this plant.

conservationAction:
Even though Pilularia globulifera is widespread and can occur in abundance in suitable habitats, it is listed as threatened in nearly all countries in which it occurs: 
 
Croatia: Data Deficient (Nikolić and Topić 2005)
Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (Procházka 2001)
Finland: Vulnerable (A1c) (Rassi et al. 2010)
Germany: Critically Endangered (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Norway: Endangered (A2bc; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)c(v)) (Kålås et al. 2010)
Spain: Endangered (Moreno 2008)
Sweden: Vulnerable (B2ab(ii,iii,v)) (Gärdenfors 2005)
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: Near Threatened (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)
England: Vulnerable (Stroh et al. 2014)

It is protected at the national  level in France. It is recommended to carry out surveys to determine the actual species distribution and to monitor the existing subpopulations and their habitats.

useAndTrade:
Pilularia globulifera is increasingly sold for garden ponds (propagated from cultivated stock), particularly in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, but it is not clear whether this trade affects wild subpopulations. It does not seem to be harvested from the wild, and naturalisation events are likely to be rare.

redListAssessors:
Ivanenko, Y.,Väre, H.,Lansdown, R.V.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU 28 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This aquatic fern species occurs only in very small scattered sites around the Mediterranean, and has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 500 km². Due to the fragility of its habitat (Mediterranean temporary pools are probably the most rapidly declining habitat in Europe) and the changes in agricultural practices, its extent of occurrence, its area of occupancy, the extent and quality of its habitat, as well as the number of subpopulations and of mature individuals are significantly decreasing over time. This species has also very specific ecological requirements. The population is considered severely fragmented, since the majority of the subpopulations are small and isolated, and the subpopulation size can be very variable from one year to the next and is thus considered to experience extreme fluctuations. It is therefore considered as Endangered.

range:
Pilularia minuta is found on both sides of the Mediterranean Sea and on many of the islands. Outside Europe it occurs in Turkey (around Izmir) and in North Africa, where it was, for instance, recently rediscovered in Tunisia. In Europe it occurs in France (Hérault, Alpes-Maritimes where it is now considered possibly extinct), Corsica (Bonifacio, Lecci, vicinity of Aleria and Ghisonnaccia), Portugal (Algarve, Alto Alentejo), Spain (Andalucía, Castilla y León, Menorca; Anthos 2016), Italy (around Rome, Sardinia, Sicily), Malta, Greece (Aegean Islands: Lesvos, Psathoura, Agios Evstratios), Cyprus, Slovenia, Croatia (Dalmatian Coast), Serbia and Macedonia. Its total area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be smaller than 500 km².

population:
In spite of its wide distribution across the Mediterranean basin, the number of sites and the actual area occupied by Pilularia minuta is very small, resulting from the scattered distribution and the small size of the temporary pools. It is present in: 
Croatia: one to two sites on islands off the coast 
Cyprus: one site, last observation 1998, possibly extinct
France: on the mainland at least two sites (last observation Roque-Haute 2001); Corsica: nine sites
Greece: one locality on Psathoura, two on Agios Evstratios and c. four in Lesvos (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2010); all the localities are small
Italy: four or five sites, last observation 2007 in Sardinia, formerly extinct in Sicily (recently rediscovered there, Troia and Lansdown 2016), and possibly extinct in Latium
Kosovo: number of localities unknown
Macedonia: number of localities unknown
Malta: number of localities unknown
Portugal: two sites
Slovenia: number of localities unknown
Spain: three sites (last observation 2003 in Andalucía) on the mainland and three sites in Menorca (Anthos 2016)
On all sites, subpopulation size can be very variable from one year to the next, depending on annual rainfall conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the subpopulations difficult. In addition, this small plant is often overlooked and new subpopulations are frequently found (R. Lansdown pers. comm. 2016). Historical destruction of several main sites (e.g., pool of Biot in France destroyed in 1975) has caused its AOO to decrease. In general, the subpopulations are threatened notably by the increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities, pollution and invasive species.

The population is considered severely fragmented, since the majority of the subpopulations are small and isolated, and the subpopulation size can be very variable from one year to the next and is thus considered to experience extreme fluctuations.

habitat:
Pilularia minuta is found in temporary pools, hollows and ditches at low elevation in diverse landscapes such as forests, "matorral" or agricultural fields. It is always found on acidic soils and spore germination requires saturated or flooded soils, but sporocarp maturation only takes place after exposure to air at the end of spring (Tutin et al. 1964).

threats:
The habitat of P. minuta faces numerous anthropogenic threats such as drainage, levelling, agriculture, overgrazing and urbanization. Natural threats are also problematic sometimes, such as the encroachment of invasive competing plants that crowd out this dwarf species.

conservationAction:
This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected at the national level in France (decree of August 31, 1995) and is included in several national Red Lists:
Spain: Vulnerable B1ab(iii,iv)+2ab(iii,iv); D2 (Moreno et al. 2008)
Italy: Vulnerable B2ab(iii) (Rossi et al. 2013)
Greece: Vulnerable (Phitos et al. 1995)
France: Endangered D2 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Croatia: Critically Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2007)
In France, sites are protected in nature reserves, for instance in the pools of Roque-Haute (France) and Tre Padule in Suartone (Corsica). Harvest and ex-situ conservation of the spores is undertaken by the National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles (France). Because this species is frequently overlooked, its life history, habitat and population trends are poorly known. Research and monitoring in these areas is needed.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Christenhusz, M.,Lansdown, R.V.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

Even though the species is widespread and locally abundant, it has a restricted area of occupancy (AOO) and it is experiencing a continuing decline in its extent of occurrence (EOO) and AOO, having experienced some local extinctions. It is therefore assessed as Near Threatened since it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion B. Adequate training in identification is needed to prevent taxonomic confusion of the species withS. molesta (an invasive species) in the field.

range:
Salvinia natans is a Eurasian species, distributed across central and eastern Europe and from the Caucasus to China and Japan. In Europe, it is patchily distributed from the Rhine valley (Germany) to Russia, and from northern Italy to the Danube Basin towards the Black Sea and into northern Greece. In Western Europe, it occurs unreliably in Belgium, the Netherlands, France (where it is considered to be introduced) and Spain (Prelli 2001). The instability of the species in Western Europe leads to suspicion that it may have been introduced there, or that it occurred there in the past and has been reintroduced without persisting.

The species is believed to be extinct in the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and France (since 1974), and recent records there are usually based on confusion withS. molesta, a non-persistent exotic escape from aquaria or ponds. The distribution of Salvinia natans in central Europe is probably relictual. In Germany it is known only from isolated subpopulations in Sachsen-Anhalt, Berlin, R. Main, the Upper Rhine Plain and Bavaria; in Croatia it occurs in the eastern province of Baranja, and in Ukraine it is widely distributed in the Danube, Dnieper and Desna river basins, but it is very rare in other river systems. In warmer eras the distribution of this species extended further northwards (Frey et al. 2006). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,736 km².

population:
This species typically shows  naturally large subpopulation fluctuations (although probably not extreme). Therefore, while it may appear to decline and to be more abundant in other years, it seems to be experiencing an  overall decline throughout its range, with a continuing decline in its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO). Observed recolonizations may be due to confusion with escapes of the more commonly cultivated invasive S. molesta. Even though there is a notable decline in the western edge of the range, in Ukraine the subpopulations are found in many localities with a high number of individuals and the trend is stable with range extensions in some river basins.

habitat:
Salvinia natans is a free-floating fern that grows in large subpopulations at the surface of stagnant waters or in weak currents: ditches, canals, ponds, oxbow lakes and other sluggish eutrophic water courses (Komarov 1968, Prelli 2001). It is considered annual in the wild, but it can be perennial in cultivation. It is impossible to differentiate the wild subpopulations from the escaped ones (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).

threats:
The threats to the species are not known, but drainage of its aquatic habitat certainly affects its population. Salvinia molesta is listed as an invasive species and can be troublesome, and since they resemble each other, taxonomic confusion may lead to eradication of the wrong species.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and it is found in protected areas throughout its range. Salvinia natans is classed as Extinct in the Netherlands (Van der Meijden et al. 2000) and  Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Critically Endangered in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Endangered in Czech Republic (Procházka 2001), and Near Threatened in  Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and Belarus (Ermakova 2005); it is protected but not classed as threatened in Hungary and  protected throughout France and in Greece. It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) and included in some protected areas. In Russia it is categorized as Near Threatened (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). The species is considered under protection in Ukraine, Poland and Lithuania. In Lithuania is considered possibly extinct. 
Awareness of the differences between the native S. natans and invasive S. molesta is important when control of the invasive species is considered. Control measures for S. molesta may affect native S. natans, particularly when the two are confused, so adequate training in identification is needed to prevent taxonomic confusion of the species in the field.

useAndTrade:
The species is used as an ornamental plant in ponds and aquaria. However, the Salviniaspecies that is most used in  horticulture is S. molesta, which readily naturalises and with which this species is often confused.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Lansdown, R.V.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe, this fern is assessed as Least Concern in view of its widespread population. In the EU 28, the species has a very restricted area of occupancy (AOO) ofc. 1,000 km2 and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals. Therefore it is assessed as Near Threatened since it is close to qualify as threatened under Criterion B. It is not possible to estimate the population size since the species can be dormant during some years and can be overlooked due to its small size, but most subpopulations are in Norway and Russia. Further research on its population size, trends and threats is needed. Its habitats are fragmented and is always local, rare and with small subpopulations.

range:
This species is a pan-Arctic species found in Canada, Greenland and Arctic Eurasia, eastwards to Japan and Korea. In Europe it is found in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and northwestern Russia (Frey et al. 2006), with single localities in Spitsbergen and Estonia. In Europe, its area of occupancy (AOO) is c. 3,000 km2 and in the EU 28 it is 1,032 km2, although this is probably an overestimation as this includes historical collections.

population:
Due to changes in land management and agricultural practices, this species is disappearing from many sites. However, this is difficult to monitor because plants do not emerge every year, and due to their small size they are easily overlooked. The overall current population trend is decreasing.

habitat:
This species occurs on dry natural grassy slopes, wet tundra and alpine meadows (Tutin et al. 1964, Komarov 1968). It is also found on forest clearings, usually on neutral to alkaline soils (Prelli 2001) and in coastal Juniper meadows (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation range is 0 - 1,690 m.

threats:
Botrychium boreale is threatened by eutrophication and over-shading by larger plants and the encroachment of the forest. The species has decreased as a result of changing and intensification of agricultural and forestry practices. In the whole of Fennoscandia, the abandonment of farming also affects the species, since this favours succession and reduces the availability of suitable poor nutrient meadows that this species requires (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
The species is present in protected areas throughout its range. It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Finland: Vulnerable (Rassi et al. 2001, 2010)
Norway: Near Threatened (Kålås et al. 2006) and Critically Endangered in Svalbard (Kålås et al. 2010)
Sweden: Near Threatened (Gärdenfors 2000) and then Vulnerable; B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v)c(iv) (Gärdenfors 2005, 2010)
Management of its habitats is needed to preserve the existing subpopulations and remove the competing plants (mostly grass species in order to avoid succession). Grazing may have to be reinstated in some areas as part of the land management regime. Research and monitoring on its population size and trend are needed.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 28 regional assessment:Vulnerable (VU)

This fern species is assessed as Vulnerable because it has experienced a decline of at least 30% over the last three generations (ca 90 years), and this decline is expected to continue. Traditional management of meadows and forests and the prevention of eutrophication are essential for this species to survive.

range:
Botrychium lanceolatum is a Northern Hemisphere species, found across the Arctic and the mountain areas of North America (southwards to New Mexico), Greenland and across Eurasia, eastwards to the Russian Far East, southwards to Inner Mongolia. In Europe it is found in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, northern Russia, the Alps and a couple of isolated localities in the Baltic States, Belarus and Poland. In Europe, the area of occurrence (AOO) is ca 2,000 km² and in the EU 28 it is ca 1,236 km², although this is likely to be an overestimation as the species has disappeared from many sites and this calculation includes historical data.

population:
Due to changes in land management and agricultural practices, this species is disappearing from many sites, although this is difficult to monitor because plants do not emerge every year and are easily overlooked due to their small size. In Finland, the species is declining mostly in the southern part (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). The species has an estimated generation length of 20-30 years, possibly longer, and there has been a decline of at least 30% over the last three generations in Fennoscandia, which represents the core of its distribution. Therefore, a decline of at least 30% is suspected for the whole of the distribution (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).

habitat:
The species is present in meadows, especially on lake shores and river banks, sandy hills and slopes, semi-natural dry grasslands and forest margins (Komarov 1968, Rassi et al. 2001, Y. Ivanenko and H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0-1,230 m.

threats:
The species is mostly threatened by overgrowing of meadows following the cessation of grazing or hay cutting and by forest management activities. Chemical disturbances (including environmental toxins, pesticides, oil and atmospheric pollution, eutrophication) also affect the species (Rassi et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
This species is protected by French law (Prelli 2001). It is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Estonia: Regionally Extinct (Lilleleht 1998, 2001)
Finland: Vulnerable A1ac (Rassi et al. 2001) and Vulnerable A2ac; B2ab (ii,iii,iv,v) (Rassi et al. 2010)
France: Regionally Extinct (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Norway: Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) (Kålås et al. 2006), and then amended to Near Threatened (Kålås et al. 2010)
Poland: Extinct (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Sweden: Vulnerable A1ac; B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v)c(iv) (Gärdenfors 2000, 2005, 2010)
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
The species is present in protected areas throughout its range. Recovery of abandoned lands, traditional management of meadows and forests, and the prevention of eutrophication are essential for this species to survive.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a very widespread fern species in Europe which is locally frequent in parts of its range and occurs in a variety of habitats. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) greatly exceed the values needed for a threatened Category, although these may be overestimated as they include historical data points. There are noted declines in parts of its range, such as in Germany, Finland and England, however it is not possible to estimate a percentage of decline for the entire population due to the fact that the species can remain alive underground for several years and thus appear as absent in surveys. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern in view of its widespread distribution and large population size, but it should be noted that land abandonment and changes in agricultural practices and conversion of ancient meadows is a threat to this and other moonwort species in Europe, and thus monitoring of its population is recommended.

range:
The species is one of the most widely distributed moonworts, with a range that is essentially circumpolar. In North America, the species is found from Alaska throughout all northern states of Canada and the USA southwards to Pennsylvania. It is also present on Greenland (ISC 2014). It occurs throughout Europe and central and eastern Russia, eastwards to Japan, Korea, China and southwards to the Himalayas. It is also found in Turkey and Morocco and in the temperate zones of Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand and in Argentina (Cantlon et al. 1959, Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). The taxonomical status of the specimens from the Southern Hemisphere needs to be investigated.
In Europe, it is found from Iceland and the Scandinavian countries, the British Isles and Ireland through all of western, central and eastern Europe to Greece, Spain and some Mediterranean islands, and on Pico (Azores) and Madeira in the Macaronesian Archipelago (Christenhusz and Raab-Straube 2013). Its distribution within countries varies; for example, it is found more frequently in the north and west of Britain (Stace 1997), and in France it is mostly found in the east and in the Pyrenees (Frey et al. 2006, Association Tela Botanica 2014).

population:
This fern has an extremely wide range, but a very patchy distribution. It usually grows singularly or together with a few plants, rarely making larger stands (Page 1997). There are few available numerical data since plants are difficult to locate due to their small size and ephemeral nature. During some years plants remain underground, which may result in reports of loss of (parts of) the population, whereas they may still be there, but not evidently since they have not emerged above ground. 
However, the species is notably uncommon and declining in Fennoscandia, although still locally frequent in northern Britain and Ireland and in the Carpathians. It is always local and sometimes rare in most countries of north-western Europe, such as northern Italy and central Poland (Rose 1989, Marchetti 2003, Piekos-Mirkowa 2006, Woziwoda 2006). Some population declines are noted, for example in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014) and the overall population trend is decreasing due to the abandonment of traditional grassland management, allowing this species to be over-shadowed and out-competed by larger plant species.

habitat:
Botrychium lunaria grows on dryish to moist low grassland, meadows, coppices, heaths and moors often in uplands and rarely in deciduous or pine forests and open woodland. It is also found on dune slacks in the lowlands (Komarov 1968, Rose 1989, Page 1997, Van der Meijden 2005, Association Tela Botanica 2014, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014, Plants for a Future 2014). It is a characteristic species of four habitat types in Europe: acid Alpine and sub-Alpine grassland, Oro-Hellenic closed grassland, Pannonic closed sand steppes and Fenno-Scandian grasslands.
In areas where moonwort populations are frequent, they can also colonise old industrial spoil heaps and shale brings, particularly in central Scotland (Page 1997). It prefers soils that are neutral to alkaline, sometimes in soils direcly over limestone or chalk, or in calcareous sands, alluvium, basic clays, or in peaty soils where flushes of basic water creates lime-rich veins (Page 1997). Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,500 m. Gametophytes are mycoheterotrophic and these strong relationships with ectomycorrhizal fungi remain in adult state, making them susceptible to disturbance. Continued presence of decaying vegetable matter may be necessary for the success of moonwort (Page 1997).

threats:
The primary threat to this small fern is the loss of its open habitats to successional overgrowth (Woziwoda 2006, EOL 2014). It may also be subject to trampling and grazing in meadows with high animal stocking densities or in short turf by rabbits. In many parts of Europe, the species has seen a decline in frequency, and much of it in Britain is associated with ploughing and agricultural 'improvement' of long-established pastureland. Fluctuations in rabbit populations, increases in herbicide use and the spread of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) and land abandonment may all be factors that have had a substantial effect (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
This fern is grown ex situ in 17 botanic gardens worldwide (BCGI 2013), but it is not known whether spores are stored, and plants are difficult to maintain in cultivation. It is found in 181 Natura 2000 sites, in Belgium, Spain, Hungary and Finland, which includes formally protected areas such as Mount Brando National nature reserve, Ireland (EUNIS 2014). It is listed in the following national Red Lists (Zoological Society of London 2014):
Finland: Near Threatened (Rassi et al. 2010)
Germany: Endangered and subject to declines (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014)
Hungary: Near Threatened (Király 2007)
Netherlands: Vulnerable (Van der Meijden et al. 2000) 
Norway: Near Threatened (Kålås et al. 2010)
Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002)
United Kingdom: Least Concern, but Vulnerable in England (Stroh et al. 2014)

useAndTrade:
This fern is historically used as a wound healing herb. The leaflets are used externally as an ointment or taken internally in the treatment of ruptures and dysentery (Plants for a Future 2014). In eastern Norway the young leaves are eaten in spring and have a lettuce-like taste (Øllgaard and Tind 1993), although it rarely occurs in such abundance that this is sustainable.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Chadburn, H.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species is assessed as Near Threatened because the number of mature individuals is close to 10,000, and there seem to be fewer than 1,000 in almost every country, and this therefore means that it is likely that there are less than 50 mature individuals in each subpopulation. In addition, it is experiencing a continuing decline that is predicted to continue in the future in the AOO, EOO, quality and extent of the habitats, number of subpopulations and number of mature individuals. Thus, it is close to qualify as threatened under criterion C. Fluctuations in the population size have been reported, but it is not clear whether they are extreme. This is a rare species with a scattered distribution throughout Europe. It is listed as threatened on all available national Red Lists and subpopulations are declining almost everywhere. The main threats are changes to its habitat such as reforestation, abandonment of grazing activities which lead to overgrowing and competition, or intensification of agriculture leading to eutrophication.

range:
Botrychium matricariifolium  is a circumpolar species found across North America, Europe and northern Asia. In Europe it is mainly distributed in central Europe, the Nordic countries and the European  part of the Russian Federation, extending to southeastern France and  the Balkan Peninsula  (Zlatkovićet al. 2009). 

In Italy, it was reported from the regions of Lombardia, Trentino Alto Adige, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Marche, Abruzzo and Campania and is found on more than four localities there. In France, it was recorded in Moselle, Bas-Rhin, Vosges, Haute-Savoie, Loire,  Haute-Loire, Ardeche, Vienne and Corsica (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010). In the Czech Republic it is found on mountainous areas especially the Sumava Mts. (including  Predsumavi and Novohradske hory Mts). It was extinct for more than 20  years there, but has been rediscovered since the 1990s until today. In total, 20 small sites are known, but the total area is difficult to estimate. In Hungary, it was known from four old localities which had not been confirmed during the last 40 years. It  was  thought to be extinct in the 2007 Red List, but a new locality with a few   individuals has been found in southern Hungary since then. In eastern Serbia it occurs mainly in the region of Stara Planina Mts, peak Tupanar. It has also been reported in Croatia and Bulgaria. In Lithuania, the species is rare and found in the southeast and east. In Switzerland, it is found at three localities in the Alps, between 800 and 1,800 m. Ten to twelve localities have disappeared during the past 50 years. The subpopulations are very small, occupying only a few m². It occurs throughout the Carpathians in Austria, Czech Republic, Poland,  Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine  (Witkowskiet al. 2003). In Ukraine it has been recorded from 14 localities and it grows on the lowland part, mainly in the forest steppe zone and in the Carpathian Mountains (in Chornogora, Svidivez mountain massifs, in Chivczinski Mountains and Transcarpathian lowland). The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be just above 2,000 km² in Europe and c. 1,000 km² in the EU 28.

population:
Due to changes in land management and agricultural practices, this species is disappearing from many sites, although this is difficult to monitor because plants do not emerge every year. The following population information is available for individual countries:
Albania: fewer than 50 individuals. Zlatkovićet al. (2009) reported that this species is present in a 50 × 50 km  territory that belongs to Quafë e Guricus in north Albania. Its current status is uncertain
Belarus: it is found at around twelve localities
Belgium: disappeared from Flanders and Brussels
Bulgaria: probably less than 50 individuals as the plant is listed as Critically Endangered D on the national Red List
Croatia: known from one site only

Czech Republic: the total number of individuals is smaller than 1,000. One site has more than 100 individuals, the others  have only dozens of individuals. Strong fluctuations have been noticed
Denmark: 1,000 individuals (NERI 2007)

France: about 30 subpopulations (Alpes, Cevennes, Massif Central, Pyrénées, Alsace, Corse) which are often small, ranging from a few individuals to 35, but less than 1,000 individuals are estimated overall. Counting of the number of individuals is difficult, as the plants do not appear every year. The subpopulations are declining overall
Finland: the species has heavily declined (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016)
Germany: the subpopulations are declining and the species is extinct in several regions

Italy: in total there are less than 250 individuals, the subpopulations are declining and severely fragmented
Lithuania: a site can hold a single individual or up to dozens of them but all undergo strong fluctuations
Netherlands: one subpopulation existed that is now extinct (Van der Meijden 2005)
Norway: it was formerly known from 47 sites, but now it is only known from nine sites with very few individuals, often only single plants and rarely more than five. The overall population size is decreasing (Artsdatabanken 2010)
Serbia: there are less than 50 individuals in total (Zlatković et al.2009)

Sweden: the population size is around 1,000 individuals and the subpopulations are declining, there are extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals and is suspected and the subpopulations are severely fragmented

Switzerland: only 16 individuals in total are known and the population is rapidly decreasing. However the detectability of the species is very low and therefore it is difficult to obtain sound values.
Ukraine: half of the 14 localities were recorded before 1950. The number of individuals in Ukraine are very low, with only four to five individuals per site (Melnyk 2009)
United Kingdom: a single historical specimen of this species is known.

habitat:
The species occurs on coastal and inland grasslands and dry meadows on poor soil, which are grazed or used for hay-making (H. Väre and Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). It can also be found in woodland and open scrub   (Morgan and Leon 1992). It is typical of acidic oligotrophic substrates. It can occur in open forests in Ukraine such as pine, oak, hornbeam and beech, but it does not frequently occur in forests elsewhere as it dislikes to be shaded.

It normally grows in the vegetation of high mountain and sub-alpine pasture community. The species undergoes strong natural fluctuations on its population size due to  weather conditions. Its elevation limits are 0-1,800 m.

threats:
The main threats to this species are changes to its habitat such as reforestation, abandonment of grazing activities (leading to overgrowth and succession), competition with other species, and intensification of agriculture causing eutrophication. Locally, infrastructure development for tourism, pig rearing, or trampling have been described as threats.

conservationAction:
Botrychium matricariifolium is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed on many national Red Lists as follows:
Belarus: Endangered (Ermakova 2005)
Bulgaria: Critically Endangered (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)
Croatia: Critically Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2005)
Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000)
Denmark: Vulnerable (NERI 2007)
Estonia: Critically Endangered (listed as Endangered which is highest national category; Lilleleht 2008)
Finland: Endangered (Rassi et al. 2010)
France: Vulnerable; D1 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Germany: Endangered (level 2; Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Italy: Endangered      (Rossi et al. 2013)
Lithuania: Endangered (Rašomavičius 2007)
Netherlands: Extinct, last seen in 1840 (Van der Meijden 2005)
Norway: Critically Endangered (Artsdatabanken 2010)
Romania: not threatened (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Russia: Vulnerable (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) in the Leningrad, Pskov and Tver regions 
Serbia: Critically Endangered (Tomovićet al.  2009)
Spain: Extinct (Moreno 2008)
Sweden: Endangered (Gärdenfors 2010)
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
Ukraine: Endangered (Diduch 2009)
The Carpathian Red List classes this species as Endangered (Witkowskiet al. 2003). In several countries it is protected by national legislation, including Hungary, France and Lithuania. It occurs on protected areas, for example the Carpathian biosphere reserve, and also in several Natura 2000 sites.

Management of its habitat with traditional, extensive grazing activities is recommended for this species. More research about population dynamics and ecology is needed. The subpopulations should be monitored.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.,Rumsey, F.,Bento Elias, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

Botrychium multifidum is locally common in the Nordic countries and in Russia although it is listed as Near Threatened (Sweden, Finland) or Vulnerable (Norway, Denmark) in all Nordic states. An alarming decline is noted in all countries and it is included in more than half of the national Red Lists where it occurs, however its current decline is estimated to be not rapidly enough to qualify for a threatened Category. In the EU 28, the species is assessed as Near Threatened since a decline of nearly 30% is estimated over the last three generations.

range:
Botrychium multifidum is found on boreal and temperate zones of Europe, North America and North Asia. It is very local in north, central and east Europe. It is mostly absent from Atlantic Europe, but is found in the west from Germany, Denmark to the northern Alps in France, Austria, Switzerland, Italy  and Slovenia, in the Appenines, extending northwards into Fennoscandia (up to 70° N) and scattered eastwards into Russia and Ukraine to Romania and the Black Sea. It occurs in eastern Europe north of the Danube river   (Käsermann and Moser 1999).

In Lithuania there are 15-20 localities mainly in the east and southeast, but two outlying subpopulations on the northwest coast. There are more than a hundred records in total. In Russia, it is found in the centre-north and in the northwest, but is extinct in Kaliningrad. It grows in the lowland part of Ukraine, in deciduous and mixed coniferous-broad leaved forests zone and lesosteppe (forest steppe zone)  and in the Carpathian Mountains. It is found on several parts of Belarus. In Finland, it is widespread throughout the country and it is also found in southwest Norway where it occurs up to 2,940 m elevation. The species is extinct in Switzerland, where the last locality is thought to have disappeared in 1998. In Europe, the area of occurrence (AOO) is calculated as 4,668 km2 (although this may be an overestimation as many historical sites have since disappeared), and in the EU 28 it is estimated to be 2,964 km2.

population:
Due to changes in land management and agricultural practices, this species is disappearing from many sites, although this is difficult to monitor because plants do not emerge every year. In Germany, the species was known from eight federal estates, but is now  only found on two. There are around ten subpopulations, of which two are in  Berlin and eight in Bavaria (Bayerischer Wald). The Bavarian subpopulations are made up of around 40 individuals (data from 1999 and  2001; Ahlmer 2010). In France, the last subpopulation had one individual in 2000, and in 2006, a hole in the soil at the site of the last individual was seen. It might be regionally extinct following the harvesting of the last individual. The species is extinct in the wild in Switzerland.

In Lithuania, the subpopulations are small in each area. It could be overlooked and there might be more individuals than assumed, but the habitat is declining and this may affect the numbers. In Italy, there are less than 250 mature individuals with a declining population trend. In Sweden, the population is rapidly decreasing. The situation is similar in Norway, where the subpopulations are assumed to decrease by 30-50% in the next 30 years. In Denmark, there are 200 individuals with a declining trend. In Finland, the species is decreasing in the southern part of the country (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). In Ukraine, the species was known from 67 localities, of which 35 where found before 1950. The local subpopulations occupy very small places: from 1 m² to 150 m². The number of individuals in the subpopulations is very low, ranging from two to 400 individuals (Melnyk 2009). In Russia, the species seems to be stable and still common (Y. Ivanenko 2016). The overall population trend is declining.

A decline of nearly 30% over the last three-generations period is estimated for the EU 28. A generation length for this long-lived species is difficult to estimate and can be between 30 and 80 years, and thus the three-generation period is estimated to be 90 - 240 years.

habitat:
Botrychium multifidum mainly occurs as single plants, but one plant produces many spores. The reproduction of this plant is dependent on symbiotic fungi and it is therefore difficult to propagate via spores or vegetatively, which would make ex-situ conservation and reintroduction a complex process. It prefers soils that are acidic and clayey and is found in grasslands, montane meadows and pastureland, in dwarf shrubland and in light dry forest and wood margins (Komarov 1968, Käsermann and Moser 1999, Klotz et al. 2002).

In Lithuania, the habitat is not very common: short and dry sandy soil grasslands, open pine areas and fringes of pine areas. In Russia, it has also been reported from moist grasslands, edges of pine forests, sand soils, mixed forests with pine and birch (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016) and in Ukraine, it grows on spruce, pine, beech, birch, oak, hornbeam, ash, alder forest, shrub communities and on meadows. In Finland, the species is found along rivers and dry meadows, although currently it is found mostly on roadsides (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). 

In Sweden, this plant is typical of compacted terraces along rivers and next to houses. Farms have been abandoned and with it the compression of the soil by the cattle. This leads to succession processes in ancient meadows and these changes in vegetation negatively impact the subpopulations. The main habitat where this species grows is disappearing, though it can still be found in other secondary habitats. Its elevation limits are 0 - 2,940 m.

threats:
Changes in land management and grazing as well as trampling by hikers or livestock are the main threats to this species. The abandonment of rural areas and traditional ways of living (cattle ranching) led to formerly open  areas with compacted soils being changed through succession into unsuitable habitats for this species. Furthermore, fertilization (associated with intensive agricultural practices) increases competition with grasses and large herbs. Reforestation, cutting of the forest and unfavourable forest management are further threats. Collection is a threat especially in those areas where only a few individuals remain, such as Germany and France. In Russia, forestry can be a threat, but only locally as the species is still abundant there.

conservationAction:
This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). There are several conservation measures in place and it is listed on the following national Red Lists: 
Belarus: Vulnerable (Ermakova 2005)
Denmark: Vulnerable (NERI 2007)

Finland: Near Threatened A2ac (Rassi et al. 2010)
France: nationally protected
Germany: Critically Endangered, level 1 (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and under national protection
Hungary: Critically Endangered (Király 2007)
Italy: Endangered (Rossi et al. 2013)
Lithuania: found in some protected areas in the east and west, classed as Rare in the Red List (Rašomavičius 2007)
Norway: Vulnerable (Artsdatabanken 2010)
Russia: widely protected. In the Pskov region it is considered rare
Serbia: Critically Endangered (Stevanović 1999)
Sweden: Near Threatened (Gärdenfors 2010) and legally protected. Meadows in the north should be managed in a way to improve the conditions for this species.  In south Sweden some initiatives seem to take place
Switzerland: Regionally Extinct   (Käsermann and Moser 1999)
Ukraine: legally protected. Listed in the Red Book (Didukh 2009) as rare, protected in Desnjansko-Starogutskij national park
An estimation of the rate of decline throughout its range is needed to assess the threat status of this species. Monitoring for this species is recommended. It is present in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
In Sweden and Ukraine it was thought to have magical properties in the past and was used for witchcraft.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Rumsey, F.,Rouhan, G.,Christenhusz, M.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.

redListContributors:
Juillet, N.,Rasomavicius, V.,Illarionova, I.,Gygax, A.,Melnyk, V.,Ericsson, S.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU 28 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

Botrychium simplexis  a rare species with a scattered distribution throughout Europe. Subpopulations are small, often consisting of single individuals. It is  listed as threatened on all available national Red Lists and the subpopulations  are declining almost everywhere. In a few countries, the species is only known from one single locality, sometimes a single individual. The main threats are changes to its  habitat such as  reforestation, abandonment of grazing activities which  lead to  overgrowth and competition, or intensification of agriculture  which  leads to eutrophication. Extreme fluctuations in the population size have been reported in Fennoscandia. The number of mature individuals seems  to be less than 10,000 in total as often only very few  individuals are found. As it is extinct in several countries and several Red Lists show a higher threatened category than on earlier assessments, it is inferred that its extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and habitat quality have been reduced more than 50% the last three generations (60-90 years).

range:
This fern species has a circumpolar northern temperate and boreal distribution, being found in Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, it occurs mainly near the coasts up to 65° N in Sweden, Finland, Denmark, the Baltic States, Poland and Russia. It is present in Iceland and southern Norway and is found as a glacial relict species in central European mountains (France, Switzerland, Italy). In the south it extends to the eastern Pyrenees in France, Corsica and Slovenia (Käsermann and Moser 1999). It is not clear whether this species is present in the Spanish Pyrenees (Castroviejoet al. 1986).

In France, it occurs at 10 localities in Corsica (massif du San Petrone, Niolu), Midi-Pyrénées (Aveyron, plateau de l’Aubrac), Pyrénées-Orientales (massif du Carlit); Rhônes-Alpes (Isère, Haute-Savoie, vallée de Chamonix) and Savoie (Beaufortin) between 1,300 and 2,000 m. In Germany, it is known from only one site near Paderborn, where it was rediscovered in 1993 (Frey et al. 2006, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008). In Greece, there is only one locality in Smolikas, in the northwest close to the Albanian border at 2,000 m. There are two stations in Italy (Trentino Alto Adige) and one in Lithuania and Latvia. The species is extinct in Belgium (formerly in Flanders and Brussels; Van Landuyt et al. 2006), the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Slovenia and Switzerland. In Poland there were approximately 25 known localities in the past of which only two were found until the 1980s: Wierzchowo Lake near Szczecinek and at Kiedrowickie Lake near Lipnica in Bory Tucholskie (Tucholskie Forests). Both localities have extensively been searched during the last 20 years but the species has not been found again and therefore this plant is considered as possibly extinct in Poland (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). In Slovenia, one locality was found in the mid 20th century in the Julian Alps, but this is now extinct. In Switzerland, one locality has been confirmed but in 1970-1980, three to four others have been observed at elevations of 1,500-2,300 m. The species has not been recorded there since 1971 and is therefore  believed to have disappeared. However, it is possible that there might be undetected subpopulations (Käsermann and Moser 1999).

The area of occupancy (AOO) in Europe is only ca 660 km², but this includes historical collections and thus is likely to be an overestimation. In the EU 28, the AOO is ca 400 km².

population:
Due to changes in land management and agricultural practices, this species is disappearing from many sites, although it is difficult to monitor because plants do not emerge every year. Individuals are difficult to count due to their small size and irregular appearance. The following population information is available for different countries (Commission of European Communities 2009):
Austria: 400-500 individuals
Denmark: 118-237 individuals
Finland: 116 individuals with extreme fluctuations
France: less than 200 individuals in 14 localities in 14 communes
Italy: the subpopulation is stable and there is a total of 15 individuals between the two sites
Lithuania: only one single individual is known
Norway: less than 2,500 individuals in total that undergo extreme fluctuations (Artsdatabanken 2010)
Sweden: 2,000 individuals with extreme fluctuations
The subpopulations are declining in most of its range. It is suspected that the species has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations (60-90 years). Furthermore, extreme fluctuations in the population size have been reported in Fennoscandia and it is assumed that this occurs through the whole of the distribution.

habitat:
Botrychium simplex prefers fresh, moderately dry to wet, alkali-poor, sandy clay soils. Its habitats are acidic, oligotrophic mat-grass communities, heather and gorse heathlands, meadows, pastureland, shrubland, the banks of rivers and lakes and the edges of bogs and forests. It mainly occurs as single plants, but it produces many spores. The establishment of this fern is dependent on symbiotic fungi and it is therefore difficult to propagate it via spores or vegetatively, which makes reintroduction difficult if not impossible (Komarov 1968, Käsermann and Moser 1999, Klotz et al. 2002, Frey et al. 2006, Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 850-2,300 m.

threats:
The modification of cultivation practices such as the abandonment of pastoral systems or the increased use of fertilisers is threatening this species. Eutrophication probably damages the symbiotic fungi on which Botrychium species depend. Trampling and overgrazing by livestock has negative effects. The conversion of its natural habitat into forest plantations or tourist developments (e.g. roads, ski slopes) leads to habitat loss. Changes to its natural habitat and a loss of quality are also caused by landfill, drying out, drainage or management of water levels. Collection of the plant and peat extraction are local threats (Käsermann and Moser 1999, Commission of the European Communities 2009).

conservationAction:
Botrychium simplex is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed on the following national red lists:
Czech Republic: Extinct (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012)
Denmark: Endangered (NERI 2007)
Estonia: Extinct (Lilleleht 1998, 2008)
Finland: Endangered; B1+2abcde+3d (Rassi et al. 2001) amended to Critically Endangered C1+2a(ii)b (Rassi et al. 2010)
France: Endangered (Olivier et al. 1995) and then amended to Vulnerable D2 (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)
Germany: Critically Endangered, level 2 (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Italy: Vulnerable (Conti et al. 1997) and then amended to Critically Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iv,v) (Rossi et al. 2013)
Lithuania: Endangered (Rašomavičius 2007)
Norway: Critically Endangered C2b (Kålås et al. 2006) and then amended to Endangered (Artsdatabanken 2010, Kålås et al. 2010)
Russia: Critically Endangered (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010)
Sweden: Endangered; B2b(iii,iv,v)c(iv); C2a(i) (Gärdenfors 2005, 2010)
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
This species is protected by national law in several countries including Germany, France, Switzerland and Sweden. It is found in national parks, protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. Monitoring of the subpopulations is recommended and management of the sites in a way that is favourable to the species.

redListAssessors:
Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 28 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

Botrychium virginianum is a fern with a broad distribution, but is rare throughout Europe (where it may be a separate taxon). It has a small area of occupancy (AOO) of ca 1,000 km²in Europe and 623 km² in the EU 28, the population size has been reduced in many parts of its range, particularly in Scandinavia and the Alps. The population is considered to be severely fragmented and it has experienced a decline in the area of occupancy, extent and quality of the habitat, number of subpopulations and number of mature individuals. It is therefore listed as Vulnerable.

range:
This is a very widespread and taxonomically complex species found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and in South America. In Europe (where plants are sometimes considered to belong to a separate variety, B. virginianum var. europaeum) it is found in northeastern Europe, from Finland to a few isolated places in Switzerland, Romania and central Ukraine (Frey et al. 2006). The area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,000 km², although this is an overestimation as it includes historical subpopulations that have since disappeared. In the EU 28, the AOO is estimated to be ca 623 km².

population:
This is a rare species throughout its range. Due to changes in land management and agricultural practices, it is disappearing from many sites although this is difficult to monitor because plants do not emerge every year. The population is considered to be severely fragmented and it experiences fluctuations, although these are not extreme.

habitat:
The species is found on clearings in montane forest, forest margins, forest glades, coppices or alpine acidic grassland (Komarov 1968, Frey et al. 2006). In Finland and Russia it grows in lowland spruce forests with calcareous soil in moist habitats (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016). In the Ural Mountains it can grow on relatively dry pine forests (Y. Ivanenko pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0-1,200 m.

threats:
Habitat shifting due to changes in land management and eutrophication from agricultural fertiliser run-off causes vegetation to grow taller and this may outcompete Botrychium virginianum. It is also threatened by forest management activities and clear cutting.

conservationAction:
The species is present in protected areas throughout its range. Habitat protection and prevention of agricultural run-off are the best means to protect this species. It is difficult to cultivate and reintroduce due to its strong mycorrhizal relationship, but in North America it is cultivated occasionally and these horticultural techniques could be applied to start reintroduction programmes. Botrychium virginianum is listed on the following national Red Lists:
Austria: Endangered (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Estonia: Critically Endangered (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012)
Finland: Endangered; B1+2bcde+3d (Rassi et al. 2001) and Endangered B2ab(iii,iv,v); C1+2a(i) (Rassi et al. 2010)
Germany: Extremely Rare (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)
Hungary: Endangered (Witkowski et al. 2003) amended to Critically Endangered (Király 2007)
Lithuania: Endangered (Rašomavičius 2007)
Romania: Vulnerable (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Slovakia: Extinct (Witkowski et al. 2003)
Sweden: Near Threatened (Gärdenfors 2000), amended to Vulnerable C2a(i) (Gärdenfors 2005) and changed to Endangered B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v) (Gärdenfors 2010). A clear trend is showcased here
Switzerland: Critically Endangered (Moser et al. 2002)
Research on its taxonomy, population size and trends and threats is needed. Monitoring of its population trends is also recommended.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

As this fern species is widespread and it does not face any major threats apart from local grazing, it is classed as Least Concern. Localities are usually inaccessible and not altered by humans, but in areas where grazing causes a threat (e.g. Azores, Canary Islands), cattle should be excluded.

range:
Ophioglossum azoricum is an Atlantic-Mediterranean species found in the Macaronesian Islands (Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands), coastal Greenland, and in western and southwestern Europe (Iceland, Ireland, Britain, Netherlands, France, Corsica, Spain and Portugal). It is also present locally in Italy (Tuscany), Poland and the Czech Republic (Frey et al. 2006), and east to Cyprus and Turkey. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,448 km2.

population:
The population trend is not known, but subpopulations are extremely localised and although they can be vegetatively moderately vigorous once established and are probably long-lived, no information is available on its sexual propagation and establishment, although it most certainly involves a fungal relationship.

habitat:
The species is found in low-lying, damp, sandy-peaty habitats, such as dune slacks, cliff-tops and turf along the coast, heaths and scrubland (Page 1997, Frey et al. 2006, R. Elias pers. comm. 2016). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,600 m.

threats:
On Flores and on Corvo in the (protected) Caldeirao region, the population suffers strongly from cattle grazing, where all fronds that are within reach of the animals are eaten. Only those between rocks survive and may produce spores. Apart from grazing there are no major threats to this species (H. Schäfer pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
Ophioglossum azoricum occurs in scattered and remote sites across its oceanic range. It is Critically Endangered in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002), but not of conservation concern in areas that are remote and inaccessible. It is protected by law in the Azores but suffers from grazing pressure there even within protected areas. It is advisable to exclude grazing in areas where this species occurs.

redListAssessors:
Väre, H.,Rouhan, G.,Dyer, R.,Bento Elias, R.,Rumsey, F.,Ivanenko, Y.,Christenhusz, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Ophioglossum lusitanicum is a widely distributed fern species with no major threats, and it is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, the species is declining in certain areas and monitoring is needed. Land management practices in areas where this species occurs need to be maintained and habitats may be protected against trampling if the species is locally of concern.

range:
Ophioglossum lusitanicum is a widespread species found in Mediterranean Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East eastwards to India. In Europe, the species is found from southwestern Britain and the Channel Islands through Brittany to the Azores, the Canary Islands, the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean eastwards to Greece and Turkey. Other subspecies (or species) are found in Patagonia and Australasia. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 896 km2.

population:
There is little information about the subpopulations of this species or its overall population trend. However, it is an uncommon species that is decreasing at least in some areas, but is likely to be stable in others. Most notably, on the Channel Island of Guernsey, subpopulations have declined over the last decade by 50% due to changes in land management (F. Rumsey, pers. comm. 2016). However, it is possibly stable at the moment.  The numbers of visible individuals in the subpopulations can vary from year to year, depending on water availability.

habitat:
This plant is mainly found on Mediterranean climates and therefore in areas with mild, wet winters and relatively hot summers. It grows on exposed patches of moist, mossy, short turf, often on sandy, stony or laterite soil along rivers or on sea cliffs, often in areas where there is an accumulation of dark, humus-rich, peaty or sandy soil overlying bedrock (Komarov 1968, Page 1997). Ophioglossum lusitanicum inhabits open grasslands and brush on siliceous or laterite substrates, where it can be present in small numbers or abundantly, particularly after wet winters. Its elevation limits are 0 - 200 m Asl.

threats:
There are no major threats to this species since its sites are usually inaccessible. Changes in local land management, land eutrophication, or other ecosystem modifications and invasive species may pose local threats to the species (M. Christenhusz pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
Monitoring of populations and habitats is recommended. The species is considered to be Vulnerable in the Canary Islands (Sanchez Velazquez 2002) and in the UK (under Criterion D1), due to the small numbers of individuals (Stroh et al. 2014). Land management practices in areas where this species occurs need to be maintained and habitats may be protected against trampling if the species is locally of concern.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rouhan, G.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 28 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)

Very little data are available on the population of this fern species in Europe. Therefore it is listed here as Data Deficient. Further research on its population size, fluctuations, number of locations and threats are needed in order to clarify the status of this species in Europe.

range:
Ophioglossum polyphyllum is distributed across Africa and southwest Asia, eastwards to India and southwards to South Africa. In Europe it occurs only on the Canary Islands (Frey et al. 2006). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 172 km².

population:
There is no population information available for this species in Europe. This is an uncommon species and its population trend is unknown, because it is very easily confused with O. azoricum and O. vulgatum (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2016). In addition it only appears above ground for a couple of months per year and thus monitoring is complicated.

habitat:
This fern prefers clayey and sandy soils in coastal areas at medium elevations, in the arid and semi-arid Canary Islands. Outside of Europe it is found in a variety of usually fairly open habitats on clay or sand. Its elevation limits are 0-1,000 m.

threats:
The main threats to this species are not known, but changes in management or habitat alteration may locally affect this species.

conservationAction:
Ophioglossum polyphyllum is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Data Deficient on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008), even though it was listed as Endangered (without criteria given) by Sanchez Velazquez (2002). Further studies on population size, fluctuations, number of locations and threats are needed. It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas.

redListAssessors:
Bento Elias, R.,Dyer, R.,Väre, H.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Christenhusz, M.,Rouhan, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This is a widespread fern species with numerous localities where it is often abundant. It does not experience any major threats, although eutrophication may be of local concern. It is therefore listed it as Least Concern.

range:
Ophioglossum vulgatum is a widespread species found across northern Asia, North America, southern South America and Europe, where it is absent in the extreme north (Frey et al. 2006). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 7,472 km2.

population:
Plants are often abundant, and when present, clumps of several shoots together are usually present. As the species is clonal, it is difficult to calculate numbers of individuals in any given subpopulation. Its overall population trend is stable.

habitat:
This is a locally fairly common species that occurs in a variety of habitats, for instance on wet to humid, humus rich, intermediately nutrient poor soil in dune valleys, sand-dune slacks, coastal wetlands, cliff-tops, rocky ledges, open roadbeds, open grasslands, grassy links, damp ditches, coastal flushes, moist hollows, in grassy pastures, meadows, heathland, marl pits, open woodland, alder forest, occasionally in moist bottoms of limestone grykes and in slightly disturbed areas like old damp quarry workings. It is most characteristic of old moist water meadows, sometimes in brackish environments near the sea (Komarov 1968, Page 1997, Van der Meijden 2005, Frey et al. 2006). Its elevation limits are 0 - 1,500 m.

threats:
Habitat alteration through afforestation, fertiliser use, ploughing, draining and eutrophication of meadows may threaten the subpopulations. In Scandinavia, the species is often overgrown by reed (Phragmites australis) in areas where eutrophic water brings more nutrients to shore meadows (H. Väre pers. comm. 2016).

conservationAction:
Subpopulations are best preserved through habitat protection, although ex-situ conservation is also an option as the species is easily cultivated. It is present in protected areas. It is listed as Least Concern in Great Britain and Finland (Rassi et al. 2010, Stroh et al. 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is not used, although it makes an unusual and attractive ornamental.

redListAssessors:
Rouhan, G.,Bento Elias, R.,Christenhusz, M.,Dyer, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rumsey, F.,Väre, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR) 
EU 28 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

The actual area of occupancy (AOO) for this species is 0.01 km², its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 4 km, the population is severely fragmented as it is known from three distinct subpopulations which are isolated from each other, and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of the area and in the number of mature individuals (estimated to be fewer than 200). Thus, the species is assessed as Critically Endangered.

range:
This is a pan-tropical species that extends into a few temperate zones, such as the southeastern USA, Japan, Kuril Islands and New Zealand. In Europe, it is known only from three subpopulations in southern Spain, at Los Barrios near Cádiz (Frey et al. 2006). These subpopulations are isolated as they are situated outside the tropics, separated widely from the other subpopulations by the Sahara and the Atlantic, with the nearest subpopulation being found in the Cape Verde Islands. It is naturalised in Funchal (Madeira). The actual area of occupancy (AOO) is 0.01 km² (Moreno 2008) and the extent of occurrence is 4 km².

population:
There are less than 200 individuals in the Spanish subpopulations. The population trend is decreasing, and the species is only known from three small subpopulations which are isolated from each other. The population is therefore considered to be severely fragmented.

habitat:
In Europe this species grows in sunny situations on rocks at low elevations. Elsewhere (mainly in the tropics), it can be found terrestrially on rocks or in moist sand and epiphytically often in the crowns or among the roots of palms and cycads or in tree forks and hollows; sometimes naturalising in gardens or greenhouses. Its elevation limits are 90-170 m.

threats:
The species is threatened by collection, fires, road development, atmospheric contamination and recreational activities.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008), under criteria B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v). It is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas, although it is likely. These subpopulations should be protected because they are severely disjunct from the main subpopulations in the tropics. Genetic studies on these subpopulations are required, and research on its population size and trend is needed.

useAndTrade:
This species is sometimes grown as an ornamental, particularly in botanical gardens as a curiosity. It is popular as an ornamental in Japan where many cultivars are known.

redListAssessors:
Christenhusz, M.,Bento Elias, R.,Ivanenko, Y.,Rouhan, G.,Väre, H.,Dyer, R.,Rumsey, F.


taxonomicNotes:
"The Arctic fox is sometimes placed in a subgenus of Vulpes and sometimes in Canis. However, the species is still most often placed in Alopex. The most closely related species are swift fox (Vulpes velox) and kit fox (V. macrotis), neither of which occurs in the tundra." (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)At the regional level, the species is Least Concern (there are large populations of >10,000 mature individuals, occupying a large area, and populations are generally stable). However, there may nevertheless be cause for concern in north-western mainland Russia, where population densities apparently are low and have failed to recover despite a decrease in hunting pressure. Little is known about the arctic fox in this region, and more information (and action) is urgently needed.Within the EU, the arctic fox is found only in Sweden and Finland, where its total population numbers at most 50-70 animals. In Sweden the population is very small but appears to have stabilized, whereas in Finland no breeding has been recorded since 2000 and the population can be assumed to be decreasing. Fennoscandian populations are all tiny and highly fragmented, so no rescue effect should be expected from outside the EU. Consequently the species qualifies as Critically Endangered (D1, C2a(i)).Arctic foxes in Fennoscandia are isolated from other populations, and thus can be described as a subpopulation (according to global Red List guidelines). Within that subpopulation there are a number of further isolated subpopulations, each numbering less than 50 individuals. The Fennoscandian subpopulation is assessed as Critically Endangered under Criterion C2a(i), as it numbers <250 mature individuals, and there are ongoing declines (although populations in Norway and Sweden are relatively stable, the Finnish population is declining).

range:
Arctic foxes have a circumpolar distribution (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990, Pulliainen 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999), occurring in three distinct ecological situations. Arctic foxes are found throughout the area of continental tundra that covers the northern coasts of Alaska, Canada and Siberia. They occur on most of the arctic islands including all islands of the Canadian high arctic, Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard, Jan Mayen, Bjørnøya, Novaya Zemlja, Wrangel Island, and the Komandor Islands (in addition, they have been introduced to some of the Aleutian Islands: Bailey 1992). Thirdly, they occur on the alpine tundra that occurs on the mountain ranges found along the spine of the Scandinavian peninsula (including the Kola region). Arctic foxes are also observed in the open drift ice. In a pan-European context arctic foxes occur in four geographic areas that represent all three ecological situations – continental tundra in western Siberia (Russia), arctic islands in Svalbard (Norway) and Iceland, and alpine tundra in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Kola peninsula of Russia). Southern and altitudinal limitations on its global distribution is most probably set by intraguild competition with the larger red fox (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1992). In Europe Arctic foxes occur from sea level to 1,500 m (N.E. Eide pers. comm. 2007).

population:
The world population of arctic foxes is in the order of several hundred thousand animals (see Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004 for specific details). Most populations fluctuate widely in numbers between years in response to varying lemming numbers. The species is common in the tundra areas of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Komandor Islands, Russia) and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). The situation in Europe varies between areas. It is most realistic to consider the four geographic areas of occurrence separately:Western Siberia (from the White Sea to Novaya Zemlya). There are no reliable data about arctic fox numbers from this region, although Sillero-Zubiri et al. (2004) estimate that the total Russian population (including eastern Siberia) could potentially be in the order of 200,000-800,000 animals. In general in Western Russia, the species is sparse on the mainland but common on the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, where some thousands of animals can be estimated on the each island (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Although the hunting pressure on this species is now very low all over Russia, mainland populations may not have recovered from historical overhunting (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006).Svalbard. There has been no total census of arctic foxes on this archipelago, but the population is known to be numerous and stable. The arctic fox went extinct on the island Bjørnøya (part of the Svalbard archipelago) and on Jan Mayen (an isolated island further south between Svalbard and Iceland). The two populations were severely depleted following early 20th century extermination efforts (Fuglei et al. 1998). On Bjørnøya the arctic fox population has re-established by immigration over sea ice in recent years, and breeding is again documented, while no foxes have been observed on Jan Mayen since before 1998 (E. Fuglei pers. comm. 2007). Iceland. Numbers of arctic foxes on Iceland have fluctuated as a result of differing management practices. From a low point in the 1970s of around 1,300 individuals, the population reached 8,000 individuals in 2003 and is still increasing (Hersteinsson 2006).Fennoscandia. Arctic foxes were once very abundant throughout the alpine tundra habitats of Fennoscandia, but were greatly reduced due to over-harvesting in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They have basically never recovered, despite having been protected for over 75 years (Østbye et al. 1978, Hersteinsson et al. 1989, Linnell et al. 1999, Kaikusalo et al. 2000). The most recent estimate is 120 adults in Norway, Sweden and Finland, around 50 of which are found in Sweden (Angerbjörn et al. 1995, Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004, Angerbjörn et al. 2005), 50 in Norway (Frafjord and Rofstad 1998, Linnell et al. 1999), and 5-15 in Finland (Kaikusalo et al. 2000, Angerbjörn et al. 2005). The population on the Kola peninsula has not been accurately censused. Estimates range from c.40 individuals (Angerbjörn et al. 2005), and less than 100 individuals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006), to 1,000-2,000 animals (Potansky 1993). The latter figure is considered likely to be an overestimate (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Genetic research showed that the Arctic fox in Scandinavia presently is subdivided into four subpopulations, and that the Kola Peninsula and northwest Russia together form a large fifth subpopulation. Current dispersal between the subpopulations seems to be very low (Dalén et al. 2006). The population trend in Norway and Sweden is stable, but in Finland the population can be assumed to be decreasing as there has been no breeding documented since 2000 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
The species is confined to arctic and alpine tundra, above or north of the treeline. The arctic fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger, but in most inland areas the species is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. In Fennoscandia, the Norwegian lemming Lemmus lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in faeces) followed by birds and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) (Frafjord 1995, Elmhagen et al. 2000). Changes in fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles (Angerbjörn et al. 1995, Angerbjörn et al. 1999). The typical response to lemming peak-years is an increase in both the number of litters and litter size (Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996). Foxes living near ice-free coasts have access to both inland prey and sea birds, seal carcasses, fish and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy especially in areas without cyclic rodent populations (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996, Dalerum and Angerbjörn 2000, Eide et al. 2005). In Iceland, lamb carcasses frequently are found among prey remains at dens resulting in the species being considered a pest. Although individual foxes may indeed prey on lambs, it is more likely that a large proportion of the lambs have been scavenged (Hersteinsson 1996). Arctic foxes are known to prey on wildfowl (Eide et al. 2005) and occasionally kill reindeer calves (Prestrud 1992a). Foxes reach sexual maturity at 10 months, and the average lifespan for animals that reach adulthood is approximately three years (Angerbjörn et al. 2004). In more stable coastal environments the average age is probably higher (Prestrud 1992a). Arctic fox life history traits reflect adaptations to differing constraints in resource availability. Arctic foxes in unstable environments (e.g., habitats dominated by cyclic prey) have higher litter size but do not reproduce every year, whereas arctic foxes in stable environments (e.g., coastal habitats with bird cliffs), have a smaller litter size but reproduce every year (Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996, Angerbjörn et al. 2004). Social organization (home range size and territoriality) and hence local density of arctic fox is also highly influenced by resource availability; home range sizes range from 10 km2 in stable coastal habitats up to 52 km2 in more fluctuating environments (Angerbjörn et al. 1997, Strand et al. 2000, Eide et al. 2004). Hence predictable coastal habitats support a denser population of foxes compared to more unpredictable habitats. Arctic foxes tend to be territorial, with a mated pair occupying a common territory (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1986, Prestrud 1992b, Landa et al. 1998, Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996, Eide et al. 2004). Additional, but non-reproductive adults may also be present within the territory even though their function as “helpers” may be somewhat limited. In some rare cases it has been observed that two adult females will reproduce within the same territory (Strand et al. 2000, Angerbjörn et al. 2004, Bodil Elmhagen pers. comm.). As a result of these home range sizes and territorial social organisation typical densities can vary from 20 adults per 100 km2 to 2-4 per 100 km2. A noticeable feature of arctic fox ecology is dependence on and year round use of dens. These dens are normally excavated in sandy soil and can reach a considerable size (Østbye et al. 1978, Dalerum et al. 2002, Frafjord 2003). After several decades, or even centuries, of use they can acquire many tens of openings. In areas without sandy deposits foxes use crevices in cliffs or moraines as dens (Prestrud 1992b).

threats:
Globally the large populations on the continental tundra of Alaska, Canada and Siberia (except Kola) and the island of Greenland are all harvested by trapping or shooting. The main motivation is for fur, although they are killed around settlements in parts of Greenland to reduce the risk of rabies being spread to sled dogs and humans. There is nothing that indicates that these populations are currently threatened by overharvest. The small population on the Komandor islands is threatened by a form of mange (Otodectes cynotis: Goltsman et al. 1996).In Europe the threats vary between regions.The animals occupying western Siberia are exposed to trapping, but nothing indicates that this is representing an immediate threat. There is no other information available about threats to this population.On Svalbard arctic foxes are trapped, but the extent of this trapping is limited to areas close to settlements, and it is therefore not regarded as a threat (Fuglei et al. 1998). Possible threats include accumulation of long distance transported pollutants and climate change, which may influence sea ice conditions in the future. The arctic fox on Svalbard (Norway) has higher levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) than foxes in other parts of the arctic (Norheim 1978, Wang-Andersen et al. 1993, Fuglei et al. 2007). The levels are similar to those found in polar bears from Svalbard and Greenland (Verreault et al. 2005). Such high concentrations of contaminants may have possible toxic health effects. The island Bjørnøya holds a small, recently re-established population of arctic foxes, while no foxes have been reported on Jan Mayen since before 1998 (E. Fuglei pers comm. 2007). Arctic foxes on these islands are protected and the main threat appears to be lack of influx of new animals and the extremely small population size. These islands were part of the Svalbard metapopulation, as sea ice allowed connectivity. Climate change through reduction in the extent of the sea ice might in fact explain why the arctic fox has not re-established on Jan Mayen (E. Fuglei pers comm. 2007).On Iceland the status of arctic fox has changed. Historically they were heavily persecuted because of the belief that they were involved in depredation on livestock. Recent legislation has restricted harvest and the population is increasing (Hersteinsson 2006), although in many areas they are still hunted year round.In Fennoscandia arctic foxes are scattered along the peninsula in very small populations that are relatively isolated from each other. The alpine tundra habitat is naturally fragmented, but the degree of population fragmentation has increased due to the extinction of local populations. The populations have not increased despite over 75 years of protection. Overexploitation due to hunting and trapping was most probably the originate threat and the reason behind the dramatic decline of arctic foxes in Fennoscandia (Østbye et al. 1978, Hersteinsson et al. 1989, Angerbjörn et al. 1995, Linnell et al. 1999, Kaikusalo et al. 2000). The value of arctic fox fur together with high grants for killing foxes gave motivation for this strong persecution. In 1924 Norwegian trappers could get 25% more than an average year's salary for a peasant for only one skin (Østbye and Pedersen 1990). Establishment of the fox farm industry at the beginning of 1900 probably also forced the decline further. Live trapping of foxes also continued also after protection. Arctic fox den sites are easy to spot and several dens were dug out during the sixties to catch cubs to bring in to fur farms (Østbye et al. 1978).     The exact reason why the population in not responding to protection is not understood, but a range of factors are believed to be involved, including:Intraguild competition with red foxes. Red fox populations have increased and expanded in range throughout the 20th century, both in the boreal region and above the treeline to alpine tundra habitat (Selås and Vik 2006, Elmhagen et al. 2007). It is known that they have occupied former arctic fox dens in the most productive, low lying areas (Østbye et al. 1978, Linnell et al. 1999, Frafjord 2003, Tannerfeldt et al. 2002, Kaikusalo et al. 2000). Red foxes occupy the same niche and eat the same prey as arctic foxes (Elmhagen et al. 2002), they can kill arctic fox pups and adults (Frafjord et al. 1989, Tannerfeldt et al. 2002), and arctic foxes avoid breeding close to red foxes (Tannerfeldt et al. 2002). Therefore the potential for a negative effect is clearly present.Genetics. The remaining arctic fox populations are all very small and relatively isolated from each other. Today the population consists of four genetically distinct subpopulations with very little exchange of dispersing animals (Dalén et al. 2002, Dalén et al. 2006). Therefore the potential for inbreeding is high. So far there are no obvious signs of inbreeding depression but individual genetic variation was negatively associated with fitness (Dalén et al. unpublished). Although there is still a surprisingly high degree of variation, by comparison with historical samples it is clear that 25% of the variation has been lost (Nyström et al. 2006). Hybridization with arctic foxes that have escaped from fur farms has also been documented.  Genetic mapping revealed hybridization of genotypes originating from escaped farm foxes (Norén et al. 2005), mixing in haplotypes not found in the wild Fennoscandian arctic fox (Dalén et al. 2005). The amount of reported escapes of farm foxes has increased in recent years and even breeding has been observed (N.E. Eide pers. comm. 2006). However at present demographic stochasticity probably remains a greater threat than inbreeding.Small population size. The small size of populations directly increases their individual risks of extinction, especially when they occupy a fluctuating environment with strong year to year variation in the probability of reproducing (Linnell et al. 1999, Loison et al. 2001). Extinction risk is further increased by fragmentation, which reduces the chance of rescue effects occurring (Dalén et al. 2006).Climate change. Projected climate change would intensify fragmentation of the Fennoscandian mountain plateau even further, and may exclude the arctic fox from lower lying alpine tundra areas. For a review of the potential impacts of climate change on arctic foxes see Ims and Fuglei (2005).

conservationAction:
Occurrence in protected areasGood information is available for Norway, Sweden and Finland. For Iceland, Arctic foxes could potentially appear in most protected areas (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Norway: The National Parks Blåfjell-Skjækerfjella, Børgefjell, Saltfjellet, Øvre Dividal, Reisa. On Svalbard Arctic foxes are found in most protected areas.Sweden: The National Parks Sarek, Padjelanta, and Stora Sjöfallet, in the county of Norrbotten; the Nature Reserves Vindelfjällen, Marsfjället, and Gitsfjället, in the county of Västerbotten; the Nature Reserves Hamrafjället, Henvålen-Aloppan, Vålådalen, Gråberget-Hotagsfjällen, Frostvikenfjällen, Sösjöfjällen and Skäckerfjällen, in the county of Jämtland.Finland: Malla, Käsivarren erämaa, Iiton palsasuot, Saanan luonnonsuojelualue, Muotkatunturin erämaa, Hanhijänkä Pierkivaaran jänka, Pieran Marin jänkä, Kevo, Kaldoaivin erämaa, Paistunturin erämaa, Pulmankijärvi.There appear to be no significant protected areas in the the Kola peninsula that contain arctic foxes.LegislationIt is strictly protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II), and is listed on Annex II* and Annes IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. In most of its range, the arctic fox is not protected under national legislation. However, the species and its dens have had total legal protection in Sweden since 1928, in Norway since 1930, and in Finland since 1940. In Europe, the arctic fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE). Conservation measures takenAction plans based on status reports have been developed for arctic foxes in Sweden (Löfgren and Angerbjörn 1998) and Norway (Direktoratet for Naturforvaltning 2003), and a status report has also been published for Finland (Kaikusalo et al. 2000). In Sweden and Finland, a species-specific conservation project has been completed (SEFALO), and a second is under way (SEFALO+), the latter also involving work in Norway (Angerbjörn et al. 2005). Measures taken include den monitoring (and protection of den sites by excluding ptarmigan hunting in Sweden only), supplementary feeding, red fox control, disease research, as well as building public awareness and education work (Angerbjörn et al. 2005). In Norway a captive breeding programme on arctic foxes was started in 2000 and extended in 2007. The first successful captive reproduction and release of foxes happened in 2006 (A. Landa pers. comm. 2006). A research programme on red fox control was started in northern Norway in 2004. Programmes to build public awareness have also been started in Norway by non-governmental organizations (www.fjellrev.no). A number of research projects on the arctic fox are underway, of which further details can be found in Sillero-Zubiri et al. (2004).

redListAssessors:
P. Hersteinsson, A. Landa, N.E. Eide, J.D.C. Linnell, H. Henttonnen, A. Tikhonov, A. Angerbjörn.


