# European_Red_List_2017_December

taxonomicNotes:
Falco peregrinus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously split as F. peregrinus and F. pelegrinoides following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 14,900-28,800 pairs, which equates to 29,700-57,600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,700-11,900 pairs, which equates to 19,300-23,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Birds are highly migratory in the temperate and Arctic parts of its range, moving from Europe to Africa. Those breeding at lower latitudes tend to be resident (White et al. 2013). Migrating birds leave their breeding sites between August and November, and return between March and May (Snow and Perrins 1998). Migrants readily fly over expanses of sea and ocean. Most birds travel singly or in pairs, even on migration (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It inhabits a wide variety of habitats, tolerating wet and dry, hot and cool climates. Birds make up most of its diet, principally pigeons and doves. Egg-laying occurs from February to March in northern temperate zones and eggs are usually laid in a scrape or depression in a rock face, with no nest being built (White et al. 2013). Clutches are usually three to four eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Historically, the species was affected by shooting in the U.K., notably during the Second World War (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Persecution throughout its range was the major threat in the 19th and early 20th centuries (Snow and Perrins 1998). Severe population declines in the 1960s–1970s were driven by eggshell breakage and mortality of adults and embryos from the hydrocarbon contamination associated with pesticides of that time (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, White et al. 2013). The species is used extensively in falconry, although the population-level impacts of this are uncertain (White et al. 2013). It is highly vulnerable to the effects of potential wind energy development (Strix 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix I. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The tree-nesting population in central and eastern Europe declined from c. 4,000 pairs to extirpation, before restoration efforts in Germany and Poland returned it to c. 20 pairs. Populations recovered following the ban of harmful hydrocarbons in most countries, which appears important to the birds' survival (White et al. 2013). Surveillance of nests and other direct protection measures have been successful in permitting population increases (Tucker and Heath 1994).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Significant further efforts are needed to fully restore it across its former range, which included Germany, Poland, Russia, Belarus and the Baltic States (European Peregrine Falcon Working Group in litt. 2007). Most importantly, harmful food-chain pollutants should be eliminated and the release of new potentially damaging chemicals prevented; the ban on organochlorine and other highly toxic pesticides should be enforced. Nest surveillance and other direct protection measures should be continued. Monitoring of breeding populations and exposure to toxic pollutants should also continue (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The small population size in the EU27 qualifies as Vulnerable (D1), and there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species is circumpolar, occupying the arctic regions of Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, White et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,100-1,900 pairs, which equates to 2,200-3,900 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 120-180 pairs, which equates to 240-360 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies three basic habitats for breeding, which are maritime, riverine and montane. It is found widely over tundra and taiga and in the winter, migrants moving south often frequent farm and agricultural land, coasts and native steppe habitat. It breeds from March to July and the eggs are laid in an unlined scrape or depression in a cliff ledge, a disused stick nest of another species on cliff, or occasionally a stick nest in tree or on man-made structure. Clutches are usually three or four eggs. It feeds mainly on birds, with mammals making a lesser portion of the diet. The species is mainly sedentary, especially in Iceland and Scandinavia although juveniles are generally more dispersive than adults and move farthest south (White et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is threatened by the collection of eggs and young for the falconry market (Tucker and Heath 1994) with an unknown number collected each year (White et al.  2013). Illegal shooting also occurs in some areas such as Norway and Sweden. In parts of Fennoscandia, intensive hunting of grouse (Tucker and Heath 1994), such as Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) and Willow Grouse (Lagopus lagopus) may affect numbers of this species. Disturbance of nests through tourism is also a problem (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The species is also threatened by climate change (Booms et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix I. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is protected in all countries in Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is now bred in captivity for falconry and research in Europe and Russia, which should alleviate pressure caused by the taking of wild birds (White et al. 2013). An international species action plan was published in 1999 (Koskimies 1999).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Co-operative efforts between national authorities and non-governmental conservation bodies should look to stop the illegal collection of eggs and young. In some areas of Fennoscandia, more rigorous controls on snow mobile traffic is needed as this has facilitated the collection of wild birds. The legal trade of birds should be more strictly controlled. Important sites for this species should be protected from hydroelectric power dams, roads and tourist establishments. Finally, the effects of acid rain, overgrazing and hunting pressure on grouse populations should be monitored to ensure healthy populations (Tucker and Heath 1994). National species action plans should be developed in range countries and research should be developed on population viability and limiting factors, wintering populations and migration routes and the feasibility of reintroductions. Awareness of the species’s status should also be raised (Koskimies 1999).


population:
The European population is estimated at 92,100-147,000 pairs, which equates to 184,000-295,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 41,300-59,800 pairs, which equates to 82,600-120,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most individuals of the species are migratory, with western birds mainly wintering in Africa (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Birds leave their breeding grounds between August and October, arriving at wintering quarters from late October onwards. The return journey begins in March and April, and breeding territories are occupied again in May and June.  Birds are usually seen singly or in pairs or family groups, even on migration, with larger groups being rare except at roosts and especially rich feeding sites (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It migrates in broad fronts and does not generally concentrate at narrow sea crossings as do many other migratory raptors (Snow and Perrins 1998, Orta and Kirwan 2014). It is mainly diurnal although partly crepuscular and even nocturnal to some extent on migration (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It occurs in open wooded areas, including wooded steppes, pastures, cultivation or scrub with clumps of trees, scattered trees or copses; fields with hedges, edges of woods. Flying insects form the main part of its diet, although birds are often taken in the breeding season. It uses unoccupied nests of corvids or other raptors, or squirrel dreys, but does not add material and is almost always in trees, preferring pines, but also in other conifers and broad-leaved trees; exceptionally on cliffs. Clutches are typically three eggs (Orta and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
The cutting of old growth forest patches in Ukraine is thought to have caused local declines (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Some are shot, notably in Malta where hunters are thought to kill 500–1,000 individuals each year. A growing threat is human disturbance, which facilitates nest predation by crows and squirrels. Pesticide use has likely had only minor impacts, as has egg-collecting, which tends to be a local issue (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The species is highly vulnerable to the effects of potential wind energy development (Strix 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CMS Appendix II, CITES Appendix II. Measures such as reducing pesticide output, ensuring the availability of nesting trees, and expanding insect-rich habitats have been beneficial to this species, although not specifically aimed at it (Sergio and Bogliani 1999).

Conservation Action Proposed
Wide-scale management should include the preservation of trees in which to nest, as although preferring generally open areas in the breeding season it will avoid those that are completely deforested (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Pesticide use should be minimised and legislation against illegal hunting along migration routes enforced. The provision of artificial nests can also help this species when there is a lack of natural nests of other species for it to use (Mebs and Schmidt 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 409,000-603,000 pairs, which equates to 819,000-1,210,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 315,000-460,000 pairs, which equates to 629,000-919,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Populations in the northern part of the species’s range tend to be migrant, with others resident (Orta and Boesman 2013). Migrant birds leave their breeding grounds between August and October and those arriving in sub-Saharan Africa do so from October onwards (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The return journey begins from February through until April (the exact time probably dependent on food availability), and is often undertaken in small mixed groups with F. naumanni and occasionally F. vespertinus (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The species can be solitary or gregarious, being most often seen singly but sometimes travelling in flocks of up to 10 individuals, especially on migration. Larger groups may congregate at sources of abundant food. It is mainly diurnal (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The species tolerates a wide range of open and partially forested habitats. It feeds mainly on small mammals, particularly in northern Europe, with insects possibly more important in the Mediterranean. The locations of nests are variable, with rock ledges, buildings and abandoned corvid nests being commonly reported sites. Typically lays three to six eggs (Orta and Boesman 2013).

threats:
Past population declines resulted from the heavy use of organochlorine and other pesticides in the 1950s–1960s (Orta and Boesman 2013). In Malta, the species was exterminated by shooting, though it has since returned (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The population in much of the rest of Europe has shown a more recent steady decline, thought to be due to agricultural intensification (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is vulnerable to the effects of potential wind energy development (Strix 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. The ban of organochlorine pesticides, which were used heavily during the 1960s and 1970s has allowed this species to recover in some areas (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species requires wide-scale conservation, which alleviates agricultural intensification. Policies should encourage mixed farming and high crop diversity and maintain non-cultivated marginal habitats, which decrease stocking rates and pesticide use (Tucker and Heath 1994). Management should also ensure suitable perches and roosting sites, usually provided by trees, telegraph poles, buildings or rock faces are maintained (Orta and Boesman 2013). Kestrel populations should be monitored, particularly with regards to the effects of modern farming (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species is undergoing moderately rapid population declines and it is therefore classified as Near Threatened. Within the EU27 its small population is declining rapidly and it is classified as Vulnerable (A2acbde+3bcde+4abcde; C1).

range:
The species breeds in eastern Europe, with its main range stretching from Belarus south to Hungary, northern Serbia and Montenegro, Romania, Moldova and east Bulgaria, eastward through Ukraine and north-west and south Russia. It winters in southern Africa (P. Palatitz in litt. 2007, Orta and Kirwan 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 30,300-63,400 pairs, which equates to 60,600-127,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,800-2,800 pairs, which equates to 3,500-5,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in open lowlands with trees and plenty of insects, including steppe and forest-steppe, open woodland, cultivation and pastureland with tall hedgerows or fringing trees, agricultural areas with shelterbelts and, in the north-east, boggy areas and taiga edge. It is found from sea-level to c.300 m. It is often crepuscular (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The breeding season occurs from mid-April to August (Orta and Kirwan 2014). It is usually colonial but can also be solitary, breeding in disused nests of other birds (most commonly Corvus frugilegus). It prefers the upper part of trees but sometimes nests in cliffs or tree holes, in hedgerows or isolated bushes (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Orta and Kirwan 2014). Usually lays four to five white or pale buffish-brown eggs variably marked with dark reddish brown. The diet comprises of large insects, especially Orthoptera but also beetles, dragonflies, butterflies, moths and cicadas. During breeding, chicks may be mainly fed with vertebrates, such as fledglings of small birds, voles, mice, shrews, amphibians, lizards. In Hungary, mice and toads are important. The species is migratory, with birds travelling great distances to their wintering grounds in southern Africa (Orta and Kirwan 2014). Most leave their breeding grounds in August and September, making the return journey between February and May (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Orta and Kirwan 2014). Birds migrate in a broad front across the Mediterranean Sea, not concentrating at bottleneck sites to the extent that many other raptors do (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Orta and Kirwan 2014). On migration they form mixed flocks often over 100 strong with other falcons such as F. naumanni, and tend to stay at very high altitudes for the majority of the journey (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).

threats:
Threats include destruction of suitable nest-sites when rookery trees are felled for agricultural expansion or timber (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001, Anon. 2007) and, more significantly, the widespread use of pesticides is affecting the food supply (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001). In central Europe, agricultural intensification is causing habitat loss, and a decrease in extensive grassland management especially grazing is affecting the species's food supply (P. Palatitz in litt. 2007). From 1980 to 1999 intensive poisoning of Corvus frugilegus in Hungary forced the species to change its nest site selection habits, and large colonies have nearly disappeared there as a result, with only 38% of the population breeding colonially (P. Palatitz in litt. 2005). As productivity is generally greater in larger colonies, further decreases may occur. The species appears to be hunted opportunistically during migration. In October 2007, 52 birds that had been roosting at Phasouri, Cyprus, were found shot, with 46 already dead and 6 wounded (Palatitz et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. Bern Convention Appendix II. Added to Annex I of EU Birds Directive in 2004. Recent conservation measures in Hungary have shown that birds will occupy artificial colonies, meaning that this could be a useful mid-term conservation tool to stop population fragmentation (P. Palatitz in litt. 2007). The species is also included in agro-environmental programs in Hungary. Following surveys in Bulgaria, which indicated a decline in the number of suitable breeding sites, over 100 nest boxes were constructed and installed in suitable places during 2006; however, none were used by the species in 2007 (Anon. 2007). Anti-poaching patrols have been increased in the Akrotiri area of Cyprus, following the unprecedented loss of a migratory flock to hunters in October 2007 (Palatitz et al. 2009). Sporadic irregular population surveys have been carried out and are implemented in Serbia, while a nation-wide census of the species was concluded in 2009 in Ukraine (Kostenko 2009). A European Action Plan for the species has been in place since 2010 (Palatitz et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue to carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Conduct further research into the effects of changes in agriculture and land management. Change farming and land-use practices in central Europe through EU policy and/or national schemes. Provide more artificial colonies for the species. Prevent hunting in problem areas through law enforcement, prosecution and awareness campaigns.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 7,500-20,000 pairs, which equates to 15,000-40,100 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in predominantly dry, open country with scrubby cover (Tucker and Heath 1994). It uses steep slopes, rocky areas and arid hillsides, stony terraces, unimproved agricultural land, open or degraded maquis and woodland, including open pine forest (Tucker and Heath 1994, McGowan and Kirwan 2013). The species lays between March and May although eggs have been reported in December on the Canary Islands (Clark 2006, McGowan and Kirwan 2013). It can lay six to twenty seven eggs (Znari 1998). It breeds earlier in the lowlands than in the mountains. In very dry years it may not breed at all in semi-arid habitats (McGowan and Kirwan 2013). The nest is a depression in the ground which is usually lined and sheltered by long grass, bushes or boulders (Madge and McGowan 2002, Mocci Demartis and Massoli-Novelli 1978). It has a varied diet but predominantly feeds on leaves, shoots, fruits and seeds of a wide range of grasses and herbs with insects such as ants forming an important supplement. The species is mainly sedentary (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

threats:
The main threat in Europe is hunting. In Sardinia regulatory measures exist but are not enforced due to a sufficient number of wardens. In the Canary Islands the remaining population is restocked annually to enable sport hunting (McGowan and Kirwan 2013), however this increases the risk if introducing disease and genetic contamination. Other threats are intensive use of pesticides, outbreaks of fire and the abandonment of cultivated land (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I, II and III. Mace Lande: Safe. The reinforcing of populations continues, such as in the Canaries where local populations are restocked annually to accommodate sport hunting. In Gibraltar, over 200 birds hatched locally from eggs supplied from northern Morocco were released progressively in 2014; Prior to this habitat improvement measures, involving scrub clearance, and cat control, preceded these releases (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
In order to alleviate pressure from hunting, legislation should be enforced where it exists and protected areas where shooting is banned should be created to provide safe areas and preserve suitable habitat. In the Canaries a moratorium on hunting should be introduced for one or two years to allow numbers to recover. Low-intensity farming should be promoted to protect and restore suitable habitats (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This partridge has undergone moderately rapid population declines in its European breeding range that are estimated to be in the range 20-29% and it is therefore classified as Near Threatened (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd) in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within the EU27.

range:
This species's range extends from the east Balkans, the adjacent  Mediterranean islands (most Aegean islands, Crete, Cyprus) and Turkey and continues into central Asia. Outside of these areas, it has been introduced locally in many countries, including the U.K., France, mainland Greece and some Greek islands (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 488,000-1,680,000 pairs, which equates to 975,000-3,370,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 71,500-143,000 pairs, which equates to 143,000-286,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found on barren arid and semi-arid hillsides with low vegetation cover and occasional stunted trees and bushes (Watson 1962, Papaevangelou 1980). At lower altitudes it is found on rocky slopes with shrubs and bushes adapted to dry conditions, in vineyards, olive groves and on agricultural land (Pantelis 1980, Papaevangelou 1980, Serez 1992). It has also been found on forested slopes up to 2,800 m in the Turkish mountains bordering the Black Sea (Serez 1992).

Laying occurs mid-April to May in the Mediterranean with 7–12 eggs laid. The nest consists of a scrape sometimes lined with grass or leaves and is found under the shelter of bushes or overhanging grasses. It feeds on plants and insects, taking bulbous roots, grains and shoots of grasses and cereals (McGowan& Kirwan 2013) as well as leaves, buds, flowers and berries (Watson 1962, Cramp & Simmons 1980). Availability of water influences population density even though birds will move up to 10 km to access water (Watson 1962). They undergo seasonal altitudinal movements moving to lower altitudes during the winter (McGowan & Kirwan 2013).

threats:
Severe winters are known to affect the Turkish populations and pesticides may now be a cause for concern. It is also suffering from habitat degradation in some areas (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. Protected in Turkey since 1990 (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Assessment of the impacts of pesticides is needed to inform appropriate conservation measures. Identify key areas of habitat for this species and take steps to protect and expand them.


taxonomicNotes:
Alectoris graeca(Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into A. graeca and A. whitakeri by Corso (2010). The case for recognising Sicilian Rock PartridgeAlectoris (graeca) whitakeri as a separate species rests on:  more pronounced, warmer ear-coverts (2)

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This European endemic partridge is undergoing moderately rapid population declines in Europe, where it is classified as Near Threatened. Within the EU27 the small population is declining more rapidly and it is therefore listed as Vulnerable.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe, occurring only in the Alps, the Apennines, Sicily and the Balkans. It is suspected to be declining moderately rapidly, particularly in the Balkans which hold a substantial proportion of the species's population and range, based on a balanced assessment of the available evidence (e.g., Griffin 2011, A. Bernard-Laurent in litt. 2012). Within the Balkans, it breeds in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia , Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. It is also present in Albania, Austria, Italy and Switzerland. A small population persists in Slovenia. Introduced populations are found in the UK and Russia (MacGowan and Kirwan 2014).

population:
The European population is estimated at 41,800-73,400 pairs, which equates to 83,500-147,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 21,300-39,300 pairs, which equates to 42,600-78,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species utilises a variety of habitats and different altitudes, up to 3000 m in the Alps and almost down to sea level in Sicily and Greece. Generally they prefer open, mountain habitats with grassy patches, low scrub or scattered conifers (Griffin 2011). Winter flocks begin to break up from February and territories are established March to April with eggs laid from mid-May to June in the Alps and late-April to June in Greece. It is normally monogamous, forming long-term pair-bonds although some instances of successive bigamy and some exchange of partners have been reported. The nest site, believed to be chosen by the male, is a scrape excavated by the female. Clutches are normally eight to fourteen eggs. It is predominantly vegetarian, eating seeds, fruits and green material, but also some terrestrial invertebrates. Chicks, and females in spring, consume relatively high proportions of invertebrates, mainly adult and larval insects. Foraging continues day-round in winter, but is concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon in summer. This species is sedentary however, altitudinal movements are reported in mountain breeding areas, initially moving higher immediately post-breeding, then lower as winter advances. Birds may remain at breeding altitude of 1,900–2,700 m in winter, if snowfall is not too heavy (McGowan and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
Studies in different parts of the species's range (summarised in Griffin 2011) indicate that it is affected by a wide variety of threats, including habitat loss and degradation (Bernard-Laurent and de Franceschi 1994), abandonment of traditional agro-pastoral activities (Budinski et al. 2010, Rippa et al. 2011), reduced connectivity between metapopulations (Cattadori et al. 2003), disturbance, poaching, unsustainable hunting, extreme climatic events (Bernard-Laurent and Leonard 2000), hybridisation with released captive-bred Chukar (Alectoris chukar) and Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa) (Barilani et al. 2007, Randi 2008), and the transfer of pathogens and parasites from these species (Manios et al. 2002, Rosà et al. 2011). Additional threats include the increase of tourism in mountain areas, predominantly in the French and Austrian Alps (A. Bernard-Laurent in litt. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I and II. The species is classified as Threatened or Near Threatened in Red Data Books in Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Greece, Italy and Switzerland.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct surveys to determine population size and trends across the species's range. Improve knowledge on the effects of hunting on the species. Implement measures to reduce abandonment of traditional agro-pastoral activities. Safeguard the species's habitat. Improve legislation and enforcement to reduce unsustainable hunting and poaching. Investigate hybridisation with captive-bred A. chukar and A. rufa and pathogen and parasite transfer from these species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This bird is endemic to the European region, although introduced and reproducing elsewhere. At both European and EU27 scales this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,060,000-7,080,000 pairs, which equates to 10,100,000-14,200,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in open habitats ranging from Mediterranean to humid temperate zones but not in boreal, oceanic or arid zones (Tucker and Heath 1994, McGowan and Kirwan 2013). It prefers lowland areas and avoids forest and wet areas if possible. It uses habitats with a wide variety of soils and land uses including dry hilly land with scattered bushes up to about 1,300 m (occasionally up to 2,000 m) in montane foothills, inhospitable dry terrain on lower mountain slopes and marginal cultivation, cropland, orchards or woodland (McGowan and Kirwan 2013). Over most of its range it is associated with arable farming, using low-intensity cropping with a mixture of cultivated, fallow and uncultivated ground (Tucker and Heath 1994). Laying dates vary between countries; April to early May in Portugal, late April to May in England and May to mid-June in France. The nest is a scrape in the ground lined with a few pieces of vegetation. Clutch sizes average 11.2–12.7 eggs. It feeds on seeds, leaves and roots with grasses and legumes particularly important in winter. It will also eat insects. The species is mostly sedentary but may descend to lower ground during the winter (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

threats:
The disappearance of uncultivated land due to changes in agricultural practice has resulted in the loss of nesting cover and chick food. In pastoral areas, pastures have been agriculturally improved and areas of low, herb-rich scrub converted to grassland and further habitat loss has occurred through the loss of arable farming from open hill areas, if livestock are removed (leading to encroachment of tall scrub and forest) (Tucker and Heath 1994). Urbanization and agricultural expansion have also caused habitat fragmentation. In the Iberian Peninsula, hunting has led to steep declines; in Portugal over 60% of estimated potential population may be shot each year (McGowan and Kirwan 2013). Also illegal importations of A. graeca and A. chukar may also be causing problems through hybridization and competition (Tucker and Heath 1994, McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II and III. In 1993, the release of any Alectoris species other than A. rufa was discontinued in the U.K. (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The promotion of low-level agriculture in the lowlands and the maintenance of of traditional farming practices in marginal hill areas should be put in place. Releases of other Alectoris species should be stopped in the rest of Europe. Sustainable hunting practices should be developed and adopted and promoted by hunting organisations and their members (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe. The bird is not known from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 4,000-6,100 pairs, which equates to 8,000-12,100 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found on dry and stony foothills that are lightly vegetated or bare, occasionally on plateaux up to approximately 2,000 m. It is found in warmer, lower areas than Alectoris chukar where they are sympatric (McGowan and Kirwan 2014). It prefers flatter terrain often close to water (Madge and McGowan 2002). It is not found in narrow ravines, around crags or amongst thick tree cover (McGowan and Kirwan 2014). Typically six to nine eggs are laid from mid-April in south-east Turkey (Madge and McGowan 2002). It nests on exposed ground sheltered by grass or rocks. The nest is occasionally in a small hollow and sometimes lined with grass. Birds feed on shoots, leaves, seeds and berries and also take insects. The species is usually sedentary (McGowan and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
The species is widespread with little human disturbance (Fuller et al. 2000). Studies have found traces of toxic metals in the feathers of this species (Zolfaghari  et al. 2007, Norouzi et al. 2012). Also, possibly threatened by development of dams (Biricek and Karakas 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Least Concern (Fuller et al. 2000). Mace-Lande: Insufficient information. Hunting is banned in Turkey and recent surveys there revealed the species to be rather more numerous than previously thought. Only recently (2003) discovered in southern Armenia (McGowan and Kirwan 2014).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The protection of important sites, including legislation to protect them from development should be developed. Research should be undertaken into the species's ecology and habitat needs, and assessments of potential threats made in order to develop appropriate responses.


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,480,000-2,920,000 pairs, which equates to 2,950,000-5,830,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 663,000-911,000 pairs, which equates to 1,330,000-1,820,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in mixed coniferous deciduous woodland, both in plains and mountains. It seems to avoid pure coniferous stands and occurs in areas without conifers (de Juana and Kirwan 2013). It generally prefers large, dense forests with rich, varied undergrowth (up to c. 2 m tall) and occasional clearings (Madge and McGowan 2002). Laying occurs in April and May in central Europe and May to June in Scandinavia (de Juana and Kirwan 2013). It lays seven to eleven eggs. The nest is a shallow scrape lined with plant material and well concealed by undergrowth or under roots of fallen trees (Madge and McGowan 2002). Its diet changes seasonally, feeding on catkins, buds and twigs of Alnus and Betula in winter; leaves, flowers and newly sprouted vegetation in spring (Swenson 1994); berries and fruits in summer and autumn; and nuts, acorns and seeds in autumn. Chicks feed almost exclusively on arthropods during the first ten days before becoming more vegetarian. The species is highly sedentary (de Juana and Kirwan 2013).

threats:
The species is hunted but it has secretive habits and it is unlikely to be significantly affected by this, although in the 1970s some annual bag totals reached c. 10,200 birds in Norway, c. 18,000 in Sweden and 28,000?69,600 in Finland. It is more intensively hunted in European Russia and Siberia where perhaps as many as two million birds taken per annum during early 1990s (de Juana and Kirwan 2013). It has very specific habitat structure requirements (Madge and McGowan 2002) and so is very sensitive to habitat changes, particularly modern forestry trends (Schäublin and Bollmann 2011, de Juana & Kirwan 2013). Although small-scale timber work could have positive effects, as could permitting natural reforestation of areas subject to natural events such as avalanches, insect calamities, fires and erosion. In countries where harvesting is important, e.g. Finland it is often easier promoting management practices that favour the species. The species has an enormous range, so protected areas play only a very limited role in its protection, although conservations units can be locally important in the preservation of subpopulations, e.g. in Greece, Hungary and Belgium) (de Juana and Kirwan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I and II. Reintroductions have been attempted in some areas such as west Germany (de Juana and Kirwan 2013). Hunting of this species is banned in several countries. A small proportion of its range is covered by protected areas and their role is generally considered limited, however they can be important in countries at the edge of its range (e.g. Greece, Hungary and Belgium). Monitoring is common in Fennoscandia for the purpose of harvest planning. Elsewhere monitoring and surveys are mostly regionally restricted and irregular. In some part of Europe habitat management, such as maintaining coppice woodlands, favouring deciduous trees and shrubs within coniferous forests and planting patches of conifers for cover within extensive deciduous forests does occur (Storch 2007).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Forest practices should be integrated with habitat conservation and habitats for the species need to be considered at a landscape scale, maintaining and restoring spatial connectivity among populations. In countries on the edge of its range, protected areas may be effective in preventing declines as well. Monitoring of populations should be undertaken to ensure numbers are stable and exploitation is sustainable. Better law enforcement is needed in countries where it is threatened and illegal hunting is common (e.g. Bulgaria and Greece) (Storch 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,320,000-6,720,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 6,630,000-13,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,270,000-2,980,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 2,540,000-5,950,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in open habitats including agricultural land (Tucker and Heath 1994, McGowan et al. 2013) where it prefers fields of clover, winter wheat and other cereals as well as hay, rough grass and overgrown fallow (Tucker & Heath 1994). It avoids bare soils (McGowan et al. 2013), trees and scrub (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Aubrais et al. 1986), preferring areas with a dense herb layer less than 1 m tall. Egg-laying occurs from mid-May to August in northern Europe and late March to mid-June in southern Europe. Typically 8–13 eggs are laid. The nest consists of a scrape with grassy material added and is found in herbaceous vegetation or grasses. Birds feed mainly on the seeds of grasses, weeds and grain but will also eat ground-dwelling invertebrates. Birds are migratory, with most of the western Palearctic population wintering south of the Sahara mainly in the Sahel zone; however birds may winter as far north as the British Isles and Germany or around the Mediterranean (McGowan et al. 2013). Birds may also winter in north-west Africa and remain to breed in March-April before migrating into Europe where they breed once again (Guyomarc'h and Saint-Jalme 1986, Guyomarc'h 1992, Rodriguez-Teijeiro et al. 1992). Migration routes are thought to vary between individuals and years (McGowan et al. 2013).

threats:
Agricultural intensification has led to the loss of rough grass and uncultivated land and an increase in the use of herbicides and insecticides which have led to a reduction on the availability of weeds, seeds and insects (Tucker and Heath 1994). Hybridization with Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica) is a serious danger in southern Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994, Chazara et al. 2010).  Other potential threats driving declines in Europe are hunting, long-term climactic fluctuations and drought in the sub-Saharan wintering grounds (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II.  Hunting legislation in Europe is in place but is poorly enforced (Tucker and Heath 1994). A European Species Management Plan was published in 2009 (Perennou 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The introduction of wide-scale habitat conservation measures is needed. The maintenance and promotion of low-intensity farming methods and the avoidance of ploughing or cutting in the nesting period would benefit this species. Existing hunting legislation should be enforced and hunters and trappers made aware of the dangers of excessive mortality.  In addition the further release of C. japonica should be prevented (Tucker and Heath 1994). Adequate population monitoring to assess hunting pressure and population trends should be implemented and research to investigate population dynamics undertaken (Perennou 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 8,000-21,000 pairs, which equates to 16,000-42,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,000-7,000 pairs, which equates to 6,000-14,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found mainly in low-lying coastal areas but also in wide shallow valleys at altitudes of up to 400 m, up to 20 km inland in Cyprus and 60 km inland in southern Turkey. The species uses agricultural land as well as dense scrub mainly alongside rivers with reeds (Tucker and Heath 1994). In southern Turkey, it breeds from March to May (McGowan and Kirwan 2013). It lays seven to twelve eggs (Harrison and Castell 2002). The nest is a shallow hollow or depression, sometimes lined with a few scraps of plant material and concealed amongst vegetation. It feeds on seeds of grasses, weeds and cereal crops, shoots, leaves, tubers, berries and figs as well as insects. The species is sedentary (Madge and McGowan 2002).

threats:
This is species is threatened by hunting in Turkey and Cyprus (Johnsgaurd 1988, Tucker and Heath 1994).  It has also suffered from loss of habitat through intensification of agriculture (McGowan and Kirwan 2013). In Cyprus habitat destruction as a result of the removal of citrus and tobacco plantations and other suitable vegetation cover, primarily for tourist industry developments (tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. In Turkey, the species is fully protected and in Cyprus a ban on hunting was implemented 1984-1985 but this was lifted again after lobbying by the Hunting Association (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Hunting of the species needs to be controlled and it should be added to Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Tucker and Heath 1994). Key areas of suitable habitat should be identified and protected from development and the restoration of low-intensity farming encouraged.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This grouse is undergoing rapid population declines across the European part of its extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is a widespread resident across much of northern Europe from Ireland and western Scotland to the Ural Mountains (de Juana et al. 2013). Birds in northern areas on Russian tundra are partially migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998), moving south within its range to forested areas, outside the breeding season (de Juana et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,010,000-2,150,000 pairs, which equates to 2,020,000-4,310,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 361,000-704,000 pairs, which equates to 721,000-1,410,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found primarily in Arctic tundra, extending south in alpine mountain ranges and along or below the tree line, in openings of boreal forest. It prefers low, moderately moist areas with low shrubs, mosses, grasses and herbs avoiding rocky or lichen-rich tundra and steep slopes. Males prefer territories in areas with vegetation lower than eye level and elevated sites such as rocks, trees or hummocks for displaying on. Laying mainly occurs in May and June, but slightly earlier in the U.K. in April and May. It normally lays eight to eleven eggs. The nest is a shallow scrape with a thin lining in thick vegetation which usually partially covers it. It feeds on buds and twigs of Salix and birch (Betula) in winter. From spring to autumn leaves and berries of Vaccinium and Empetrum are important parts of its diet. It is sedentary in Scotland and Scandinavia, only making short-range altitudinal movements (de Juana et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is hunted everywhere except the Baltic Countries and Belarus. In the Russian tundra annual bags estimated at c. 2,000,000 west of the Urals (de Juana et al. 2013). The species seems to withstand such a heavy pressure, however in combination with other pressures, such as reductions in habitat quality and extent it can have adverse effects (Madge and McGowan 2002). Important declines in Finland were attributed to excessive hunting. Range contractions in Europe have been attributed to climatic changes (de Juana et al. 2013). It is also vulnerable to collisions with high-tension powerlines and deer fences (Madge and McGowan 2002).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is protected in the Baltic countries and Belarus (Madge and McGowan 2002), elsewhere the setting of hunting seasons and bag limits is generally the only management activity. Monitoring does occur in parts of Europe; In Norway several populations are regularly monitored, whereas in other parts of Fennoscandia and Britain, only some populations are monitored. In Britain, intensive habitat management has increased the density of this species well above natural levels in some areas (Storch 2007). There have been many attempted introductions, although most of them failed, (e.g. scoticus in Germany and Belgium) (de Juana et al. 2013). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring of populations in areas with potentially high hunting pressures should be undertaken to ensure they are sustainable. Research into the impacts of hunting and habitat alteration on population dynamics should be undertaken. More understanding of its migration and dispersal behaviour and its ability to cope with climate warming in some of its range is needed (Storch 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This arctic grouse has undergone moderately rapid population declines within the European part of its range. It therefore qualifies as Near Threatened. Within the EU27 declines have been more rapid and it is classified as Vulnerable (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd).

range:
The species has a patchy distribution in northern Europe and in alpine areas of south-central Europe. Alpine populations, are thought to be glacial relicts and occur in Scotland, the Pyrenees and the Alps, well south of its main range. Aside from Lagopus lagopus on Kolguev, this species is the only gallinaceous bird that inhabits arctic islands, such as Greenland (up to 83°N, Iceland and Svalbard (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 257,000-1,010,000 pairs, which equates to 514,000-2,020,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 48,900-122,000 pairs, which equates to 97,800-245,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits rocky tundra with fairly sparse vegetation or alpine summits. It is rarely found in areas of high shrubs or below the tree line. It is almost always above 2,000 m in the Alps and Pyrenees. During winter it lives in less snowy regions or uses windswept ridges and slopes due to its dependence on ground vegetation for food. Laying is generally in June, however birds in Scotland lay from late May and those in Spitsbergen from mid-June (de Juana 1994). It typically lays five to eight eggs but sometimes up to twelve (Madge and McGowan 2002). The nest is a shallow depression lined with plant material and some feathers, usually in the open and sheltered by a large stone or shrub. In winter it takes food from the ground, mainly buds and twigs of species including Salix. In the Alps and other southern areas its main winter foods are berry bearing shrubs including Vaccinium and Empetrum. In spring and autumn it has a more varied diet taking leaves, flowers, berries and seeds of a wide range of plants. Most populations make limited movements, which are largely altitudinal and depend on local conditions and weather (de Juana 1994).

threats:
The species faces some pressures at a local scale, such as habitat degradation and over-hunting (Madge and McGowan 2002). It is particularly susceptible to over-harvesting in the spring. Most habitat loss occurs due to the development of tourist facilities such as ski facilities and collision with cables around ski stations can cause mortality. Human presence may cause disturbance and displace birds from their wintering habitat. It is though that, in Sweden, overgrazing from reindeer is causing declines (Storch 2007). A recent decrease detected in the Swiss Alps, of 30% in a decade, attributed to climatic change (de Juana 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU. Birds Directive Annex I and II. In most of its range, the only management is the setting of hunting seasons and bag limits and in Europe it is only protected in a few countries. A small proportion of its range is covered by protective areas, although these are considered to only have a low role in species survival except in those countries at the edge of the range (e.g., Andorra, France, Spain). Most monitoring is limited to the local scale. In Germany a programme to limit human disturbance by ski-touring has been initiated and in Iceland research into the effects of hunting there is ongoing (Storch 2007).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring of populations in areas with potentially high hunting pressures should be undertaken to ensure they are sustainable. Measures should be taken in mountain ranges with high tourism to minimise the spatial and temporal overlap between important habitats and recreational activities and their effectiveness monitored. Also, actions to minimize the numbers of generalist predators in these areas should be taken. Research into the impacts of hunting and habitat alteration on population dynamics should be undertaken. More understanding of its migration and dispersal behaviour and the survival of young birds over winter is needed (Storch 2007).


taxonomicNotes:
Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Tetrao.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 11,500-25,500 calling or lekking males, which equates to 22,900-50,900 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in subalpine and alpine meadows, on north-facing slopes with Rhododendron and juniper (Juniperus), and on the edge of birch forest in spring and winter, at elevations of 1,300–3,000 m (Gavashelishvili and Javakhishvili 2010). Meadows used for hay production are important for breeding birds (Klaus et al. 2003). Lek sites are found above the timber line not far from winter food resources such as birch (Betula litwinowii), oak (Quercus macranthera), beech (Fagus orientalis), juniper and rose Rosa spp. (Klaus and Vitovich 2006). There is strong site fidelity to lek sites and they can be used for up to 10 years. Older males are dominant, occupying clear territories and displaying the longest and most intensely. Displays occur both morning and evening, and females attend leks at both periods, but mating is only observed during mornings. The nest is a shallow scrape lined with grass, leaves and feathers, concealed in bushes (e.g. rhododendron and juniper) or sometimes under a rock. Clutches are normally five to six eggs (de Juana and Kirwan 2014). It feeds on buds and twigs of birch, willow, juniper and other trees and bushes (Tucker and Heath 1994). Insects are rarely taken by adults but are eaten almost exclusively by chicks during the first 10–15 days. The species is sedentary; only limited altitudinal movements of up to 2 km have been recorded although it is suspected to move up to 15 km in Turkey (de Juana and Kirwan 2014).

threats:
Ongoing road building for the construction of holiday homes in the mountains is currently the major threat and is likely to significantly increase the rate of decline by fragmenting habitat, causing disturbance and allowing increased access for hunters and herdsmen (Baskaya 2003, G. Welch in litt. 2005, Isfendiyaroglu et al. 2007). Construction of summer homes and wood-cutting for fuel reduces the availability of winter foraging habitat. Habitat loss and deterioration are also likely to be major threats with 40% of subalpine meadows within its range suffering from intensive grazing (WWF/IUCN 1994). The density of birds in grazed areas is low. Grazing livestock disturb and trample nests and birds are killed by herders' dogs (S. Klaus in litt. 2007). Illegal hunting is an increasing threat, particularly in the Lesser Caucasus and in Turkey, both by local residents and occasionally by tourists (E. Ménoni in litt. 2007). Dam building and subsequent re-settlement of displaced people is likely to cause significant declines in Turkey (Baskaya 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Large-scale research and conservation projects are underway in Georgia and Turkey to improve understanding of the species' biology, develop monitoring and management activities and promote public awareness, and a project to survey the species in Azerbaijan has been carried out (IUCN/SSC/BirdLife/WPA Grouse Specialist Group 2002, Azniashvili 2004, R. Gokhelashvili in litt. 2005, E. Sultanov in litt. 2005, Sultanov 2006). Future work to develop a conservation strategy and create a potential distribution map for all range countries is planned. A captive breeding program is being developed in Armenia.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue research into its population status, ecological requirements and interactions with different farming and forestry methods. Encourage the development and implementation of national Species Action Plans. Develop a framework for grouse-friendly farming practice, including control of dogs and regulation of hunting. Develop public awareness campaigns. Prevent road construction and inappropriate development in key areas for the species. Review the adequacy of the existing protected area network. Monitor populations at a number of sites throughout its range, especially close to sites which are being developed.


taxonomicNotes:
Lyrurus tetrix (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Tetrao.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,220,000-2,040,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 2,450,000-4,080,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 798,000-1,030,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 1,600,000-2,060,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies mosaics of different habitats requiring open, sparsely vegetated land for display, good shelter for roosting and sometimes shrubs or trees for feeding above the snow in winter (Tucker and Heath 1994). In northern Europe it prefers deciduous or mixed forests to coniferous forest and spare, young stands to older denser ones. In southern European mountains such as the Alps it mainly uses moderately dense forest of spruce and fir, or larch (de Juana and Boesman 2013). It uses logged clearings in boreal forest, but such successional stages are ephemeral, necessitating local shifts in distribution. In western and central Europe the species uses heathland and meadows and in the central European mountains it uses areas around the treeline (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is also known to use bogs and areas of marginal cultivation. It lays between May and June. Laying an average of eight eggs (de Juana and Boesman 2013). Males form leks at traditional sites (Tucker and Heath 1994). The nest is a shallow scrape usually lined with some plant material and feathers. In many places it feeds on birch catkins and buds, shoots, needles, cones and male flowers of conifers in winter. In areas with less snow cover it uses more shrubs and grasses. In spring it switches to berries, stems and shoots of shrubs. It is largely sedentary although eruptive in some northern areas, with flocks moving hundreds of kilometres (de Juana and Boesman 2013).

threats:
In western and central Europe, habitat fragmentation and destruction are serious threats (Tucker and Heath 1994), which occur mostly through increased cultivation, afforestation of heathlands, removal of birch stands and the planting of coniferous monocultures (de Juana and Boesman 2013). Intensive grazing of sheep is replacing traditional grazing that normally helped maintain suitable habitat, leading to the destruction of birch (Betula) scrub and heather moorland. In central Europe, heathland is being transformed into grassland by eutrophication through airborne nitrogen deposition (Tucker and Heath 1994). Related to these large-scale land use changes, predation by mammalian and avian predators appears to have increased. (Storch 2007). On a local scale, other threats include hunting and disturbance at leks. In the Italian alps, stress hormone levels have been shown to be increased by disturbance from snow sport, which may reduce resistance to disease (de Juana and Boesman 2013). Collisions with high-tension powerlines may kill many birds in Scandinavia and in Scotland, collisions with deer fences may be a problem. It is also though long-term climate trends may partly explain recent declines (Storch 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I, II and III. In general the species is fully and effectively protected in western and central Europe. In other countries (e.g., Austria, Italy and France) hunting is strictly regulated. Only a small proportion of the species range falls within protected areas, most of which are likely too small to sustain a viable population, however locally reserves are seen as essential for the conservation of this species. In areas where it is hunted, regular monitoring occurs to plan harvests and in areas with small remnant populations. In some countries, such as Austria, France, Germany, Switzerland and Belgium, campaigns to limit disturbance have been initiated. These generally use public awareness campaigns, re-routing of hiking and skiing trails and the closure of core areas to the public. The release of captive bred birds to supplement wild populations has been attempted several times with little success (Storch 2007).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The preservation and restoration of suitable habitat through habitat management is needed. The integration of land-use practices and conservation measures is essential. In addition maintaining and restoring spatial connectivity between populations is required. In areas where illegal hunting occurs, better law enforcement is needed. Monitoring should be continued and undertaken in areas where the species is endangered in order to establish population trends and effectiveness of management plans (Storch 2007). Further research is require (Tucker and Heath 1994, Storch 2007) and should investigate the impacts of hunting, habitat fragmentation and patch isolation, dispersal rates and distances, large-scale habitat relationships and population dynamics. Management experimentation is needed (Storch 2007).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,380,000-2,670,000 pairs, which equates to 2,750,000-5,340,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,030,000-2,030,000 pairs, which equates to 2,060,000-4,060,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in the temperate zone, steppe regions and open arable landscapes (McGowan & Kirwan 2013). Its preferred habitat is open, low-intensity mixed farmland with small fields and hedges on grassy banks (Potts 1986, Birkan & Jacob 1988). It is found in large tracts of grassland, or other ground cover that is only slightly taller than the bird itself with some dense shrubby patches at intervals such as hedgerows. Laying occurs from late April in the U.K., early May to June in central Europe and late May to June in Sweden with re-nesting until August or September (McGowan & Kirwan 2013). It typically lays 15–17 eggs in the first clutch but fewer eggs when re-nesting. The nest is a shallow depression lined with plant material at the base of a hedge or other thick vegetation (Madge and McGowan 2002). It feeds on seeds of grains and weeds, cereals and clover and grass leaves as well as insects. The species is mainly sedentary however it is partially migratory in eastern Europe and performs altitudinal migration in the Caucasus moving to the foothills in October and November (McGowan & Kirwan 2013).

threats:
Since the early part of the 20th century, the species may have declined in all 31 countries in which it is found. In the U.K., the reduction in numbers is believed to be as high as 80%; causes probably include factors such as loss of nesting cover, predation, herbicides (chick survival rates in U.K. declined from 49% to 32% once their use became widespread) and pesticides that reduce insect abundance in the spring. All of these factors are the consequences of intensification of agricultural practices (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Mace Lande: Safe. EU Birds Directive Annex II and III, Perdix perdix italica and Perdix perdix hispaniensis Annex I. A national Species Management Plan for the Italian Grey Partridge (P. p. italica) was published in 1999 (Palumbo and Gallo-Orsi 1999). In the U.K., supplementary winter feeding is also being attempted to benefit this, and other declining granivorous birds, on farmland (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Specific recommendations to address these problems include: provision of good-quality nesting cover; reduction of nest predation by controlling impact of foxes, stoats and feral cats and improving insect abundance in spring so that chicks have sufficient prey items (McGowan and Kirwan 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
Phasianus colchicus and P. versicolor (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as P. colchicus following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 4,140,000-5,370,000 pairs, which equates to 8,290,000-10,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,940,000-5,040,000 pairs, which equates to 7,870,000-10,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In its natural range, this species shows a considerable variation in its habitat. If it found chiefly in the overgrown edges of rivers, hilly areas close to cultivation and flat land which is under cultivation. In Azerbaijan, egg-laying occurs in April and May. The nest is a shallow depression in the ground, which is lined with plant material from the vicinity of the nest, or unlined. Clutches are nine to fourteen eggs. In its natural range, the species feeds on plant matter such as fruits, seeds, leaves, buds and a small amount of animal matter, for example insects. Where it is introduced it is an opportunistic omnivore, feeding on a diverse range of food, preferring large, energy rich items such as cultivated grains, mast and fruits. Mass migrations may occur in its native range but in its introduced range it is sedentary (McGowan et al. 2013).

threats:
In its introduced range it is very common and wild populations are often augmented by large numbers of captive bred birds for shooting. However in Azerbaijan race talischensis has been brought to the brink of extinction due to habitat loss and uncontrolled hunting (McGowan et al. 2013) and there is no reliable information on its current status (Braasch et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II and III. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research and monitoring is needed to determine the status of racetalischensis and inform future conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 666,000-1,060,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 1,330,000-2,110,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 554,000-818,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 1,110,000-1,640,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits forest and woodland, mainly coniferous or mixed coniferous deciduous (de Juana and Kirwan 2012). It prefers extensive areas of old, shady forest often with damp soil and interspersed with bogs, areas of peat or glades, and with a dense undergrowth of ericaceous plants (Vaccinium, Calluna) but with canopy neither too open or closed (Madge and McGowan 2002). It may use more open forest in winter and denser forest with abundant fruit bushes in summer. Males form ill-defined leks (de Juana and Kirwan 2012). It lays from mid-April to mid-June but with most laying in May. It lays six to nine eggs (Madge and McGowan 2002). The nest is a shallow depression lined with plant material or feathers and it is found in thick cover often at the base of a tree (Harrison and Castell 2002). In northern parts of its range it feeds predominantly on pine needles during the winter. In southern parts of the range its winter diet is more varied. In summer its diet includes needles, leaves, stems and berries of a variety of plants. Insects are only important in the diet of small chicks. It is mainly sedentary with local movements in winter in response to feeding requirements (de Juana and Kirwan 2012).

threats:
The main threat to this species is destruction or alteration of its woodland habitat. It is still commonly heavily hunted (even during breeding season), except in SW and C Europe. Other factors possibly involved in declines include disturbance (e.g. development of ski facilities and other winter recreation activities), collisions (especially of juveniles) with high-tension powerlines and in some areas fences, predation (e.g. by foxes), pollution (acid rain) and climatic changes, (e.g. in Scotland) (de Juana and Kirwan 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
In general the species is fully and effectively protected in western and central Europe. In countries such as Austria, Italy and France, hunting is allowed in certain areas and strictly regulated, however in eastern and southern Europe illegal hunting may be having a serious impact on the population. A small proportion of the species range is covered by protected areas, however these are only important where populations are particularly threatened by habitat degradation and poaching. In central and western Europe, the Natura 2000 network cover large parts of the capercaillie's range. Surveys or monitoring occur regularly for planning harvests or in regions with small remnant populations. Habitat manangement is thought to be the most important conservation tool for this species and a good example is ongoing in Scotland within the EU life Programme. There have been many reintroduction attempt over the years, although most have failed (Storch 2007). In Scotland, it went extinct from 1785 but was successfully reintroduced in 1836–1837. However, countrywide numbers estimated at c. 1980 birds in winter 2003/04, and it is declining. Guidelines have been proposed in the U.K. for buffer zones around leks and breeding areas (de Juana and Kirwan 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The integration of forestry practices and capercaillie conservation is needed to help maintain the large areas of open forest which it needs and maintain and restore spatial connection among populations. In addition, all development should be banned where populations are threatened. Human disturbance should be reduced, particularly in areas with small or threatened populations. The reduction of collision mortality could be achieved through the removal, relocation and visualization by marking of power lines, cables and deer and sheep fences. Better law enforcement is needed locally in areas where it is threatened by poaching. Monitoring programmes and research on larger-scale habitat relationships, predation patterns and population dynamics, minimum requirements in population size and in habitat area and connections should be undertaken (Storch 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 4,500-10,800 pairs, which equates to 9,100-21,700 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species uses meadows in the sub-alpine and alpine zones between altitudes of 2,400 and 4,000 m (Tucker and Heath 1994) and occasionally down to 1,800 m. Birds are found on steep slopes lacking snow cover and gorges and crags with patches of snow and some herb and grass cover (McGowan 1994). Birds prefer south-facing slopes in summer and north-facing ones in winter. During winter they avoid areas with a covering of snow and use open ground with steppe-like vegetation instead (Tucker and Heath 1994). Courtship usually begins in April, with laying in late April and May. Typically five to nine eggs are laid (McGowan 1994). Nests are found on steep slopes in the open, beneath overhanging rocks, amongst stones or in tufts of grass (Tucker and Heath 1994). Birds feed exclusively on plant material, particularly legumes, feeding on bulbs, flowers, fruit and seeds (Baziev 1978). The species is mainly sedentary and in some areas does not even descend to lower altitudes during heavy snowfall. However some altitudinal movement has been observed in Turkey (McGowan 1994).

threats:
Its alpine habitat is threatened by overgrazing, which is easily reached by shepherds with guns, and with their sheep and dogs. In 1993 most of the species's range in Azerbaijan was suffering with intensive military activity, and it was feared that poaching and the spread of long range firearms could have drastic effects (McGowan and Boesman 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Least Concern (Fuller et al. 2000). Mace-Lande: Vulnerable. CITES I although it is proposed for downgrading to Appendix II (Anon 2012). Included on USSR Red List in 1978. Considered Vulnerable in Turkey (Kirwan et al. 2010), as well as Georgia, where the population, at the edge of the species's range is believed to be very small. The species is found in five Important Bird Areas in Armenia, five in Azerbaijan, four in Georgia and six in Turkey (Anon 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Habitat protection is needed and an extensive survey should aim to locate healthy populations in Turkey. Species does not adapt well to captivity (McGowan et al. 1995).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,300-13,500 pairs, which equates to 6,700-27,100 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is endemic to the Caucasus where it is found in the Alpine and sub-Alpine zones of the High Caucasus and neighbouring mountain ranges. Birds use mountain slopes with rocky outcrops, alpine meadows, clumps of bushes and patches of melting snow (Tucker and Heath 1994) but avoid forest, scrub and large areas of snow cover (McGowan 1994). It is generally found at altitudes of 2,300 to 4,000 m (Tucker and Heath 1994) and occasionally from 1,800 m. The start of courtship can vary between years but usually takes place from early April. Laying occurs between late April and July with five to eight eggs laid. It nests in the open or under rock overhangs. Birds feed mainly on plant material including leaves, fruits, stems and tubers. Their diet changes over the year depending on availability of the different plant parts; feeding on dry material in autumn and winter and shoots and other materials when available (McGowan 1994). Birds perform seasonal altitudinal migrations moving to lower altitudes to overwinter (Tucker and Heath 1994) and higher altitudes post-breeding (McGowan 1994).

threats:
The only known threat is from habitat degradation caused by overgrazing by domestic stock (McGowan 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Mace Lande: Safe. The species was included on USSR Red List in 1978. In Turkey, it occurs only in Artvin and hunting has been banned. It is also found in at least three protected areas, the Tebezdinsky Reserve in Russia, the Zakataly Reserve in Azerbaijan and the Lagodechy Reserve in Georgia. The species also occurs in Caucasus Endemic Bird Area (McGowan 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Important areas should be identified and protected from over grazing. Population monitoring and species research should be undertaken to inform future conservation research.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species is extremely marginal as a breeder within Europe, and has here been assessed on the basis of its more important wintering population, which is concentrated almost entirely in Norway. The winter population is small, with an unknown population trend but no evidence of a decline. It is believed to be declining globally so there is not considered to be significant rescue potential. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (D1) in Europe.

Within the EU27 region it is considered a Vagrant and is therefore listed as Not Applicable.

range:
In Europe, the species breeds in the Arctic in Russia and winters at sea mainly off the coasts of Norway  The breeding range in Russia has possibly contracted (K. Laing in litt. 2008). The westernmost breeding site in Russia is the south-western coast of Novaya Zemlya archipelago (see Håland 2008).

population:
The minimum European population in winter is estimated at 1,000 individuals, which equates to 680 mature individuals. There also exists a marginal breeding population in Europe of at least 10 pairs, which equates to 20 mature individuals. The species occurs in the EU27 only in winter and the minimum population is estimated at 13 individuals, which equates to 9 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species may breed on low-lying Arctic coasts and estuaries but is more common on freshwater pools, lakes or rivers in the Arctic tundra (Carboneras et al. 2014). Optimum habitats include lakes where the water does not completely freeze, which have dependable supplies of fish, highly convoluted shorelines and aquatic vegetation providing habitats for fish and sites for nesting and brood rearing (Earnst et al. 2006). Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits inshore waters (Carboneras et al. 2014), fjords with muddy substrates (Byrkjedal, et al. 2000) and inlets (Snow and Perrins 1998) along sheltered coasts. It breeds from early June (largely depending upon the timing of the spring thaw) in solitary pairs. The nest is a heap of plant matter or turf built near the water's edge, usually on the shore of a clear-water lake with good visibility over surrounding areas. Clutch size is two. Its diet is little known but may consist predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, molluscs and marine annelids. This species is fully migratory. After breeding it travels southwards and towards the coast (Carboneras et al. 2014) to its wintering grounds, where it is present between October and May (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species is vulnerable to coastal oil spills in both its breeding and wintering ranges (Carboneras et al. 2014). Wintering individuals are potentially threatened by heavy metal pollution and by drowning in fishing nets (particularly in the north Pacific (Carboneras et al. 2014)). Although rates of harvest are currently thought to be at sustainable levels (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009), exact harvest numbers are unknown. Climate change is likely to be a future threat to the species (Gavrilo 2008). Threats are exacerbated by a low reproductive rate and very specific breeding habitat requirements (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009, K. Laing in litt. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Western Palearctic population is CMS Appendix II. There are no known conservation measures in place.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Update the current population estimate and establish a monitoring programme to elucidate trends. Assess current levels of harvest and initiate control measures should they be unsustainable. Assess comparative ecology and possible impact of climate change.


population:
The European population is estimated at 53,800-87,800 pairs, which equates to 108,000-176,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 17,500-20,400 pairs, which equates to 35,000-40,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This specialist breeds on deep, productive, freshwater lakes (Carboneras and Garcia 2014) or extensive pools with islets, peninsulas and other inaccessible nesting sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). Outside of the breeding season the species is most common on inshore waters along sheltered coasts (Carboneras and Garcia 2014), occasionally also frequenting large inland freshwater bodies (Flint et al. 1984, Carboneras and Garcia 2014) such as natural lakes or barrages, lagoons and large rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds in isolated solitary pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998, Carboneras and Garcia 2014) from April onwards (Flint et al. 1984), although nesting occurs later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw. The nest is a heap of plant matter placed near the water's edge (Carboneras and Garcia 2014) on islets or hummocks emerging from the water, sometimes also on clumps of grass on the shore (Flint et al. 1984). Clutches are almost always two. Its diet consists predominantly of fish although aquatic insects, molluscs, crustaceans and some plant matter may also be taken. This species is migratory and dispersive, generally moving south post-breeding (Carboneras and Garcia 2014).

threats:
During the breeding season the species is threatened by the acidification of breeding waters, heavy metal pollution and water level fluctuations (Carboneras and Garcia 2014) especially during the incubation period (Gotmark et al. 1989, Hake et al. 2005). It also suffers from lower reproductive success due to human disturbance (Carboneras and Garcia 2014) (e.g. from tourists or wetland visitors) (Gotmark et al. 1989) and is indirectly affected by breeding habitat alteration (e.g. afforestation) (Carboneras and Garcia 2014). During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in rich fishing grounds where large congregation may occur, and is commonly caught and drowned as bycatch in fishing nets (Carboneras and Garcia 2014). The species is also highly sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II (Gavia arctica arctica). EU Birds directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. Artificial nesting areas have been created to improve breeding success of this species and in Sweden nesting islands and the surrounding areas have been included in sanctuaries (Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key breeding sites should be identified and site protection implemented against development and human disturbance. Tighter legislation should be developed as well as penalties (national and international) associated with oil pollution from offshore developments and transport. Promote the proper use of corrective measures in longline fisheries to avoid accidental capture of birds.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This diver has a small wintering population in both Europe and the EU27, which has apparently shown a rapid recent decline that has been estimated at between 30-49%. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A4abce; C1) for both regions.

range:
The species breeds, mainly from 48°N to the Arctic Circle, in southern parts of Greenland (to Denmark) and in Iceland. It winters on sea coasts or on larger lakes over a much wider area including the Atlantic coast of Europe from Finland to Portugal and the western Mediterranean (Carboneras et al. 2014).

population:
In Europe the breeding population is estimated at 700-1,300 pairs, which equates to 1,400-2,600 mature individuals. The minimum European population in winter is estimated at 5,100-6,300 individuals, which equates to 3,400-4,200 mature individuals. The species occurs in the EU27 only in winter and the minimum population is estimated at 4,000-4,300 individuals, which equates to 2,700-2,800 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is strongly migratory. The species breeds on large, deep freshwater lakes in coniferous forest or on open tundra (Carboneras et al. 2014). Some individuals remain in Iceland year-round, although most winter on sea coasts or on larger lakes across the North East Atlantic coast from Finland and Norway to Portugal and in the western Mediterranean. During the winter the species occurs singly, in pairs or in small loose flocks in marine habitats (Godfrey 1979, Snow and Perrins 1998). A pursuit diver, its diet consists predominantly of fish, including cod (Gadus morhua), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), herring (Clupea harengus), trout (Salmo), suckers (Catostomidae), minnows (Cyprinidae) and perch (Perca) as well as crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic insects, annelid worms, frogs, other amphibians and plant matter (e.g. Potamogeton spp., willow (Salix spp.) shoots, roots, seeds, moss and algae) (Carboneras et al. 2014).

threats:
When breeding the species is threatened by fluctuating water levels (e.g., due to the building of dams) (Rimmer 1992), acidification of breeding lakes (Piper et al. 2002, Carboneras et al. 2014), heavy metal pollution (Rimmer 1992, Carboneras et al. 2014) (e.g. methylmercury contamination) (Piper et al. 2002) and lead poisoning from ingested lead fishing weights (Scheuhammer et al. 2003). It is also highly sensitive to human disturbance (Carboneras et al. 2014) such as shoreline development and human recreation (Piper et al. 2002), and may desert lakes after increases in human presence and activities (Carboneras et al. 2014). During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in areas where large congregations form (Carboneras et al. 2014), and entanglement in monofilament fishing lines (used for sport fishing) and commercial fishing nets causes significant mortality at sea and on larger lakes (Carboneras et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species and is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is listed in Article I under the EU Birds Directive. It occurs in 20 IBAs, including in Iceland, Norway (Svalbard and mainland Norway), Ireland, the United Kingdom and in Spain. It is a listed species in 83 Special Protection Areas in the EU Natura 2000 network.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Protect Important Bird Areas across range states and identify and designate additional important sites. Identify sites and areas where high gillnet bycatch is occurring, and develop effective mitigation solutions. Manage coastal and inland developments surrounding important breeding areas. Develop rapid and trans-boundary response plans to coastal oil spills.


population:
The European population is estimated at 42,100-93,000 pairs, which equates to 84,200-186,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,100-5,000 pairs, which equates to 6,100-10,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
On migration this species may form large flocks of 200–1,200 individuals, with similar concentrations occurring on rich marine fishing grounds during the winter (Carboneras et al. 2014). The species breeds on freshwater pools or lakes in open moorland, blanket bogs (Carboneras et al. 2014) or open and wet peatland habitats (Campbell 1987). Outside of the breeding season the species frequents inshore waters along sheltered coasts, occasionally occurring inland (Carboneras et al. 2014) on lakes, pools, reservoirs and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, molluscs, frogs, fish spawn (Carboneras et al. 2014), aquatic insects, annelid worms (Snow and Perrins 1998) and plant matter (Carboneras et al. 2014). In winter its diet is almost predominantly fish, and in the Baltic Sea they opportunistically feed on spawning Herring, Smelt and Percids.

threats:
When breeding the species is threatened by water level fluctuations and acidification of breeding waters heavy metal pollution and the afforestation of peatland or moorland habitats (Carboneras et al. 2014). It is also sensitive to human disturbance from recreational activities and shoreline development (e.g. construction work near breeding lakes) (Meek et al. 1993) and will desert sites if there is too much human activity (Carboneras et al. 2014). During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in areas where large concentrations form (e.g. on rich fishing grounds) (Skov et al.2011, Carboneras et al. 2014). The North, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas have experienced severe oil spill events in the past, and remain regions at risks of future spills particularly with expanding oil exploration activity. This species is also highly sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) during winter, causing a risk for habitat displacement and collision (Garthe and Huppop 2004, Bradbury et al. 2014). The species suffers mortality at sea and on large lakes due to entanglement and drowning in inshore gillnets (Carboneras et al. 2014), with potentially significant impacts on the breeding and wintering population within the Baltic Sea , where large numbers of birds overlap with intensive gillnet fisheries (Žydelis et al. 2013).  It is also highly sensitive to disturbance at sea, particularly from vessel traffic along shipping lanes, a particular problem in North Sea and the Baltic region due to high numbers of vessels passing (Schwemmer et al. 2011)  It is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). As a species which breeds in the Arctic it is likely to be affected by impacts from climate change, including habitat changes and prey availability (Ganter et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, and is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. Listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. Listed as critically endangered on the HELCOM convention. There are 58 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas for this species. Within the EU it occurs and is protected in 426 Special Protection Areas. Since the 1970s, conservation work in Finland has included building artificial rafts for this species to reduce predation risk, which has led to higher breeding success in some areas. Within the North Sea (Germany) work is underway to test alternative fishing gears to gillnets, while in Lithuania gillnet bycatch mitigation is being trialled.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Development of mitigation measures for gillnet bycatch for commercial and artisanal fishing vessels. Prevention of chronic oil pollution and oil spill events, and development of rapid, trans-boundary plans for oil spill response. Protection of feeding grounds, and regulations for vessel traffic, management of recreational activities at important breeding and non-breeding sites, careful siting of windfarms away from critical habitat or migration pathways.


taxonomicNotes:
Grus virgo and G. paradisea (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993; AERC TAC 2003) have been transferred to the genusAnthropoides,  a treatment adopted by Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Cramp and  Simmons (1977-1994) and Collar and Andrew (1988), following the

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird has a limited passage presence in the EU27 and is considered Not Applicable.

population:
The European population is estimated at 9,700-13,300 pairs, which equates to 19,400-26,500 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In both its breeding and wintering ranges this species shows a preference for grassland habitats in close proximity to streams, shallow lakes and other wetlands, also frequenting desert areas where water is available (Archibald et al. 2013). In its breeding range the species inhabits grassy steppes of feather grass (Stipa) and fescue (Festuca), and dry areas dominated by wormwood (Artemisia), the essential habitat requirement being access to water for drinking. It can be found on hilly steppes along wide river valleys, shrubby steppes and semi-desert, forest edge habitats, and occasionally unvegetated alkaline flats, or large expanses of rock or gravel. It will often forage in damp marshes and swamps, and is regularly found in cultivated areas (Johnsgard 1983). It returns in flocks from its wintering areas to breed in March and April (sometimes as late as early-June in the north) (Archibald et al. 2013). The nest is a shallow scrape (Urban et al. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998) (although often no attempt is made to find or construct a cavity) (Johnsgard 1983), on dry ground, lined or surrounded by pebbles and plant materials (eggs may be laid directly onto the ground). The nest may be placed on gravel (Archibald et al. 2013) in areas partially or entirely free of vegetation (Johnsgard 1983), or in open patches of grass and cultivation, usually less than 1-2 km away from a source of water (Johnsgard 1983, Urban et al. 1986). Clutches are usually two eggs (Archibald et al. 2013). The diet of this species consists mainly of plant material (Snow and Perrins 1998), although lizards and small invertebrates such as large insects and worms (Archibald et al. 2013) are also taken during the summer (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species will forage in cultivated fields (Johnsgard 1983), feeding on ripening cereal crops in its breeding grounds (Johnsgard 1983) and peanuts, beans and other crops on migration (Meine and Archibald 1996). This species is fully migratory (Archibald et al. 2013).

threats:
Habitat loss and degradation from agriculture (e.g. agricultural conversion of steppe grassland (Ellis et al. 1996, Archibald et al. 2013), intensification of agricultural methods and changes in agricultural practices such as increased spring ploughing) (Meine and Archibald 1996) is the primary threat to this species throughout its range. Other threats include disturbance due to rising human populations (Ellis et al. 1996), intensive use of pesticides (Ellis et al. 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996, Archibald et al. 2013), and shooting and intentional poisoning in some areas where crop damage occurs (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Ellis et al. 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996). Many migratory habitats have also been lost through the building of dams and the drainage of wetlands (Meine and Archibald 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. A European Crane Working Group has been established. The species was included in the IUCN conservation action plan for cranes (Meine and Archibald 1996). The species is legally protected in Russia and Ukraine. The species is mostly found outside of protected areas. In recent years, only one pair from the Black Sea population has bred within a protected area, at Azov-Sivash National Park in Ukraine. Conservation programmes such as those in the Ukraine, have thus far, focused on analyzing the factors affecting the species in agricultural settings, and identifying methods to reduce negative impacts. Surveys have been undertaken in areas such as Ukraine and Georgia. In 1992, the Azov-Black Sea Ornithological Station in Ukraine established "The Virgo Programme" to monitor this and other rare and disappearing bird species of the Ukrainian steppes. Research  has focused on distribution, population numbers, biology, flock movements, breeding ecology and migration patterns from various portions of its main breeding range. Education programs involving the species have also been initiated in Ukraine (Meine and Archibald 1996).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species would benefit from stronger protection of the Black Sea population and its habitats by strengthening the network of protected areas, as well as the  protection of breeding habitat outside of protected areas by working with landholders to implement conservation measures. Long term monitoring should be continued and expanded and surveys conducted to determine the size of the Turkish population, assess its habitat and potential threats. Continue research, focusing on the breeding biology, range, migration, habitat requirements and threats to the species. Organize migration watches in the Balkan Peninsula and Cyprus. Educational programs for use throughout the population?s range should be developed. Examine the historic range and habitats of the Black Sea population, and the potential for its eventual re-establishment in areas from which it has been extirpated or now occurs only during migration. Enforcement of of existing hunting restrictions in Georgia should be strengthened (Meine and Archibald 1996).


population:
The European population is estimated at 113,000-185,000 pairs, which equates to 225,000-370,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 84,600-140,000 pairs, which equates to 169,000-280,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species utilises a wide variety of shallow wetlands, including high altitude, treeless moors or bogs usually with some standing water, and swampy forest clearings, reedy marshes and rice paddies. The species requires inaccessible ground nesting-sites, so is commonly associated with quaking bogs and other impassible mires, especially in the vicinity of Alnus carr woodland or seasonally flooded riverine forest. The non-breeding wintering and migration habitats of the species include floodland, swampy meadows, shallow sheltered bays, rice paddies (Cramp and Simmons 1980), pastures and savannah-like areas (such as open holm oak woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula) (Meine and Archibald 1996). The species returns to its breeding areas in March (Vegvari 2002), where breeding begins in late April or early May, occasionally up to three weeks earlier in southern areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a mound of wetland vegetation (which may be re-used from year to year), generally placed in or near water in inaccessible undisturbed bog, heath, marsh, mire (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban et al. 1986), or sedge meadow (Malik and Prange 1995). Usually two eggs are laid (Archibald et al. 2013). The species is omnivorous in both breeding and non-breeding seasons (Cramp and Simmons 1980). This species is fully migratory, although isolated breeding populations east and south of the Black Sea may be resident or only undertake local movements (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In both its breeding and non-breeding ranges this species is principally threatened by habitat loss and degradation through dam construction, urbanisation and agricultural expansion (including changes in land-use, intensification, expanded irrigation systems and conversion of traditional holm oak pastures) (Meine and Archibald 1996). In parts of its breeding range that are heavily developed the species is threatened by nest disturbance from tourism and recreation which reduces its breeding success by increasing the incidence of successful nest predation by corvids, wild boar and foxes (Meine and Archibald 1996). Egg collecting is also a threat to the breeding population in Turkey (Meine and Archibald 1996). Along its migrational routes and in its wintering grounds the species is particularly threatened by habitat fragmentation and the loss of many smaller traditional feeding and roosting sites, leading to increasing concentrations of large flocks in smaller areas, and therefore increased competition (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Alonso et al. 1994, Meine and Archibald 1996). Pesticide poisoning may also be affecting cranes along migration routes and in some wintering areas, especially where they depend primarily on grain from agricultural fields (Meine and Archibald 1996). Collisions with utility lines are frequent in highly developed areas along migration routes and in winter ranges (collisions being the leading cause of adult mortality at wintering areas in Spain) (Meine and Archibald 1996). Hunting is a significant threat to this species on migration (Meine and Archibald 1996, Nawaz et al. 2006) and illegal shooting has been identified as a problem in other areas (including Portugal and south-east Europe) (Meine and Archibald 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. CMS Appendix II. The species is legally protected across all of its European range, although stronger enforcement is needed in many areas. The European Crane Working Group (ECWG) has coordinated conservation activities including research, monitoring, colour banding, habitat protection, education, and recommended changes in agricultural policy, since the mid-1980s. Some breeding areas are within protected areas in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary, Spain and Germany. Intensive habitat management in western Europe, including the creation and restoration of wetlands, agreements with private land owners to protect key resting and wintering habitats, clearing of dense vegetation from roosting areas, development of habitat management plans for protected areas, burial or relocation of utility lines, programs to encourage planting of lure crops and use of waste grain for diversionary feeding; and compensation programs for farmers suffering crop damage have resulted in breeding pairs resettling former breeding habitats. Breeding populations have been most closely monitored in Scandinavia, the Baltic nations, Poland, and Germany and in recent years, surveys have been conducted regularly at key staging and wintering areas in Russia, Spain, Germany, France, Portugal, Hungary, Sweden and Estonia. Intensive research in Europe has focused on demographics, life history, feeding and wintering behavior, and habitat and conservation needs (Meine and Archibald 1996).  Reintroduction of the species to the southwest U.K. began in 2010 with released birds establishing territories and nests (The Great Crane Project 2014).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Legal protection of wetlands and other habitats in the species's breeding grounds, along its migratory routes, and in its wintering grounds should be strengthened. Cooperative international conservation programs involving the countries along main migratory routes should be established and international research expanded. Protected areas at important breeding, staging, resting, and wintering areas should be established or expanded and enforcement and management of existing protected areas strengthened. Other measures include the continuation of research and censusing, addressing crop degradation problems, education and captive propagation and release (Meine and Archibald 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,290,000-2,120,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 2,590,000-4,240,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 171,000-378,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 343,000-755,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in open or semi-open habitats, mainly meadows with tall grass. It is strongly associated with agricultural grassland managed for the production of hay (Barnes 2000). Suitable habitats include moist, unfertilised grassland and regularly cut meadows in areas of low-intensity agriculture where vegetation grows tall in summer. Across its European range, hay or silage fields in valleys liable to flooding seem of most importance, but birds also breed in hay and silage fields in subalpine areas. Wetlands and marsh edges may act as important refuges when drier habitats are unsuitable (Schäffer and Mammen 1999). It avoids very marshy areas, standing water, river and lake margins and open ground with rocks, stones and gravel (Taylor and de Juana 2014), and also those areas with a thick layer of dead grass or very dense vegetation above 50 cm tall (Cramp and Simmons 1980). During migration it occurs in a variety of habitats including wheat fields and on golf courses. It breeds from April to August (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The nest is on the ground in dense vegetation and is constructed from dead stems and leaves (Green et al. 1997). Often surrounding stems are pulled over the top to form a loose canopy (Taylor and de Juana 2014). The average clutch-size is c.10 eggs and two broods may be raised per season (Green et al. 1997). It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates including insects, snails and slugs, arachnids, millipedes, earthworms. It is also known to consume young frogs, green parts of plants, young shoots and seeds and possibly even small mammals and birds (Cramp and Simmons 1980). The species is a long-distance migrant (Taylor and de Juana 2014), wintering in central and southern Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Chick mortality due to mechanized mowing and consequent increased predation is considered to be the primary threat in Europe (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Intensification of grassland management and the loss of hay meadows and wetlands are considered as the critical threats to its habitats (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Following privatisation, potential changes to land-use and management of agricultural land in the species's core breeding range in Russia and eastern Europe are also possible threats (Schäffer and Mammen 1999). Land abandonment temporarily favours the species, but areas become unsuitable as vegetation becomes too dense and scrub develops. Intensified management of hay meadows, or their conversion to arable, is resulting in widespread habitat loss (Schäffer and Mammen 1999). Across western and central Europe, intensification of grassland management, leading to earlier and rapid mowing of hay and silage, is the main threat (N. Schäffer in litt. 2003). Early mowing and the use of mechanised methods results in the destruction of nests and chicks (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). It is a quarry species in Russia, Ukraine and Georgia, but hunting pressure is considered low. Illegal hunting of the species during the Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix) hunting season has been reported from Bulgaria and Croatia, and 0.5-2.7% of the European population may be susceptible to capture in netting set up for C. coturnix in Egypt each autumn. Introduced mammals, such as domestic cats and the American mink (Mustela vison), are reported to be predators of the species's nests, in addition to native species. The species may be disturbed by recreational activities and developments, such as motorways (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Late spring floods can reduce local populations by around 50% (Donaghy 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS (Bonn Convention) Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is legally protected from hunting in most of the countries in its breeding range (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Conservation measures have been taken in 14 European range states. National action plans have been prepared in Switzerland, Norway, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Hungary, Germany, Denmark, U.K. and Slovakia. Appropriate habitat management techniques have been researched, and local repeat surveys in Russia show relative stability of the population (A. Mischenko in litt. 2006). A European action plan was published in 1996 and a revised version published in 2006 (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006), and a Corncrake Conservation Team was established in 1998. There is an ongoing reintroduction programme in England, U.K. (Newbery (2006).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor numbers through regular coordinated surveys, and improve monitoring in key countries (e.g. Russia, Belarus) (Doga Dernegi 2006, Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Monitor habitat condition and extent (Doga Dernegi 2006, Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Ensure that agri-environmental measures for the species in the EU are well targeted and implemented, and focus on mowing date and methods suitable for the species. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Restore lost habitat where possible. Conduct further research into the species's ecology and demography (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Work with farmers and land managers to ensure that traditional farming methods are retained, areas of grass are left uncut and harvest times are delayed (Doga Dernegi 2006). Monitor levels of illegal trapping and hunting (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006). Lobby governments in remaining countries where it is not protected to afford the species legal protection (Koffijberg and Schäffer 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species is undergoing a moderately rapid population decline and it is therefore listed as Near Threatened.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within the EU27.

range:
The species is widespread across Eurasia below 66°N (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Since the late 19th century it has spread north into Fennoscandia. It also breeds in the Canary Islands and is present in the Azores (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 945,000-1,550,000 pairs, which equates to 1,890,000-3,090,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 549,000-870,000 pairs, which equates to 1,100,000-1,740,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits large, still or slow-flowing waters (Snow and Perrins 1998) and shows a preference for shallow water with adjacent deeper water for diving, and muddy substrates, marginal, emergent, floating or submergent vegetation. Habitats include eutrophic and mesotrophic (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) lakes, pools, ponds, reservoirs, barrages, gravel-pits, canals, drainage ditches, dykes, oxbow lakes (Taylor 1996), fish ponds (Musil 2006), creeks, rivers (Taylor 1996) and river deltas (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as open marshes, freshwater meadows (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), flood-lands, salt-pans, clay-pans (Taylor 1996) and sewage ponds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It breeds from February to September.

The nest is a platform of vegetation that may be resting on the bottom of shallow water, floating or on a foundation of trampled plant matter in emergent vegetation. The species may also nest on artificial platforms, islands, rafts, tree stumps, tree forks (Taylor 1996) or in bushes up to 3 m above the water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). This species is omnivorous, although its diet consists primarily of vegetable matter such as algae, the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants, the seeds of waterweeds, sedges, water-lilies, grasses and cereal crops (Taylor 1996), clubmoss and aquatic fungi (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Animal matter in its diet includes molluscs, adult and larval insects, worms, leeches, shrimps, spiders, small fish, fish eggs, frogs, birds and bird eggs, and small mammals (Taylor 1996). The species is mostly sedentary or a partial migrant, however in Fennoscandia and east of the Czech Republic it is mostly migratory (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997)

threats:
This species suffers disturbance (Evans and Day 2002) and mortality (Azerbaijan) from hunting (Taylor 1996), and is poisoned by ingesting lead shot (France) (Mondain-Monval et al. 2002). It is also threatened by oil and petroleum pollution (Azerbaijan (Taylor 1996) and in the Kaliningrad region, Russia (Grishanov 2006)), wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds (Grishanov 2006). The species suffers predation from American Mink (Neovison vison) (Slonsk Reserve, Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003) and UK (Ferreras and MacDonald 1999)). It is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is hunted for sport in the Mediterranean (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), Denmark (Bregnballe 2006), Northern Ireland (Evans and Day 2002) and Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006), and for food in the Mediterranean (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II and III. The Mediterranean and Black Sea populations are on CMS Appendix II. The species is legally protected in Britain .

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species, although monitoring and research on the impacts of hunting, pollution and habitat alteration would help inform any future conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

Although widespread in Africa, within Europe this species is restricted to Spain, where it has a very small, fluctuating population that has been subject to reintroduction projects and intensive conservation management. The potential rescue effect from the relict North African population is considered to be low, and the category is therefore unchanged. The species is therefore listed as Endangered in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species has a predominantly African distribution, which just extends into Europe in southernmost Spain (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 25-90 pairs, which equates to 50-170 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species requires wetlands with submerged aquatic vegetation and still water for foraging, and waters with fringing or emergent vegetation in which to nest (Taylor 1996). During periods of flightless moult, adults also prefer more permanent open waters rich in submerged aquatic vegetation (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include open freshwater or slightly brackish (Langrand 1990, Gomez 2002) lakes, lagoons, ponds, dams, and permanent or temporary pans, flood-plains, sewage ponds, reed and Typha swamps (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996, Hockey et al. 2005), and occasionally rivers and tidal lagoons (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996). In Europe this species breeds in May.  Both sexes build the nest; a platform of reeds and other aquatic plant material built either on open water either anchored or on rafts of fresh, green reeds, or within emergent vegetation (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) on a foundation of bent and trampled stems (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). No attempt at concealing the nest is made (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996), although the site chosen usually facilitates quick and easy access to open water (Hockey et al. 2005). Clutches are normally five to seven eggs (Taylor 1996). The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting predominantly of the shoots, fruits and seeds of submerged or floating aquatic plants, filamentous and macroscopic algae (Hockey et al. 2005) and grass, as well as molluscs, crustaceans, insects and occasionally carrion (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996). This species is both sedentary and nomadic (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996, Hockey et al. 2005), often making local movements (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) in response to rainfall, water levels and the availability of its favoured foods (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996, Hockey et al. 2005).

threats:
The species is susceptible to avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease. It is also threatened by poisoning, both intentionally (pest control) and unintentionally (pesticides used on crops) (Hockey et al. 2005). The species is threatened in Spain (the northernmost range extremes) primarily by habitat loss and degradation due to changes in hydrological regime, over-exploitation of catchments and sedimentation (which are altering the periods of wetland flooding), agricultural, industrial and domestic pollution, overgrazing (cattle herds), the burning of reeds, and the introduction of alien species (e.g. Louisiana Swamp Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and Ciprinidae fish which both reduce the availability of food and hence increase competition) (Gomez 2000).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. An International Species Action Plan was published in 2000 (Gomez 2000). It is listed as Critically Endangered on the Red Lists of Spain and Portugal (Madroño et al. 2004, Cabral et al. 2005).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key sites for this species should be restored and conserved to increase the extent of available habitat. Its ecology, habitat requirements and movements should be researched and monitoring of the evolution and state of the population undertaken. Public awareness of the need to protect the species and its habitat should be raised. Development and implementation of the Regional Recovery Plans of the species, as well as legal protection of the species and its key sites are needed. Restrict the hunting of Common Coot (Fulica atra) at sites where the Crested Coot is regularly recorded. Keep a breeding population of the species in captivity to ensure a genetic stock of individuals, in addition to increasing the productivity of the wild population by the systematic reintroduction of captive individuals into its natural habitats (Gomez 2000).


taxonomicNotes:
Gallinula chloropus and G. galeata (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as G. chloropus following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 909,000-1,440,000 pairs, which equates to 1,820,000-2,870,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 744,000-1,120,000 pairs, which equates to 1,490,000-2,240,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits freshwater wetlands, both still and moving, requiring easy access to open water (Taylor et al. 2014) and showing a preference for waters sheltered by woodland, bushes or tall emergent vegetation. Suitable habitats include slow-flowing rivers, streams, canals, ditches, lakes, reservoirs, sites with small open water surfaces such as pools and ponds only a few metres across, swamps, marshes, disused gravel pits, rice-fields (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Taylor et al. 2014), seasonally flooded sites (Taylor et al. 2014), sewage ponds, oxbow lakes and occasionally seashores (Azerbaijan) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). In Europe the species breeds from March to August. The nest varies between a shallow saucer and a deep cup constructed from twigs and waterside vegetation, and can be floating on or positioned up to 1 m above water in emergent vegetation, or positioned on a solid platform of branches in water. Less often the nest is placed in ground vegetation or in low bushes on the bank near water, or in bushes and trees up to 8 m from the ground. Usually five to nine eggs are laid. The species is omnivorous and opportunistic, its diet consisting of earthworms, crustaceans, molluscs, adult and larval insects, spiders, small fish, tadpoles and occasionally birds eggs, as well as plant matter and berries and fruits (Taylor et al. 2014). It is a resident year round through much of its range however northern and north-western populations do migrate to southern and western Europe during the winter months (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
In north-west Europe, populations are known to fluctuate significantly owing to severe winters (Taylor et al. 2014). The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet et al. 2007) and avian botulism (Rocke 2006) and may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. It is also vulnerable to predation by introduced American Mink (Neovison vison) in the U.K. (Ferraras and McDonald 1999).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Wetland expansion for other species is likely to benefit this species. In areas where American Mink are present, predator control may be needed.


taxonomicNotes:
Porphyrio porphyrio (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into P. porphyrio, P. indicus, P. madagascariensis, P. melanotus, P. poliocephalus and P. pulverulentus by Sangster et al. (1998), but this treatment is not adopted by the BirdLife Taxonomic Wor

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 9,600-51,000 pairs, which equates to 19,100-102,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,400-3,800 pairs, which equates to 6,900-7,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
It shows a preference for permanent, fresh or brackish, still or slow-flowing, sheltered, extensive wetlands (Taylor 1996) with floating mats of water-lilies (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), tall, dense emergent vegetation, muddy or sandy shorelines and patches of shallow water (Taylor 1996). Suitable habitats include ponds, lakes, dams, marshes, swamps, rivers, flood-plains, artesian wells, sewage farms (Taylor 1996) and wet rice-fields (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species also extends into open habitats adjacent to wetlands including grasslands, agricultural land, parks, gardens, hedgerows and forest margins.

The timing of breeding varies geographically (in relation to peaks in local rainfall) but in Europe is March to June. The nest is a shallow cup in a large substantial structure of vegetation built on a platform of vegetation floating on or standing in shallow water and concealed in thick vegetation. Clutches are usually three to five eggs (Taylor 1996). Its diet consists predominantly of plant matter including shoots, leaves, roots, stems, flowers and seeds. It also takes animal matter including molluscs, leeches, small crustaceans, adult and larval insects (del Hoyo et al. 1996), spiders, fish and fish eggs, frogs and frog spawn, lizards (del Hoyo et al. 1996), earthworms, water snakes (Natrix maura) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), adult birds, bird eggs and nestlings, small rodents and carrion. This species is sedentary, nomadic or partially migratory, with many populations making local seasonal movements in response to changing habitat conditions (Taylor 1996).

threats:
The main threats to this species are habitat loss through wetland drainage (Taylor 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), habitat degradation through the introduction of exotic species (e.g. coypu (Myocastor coypus)) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), direct mortality from pesticide contamination (Taylor 1996, Dowding et al. 1999) (e.g. brodifacoum, a pesticide applied aerially to exterminate rodents) (Dowding et al. 1999), poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins (from dense blooms of cyanobacteria in wetlands) (Alonso-Andicoberry et al. 2002) and hunting (Taylor 1996). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet et al. 2007) and avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (Galvin et al. 1985).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species has full legal protection in France, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy and is listed in the national Red Lists of Italy, Portugal and Spain. In Italy a large part of the main sites for the species are now legally protected as SPAs and a reintroduction programme is being prepared in Sicily. In Portugal an EU Life-funded, reintroduction programme has begun in the Baixo Mondego region (Coimbra), in the Paul de Arzila and Paul da Madriz Nature Reserves and three successful reintroduction programmes have been completed in Spain. A European Species Action Plan was published in 1999 (de Vergara and Ripoll 1999).

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species should be fully protected, included in the appropriate category in the national catalogues and have a National Recovery Plan for countries within its European range. Key sites should be adequately protected, as should smaller sites and appropriate restoration, conservation and enhancement measures aplied. Reintroduction programmes have been shown to be successful and should be implemented in areas with fragmented populations or where natural population recovery is unlikely. Restrictions on hunting at important sites are also needed. Monitoring should be standardised throughout its range. Research should focus on mortality caused by lead poisoning and the impact of pesticides. Public awareness of the species and its status should be raised (de Vergara and  Ripoll 1999).


population:
The European population is estimated at 161,000-251,000 calling or lekking males, which equates to 323,000-501,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,900-26,600 calling or lekking males, which equates to 19,900-53,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits similar habitats in both its breeding and winter ranges (Taylor 1996), and generally requires very shallow water (less than c.15 cm deep, typically foraging in water less than 7 cm deep) that is rich in invertebrate food and is interspersed with stands of low vegetation cover (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species shows a preference for freshwater wetlands with a range of water depths or where water levels vary seasonally, especially where these have a mixture of muddy, moist and shallowly flooded substrates and a dense covering of grass, sedges, rushes, Polygonum, Iris, Equisetum and other emergents, as well as trees (Taylor 1996). Suitable habitats include seasonal and permanent marshes and fens, bogs, damp meadows, the edges of drainage ditches (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), swamps, seasonally flooded pans (Urban et al. 1986), pools in flooded grassland, grassy margins of reservoirs and lakes, slow-flowing rivers and sewage settling-ponds.

The species breeds in Europe from April to July. The nest is a thick-walled cup of plant matter, usually placed in thick vegetation near or over standing water, or alternatively in a tussock, or built up well above the water level. Clutches are usually eight to twelve eggs.The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of small aquatic insect adults and larvae, earthworms, molluscs, arachnids (Taylor 1996) and small stranded fish (Urban et al. 1986), as well as algae and the shoots, leaves, roots and seeds of Panicum, Oryza, Carex and Schoenoplectus (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). This species is fully migratory (Taylor 1996).

threats:
This species is vulnerable to changes in water levels, either through artificial wetland modification and drainage, or through climatic changes. Numbers have declined over the past century in Europe due to wetland drainage (Urban et al. 1986, Taylor 1996) and agricultural intensification (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key sites should be identified and protected and monitoring of populations introduced. The promotion of low-intensity agriculture would likely also benefit this species. Research into the species's population dynamics and habitat requirements would inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Rallus aquaticus and R. indicus (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as R. aquaticus following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 157,000-346,000 pairs, which equates to 314,000-693,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 76,900-191,000 pairs, which equates to 154,000-381,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species requires muddy ground for foraging and shows a preference for shallow still or slow-flowing water, surrounded by dense riparian, emergent, submergent or aquatic vegetation (Taylor and Christie 2014). It breeds in reedbeds and other emergent vegetation in fresh and saline swamps, fens and marshes and at the fringes of open fresh or saline lakes. Other habitats include clay pits, gravel pits, peat excavations (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), river oxbows and channels, damp meadows and rice paddy-fields (Taylor and Christie 2014). On migration and in the winter the species frequents riverbanks, canals (Urban et al. 1986), gravel pits, farm sewage outfalls, marshy areas (Iceland), bracken on islands, flooded blackberry (Rubus spp.) thickets and other very small wetland patches. In western and central Europe breeding occurs from late March to August (Taylor and Christie 2014). The nest is a substantial cup of vegetation that is usually positioned in thick stands of reeds or rushes on the ground in or near water, or rarely on a tree stump or in the open (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Clutches are usually six to eleven eggs (Taylor and Christie 2014). The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting predominantly of animal matter (Snow and Perrins 1998) such as worms, leeches, molluscs, shrimps, crayfish, spiders, terrestrial and aquatic insects and larvae, amphibians (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), fish, birds and mammals. It also takes plant matter including shoots, roots, seeds, berries and fruits (Taylor and Christie 2014). In Europe, western and southern populations of this species are mainly sedentary, whereas northern and north-eastern populations are mostly migratory, wintering in western and south-western Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species is vulnerable to severe conditions (e.g. ice or severe floods) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Taylor and Christie 2014). In some areas it suffers from habitat destruction through land reclamation and wetland drainage (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures in place for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key sites should be identified and protected and monitoring of populations introduced. Research into the species's population dynamics and habitat requirements would inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Zapornia parva (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Porzana.

population:
The European population is estimated at 55,000-82,900 calling or lekking males, which equates to 110,000-166,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,300-15,200 calling or lekking males, which equates to 12,700-30,500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in the lowlands in temperate and steppe zones (Taylor 1996), extending into boreal regions if conditions are favourable (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It inhabits natural or semi-natural eutrophic freshwater wetlands with still or slow-flowing water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and requires tall stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. Scirpus, Typha, Carex, Sparganium and Phragmites) in or near fairly deep water in which to breed, preferably with a mixture of dead and living stems and a layer of broken stems at ground or water level (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include the margins of lakes and rivers (Taylor 1996), small pools and oxbows in regularly inundated floodplains, marshes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), flooded woodland (Taylor 1996) such as alder (Alnus) coppices (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and flooded rice-fields.

Breeding occurs between May and August (Taylor 1996). The nest is a shallow cup of plant matter placed in thick vegetation on or near water (Urban et al. 1986), or occasionally raised on a tussock or platform of dead material, preferably in sites only accessible by swimming (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The diet of this species consists mostly of insects, as well as the seeds and shoots of aquatic plants, worms, gastropods, spiders and water mites. Most populations of this species are fully migratory and migrate to wintering grounds from late-August to November (Taylor 1996).

threats:
In its breeding range the species is threatened by wetland degradation and destruction such as lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian et al. 2002), and intensive reed harvesting (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key sites should be identified and protected and monitoring of populations introduced. Management techniques should include the maintenance of tall reedbeds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and habitat diversity (Stermin et al. 2011). Research into the species's population dynamics and habitat requirements would inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Zapornia pusilla (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Porzana.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT°)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the small population size qualifies for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<1,000 mature individuals), but there is considered to be potential for rescue from outside the region, as the population in Russia (nearly three quarters of the European population) is increasing, so the final category is adjusted to Near Threatened (NT°).

range:
The species is a patchily distributed summer visitor to Europe, breeding from the Iberian Peninsula through to Russia, but generally south of 55°N (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It was last recorded nesting in 1972 in the Netherlands, however breeding birds were rediscovered in 2005 (Taylor et al. 2013) and in Britain, it was last confirmed in the 19th century but at least six singing birds were heard in apparently suitable breeding habitat at minimum of three sites in summer 2012, and the species may possibly have been overlooked as a breeder in recent years (Ausden et al. 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 980-1,400 calling or lekking males, which equates to 2,000-2,800 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 130-280 calling or lekking males, which equates to 260-560 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species frequents similar habitats throughout its range and throughout the year, although its breeding areas are characterised by low, dense, tussocky or continuous vegetation such as flooded sedges and grasses. It inhabits freshwater, brackish or saline marshy wetlands, permanent and temporary, with dense emergent and floating vegetation. In Europe it breeds from May to July. The nest is a shallow cup or platform of vegetation placed close to water on a grass tussock or in soft grass, usually 4–60 cm above the water level. Occasionally the nest may be floating or anchored to vegetation in water, or placed in or under low bushes. Clutches are four to seven eggs (Taylor et al. 2013).  Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as annelids, molluscs, small crustaceans (e.g. ostracods and copepods), small fish (Taylor et al. 2013), amphibians (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and vegetative plant material and seeds. Populations in Europe appear to be fully migratory (Taylor et al. 2013).

threats:
The species is threatened by degradation and loss of seasonal and ephemeral wetlands owing to drainage, overgrazing, cultivation (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Taylor et al. 2013), reed-cutting, reed-burning and sudden changes in water levels caused by discharges from large dams. The species also suffers high mortality during migration from collisions with powerlines (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key sites should be identified and protected and monitoring of populations introduced. Management techniques should include avoiding changes in water level during the nesting period; cutting and burning of vegetation near the waters edge should be controlled; natural vegetation around fish ponds and rice-fields should be maintained. Research into the species's population dynamics and habitat requirements would inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Chlamydotis undulata and C. macqueenii (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as C. undulata following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has declined to the point of possible extinction as a breeder within the European region. Any remaining population must be tiny and is inferred to still be declining. It is therefore classified as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) in Europe.
 

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
The species is found principally from Egypt east of the Nile, through the Middle East and central Asia to China. However in Europe, there may still be limited or sporadic occurrence of the species in Azerbaijan and Armenia, and perhaps also in southern Russia and Turkey (Goriup 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 0-10 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits open, arid and sparsely vegetated steppe and semi-desert (Launay et al. 1997, Osborne et al. 1997, Mian 2003, Yang et al. 2003). It favours scattered shrubby vegetation, typically comprising xerophytic or halophytic plants (del Hoyo et al. 2014). On the breeding grounds, nesting females may also favour sites away from vegetation patches, which could provide cover for predators (Yang et al. 2003, Aghanajafizadeh et al. 2012).

Outside of Europe, in Syria, the species breeds mainly from March to May (del Hoyo et al. 2014). Males attract their mates with an extravagant courtship display which they perform at the same site each year. The display begins with a period of strutting and culminates with the male retracting his head within an ornamental shield of erected neck feathers and then running at speed in either a straight or curved line. The display is often accompanied by a series of subsonic booming calls (Gaucher et al. 1996). Females create a shallow scrape in the ground in which they typically lay two to three eggs (del Hoyo et al. 2014). The species feeds throughout the day, but is most active at dawn and dusk (Combreau and Launay 1996). It has an eclectic diet, mainly comprising plants and invertebrates (especially ants Formicidae and beetles Tenebrionidae (Tigar and Osborne 2000)), but also including vertebrates such as rodents, lizards, small snakes and even young birds (del Hoyo et al. 2014, Tourenq et al. 2003).

threats:
The principal threat is from hunting (primarily using falconry), largely but not exclusively on the species's wintering grounds (Judas et al. 2009). In parts of the region, fast-paced development related to the growth of the petroleum industry has reduced the availability of undisturbed habitats and further exacerbated the species's decline. Oil exploration, road building, oil and water pipelines, mining and quarrying activities, powerlines and the general disturbance caused by four-wheel drive vehicles have all been identified as significant auxiliary threats. Powerlines in particular may prove to be a major threat in the near future. Livestock grazing is reported to have a negative impact on the species, both indirectly, by degrading the desert vegetation on which birds rely for food and concealment, and directly, through the trampling of nests and disturbance of nesting females (Lavee 1988).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II. Studies have been conducted into the status, ecology and migration of the species in various parts of its range, most notably Kazakhstan (Combreau et al. 2001, 2002, Tourenq et al. 2004, O. Combreau and M. Lawrence in litt. 2004, F. Launay pers. comm. 2004, Riou et al. 2011). Through its network of breeding facilities in the U.A.E., Morocco and Kazakhstan, the International Fund for Houbara Conservation (IFHC) has a long-term goal to produce 35,000 Asian Houbaras each year for reintroduction into the wild (IFHC 2014). The first releases were made in Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area in central Saudi Arabia in 1991. This population is currently estimated to number 250-300 individuals. Further releases have taken place elsewhere in Saudi Arabia and also in U.A.E., Qatar, Kuwait, Yemen, Jordan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It is not yet clear what impact the releases of captive-reared birds have on the demographics and genetic integrity of the overall population.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The most urgently needed conservation measures are those that will reduce exploitation to a biologically sustainable level. This will require precautionary and scientifically determined limits on the number of birds that can be harvested legally and stricter enforcement of bans on illegal forms of trade and hunting; it also requires in-depth studies of natural productivity in Asian Houbaras in relation to habitat selection and predator abundance. Carry out further surveys to gain an improved estimate of the overall population size and trend; continue research to determine the migration routes, schedules and strategies of all populations. Produce a range-wide action and recovery plan, based on agreement under the Convention on Migratory Species. Create managed protected areas. Where they can be shown to be detrimental, reduce grazing and other farming pressures (Goriup 1997, Combreau et al. 2001, O. Combreau and M. Lawrence in litt. 2004, F. Launay pers. comm. 2004). Establish long-term, range-wide population monitoring studies. Study the overall demographic and genetic consequences of releasing captive-reared birds.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

Within the region this species is restricted to the eastern Canary Islands (Spain), where it has a moderately small, apparently stable population which approaches the thresholds for classification as Vulnerable. The Canarian population is a distinct subspecies and there is not considered to be any potential rescue effect from the mainland North African population, therefore the final category is unchanged and the species is classified as Near Threatened (D1) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species occurs across a wide range in North Africa, however it extends into Europe, where the subspecies fuertaventurae is confined to the eastern Canary Islands, Spain (Carrascal et al. 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 850-1,200 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Within Europe this species is confined to the eastern Canary Islands. It inhabits sandy and stony semi-desert and is specialised to arid conditions where trees are absent and both shrub cover and herb layer are sparse (Collar 1979, Goriup 1997, Snow and Perrins 1998, Martí and del Moral 2003). The breeding season runs from November to June, with peak activity in March and April (Collar and Garcia 2013). It typically lays two to four eggs in a scrape on the ground, usually near some cover (Collar and Garcia 2013). Eggs and young are susceptible to ground predators. Males attract their mates with an extravagant courtship display which they perform at the same site each year. Males defend these display areas which are approximately 500–1,000 m apart (Tucker & Heath 1994). The display begins with a period of strutting and culminates with the male retracting his head within an ornamental shield of erected neck feathers and then running at speed in either a straight or curved line. The display is often accompanied by a series of subsonic booming calls (Gaucher et al. 1996). It feeds on invertebrates, small vertebrates and green shoots (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is sedentary (Collar and Garcia 2013).

threats:
The European population is considered threatened by collisions with powerlines (C. González and J. A. Lorenzo in litt. 2007, Lowen 2007), as well as habitat degradation caused by tourist facilities, off-road vehicles, military exercises, overgrazing, sand extraction and road development. It is also possible nest predation by introduced mammals and illegal hunting have an adverse impact (Martín. et al. 1997, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martí and del Moral 2003). Recent evidence suggests that the impacts of military exercises and hunting have reduced considerably in recent years, but mortality from powerlines may still be significant (C. González and J. A. Lorenzo in litt. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. National legislation protects the species or controls hunting in most range states, however hunters are often able to circumvent these laws (Azafzaf et al. 2005). In the Canary Islands the species has received improved protection from poaching as well as the reduction of grazing (agricultural decline) and habitat management within protected areas (Martín et al. 1997, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martí and del Moral 2003). SEO/BirdLife purchased a 209-ha reserve to protect the species on Fuerteventura in 2005.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Designate new and expand existing special protected areas under European law. Increase wardening of key areas. Ensure safe powerline positions; conduct a rigorous census every five years. Undertake local awareness campaigns (Martín et al. 1997, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martí and del Moral 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 17,100-20,800 males, which equates to 34,200-41,500 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 15,100-18,000 males, which equates to 30,300-36,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occurs in open, flat, undulating short-grass plains, usually clear of trees, although it uses cork oak (Quercus suber) ?savanna? and olive groves in SW Iberia. A high diversity of low-intensity land-use and lack of disturbance are generally important for year round needs (Collar & Garcia 2013). Nest sites are selected in fallow or cereal fields (primarily alfalfa in central Europe) in areas of low patch-type diversity, far from human infrastructure and with good horizontal visibility (Magaña et al. 2010). Females mate with males on lekking grounds (Tucker and Heath 1994) then incubate a clutch of two to three eggs. It nests with or without a scrape, occasionally with fragments of grass stems and crop stems as lining. The diet consists principally of plant material and invertebrates, although small mammals, amphibians and nestling birds are sometimes taken. In Europe the species is generally sedentary but can be dispersive in Iberia, central and eastern Europe to the Ukraine depending on weather, age and sex (Collar and Garcia 2013).

threats:
Key threats are increased habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss due to agricultural intensification, land-use changes and infrastructure development which has the potential to increase following land privatisation in eastern Europe (S. Nagy in litt. 1999, 2007, Nagy 2009). Habitat loss and fragmentation continues as a result of ploughing of grasslands, intensive grazing, afforestation and increasing development of irrigation schemes, roads, power-lines, fencing and ditches. Mechanisation, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, fire and predation all contribute to high mortality in eggs, chicks, juveniles and incubating females (Nagy 2009). Hunting is a major threat in Turkey and Ukraine (Y. Andryucshenko in litt. 1999, P. Goriup in litt. 2007). Collision with power lines (J. C. Alonso in litt. 2007, Nagy 2009, M. Kessler in litt. 2012) and wind turbines are also significant threats (S. Nagy in litt. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II and CMS MoU in place since 2002. EU Birds Directive Annex I, Bern Convention Annex II (S. Nagy in litt. 1999, 2007, P. Goriup in litt. 2007). A European action plan was published in 1996 and updated in 2009 (Nagy 2009). Agri-environmental and land management programmes have been (successfully) implemented in Spain, Portugal, Austria, Hungary, Germany and Serbia. Artificial incubation and chick rearing projects have been established in Germany and Hungary since the 1970s. A UK reintroduction project began in 2003 with chicks imported from the Russian Federation (Dawes 2008) that has established a small population, although continued monitoring and supplementing is still needed (Burnside et al. 2012). A LIFE Nature project for the species was implemented in Hungary during 2004-2008 with the aim of increasing in-situ protection of the species (Bankovics and Lóránt 2008). Other LIFE projects for the species have been implemented in Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria and Slovakia.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct nationwide surveys in countries with currently low quality estimates, to confirm worldwide numbers and trends. Research the limiting population factors and the wintering distribution in Russia and Ukraine. Protect and manage breeding and wintering areas. Implement agri-environment measures for low-intensity farming. Prevent steppe fires, illegal hunting and collision with powerlines. Raise public awareness.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This small bustard is undergoing rapid population declines in Spain, which holds c70% of the European population. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species has two widely separated breeding populations. In its eastern range it occurs, in Europe, in Russia, Georgia, Ukraine and Turkey. Its western range covers Spain and Portugal, with smaller populations in Italy and France. Eastern populations winter from Turkey and the Caucasus to Iran, and erratically elsewhere in south Asia. Azerbaijan holds the main wintering quarters, with the Adjinohur valley and Shirvan National Park supporting large numbers (Gauger and Heiß 2010). Western populations winter in the Mediterranean zone, with the Iberian peninsula holding the most important wintering quarters. Whilst it remains widespread and numerous, in some parts of its range it has declined dramatically since the 19th century, leading to extinctions in at least 11 European countries and probably as a breeding bird in Azerbaijan. The species has now disappeared from mainland Italy, where it occurred in Apulia (V. Bretagnolle in litt. 2007).

population:
The European population is estimated at 60,900-120,000 males, which equates to 122,000-240,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 56,800-111,000 502, which equates to 114,000-222,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits dry grassland and, in Europe, it also occurs in areas of low-intensity arable cultivation and pastoral land, selecting areas with a high diversity of ground cover such as mosaics of pasture, stubble fields, long-rotation fallow land and legume crops (Martin et al. 2010). Wintering birds in Azerbaijan prefer semi-desert and steppe areas under winter pasturing, and avoid areas of intensive agriculture (Gauger 2007). Breeding occurs from February until to June (Collar et al. 2014). The species is polygamous (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997); females mate with males on their displaying ground then nest and raise the young alone (Tucker and Heath 1994). The nest is a shallow scrape usually in dense, short grass cover. Clutches range from two to six eggs (Collar et al. 2014).  Beetles, grasshoppers and other terrestrial invertebrates are a vital source of food in the summer and are fed to the chicks; in the winter plant material (e.g. shoots, leaves, flowerheads and seeds) is more dominant in the diet (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Collar et al. 2014). The species varies in its migratory or resident character across its distribution. In the north and especially in eastern Europe it is migratory as are the breeding birds in France. In Iberia the species is partially migratory, the main wintering grounds being in the south-west of the peninsula (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The primary cause of its decline has been conversion of dry grassland and low-intensity cultivation to intensive arable agriculture, especially where this has included the planting of monocultures or perennial crops, irrigation or afforestation. The fragmentation of traditional habitats, by means of agricultural intensification or infrastructure development, negatively affects habitat availability and quality for the species, as well as male density (E. García in litt. 2007, García et al. 2007) as displaying males exhibit a preference for old and same-year fallows which offer shelter and food (Delgado et al. 2010). The use of pesticides could reduce food availability (E. García in litt. 2007). Harvesting with modern farm machinery, operated at high speed and often during the night, is the key threat to females and nests in Europe and is the cause for the observed male-biased sex structure and low fecundity (Iñigo and Barov 2010). Farm machinery accounts for 40% of clutch failure in south-west France (Inchausti and Bretagnolle 2005). Conversion to intensive arable agriculture continues to be the primary threat and cause of continuing declines in Europe (E. García in litt. 2007). It also suffers from illegal hunting (Y. Andryuschenko in litt. 1999), although this is a minor threat (V. Bretagnolle in litt. 2007). The collision of birds with overhead powerlines is a locally important cause of mortality (E. García in litt. 2007). The release of farm-reared gamebirds could eventually introduce new pathogens to wild populations of the species (E. García in litt. 2007). In Azerbaijan, the main threats are disturbance from intensive land use (mainly heavy grazing), habitat loss to infrastructure development and probably hunting (Gauger 2007). Climate change effects could lead to shorter rainy seasons and reduced winter precipitation in southern Europe which could have a detrimental effect on habitat quality for the species (Delgado et al. 2009, Delgado and Moreira 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. A European action plan was published in 2001 (E. García in litt. 2007), its implementation was reviewed (Barov and Derhé 2011) and updated (Iñigo and Barov 2010) in 2010. A species action plan for the species in Sardinia is in preparation. In Catalonia, Management Plans for the SPA with a Little Bustard population have been developed. The species has been the subject of several LIFE Nature projects in Portugal, Spain, France and Italy. France and Spain have attempted a joint programme of reinforcement of the populations in central and western France by release of captive-bred chicks during 2006-2009. In France, targeted agri-environmental measures (MAET) have been developed and tested in the region of Poitou-Charentes. Management agreements have been elaborated and signed with farmers, which are believed to have led to an increase of the affected populations (Leitão et al. 2006, Bamière et al. 2011, Bretagnolle et al. 2011). In France, Spain and Portugal national censuses take place every five years (four in France). The number of protected areas established in steppe habitats in those countries has increased.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Carry out coordinated surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate for the total population. Continue to conduct surveys to monitor population trends. Preserve habitat and alter land-use practices through EU and national policies. Work with land-owners to manage land favourably and reduce hunting. Reduce hunting pressure through awareness campaigns. Ensure fields with permanent cover on arable land through agri-environmental schemes using rotations and fallow land. Eliminate dangerous powerlines.


population:
The European population is estimated at 8,310,000-15,000,000 pairs, which equates to 16,600,000-30,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,840,000-9,380,000 pairs, which equates to 11,700,000-18,800,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers deciduous and mixed woodland with a well-developed shrub layer, especially willows (Salix) and favouring edge habitats. It is also found in riverine woodland, scrub heathland with scattered trees, bushes and hedges in farmland and well-wooded suburban parks, cemeteries and gardens. In the Mediterranean it also uses maquis and open pine (Pinus) forest. Otherwise, avoids pure stands of conifers in west of range, but noted in open forests of spruce (Picea), fir (Abies), larch (Larix) and Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica) in central Siberia.

It breeds from mid-March to June. The nest is a compact, domed, oval ball of moss, cobweb and hair, covered with up to c. 3000 flakes of lichen for camouflage and with an entrance hole at one side near the top. It is lined with small feathers and adults may continue to add feathers during laying period. It is usually found in a low thorny bush, but a few are built up in tree fork or against a trunk, or hanging among terminal twigs of conifer (Harrap 2008). Normally eight to twelve eggs are laid. It feeds mainly on arthropods although plant matter is taken occasionally during autumn and winter. The species is resident in temperate and Mediterranean areas, but irruptive movements occur farther north (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Declines in Sweden and Finland are likely as a result of modern forestry practices and the replacement of old-growth habitats with commercial monocultures. During the winter flocks require large territories and habitat fragmentation and degradation can thus threaten local populations. It is vulnerable to severe winters, which can cause numbers to decline by up to 80% and it can take years for populations to recover. Reproductive success can be suppressed by predation of nests, most commonly by crows (Corvidae), weasels (Mustela) and snakes (Harrap 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
A wide-scale approach to the preservation of suitable habitat for this species is important. Increasing the amount of old deciduous forests close to existing habitats has been shown to be an effective strategy for this species (Lindbladhet al. 2011). In some areas predator control may be appropriate and research should investigate the effectiveness of this in increasing populations.


population:
The European population is estimated at 44,300,000-78,800,000 pairs, which equates to 88,700,000-158,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 24,100,000-36,800,000 pairs, which equates to 48,200,000-73,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in most open habitats and has a strong association with farmland throughout its range, but it also occurs on heathland and moorland, meadows, grassland, steppe, edges of marshes, dunes and even in extensive forest clearings.

Breeding occurs from late March or early April to August and September. It is monogamous but the female builds the nest alone. It is in an excavated scrape or natural depression on the ground among short vegetation filled with a thick layer of grass and lined with finer vegetation. Clutches are normally three to five eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and other plant material. The diet is seasonal; primarily insectivorous in summer and herbivorous in the winter (Donald and Garcia 2014). The species shows graduation from being entirely migratory in the north and east of its range to being resident in the south (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The main cause of decline in this species is agricultural intensification. Recent research indicates the principal causes are changes in management of cereal-growing and grassland (leading to reduced nesting and foraging opportunities, and diminution of food resources (Donald and Garcia 2014). In grasslands high fertiliser applications lead to vegetation that is too tall and dense for nesting. The heavy use of pesticides and herbicides is thought to negatively impact this species too (Tucker and Heath 1994). High hunting pressure in some countries poses an additional threat (Donald and Garcia 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. An EU Species Management Plan was developed in 2007. The species is listed as threatened on the national Red Lists of Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands and the U.K. and is legally protected in 14 countries within the EU (Petersen 2007).

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species requires wide-scale conservation measures. These include the maintenance of crop diversity, leaving stubble fields over winter and reductions in the use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. In the U.K., it was found that cutting and cultivation of set aside land should be delayed until July to avoid destroying nests (Tucker and Heath 1994). Data on the numbers of this species harvested annually should be collected to ensure numbers are sustainable and the sex ratio of birds collected should also be monitored to prevent an imbalance (Petersen 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Abundant in the Middle East and North Africa, within Europe this species is restricted to an extremely small (30-120 pairs, which equates to 60-240 mature individuals in a single sub-population) and decreasing population in southern Turkey, and it is therefore classified as Critically Endangered (C2a(ii)). It does not occur in the EU27.

range:
This species is found predominately across Africa and the Middle East however its range just extends into southeastern-most Europe, where it has a small resident populations in Turkey (Birecik) (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

population:
The European population is estimated at 30-120 pairs, which equates to 60-240 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occurs in desert or semi-desert, mainly in lowlands and is found on rocky or stony hill slopes and flanking escarpments. It avoids flat and sandy landscapes, although sometimes seen in undulating terrain with rocks and stones. It is mostly found in lowlands, but occurs to at least 2,000 m in mountains.

Egg-laying occurs from March to May. The species is monogamous and territorial. Both sexes build the nest which is placed on the ground beside a rock, grass tuft or small shrub, or in an exposed site. It is made from grass stems and other fine plant material, lined with softer material and with a rampart of small stones on the exposed side, or surrounded by small stones when in an open site. Clutches can be between one to five eggs. It has a mixed diet of small seeds and insects taken in highly variable proportions, according to area and season. Hard food items are broken against rocks or other hard surfaces before consumption. Chicks are fed mainly with insects. This species is mainly sedentary, although some irregular movements recorded and altitudinal movements occur in mountain areas. It has been recorded as an accidental in Cyprus (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

threats:
The European population is on the edge of its world range, conditions may well be suboptimal for the species within the region making it particularly vulnerable to habitat change. Habitat degradation from factors such as irrigation, overgrazing and erosion as well as  are recorded in areas where the species in present (Ozturk et al. 2012) and may be a threat to this species. The use of pesticides may also be a problem (Ozturk et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Due to the restricted range of this species in Europe important sites should be protected, including legislation to guard them from development. Research into the species's ecology and habitat needs should be undertaken to inform future conservation measures as well as help assess potential threats and impacts in order to develop appropriate responses.


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,730,000-9,050,000 pairs, which equates to 9,460,000-18,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,180,000-1,850,000 pairs, which equates to 2,360,000-3,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers dry areas with low and sparse vegetation cover, on level or undulating terrain, with sandy or stony soils. In the Mediterranean basin it breeds mostly in fallow lands but also on dry pastures, tobacco fields, dirt tracks and olive groves. In Russia it also uses more densely covered pastures but is absent in true steppe and it is sometimes present in semi-arid areas but avoids true desert. It breeds in Europe, leaving its wintering grounds in late January, although arrival on its breeding grounds in the north of its range is often not until April or May. In south-west Europe it lays in May–July and in south-east Europe from mid-April. The nest is built by the female, of grasses, rootlets and similar vegetation, lined with softer material and placed in a shallow scrape on the ground, usually beside a shrub or grass tuft. It often has a small rampart of sticks or stones. Clutch size ranges from two to five eggs. It feeds mainly on invertebrates in the spring, supplementing them with seeds and the green parts of plants in the other seasons and nestlings are fed solely on invertebrates. The species is migratory and departs on a broad front from mid-August through to September and October (de Juana et al. 2012). European populations winter in Africa between 10° and 20°N (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Main threats are from agricultural intensification (leading to loss of fallows, increased number of irrigation schemes, increase in surface area covered by crops, etc.) and afforestation of wastelands (de Juana et al. 2012). In Iberia the construction of residential areas may also be a threat (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix I. EU Birds Directive Annex I. A small proportion of the population occurs in Important Bird Areas (IBAs), although much of the population in Russia and the Iberian Peninsula is not covered by any conservation measures (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
More research on the behaviour and habitat of this species should be undertaken in order to inform future conservation measures (Tucker and Heath 1994, Serrano and Astrain 2005). The maintenance and expansion of dry areas of grasslands and low intensity croplands as well as the reintroduction of temporary areas of fallow land, through agri-environment regulation should be developed. (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,570,000-3,010,000 pairs, which equates to 3,130,000-6,020,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 240,000-280,000 pairs, which equates to 480,000-560,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours open land with shrubs and grasses, and with a high percentage of bare ground. In the Mediterranean basin it selects areas with average shrub height of 50 cm and bare ground c. 60% and it often prefers saltmarshes with glasswort (Salicornia) in the winter (de Juana and Suárez 2004). Egg-laying occurs from April to June, although begins in March in the Canary Islands (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a small scrape on the ground beside a small shrub or tuft, or in the open and lined with vegetation. Normally three to four eggs are laid. The diet varies seasonally between invertebrates and seeds. In the spring it feeds mostly on invertebrates and in winter mostly seeds with a mix of the two consumed in summer. Fruits and bulbs are also taken. In Iberia, the species is sedentary although post-breeding it groups into flocks that move erratically (de Juana and Suárez 2004). In the east, it behaves similarly although it can leave large parts of Russia in the winter (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of agricultural expansion, touristic developments (de Juana and Suárez 2004), the abandonment of traditional grazing and urbanisation. Along the Iberian coast, the commercial extraction of sand is also a threat (Tucker and Heath 1994). In some areas heavy predation is a threat, for example on Tenerife introduced predators such as rats (Rattus), cats and hedgehogs (Erinaceus) are a problem (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The area of suitable habitat which is either under protection or covered by management agreements should be increased. Actions that destroy habitat, such as human developments and sand extraction should be restricted. The afforestation of areas of high conservation interest should be prevented and no grants for forestry schemes should be available for these areas. The maintenance of traditional grazing practices would prevent excessive shrub regeneration. The effects of predators should be monitored (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Traditionally two subspecies are recognised (Cramp and Simmons 1988; De Juana
and Suárez 2004):Chersophilus duponti duponti (Vieillot,1820) living in the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco and Northern Algeria and Tunisia andC. duponti margaritae, to which the so

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species is restricted to Spain, where has a small, declining population. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (C1) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
Within Europe the species is currently found in continental Spain; mainly in east Castilla y Leónand Aragón, also west Castilla y Leónnear Portugese border, east Castilla-La Mancha and south-east Andalucía. It is sparsely distributed and uncommon in most areas of its relatively small and fragmented range (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,200-2,700 pairs, which equates to 4,400-5,400 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers open plains with shrub-steppe or feather-grass (Stipa) steppe, on flat or rolling terrain. In Spain it prefers land with shrubs, mainly 40–60 cm tall, and medium-high percentage of bare ground. It also occurs in cereal fields outside the breeding season. It is found between 50–1,550 m, but mostly at 1,000–1,400 m. Breeding takes place in March and July and pairs will often have more than one brood. Song-flighting males often rise to considerable height (100–150 m) and remain aloft, singing continuously, for 30 minutes or more before suddenly descending rapidly and vertically to the ground; wing-clapping has been recorded during song flights at lower levels. The nest is a scrape on ground, beside a small shrub or tuft or in the open, lined with twigs, vegetable fibres and hair, orientation mainly in NE-NW quarter. Clutch size three to five eggs in Spain (de Juana and Suárez 2004). The species feeds principally on insects (beetles and Lepidoptera larvae) and seeds. The chicks are fed only on invertebrates, predominantly Lepidoptera larvae, grasshoppers (Acrididae) and spiders (Tucker and Heath 1994). This species is sedentary although probably irregular movements occur during winter. In Spain, it has been observed in winter flocks with other lark species. Vagrants recorded east and north in Italy, Malta, Greece (Crete) and Cyprus (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

threats:
In parts of its range, overgrazing or undergrazing and agricultural development have caused a reduction in its preferred habitats and a considerable decrease in numbers (M. Smart in litt. 2004, Isenmann et al. 2005). Reforestation schemes also lead to a loss of suitable habitat and infrastructure development has led to fragmentation of habitat, particularly by the construction and development of windfarms in Spain. The limited dispersal capabilities of the species reduces the exchange of individuals between populations and increases their extinction risk. Since gene flow between Iberian and African populations is extremely low (García et al. 2008 ) it is important that conservation plans for Iberian populations do not rely on the existence of the African populations of the same subspecies. A recent Spanish study has shown that the species's occurrence is principally determined by geographic isolation (extinction events were exclusively related to isolation), landscape matrix and patch size, rather than habitat quality (Vögeli et al. 2010). Isolation of local populations and reduced patch size has a compounding effect on population density since smaller populations suffer reduced singing repertoires which in turn reduces the rescuing effect from others (receiving immigrants), thus compromising population persistence (Laiolo and Tella 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. An EU Species Action Plan was published in 2008 (Inigo et al. 2008). The species has been studied in Spain and is included as Endangered in the Spanish Red Data Book. 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue monitoring Spanish populations. Determine appropriate levels of grazing to maintain habitat. Work with farmers and pastoralists to ensure that levels of grazing benefit the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the small population is declining and therefore is classified as Near Threatened (C1). There is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the region, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species has a patchy breeding distribution in parts of southeastern Europe, as well as Fennoscandia and arctic Russia (Donald and de Juana 2014). Four subspecies occur in Europe: flava breeds along the Arctic coast westwards from the Kolyma River and in the Fennoscandian Mountains; brandti in the Volga steppes eastwards; balcanica mainly at high elevations in the southern Carpathians, the Balkans and Greece; and penicillata in Transcaucasia and the Caucasus (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,140,000-6,510,000 pairs, which equates to 4,280,000-13,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,300-7,900 pairs, which equates to 10,500-15,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is the only lark to have successfully colonized tundra and alpine habitats. Throughout its range it prefers mainly barren terrain with very short vegetation. In Eurasia, it breeds mainly in arctic tundra, dry stony patches in lichen tundra, barren steppes and arctic-alpine zones.  Also, it occupies open coasts and dunes in the non-breeding season.  In western Europe, migrants of race flava are largely confined to open coastal habitats around the North Sea in winter.

In Eurasia, it breeds from late May to mid-July in Scandinavia but from mid-June in arctic Russia. The female builds the nest in an excavated cavity or natural depression on the ground, which is filled with woven plant material, lined with feathers or other fine material and has stones, bark, clods of earth, animal dung and other materials placed around it. It is usually positioned in such a way as to reduce wind flow across it to as little as a tenth of ambient wind speed and to maximize shade. Clutches can be from one to eight eggs but generally two to five, although clutch size increases with latitude. It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates in summer and plant material in winter and nestlings are fed almost entirely with invertebrates. The species is migratory or partially migratory in the north and mostly resident or an altitudinal migrant in the south. Across the Holarctic Region, races in the far north are wholly migratory, with much or all of breeding range abandoned in winter (Donald and de Juana 2014).

threats:
In Europe, drastic declines noted since 1950s in northern Fennoscandia, especially Finland, which were believed to be possibly due to overgrazing of lichen by reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) (Donald and de Juana 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Ensure careful management and protection of breeding sites, in particular from overgrazing as well as the protection of wintering sites. Research into the species's ecology and habitats should be undertaken to help inform future conservation management.


population:
The European population is estimated at 17,700,000-24,500,000 pairs, which equates to 35,300,000-49,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 15,200,000-19,300,000 pairs, which equates to 30,500,000-38,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits dry plains with sparse vegetation cover and dry cultivations. It may originally have inhabited warm semi-desert and steppe landscapes but it has also adapted to human-modified landscapes, such as open farmed countryside in the northern Mediterranean Basin. The breeding season is from March to June or July in the north of its range and from April in Spain. The species is monogamous and usually lays a clutch of three to five eggs. The nest is a depression on the ground with an untidy lining of grass or other vegetation either beside a shrub or in the open (de Juana and Suárez 2004). It feeds on invertebrates and plant material such as seeds and leaves. The species is mainly resident apart from in northern Russia where it is migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
This species is threatened by agricultural intensification and over fertilization which results in overgrown vegetation in wastelands and road margins (de Juana and Suárez 2004). In addition the use of pesticides has also negatively affected populations (Tucker and Heath 1994). Changes in urbanization practices, such as new housing or industrial areas being rapidly forested along with afforestation schemes and possibly, climatic change are also threats (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Wide scale conservation measures are required for this species including the maintenance of traditional low-intensity farming practices. Management should include the maintenance of mosaics of non-irrigated cereal crops, including short-term set-aside lands, arable lands and wide margins between crops without any chemical treatments. In addition research should focus on the biological processes affecting the distribution and abundance of this species (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,750,000-2,840,000 pairs, which equates to 3,500,000-5,680,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits rugged areas with shrubs and a high percentage of bare ground or semi-arid pasture. It is typically found in hilly and broken landscapes, with rocky substrates. It is monogamous and egg-laying occurs from February to June. The nest is a depression on the ground, next to or beneath a shrub or tuft and it is lined with grass stems. Clutches are three to five eggs. The diet varies with the season but is mainly insects, with seeds and occasional green plant material also consumed. The species is resident and generally sedentary (de Juana and Suárez 2004).

threats:
Agricultural intensification along with associated irrigation projects (Tucker and Heath 1994) and the afforestation of steppe areas are thought to be driving declines in some parts of Spain. In Las Amoladeras Reserve (Almería), the cessation of hunting has resulted in a large increase in rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations and thus a rapid decline in this species (de Juana and Suárez 2004). Overgrazing is a threat in parts of southwest Iberia (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The maintenance of low-intensity farming practices would benefit this species. Steppe habitat should be recovered and conserved. The maintenance of medium-height scrub through low grazing pressure may also be beneficial and assist the species where populations are fragmented. In addition, afforestation and irrigation developments should be restricted (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,890,000-3,890,000 pairs, which equates to 3,780,000-7,790,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,570,000-3,190,000 pairs, which equates to 3,130,000-6,380,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a variety of open and semi-open habitats on well-drained soils, with a preference for acidic, sandy soils. It favours unmanaged or poorly managed habitats such as low-intensity or abandoned farmland, heathland, young forestry plantations, recently felled woodland, open woodland and scrub, orchards, steppes, woodland edges and clearings, wooded coastal dunes and parkland. It is monogamous and breeds from March to July. The nest is a deep depression in the ground, usually sheltered by a bush or tree stump and lined with leaves, pine needles and moss beneath a top layer of finer grasses. Clutches are typically three to five eggs (Donald 2004). The species is migratory in the north of its breeding range and in central Europe and southern Russia. In western Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin it is resident (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation. In central and southern Europe dry grassland, traditional vineyards and orchards and pastoral woodland is disappearing to intensive arable agriculture and fallow land and abandoned pasture are is being lost to invasion by tall grass and scrub. Afforestation is also a threat. In northern Europe as well habitat is being lost to agricultural intensification and afforestation (Tucker and Heath 1994). Winter weather can also cause fluctuations in population numbers (Donald 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. This species has benefited from increases in the young coniferous forestry plantations and the creation of further suitable habitat in storm-felled mature woodland (Donald 2004). Targeted conservation action in the UK has led to the species being down listed from ‘red’ to ‘amber’ on the national red list (Eatonet al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species requires the maintenance of extensive areas of habitat throughout Europe. For this the continuation and promotion of low-intensity pastoral farming is needed. In northwest Europe preferred habitats such as dunes and heath should continue to be protected. Young plantations should be managed for this species (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,020,000-2,050,000 pairs, which equates to 2,040,000-4,100,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Open habitats, usually stony and less grassy terrain (Alström 2004), such as arid heath bordering cultivated land and shrubland (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The breeding season occurs from late March or early April until mid-August. The nest is a loose cup of grass and rootlets, with thinner material internally than externally; the outside may be clad in pieces of paper, rags and dung. It is built in a depression on the ground, usually sheltered by a tussock or small bush. Clutches are from three to six eggs. It feeds on insects and seeds with insects as the principal food source during the breeding season. The species is migratory, although it may be resident in parts of the extreme south of its range (Alström 2004).

threats:
There are currently no known significant threats to this species although land-use changes could potentially be a threat as is common among Asian larks (Alström 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened, it should be monitored for population changes and developing threats.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abc+3bc+4abc). Since the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species occurs around the Mediterranean basin, including Sardinia, Sicily and Crete and is spread eastwards towards the steppes of central Asia. In Europe the species breeds mainly in Russia and Iberia but smaller breeding populations occur elsewhere in southern and south-eastern Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 10,300,000-21,900,000 pairs, which equates to 20,500,000-43,800,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,200,000-6,770,000 pairs, which equates to 8,400,000-13,500,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies open plains, from steppes and pastures to extensive dry cereal cultivations and true steppe with dense grass cover. In the Mediterranean Basin it is mainly found in dry pastures and dry cultivations. In cultivated areas, it prefers fallows, long-fallows and field edges and to a lesser extent sown fields, selecting unirrigated legumes and barley fields. The species is monogamous and lays eggs from early April to July. The nest is made from grass stems and small leaves, lined with softer material and built in a shallow depression on the ground, often under a tussock.  Clutches are usually three to six eggs (de Juana and Suárez 2004). Its diet is seasonal, feeding mostly on insects in the summers and seeds and grass shoots in the winter. The species is resident, forming large flocks in the autumn and winter (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
This species suffers declines due to agricultural intensification and the resultant land-use changes, for example the loss of fallows, changes from cereal crops to vineyards or olive groves and new irrigation (de Juana and Suárez 2004). The use of extensive sheep-rearing and afforestation schemes are also threats (de Juana and Suárez 2004). Hunting (Tucker and Heath 1994) and pesticide use (Papp and Fântână 2008) may also have contributed to declines.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Broad habitats conservation measures are required for this species. Traditional land-use practices should be maintained such as low-intensity cereal cultivation and low-intensity livestock rearing. Research should focus on the biological processes affecting the distribution and abundance of this species (Tucker and Heath 1994).


range:
This species breeds in the steppe belt that extends east from the Volga River through Kazakhstan to Mongolia, but winters more widely in the steppe region to the north and west of the Black Sea, with Europe holding more than 50% of the global wintering range.

population:
The European population is estimated at 10,000-50,000 pairs, which equates to 20,000-100,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found mainly on flat or slightly undulating, dry grass steppe or wormwood (Artemisia) steppe and less often in cultivated fields. Outside the breeding season it is found in wider range of grassy habitats, including stubble fields. The breeding season occurs from late April or early May until early August. The nest is made from dry grass and Artemisia, lined with finer grass. It is built in a depression on the ground, usually sheltered by a tussock or other plant. Clutches are from three to six eggs. It feeds on insects and seeds with insects as the principal food source during the summer. The species is migratory, wintering in the southwest part of its global breeding range and north of the Black Sea (Alström 2004).

threats:
This species has declined in some areas due to cultivation of its steppe habitat (Alström 2004). In addition the creation of shelter belts aided the spread of corvids which prey on the species’s eggs and young (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened its habitat should be protected from conversion to agriculture.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)

This species has undergone an extremely rapid population decline in Europe and the remaining population is extremely small. It therefore qualifies as Critically Endangered (A2abc+3bc+4abc; C1).

It does not breed in the EU27 and the species is Not Evaluated (NE) for the EU27 region as winter (non-breeding season) data were not available.

range:
Within Europe the species breeds in south-west Russia from just west of the River Volga east to Kazakhstan. During the winter it migrates to the Black Sea region and Caucasus (Alström 2004).

habitat:
This species frequents dry grassland dominated by Artemisia plants within the southern steppe sub-zone (lying between the typical steppe zone and the semi-desert zone in south Russia) and semi-desert zone. It avoids dense high grasses, preferring to nest in mosaics of short grass with low Artemisia shrubs and solonchaks (salt pans) ideally with water nearby (Tucker and Heath 1994). The breeding season begins in late-March and ends in August, but starts a month later in the north than the south. The male performs a spectacular aerial display to attract a mate. Females build the nest in a depression in the ground, usually under a tuft of grass or plant. It is made from Artemisia or grass and lined with finer grass. Clutch size is typically four or five, however can be between two and eight eggs. The diet consists principally of invertebrates and seeds. Reports differ as to whether more seeds or invertebrates are consumed during the summer, however in the winter it is known to feed exclusively on seeds, digging through the snow to reach them (Alström 2004). The species is a partial migrant with some individuals remaining in nomadic flocks through the winter. Others migrate W or WSW in September and October. Western birds winter in the Ukraine and south-east European Russia (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species is threatened by the loss of steppe to cultivation and livestock farming (Alström 2004). Livestock also pose a threat through trampling (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The destruction of remaining grassland habitat by cultivation or overgrazing has been prevented in some areas of eastern Europe, but these areas will take some years to regenerate (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Dry grassland areas need to be protected both through nature reserves and with the aid of broader land-use policies (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,080,000-2,110,000 pairs, which equates to 2,160,000-4,220,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 79,000-306,000 pairs, which equates to 158,000-612,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in boreal forest and muskeg, usually relatively open forest or edge, usually coniferous, but occasionally in birch (Betula) forest or mixed forest. It prefers well-drained areas near major rivers, normally including dense growth of fruiting plants. In non-breeding season it is found in a wide variety of habitats with fruiting plants and at least scattered trees, including roadsides, gardens, farmland and the edges of deciduous forest. The breeding season is relatively late with egg-laying beginning in late May. The nest is an open cup of fine twigs and coarse grasses, lined with finer material including grasses, mosses, plant fibres and feathers or mammal fur and usually placed on the horizontal branch of a tree, often close to trunk. Clutches are from three to seven eggs. Its diet is predominantly fruits and insects but also includes buds of various trees, flowers, tree sap, bark, shoots and leaves, moss and lichens, spiders, snails, and varied table scraps from feeders. The species is a partial migrant, withdrawing from its breeding range in winter (Mountjoy 2005).

threats:
Collisions with windows and ingestion of road salt have been suggested as threats to this species (Töpfer 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.
Conservation Actions Planned
Although this species is not threatened, research into the impact of road salt poisoning may inform future conservation measures (Töpfer 2010).


population:
The European population is estimated at 5,130,000-8,680,000 pairs, which equates to 10,300,000-17,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,550,000-7,410,000 pairs, which equates to 9,090,000-14,800,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies mixed and broadleaf deciduous woodland, particularly oak (Quercus), favouring edge habitats, as well as pine (Pinus) forest, riverine willows (Salix) and poplars (Populus), copses, orchards and parks, well-wooded farmland and suburban areas. In addition it is sometimes found in plantations of rough-barked exotic conifers. The species breeds from April to mid-June. The nest foundation is made from twigs, conifer needles, grass, bark, plant fibres, cloth and paper, lined with feathers, hair, down, rootlets, moss and lichen. It is placed up to 16 m above ground behind a flap of loose bark or in a crevice on a tree trunk, in a building or stone wall and occasionally hidden among or behind vegetation. Clutches are usually five to seven eggs. The diet is chiefly insect larvae and pupae, and spiders (Araneae) but also some seeds. The species is resident, with some altitudinal movements (Harrap 2008).

threats:
It is thought that the disappearance of old forests due to intensive forestry activities and the replacement of deciduous woodland with conifer plantations may drive declines in this species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Certhia brachydactyla dorotheae is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the promotion and expansion of forest managed under low-intensity practices, as well as the preservation of old deciduous woodland.


taxonomicNotes:
Certhia familiaris (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into C. familiaris and C. hodgsoni following Tietze et al. (2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,050,000-11,400,000 pairs, which equates to 12,100,000-22,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,790,000-5,450,000 pairs, which equates to 5,580,000-10,900,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits forest and woodland, generally requiring well-grown trees with many cracks and crevices in the bark for foraging, roosting and nesting. It tends to favour older stands of spruce (Picea), but habitat preferences are complex and apparently affected by presence or absence of Certhia brachydactyla. In the western Palearctic breeding occurs from late March to June. The species is monogamous and both sexes build the nest from conifer needles, bark fibres, grass, moss, lichen, wood chips and the like and the lining, which is added by the female alone, includes feathers, hair, wool, lichen, spider webs, eggs and cocoons. It is placed up to 16 m above ground behind a flap of loose bark or in a crevice on a tree trunk, in a building or stone wall and occasionally hidden among or behind vegetation. Clutches are typically five or six eggs. The diet is mostly insects, spiders (Araneae) but also takes some seeds, particularly pine and spruce, in the winter (Harrap 2008).

threats:
In Europe, populations may be exhibiting declines owing to habitat fragmentation and the loss of older-growth woodland (Harrap 2008) through modern forestry management practices (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The species is susceptible to the effects of severe winters, especially extended periods of glazed frost or freezing rain. In the north and east of its range populations fluctuate in an irregular pattern, which may be linked to variations in the crop of spruce seeds (Harrap 2008). The species may also suffer from the effects of future climate change (Felton et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the promotion and expansion of forest managed under low-intensity practices, particularly the preservation of older woodland growth.


population:
The European population is estimated at 131,000-292,000 pairs, which equates to 261,000-584,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 79,200-160,000 pairs, which equates to 158,000-319,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies fast-flowing, clear-water rocky streams and rivers with riffles and exposed rocks, and with abundant invertebrate prey. It also uses shallow watercourses in broadleaf woodland, in semi-natural forest and on open moorland and glacial lakes. It requires rocky cliffs or artificial sites, such as bridges, for breeding. During the non-breeding season it is sometimes found around slower-flowing lowland rivers and seashores. Egg-laying occurs from February to June in the British Isles, mid-March to May in north-west and central Europe and early May to early June in Scandinavia. The nest is a large globular structure with a side entrance hole, made mainly of moss and lined with dry leaves. It is set in a in rock crevice or cliff ledge, in masonry or on ledge in wall or under bridge, sometimes behind waterfall and rarely in tree but almost invariably over running water.  Clutches are generally three to six eggs. It feeds on freshwater insects and larvae and rarely on marine invertebrates in coastal areas. The species is resident (Ormerod et al. 2013).

threats:
The status and abundance of this species is strongly reflected by the water quality and habitat structure of rivers. Pollution that adversely affects aquatic prey also has an impact on dippers. Chemical pollution, as from acidification ("acid rain"), industry, organic effluent, sheep dips and other xenobiotic substances, are potential threats. Recovery from pollution can take decades, even centuries. In Germany and Poland, declines have been directly attributed to industrial pollution. In southern Europe and elsewhere, hydro-electric and irrigation schemes are thought to be causing declines by reducing flow rates in watercourses. In addition habitat degradation, water abstraction and water impoundment are also threats in parts of its range (Ormerod et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although the species is not currently threatened it would likely benefit from the protection of its favoured water courses and the prevention of water management in these areas.


population:
The European population is estimated at 922,000-2,140,000 pairs, which equates to 1,840,000-4,280,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 919,000-2,130,000 pairs, which equates to 1,840,000-4,260,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies open grasslands, including seasonally flooded and grassy wetlands, meadows, fallow lands and cultivated croplands and is occasionally found in urban areas. It prefers to forage in areas where there is Typha and Phragmites reedbeds and Salicornia saltmarsh as well as some bare ground, but breeding pairs require live, narrow-bladed grasses, sedges or plants with similar structure for nest-sites. It is usually found where vegetation is less than 1 m tall. It mostly breeds from March to September in Europe. The male builds the nest (Ryan 2006) low down in marshy vegetation and it is an elongated pear or bottle shaped structure with an entrance at or near the top. It is made of grasses bound together with cobwebs and lined with more cobwebs, flowers, hair and down. Usually four to six eggs are laid (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds mainly on insects and small invertebrates as well as some grass seeds. The species is largely resident throughout most of its range, but is subject to local movements often linked to seasonal changes in habitat suitability (Ryan 2006).

threats:
The main threat to this species is habitat loss through drainage, irrigation, land reclamation and conversion of meadows to plantations. Winter conditions restrict its range and it is very sensitive to periods of cold weather (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), however populations recover quickly after cold winters (Martí and del Moral 2004). The species is also likely to be affected by climate change (BirdLife International and Durham University 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened, populations should be monitored to ensure habitat loss does not become a major threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,000-4,000 pairs, which equates to 2,000-8,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits rank vegetation in fairly arid areas, including shrubs and small trees, herbs and forbs, reedbeds and riparian scrub. It is a solitary breeder and monogamous with pairs defending territories throughout the year. In Turkey, fledglings have been recorded from April to September (Kirwan et al. 2008). The male constructs the nest and the female assists by lining the cup. It is an oval structure made of dry grass and other plant material, spider cocoons and spider web and placed 0.15–1.3 m above ground in fairly tall grass or a tree. Occasionally the nest of another bird, such as Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis) is used. Clutch size normally three to five eggs. Its diet consists of insects, including beetles and their larvae (Coleoptera), caterpillars and adult lepidopterans, grasshoppers (Orthoptera), flies (Diptera) and spiders (Araneae). It also includes some plant matter. The species is mainly resident but undergoes local dispersal when not breeding. Vagrants, thought to be from Turkey, have been recorded in Crete and Cyprus (Ryan 2006).

threats:
The species is vulnerable to extreme weather. In Turkey, the population fell by c. 80% following an especially severe winter in 1991/2 (Ryan 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Areas of important suitable habitat for this species should be identified and protection ensured. Research studies on the species's ecology and potential threats and impacts should be developed to inform conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 611,000-1,160,000 pairs, which equates to 1,220,000-2,320,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 260,000-496,000 pairs, which equates to 519,000-991,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is a habitat generalist, breeding throughout forested and open coastal, steppe, mountain, tundra and cliff regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It generally occupies more open habitat in the south and north portions of range where cliffs, sparse trees provide nest locations. In middle latitudes it is generally found in coniferous and broadleaf forests, where tree-nesting often more common than cliff-nesting (Marzluff 2009).

Egg-laying begins in late February over most of its range, although further north in Greenland and Siberia it begins later in April (Madge and Burn 1993). The nest is a large and bulky platform, made from dead sticks, lined with fine roots, grass, string and other bits of rubbish, and with mammal fur to make an inner cup. It is placed in the stout, lower branches of a tree, on a steep cliff, or on an artificial structure such as a utility pole, building, sign, radio tower, abandoned vehicle, oil derrick, bridge, irrigation pipe or windmill. Clutch size is typically four to six eggs. It is an opportunistic scavenger, consuming a huge variety of animals and plants. It preys on adult and nestling birds, eggs, small mammals, sick and dying larger mammals, toads, snakes, juvenile turtles, fish and invertebrates. It also scavenges garbage and slaughterhouse offal, dung, and nearly any kind of carrion and some plant matter is also consumed (Marzluff 2009). The species is mostly sedentary but northern populations are liable to move south in winter (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
From mid-1600s to mid-1900s or later this species was widely persecuted due to fear and superstition, resulting in European populations being reduced, often to point of creating gaps in the species's distribution (e.g. throughout much northern and central Europe). Persecution still continues in Iceland and Greenland but throughout the rest of Europe it is much reduced, allowing the species to recolonize areas it was previously extirpated from (Marzluff 2009). Currently, intensive farming, the removal of woodland and human disturbance may affect the species (Hagemejer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Active reintroduction efforts and increased subsidization, have aided its return to parts of Germany, Netherlands (Marzluff 2009) and Czech Republic (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened the continuation in fall of persecution and the preservation of woodland stands within the landscape would help this species recover from past declines.


population:
The European population is estimated at 8,790,000-16,600,000 pairs, which equates to 17,600,000-33,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,860,000-9,630,000 pairs, which equates to 11,700,000-19,300,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is only really absent from dense forests and is found in most other habitats (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It prefers mixed farmland, parks and gardens, also forest clearings, and equally at home on moorland and on inshore islands, coastal cliffs and estuarine flats. It breeds from late March and forms a long-term monogamous pair-bond. Both sexes build the nest which is a rather large structure based on sticks and twigs, often mixed with rabbit (Oryctolagus) bones or wire and heather (Ericaceae) twigs. Mud pushed into base gives a solid foundation and a deep cup is thickly lined with soft materials such as wool, animal fur, soft grasses, feathers and paper. Usually it is built in the crown of a tall tree but in more open habitats electricity pylons are used, whilst on exposed coasts a cliff ledge or stunted shrub may be used and some nests are built on old buildings, in reedbeds, or even on the ground. Clutch size is typically four eggs. The species is omnivorous, but it is mainly a carnivorous scavenger. The diet varies according to local habitats, but usually includes invertebrates, especially earthworms (Lumbricidae), small mammals, frogs, bird eggs and nestlings, as well as carrion. In addition, small amounts of grain and weed seeds are taken. The species is resident, although some populations do migrate (Madge 2009).

threats:
Historically this species has been persecuted by gamekeepers and farmers because of its habit of raiding nests; however gamekeeper activity has reduced since the 1920s allowing it to recover (Madge 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently required for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 8,170,000-14,200,000 pairs, which equates to 16,300,000-28,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,750,000-6,620,000 pairs, which equates to 7,500,000-13,200,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers agricultural land, wooded steppe and riverine plains with fragmented woodland or stands of trees. It is also found in the fringes of cities, towns and villages with large trees (Madge and Burn 1993), and in city parks and churchyards (Madge 2009). In the winter it can also be found along the sea shore. It is a highly colonial species and breeds as early as late February in Britain but can breed as late as mid-April in European Russia (Madge and Burn 1993). Both sexes build the nest, which is a bulky structure of twigs and sticks and the cup is lined with roots, dry grasses and dead leaves. A nest may be repaired and reused for many years. Usually four eggs are laid but can range from two to seven. It is an omnivore; main food items are earthworms (Lumbricidae) and grain but it does take a wide variety of other invertebrates as well as vertebrates such as small lizards, frogs and small mammals, and eggs and nestlings of small birds (Madge 2009). It is less of a carrion-feeder than other northern corvids (Madge and Burn 1993). The species is resident over western and southern parts of its range and migratory in the north and east (Madge 2009).

threats:
Populations of this species have fluctuated since 1900. The main causes of this are changing agricultural land-use (notably the loss of extensive pasture), the application of pesticides and seed dressings (mercury) and persecution through shooting (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Madge 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened, monitoring implemented to assess population fluctuations and research into the impact of threats should be undertaken.


population:
The European population is estimated at 9,930,000-20,800,000 pairs, which equates to 19,900,000-41,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,280,000-9,330,000 pairs, which equates to 10,600,000-18,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a great variety of open country, preferably with scattered trees and it favours mixed farmland, parks and gardens, churchyards, wooded steppe, quarries and coastal cliffs (Madge and de Juana 2014). Across Europe it is only absent from high mountain plateaux, tundra, extensive wetland or afforested areas and a few small islands (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The species forms a long term pair bond. Egg-laying occurs from late April in Britain and northern Europe, mid-April in central Europe, and the first half of May in north-west Russia. The nest varies in size, but can be massive as a fresh nest is built each year on top of older ones. The foundation is a mass of branches and twigs, interspersed with mud and dung and the inner cup is quite deep and thick and constructed of mosses, rotten wood, feathers and fur and wool, usually in some cavity of some kind. Clutches can be from three to eight eggs but usually four. It feeds mostly on the ground and is omnivorous. During the breeding season it is mainly carnivorous, feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates, eggs and household scraps (Madge and de Juana 2014). The species is sedentary in Britain but continental birds will undergo extensive south-westerly movements in autumn (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species is now extinct in in Malta, where it was formerly common, as a result of persecution (Madge and de Juana 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened, monitoring and hunting restrictions should be implemented to prevent local extinctions.


taxonomicNotes:
Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002a). Cyanopica cyana (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into C. cyana and C. cooki by Fok et al. (2002) on the basis of minor (subspecific-type) morphological differences and a 6.06% di

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,670,000-4,460,000 pairs, which equates to 5,330,000-8,920,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In Europe this species frequents open woodland and evergreen stands of both cork oak (Quercus suber) and holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia), as well as pine-oak stands. At the edge of its distribution it also breeds in deciduous open woods of Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) and in Mediterranean almond (Prunus dulcis) and olive (Olea europaea) groves (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

It nests in loose colonies (Madge and Burn 1993) and egg-laying occurs from May to June. The nest is a mass of twigs and rootlets, often domed by naturally amassed twigs. The deep cup is lined with soft plant material, particularly animal fur and it is placed inside the outer foliage of a long branch and rarely more than two metres above the ground, sometimes at ground level itself. It is omnivorous and takes a wide variety of food items, especially insects and their larvae, and quite a number of fruits and nuts (Madge 2009). The species does not undertake migration but shows complex post-breeding dispersal movements (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
This species suffers from the destruction of extensive stands of holm oaks (Madge 2009) as well as variable and inappropriate management in this habitat (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Competition with increasing numbers of Pica pica may have caused local decreases (Madge 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 7,480,000-14,600,000 pairs, which equates to 15,000,000-29,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,570,000-8,010,000 pairs, which equates to 9,140,000-16,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits woodlands and forests of all kinds, especially beech (Fagus) and hornbeam (Carpinus), although oak (Quercus) is preferred. It can also be found in parks, orchards and large gardens.  Northern populations also occur in conifers and birch (Betula) forest. In most of Europe, egg-laying occurs mainly from mid-April. The nest is built by both sexes and is a well-constructed, platform of twigs around a relatively deep cup, lined with soft plant materials. It is usually placed four to six metres above ground and often at the junction of substantial branch and main trunk. Clutches are typically five to seven eggs. It is omnivorous, feeding mostly on invertebrates during the breeding season. It also takes eggs and nestlings of a range of birds up to the size of a sparrowhawk (Accipiter) and a wide variety of seeds and berries, especially in autumn and winter, including grain, beech mast, chestnuts and acorns. Throughout the autumn and into winter it builds up caches of acorns, burying them individually in leaf litter on forest floor or beneath clumps of brambles or ferns, and has been estimated that a single bird could store c. 3000 acorns in one month (Madge 2009). The species sedentary although some subspecies have migratory populations (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species's colourful blue wing feathers became very fashionable in the early 20th century, both as hat decoration and in the making of "flies" for salmon-fishing. It was also long persecuted by gamekeepers and farmers due to its habit of raiding nests, although persecution is now much less widespread (Madge 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Appendix II. There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 370,000-1,100,000 pairs, which equates to 739,000-2,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 124,000-272,000 pairs, which equates to 249,000-544,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies coniferous forest and mixed conifer and birch (Betula) forest where conifers predominate and is found from taiga lowlands (Madge 2009) up to 2,300 m in the Alps (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). In continental Europe it mainly inhabits mountain forests, especially where forests broken by clearings and alpine meadows. Prime habitat in Europe is composed of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Swiss pine (Pinus cembra); mixed forests of silver fir (Abies alba), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), black pine (Pinus nigra) and Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce) also important, especially if hazel (Corylus) also present (Madge 2009). Breeding begins from March and clutches are usually three or four eggs (Madge and Burn 1993). The nest is a mass of twigs and branches, intertwined with bramble (Rubus) shoots and lichens, with a deep cup, lined with soft plant materials, including willow (Salix) seeds, mosses and lichens. It is normally placed around six metres from the ground close to main trunk of a conifer. Its primary food is pine nuts, particularly those of Siberian pine. It is a specialized nut-eater and has a prominent ridge inside base of lower mandible serving as ideal nut-cracking tool. During the spring and summer it also takes a wide variety of invertebrates, small rodents and small birds (Madge 2009). The species is highly resident in its breeding areas (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 430,000-761,000 pairs, which equates to 859,000-1,520,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 77,000-151,000 pairs, which equates to 154,000-302,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies boreal forest (taiga zone). It favours dense closed-canopy, mature forest of spruce (Picea), pines (Pinus) and larches (Larix), with stands of birches (Betula) and is found in lowlands and foothills (Madge 2009). It is a solitary nester and in Scandinavia, eggs are laid in late March and April (Madge and Burn 1993). The nest is a rather loose structure of twigs, with well-lined cup of lichens, feathers and reindeer (Rangifer) hairs, placed at base of branch close to the trunk of a tree. Clutches are three or four eggs. It is omnivorous, consuming berries, seeds, various insects and their larvae and a wide variety of other invertebrates. It also feeds on carrion, and scavenges on scraps provided by humans, takes eggs and nestlings of small birds, and small rodents (Madge 2009). The species is highly sedentary (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997)

threats:
In parts of European range it is declining, due to the increased exploitation of its habitat through felling, road-building, settlements and agriculture (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Forest fragmentation opens up dense forest and allowing such predators such as Corvus corax easier access to nests of this and other bird species (Madge 2009). Other corvids, including other members of this species, are also known to predate nests and the species may suffer from competition from Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius) (Madge and Burn 1993).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.
Conservation Actions Proposed
As the species needs mature forest and due to the long recovery time needed for clear-felled areas to regenerate sufficiently, long-term planning of forest exploitation is required, in order to maintain refugia of mature forest. In addition the creation of new forest edges, such as might occur with the construction of power lines should be minimized (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 10,300,000-17,800,000 pairs, which equates to 20,600,000-35,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 7,050,000-11,200,000 pairs, which equates to 14,100,000-22,300,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a tremendous variety of open country, preferably with at least scattered trees (Madge 2009). It is evenly distributed in urban, rural and natural landscapes and frequents parks, gardens, most farmland, heaths, freshwater, wetland, dunes, woodland and forest fringes (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

The breeding season begins with nest-building as early as December in Britain and mid-April is the peak time for first egg-laying. Breeding dates are similar elsewhere in Europe. The nest is built by both sexes although the female does the majority of construction. It is made from sticks and twigs, with a side entrance protected by thorny twigs. A deep cup is thickly lined with soft materials such as wool, animal fur, soft grasses and feathers, usually placed at variable height in crown of tall tree; normally a fresh nest built each year, although in some cases an old nest may be repaired. It is omnivorous but principally a carnivorous scavenger. The diet varies according to local habitats, but generally consists of invertebrates, small mammals and lizards, frogs, bird eggs and nestlings, as well as carrion. In addition, various seeds, berries and fruits are taken seasonally. The species is resident (Madge 2009).

threats:
In the past the species has been persecuted by gamekeepers and farmers due to its habit of raiding nests and also of feeding on ectoparasites on livestock, which sometimes results in aggravated sores for the host animal. However, persecution has fallen since the 1920s (Madge 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 108,000-253,000 pairs, which equates to 215,000-507,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 32,800-67,900 pairs, which equates to 65,500-136,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits high-altitude mountain pastures with rocky ravines and cliff faces; above the tree-line in summer and descending into upper valleys in winter. Often found around alpine villages and ski resorts in Europe and breeds chiefly between 1,260 m and 2,880 (Madge and Burn 1993). Egg-laying occurs mainly in early May to mid-June. It often forms a lifelong monogamous pair-bond and partners will remain together throughout year.

The nest is built by both sexes and is a bulky structure of sticks, roots and similar, lined with grasses, feathers and moss, typically on a ledge or shelf near the roof of a cave or rock chimney, rock crevice or cliff face. Larger caves with small entrances are favoured. Occasionally uses roof spaces of old buildings, mine-shafts and similar structures. Its diet consists primarily of invertebrates in spring and summer, with a more varied diet in autumn and winter. It will also take small amphibians and reptiles, nestling small birds, eggs and small rodents. In autumn and winter extensive range of seeds, berries and fruits are added to the diet. Also consumes a wide range of discarded human food (Madge 2009). The species is sedentary (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently required for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 40,500-86,400 pairs, which equates to 80,900-173,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 21,600-25,700 pairs, which equates to 43,100-51,500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found on coastal cliffs in western Europe and in high mountain pastures with rocky crags elsewhere. Coastal populations such as those found in Ireland, Britain, Brittany, Canaries, and north-west Spain, favour sea cliffs with rocky crags, interspersed with closely grazed grassland. Populations found further inland occur in high mountain pastures above the tree-line, favouring sheep-grazed slopes. The species is monogamous and forms a lifelong pair bond (Madge 2009).

Egg-laying begins in March in Britain and in mid to late April in the Caucasus (Madge and Burn 1993). The nest is a mass of sticks, thickly lined with wool, rarely all wool and built typically in the roof of a cave, rock chimney, or disused quarry, but also uses roof spaces of disused buildings, old mine shafts or similar sites. Clutches are usually four eggs. It is chiefly insectivorous, particulary in spring and summer, but also feeds on a wide variety of other invertebrates and rarely on small vertebrates such as lizards (Lacertidae) and small mammals. In autumn and winter, when invertebrate food more difficult to find, it takes grain, seeds and small berries, including those of rowan (Sorbus), pear (Pyrus), juniper (Juniperus), sea-buckthorn (Hippophae) and olive (Olea). The species is essentially sedentary (Madge 2009).

threats:
The most important cause of declines in the species is changes in grazing regimes (Madge 2009) and conversion of grazing habitat to forestry, tourist-related developments or intensive farming (Tucker and Heath 1994). Historically, grazing animals roamed freely over mountain slopes and coastal cliffs, keeping vegetation short and ideal for invertebrates (Madge 2009). In the Alps, it is thought competition with Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus) and Eurasian Jackdaw (Corvus monedula) may be detrimental to the species (Madge and Burn 1993). The species has also suffered from persecution (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and they were shot for sport during the 19th and 20th centuries (Wilmore 1977). The conversion of grazing land to arable may also be a threat to this species (Bibby et al. 1989).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. A programme of rough grazing along coastal slopes and the erection of nest boxes in suitable caves or old buildings in Britain has led to the partial recovery of the species there (Madge 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The return of traditional cliff grazing techniques benefits this species (Madge and Burn 1993, Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The conservation of surviving areas of traditional extensive pastoral farmland is also essential (Tucker and Heath 1994). Research to determine the impact of competition with other species would help inform future conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species has undergone moderately rapid declines and is therefore classified as Near Threatened (A2abc+3bc+4abc).

range:
The species breeds from western and northern Fennoscandia east across northern Russua (including the southern third of Novaya Zemlya) and in western and southern Greenland. It winters in on southern North Sea shores, central-eastern Europe and east into Russia (Rising and Christie 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,340,000-12,700,000 pairs, which equates to 10,700,000-25,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 138,000-529,000 pairs, which equates to 276,000-1,060,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in tundra at the edge of the tree-line, where it is found in sedges (Carex) and grasses (Poaceae) interspersed with heather and small trees such as Lapland rhododendron (Rhododendron lapponicum), tamarack (Larix laricina), spruce (Picea) and willow (Salix). In Greenland, it is more often found inland than on the coast and prefers wet swampy land in a low carpet of heath, with crowberry (Empetrum) and dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa). On migration and in winter it is found in open areas and farmland (Rising and Christie 2013). Egg-laying generally occurs between the end of May and mid-July but is timed so that the young leave the nest during the peak abundance of adult flies (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a cup of dry grass, leaves and moss, lined with hair and feathers, placed on the ground, usually near a clump of vegetation or occasionally under a tipped rock, and generally concealed in vegetation. Clutches are normally four to six eggs. In the breeding season it feeds principally on invertebrates and mainly on seeds in the winter (Rising and Christie 2013). The species is migratory with European birds wintering mainly in south European Russia and Ukraine and those from Greenland in North America and north-west Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
As this species feeds in agricultural lands, some mortality may result from the ingestion of pesticides (Rising and Christie 2013). In addition the species may be threatened by future climate change (Virkkala et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II and III. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
To reduce the impact of climate change, large areas of continuous habitats should be conserved and protected in a connected network of protected areas (Virkkalaet al. 2008). Research should investigate the potential impact of pesticide use.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)
EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

This bunting has undergone extremely rapid population declines in Europe that are estimated to exceed 80% within three generations. It is therefore classified as Critically Endangered. Within the EU27 it is now on the verge of extinction and it is also classified as Critically Endangered (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd; C1).

range:
The species breeds across the northern Palaearctic and in Europe is found from Finland, Belarus and Ukraine in the west, through Russia (Byers et al. 1995) to the Ural Mountains in the east (Copete 2011).

population:
The European population is estimated at 60-300 pairs, which equates to 120-600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 0-1 pairs, which equates to 0-2 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Within Europe this species breeds in a wide range of moist or wet, fragmented habitats including river valleys, wet scrub-meadows and bogs. It also inhabits cultivated areas, light conifer plantations and dry meadows. Preferentially it occupies open wet meadows where willow, alder or birch are mixed with sedge, grass, marsh cinquefoil or similar vegetation. In the winter it is found in flocks on cultivated or poor-quality arable land and grassland (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The nest is built by the female alone and is placed either on the ground in a depression under tussocks or roots or slightly above ground in well covered vegetation. It is constructed of dry grass and stalks lined with soft grass, rootlets and sometimes hair. Clutch size can vary between three and seven but most commonly four to five. During breeding it feeds principally on invertebrates and seeds at other times of the year. Plant material is taken all year round. The species is migratory and has a very short breeding period arriving at its breeding grounds late June and leaving at the end of July. It winters in south-east Asia (Copete 2011).

threats:
Since many populations on pristine breeding grounds have dropped rapidly, the decline is likely to be driven by excessive trapping at migration and, in particular, wintering sites (S. Chan in litt. 2003, P. Round in litt. 2003, M. Williams in litt. 2007, S. Chan in litt. 2007). Declines caused by pressures on the wintering grounds are compounded by a reduction in habitat quality on the breeding grounds in parts of its range, particularly drying of meadows caused by changes in the flow pattern of rivers, a result of dam construction upstream (O. Goroshko in litt. 2003, J. Kamp in litt. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I. It is counted occasionally as part of on-going IBA monitoring in a few sites.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Implement a programme of co-ordinated range-wide monitoring at breeding, passage and non-breeding sites, in order to quantify the rate of decline. Through awareness campaigns, reduce the demand for the species as a food item, mascot and merit-bird. Research its precise habitat requirements on the wintering grounds. Protect sites which still hold large numbers on the wintering grounds.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) in this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,300-7,000 pairs, which equates to 4,600-14,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is characteristic of irrigated farmland where it occurs in areas of scrub, along field borders, groves, canal banks, river valleys and in tree shelterbelts (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997). The breeding season starts in May. The nest is built by the female, usually in a shrub, near the ground. The clutch, normally two to five eggs, is incubated by the female. The chicks hatch after 10–14 days. They are fed by both parents and leave the nest after 12–13 days. The species is migratory and leaves the breeding grounds to winter in the Indian subcontinent from the second half of July through to August. The species takes seeds throughout the year. However, during the breeding season it mainly feeds on a wide variety of small invertebrate species (Copete 2011).

threats:
There is no evidence of substantial threats (BirdLife International 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) in this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,200-18,600 pairs, which equates to 12,400-37,200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species utilises dry, rocky mountainous terrain and upland plateaux with some grassy and weedy vegetation, at an altitude of 900–1,400 m, occasionally up to 2,400 m Asl (Madge 2011, Hagemeijer & Blair 1997). The species's breeding season starts in April. The nest is built by the female and is well hidden under vegetation or a sheltering boulder, on the ground. Usually three to six eggs are laid between April and late May. Little is known about the rest of the breeding process. In July and August the species flocks in small groups prior to migration which commences in August. Wintering areas are situated outside of Europe, mainly in India (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Madge 2011). The species forages on seeds and shoots of dry-country plants. During the breeding season the chicks are fed small invertebrates, in particular weevils, other beetles, bugs, ants, grasshoppers and snails (Madge 2011).

threats:
The population is suspected to be stable, no substantial threats have been reported (BirdLife International 2015) besides overgrazing of sparse vegetation by domestic animals that may lead to habitat degradation (Madge 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 115,000-225,000 pairs, which equates to 230,000-450,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 15,000-40,000 pairs, which equates to 30,000-80,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours dry barren habitats with some low-lying vegetation, on hillsides, rocky islands as well as on cultivated land, up to 1,300 m Asl, often near the coast (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Madge 2011). Nesting is reported from mid-April to mid-June. The nest is made by the female and it is placed on the ground against a rock or amongst the roots of a shrubby plant. The clutch, usually four to six eggs, is incubated mainly by the female. Hatching takes place after 12–14 days. Nestlings are reared by both parents. They leave the nest after 12–14 days. The species is migratory; breeding areas are vacated in July and August. Wintering areas are situated outside Europe, in north-eastern Africa (Madge 2011). The species forages almost entirely on the ground. The diet consists of small seeds, in particular of grasses and small invertebrates are also taken, in particular ants (Madge 2011).

threats:
There is no evidence for substantial threats (BirdLife International 2015).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,930,000-4,230,000 pairs, which equates to 3,860,000-8,460,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,580,000-2,890,000 pairs, which equates to 3,150,000-5,770,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species utilises semi-arid, sparsely vegetated areas at lower and middle altitudes. It prefers sunny hill sides with rocky outcrops and scattered bushes or trees. Locally it also occurs in quarries, vineyards and other terrains with an alternation of bare soil or rocks and sparsely vegetated areas (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Copete 2011). The species is considered resident over most of its range. The breeding season starts in March and ends in August, although occasionally it finishes in mid-September. The nest is built by the female. It is placed on the ground, protected by vegetation or at the base of a rock. The clutch, usually three to five eggs, is incubated by the female. The chicks hatch after 13–15 days. They are fed by both parents. They leave the nest after 9–13 days and become independent three weeks later (Copete 2011). The species feeds mostly on a wide variety small invertebrate prey during the breeding season. Outside the breeding season the diet consists mainly of seeds of herbs or other plants (Copete 2011).

threats:
Habitat loss as a consequence of agricultural intensification, urbanisation and reforestation led to a decline in the past between 1970–1990 (Copete 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has a small, declining population and is therefore classified as Vulnerable (C1). Within the EU27 the population is very small but stable, and it also qualifies as Vulnerable (D1).

range:
The species breeds on the islands of Skyros (Hölzinger 1995), Lesbos and Chios, Greece, and western Turkey (race cineracea), as well as in south-east Turkey (race semenowi) (Cramp and Perrins 1994, Byers et al. 1995). The winter distribution remains poorly known, but lies around the Red Sea (Madge 2011).

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,200-5,700 pairs, which equates to 6,400-11,400 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 110-210 pairs, which equates to 210-410 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on dry rocky slopes and uplands with shrubby vegetation and sometimes conifers. Migrating birds are regularly recorded in lowland agricultural land and semi-deserts (Albayrak et al. 2003). Not much is known of the breeding habits of this species. Eggs have been reported in western Turkey in late April and in eastern Turkey in late May, where recently fledged young have been noted as late as mid-August. The nest is probably built by the female only and is a foundation of grass seed-heads, stalks and thistle leaves, lined with hair and rootlets, placed on the ground against a rock or concealed by a tuft of vegetation. Clutch size is four to six eggs (Madge 2011). There is little information on the species's diet but it appears to be principally small invertebrates in the breeding season and seeds outside the breeding season (Tucker and Heath 1994, Madge 2011). The species is migratory, with all breeding areas vacated from late August onwards. The two races differ somewhat in their migration routes and winter ranges, although a certain amount of intermingling takes place at passage stopovers. E. c. cineracea winters in Sudan, Eritrea and southern Saudi Arabia while E. c. semenowi is thought to winter in south-west Arabia (Madge 2011).

threats:
Changes in grazing pressure by sheep and goats could affect the population size. High grazing pressure could result in the trampling of nests, whereas too little grazing could reduce the area of open feeding sites (Albayrak et al. 2003). Remaining habitat in western Turkey is being developed rapidly for tourism (Tucker and Heath 1994). Suitable habitats in south-east Turkey have been flooded by dam construction, resulting both in direct habitat loss and the relocation of displaced villagers to new, currently unpopulated areas (Albayrak et al. 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is legally protected under Greek and Turkish law (Albayrak et al. 2003). One of the breeding sites on Lesbos is partially protected as a Natural Monument and Wildlife Refuge (Albayrak et al. 2003). An International Action Plan was published in 2003 (Albayrak et al. 2003). The species's potential winter distribution has been modelled using GIS-based techniques (Walther et al. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Develop a species action plan. Develop a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Develop a research programme to determine habitat distribution, migration routes and wintering areas. Promote national and international policies and legislation which favour long-term conservation of the species and its habitat. Assess threats to the species and develop appropriate responses.


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,490,000-4,650,000 pairs, which equates to 4,970,000-9,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,340,000-4,230,000 pairs, which equates to 4,680,000-8,460,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The breeding habitat of this species is characterised by bushes and small woodlands, surrounded by open landscape up to 1,500 m asl. It also occupies forest edges and orchards. The highest densities are reached in small-scale heterogeneous, extensively managed farmland in a sunny climate. In the northern part of its range the species is partially migratory. In the southern part it is sedentary showing short distance, often altitudinal, movements. In winter it requires fallow fields or stubble fields with weeds (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Brambilla et al. 2008, Copete 2011). The breeding season is between mid-April and early-September. The nest is usually built in shrubs and occasionally in trees. The clutch, usually two to five eggs, is incubated by the female. The chicks hatch after 12–13 days. They are raised by both parents and leave the nest after 11–13 days (Copete 2011). During the breeding season the species mainly takes a wide variety of small invertebrates, but during the rest of the year it mainly feeds on seeds of herbs and grasses (Copete 2011).

threats:
Past declines in the species's population were related to habitat changes, as a result of intensification and scale enlargement of farming practices and forestation. Intensive research into the causes of the decline of the small British population of the species in the past revealed a complex of factors affecting the population: loss of winter food due to the shift from spring- to winter-sown crops, the general loss of arable cropping in grass-dominated landscapes; the loss of large insect food for chicks in the breeding season due to the intensification of grassland management; and the loss of suitable nest sites due to the removal of hedges and unsympathetic management of those that remained (Evans 1997, Evans et al. 1997). High input of herbicides results in the reduction of food availability for the species (Bradbury et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is on the British list of Birds of Conservation Concern (Eaton et al. 2009). It is classified as Near Threatened on the Swiss Red List (Keller 2010). The small population in south-west England has recovered as a result of successful conservation efforts, such as agri-environment schemes targeted at the species by providing food-rich habitats in farmland (Peach et al. 2001, MacDonald et al. 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Implement agri-environment schemes, with measures targeted at the species in areas where its numbers are declining.


population:
The European population is estimated at 18,300,000-28,000,000 pairs, which equates to 36,600,000-56,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,800,000-19,900,000 pairs, which equates to 25,500,000-39,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a characteristic species of the transition zone between woodland and open country, such as (extensively managed) farmland with hedges, forest clearings, young plantations, scrubs, heath and natural grasslands. The species can occur op to 2,100 m Asl. The species is completely migratory in the northern part of its breeding range; elsewhere it is partially migratory or sedentary. During winter it gathers in flocks, often in farmland on stubble fields or other weedy habitats (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). Normally the breeding season starts in April and late broods may even be started in September. The nest is built by the female. It is placed on the ground, often in field boundaries or ditches, well hidden among the vegetation, or in hedges or isolated bushes. The clutch, usually three to five eggs, is normally incubated by the female alone. The chicks hatch after 12–14 days. They are brooded by the female, the male delivering food. The nestling period is 11–13 days (Bradbury et al. 2000, Copete 2011). The species mainly takes seeds and other plant materials from a variety of tree, herb and grass species. During the breeding season it shifts to invertebrates, which it feeds to nestlings (Copete 2011).

threats:
The population is suspected to be in decline owing to a reduction in cultivation of cereal crops and the intensification of farmland management. Agricultural efficiency measures such as removal of hedgerows, filling or clearing of ditches and grazing or ploughing right up to the field edge are likely to have adversely affected the species (Bradbury et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2015). Furthermore the species suffers indirectly from the use of insecticides and herbicides, as these reduce the abundance of arthropods and the availability of weedy patches rich in seeds (Perkins et al. 2002, Morris 2005, Hart et al. 2006). The species interbreeds with Emberiza leucocephalos in the contact zone of both species in the most western part of its range. According to Panov et al. (2003) the hybridisation process will intensify in the contact zone of both species as they are very similar in behaviour and habitat choice. The long-term impact of this process is unclear (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011, BirdLife 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Implement agro-environmental schemes that effectively support beneficial management of field margin habitats and retention of winter-feeding sites (set-aside fields, manure heaps) such as stubbles (Bradbury et al. 2000, Perkins et al. 2002, Whittingham et al. 2005, Orlowksi et al. 2014). Ban or minimise the application of insecticides and herbicides. In particular minimise the applications of persistent broad-spectrum insecticides from March to June, or provide alternative unsprayed foraging habitat. Advice on mitigating indirect effects of pesticides should be given to advisers and users (Morris et al. 2005).


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,330,000-7,070,000 pairs, which equates to 6,660,000-14,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 695,000-1,500,000 pairs, which equates to 1,390,000-3,010,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species utilises a variety of breeding habitats, preferably situated in areas with a continental climate (many hours of sunshine and low rainfall). In the northern part of its range it occurs mainly in cultivated land, preferring low-intensity, mixed farmland on light soils, with sparsely vegetated spots and scattered or lines of trees or bushes. In forested areas of Fenno-Scandinavia and Russia, it occupies forest margins, clearings and clear fells. In the southern areas of its breeding range it occurs in rugged open mountainous areas with some shrubs up to 2,400 m asl (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Madge 2011, BirdLife International 2015). The species arrives in the breeding areas from its wintering grounds in Africa from April. Eggs are laid from mid-April until early June. The species is mostly monogamous and pair-bonds last for one season. The nest is built by the female, often on the ground in a field of growing crops. The clutch consists of four or five eggs. The chicks hatch after 11–12 days, are tended by both parents and leave the nest after another 12–13 days. Autumn migration usually takes place from mid-August to mid-September (Madge 2011). During the breeding season the species mainly feeds on small invertebrates such as ants, beetles and grasshoppers, both on the ground and in bushes or the canopy of trees. Outside the breeding season it mainly forages on seeds (Madge 2011).

threats:
The main pressure affecting populations of the species in Europe is the replacement of small-scale mixed farming by large-scale agricultural intensification, including the use of insecticides and herbicides. Ongoing conversion of relatively extensively used habitat to crop fields for biofuel is another issue. Other threats include isolation of the remaining populations (increased risk of extinction) as a consequence of habitat fragmentation as well as hunting and trapping of the species during migration (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Bernardy 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is classified as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book in the Netherlands (Hustings et al. 2004) and Switzerland (Keller 2010) and as Vulnerable in France (UICN France, MNHN, LPO, SEOF& ONCFS 2011). In Germany, Switzerland and Austria small-scale habitat restoration measures have been undertaken (Bernardy 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Implement measures directed to the conservation/establishment of extensively used farmland areas outside protected areas. Compose an international species action plan including protection during migration and on wintering areas. Establish a ban on hunting and trapping of the species. Evaluate effectiveness of conservation measures (Bernardy 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large global range which only barely extends into northeasternmost Europe. The population size within the region is very small and the population trend is unknown, but there is no evidence of a decline. The species therefore meets the thresholds for classification as Endangered, but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted to Vulnerable (VU° D).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
This species's range lies between 45° and 66°N (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and has a predominantly Asian breeding distribution, which just extends into Europe in the foothills of the Ural Mountains (Copete 2011).

population:
The European population is estimated at 50-120 pairs, which equates to 100-240 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers forest edges, thinned out coniferous or mixed forests, forest-fragments and forest clearings as result of logging or fire (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). The small wintering grounds are mainly situated outside Europe, except for small wintering populations in France and Italy. In Toscana, in Italy it favours flat or gently undulating coastal dunes with herbs and shrubs and nearby groves of pines and in the Camargue, France it  winters in old sand dunes with shrub and tree cover that occur as islands in cultivated fields (Occhioato 2003). The species is migratory; leaving the breeding grounds in August and September and returning in late-March and April. The species breeds between late-April and the end of July, with most birds starting breeding in May. The nest is built by the female in vegetation on the ground. The clutch, usually four or five eggs, is incubated by the female and chicks hatch after 13 days. Nestlings are fed by both parents and they are fully fledged after 10–13 days (Copete 2011). During the breeding season the species mainly feeds on small invertebrates, such as grasshoppers, bugs, beetles, caterpillars, flies, spiders and snails. Outside the breeding season it mainly forages on seeds of cereals, grasses and herbs (Copete 2011).

threats:
Generally there is no evidence for substantial threats (BirdLife 2015). The species interbreeds with Emberiza citrinella in the contact zone of both species in the most western part of its range. According to Panov et al. (2003) the hybridisation process will intensify in the contact zone of both species, as they are very similar in behaviour and habitat choice. The long-term impact of this process is unclear (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Copete 2011, BirdLife 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,470,000-8,160,000 pairs, which equates to 4,930,000-16,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 162,000-481,000 pairs, which equates to 324,000-962,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in open rather dry terrain with scattered trees, shrubs and hedges. It favours low-intensity farmland with cornfields or vineyards or olive groves, but also more natural habitats such as mountain slopes with scrub vegetation. It can occur op to 2,100 m Asl (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). The species returns to the breeding grounds in May and starts nesting from mid-May with a peak in June. The nest, built by the female, is placed in shrubs. The clutch, usually four to five eggs, is incubated by the female. The chicks hatch after 13–14 days. The nestling period is 14–16 days. The young birds stay near the nest for another three to four days, before they disperse.  The species leaves the breeding grounds in late June to early August (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). During the breeding season they mainly feed on invertebrates and to a lesser extent on seeds and other plant materials (Copete 2011).

threats:
The population underwent a strong decline in Europe between 1970 and 1990 (BirdLife International 2004). The trend 1890–2011 is uncertain (BirdLife International 2015). It is likely that the long-term decline is related to the intensification of farming practices: scale-enlargement (destruction of hedgerows and shrubs), heavy pesticide use and changes in land-use: replacement of olive groves by maize fields and cornfields by commercial fruit-growing (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is classified as Near Threatened in the Italian Red List Data Book (Peronace 2011).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Maintain crop mosaic farmland in the species's breeding areas (Brambilla 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

The range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 500-1,500 pairs, which equates to 1,000-3,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In its European breeding range this species inhabits zonal dwarf birch tundra in watersheds and on mountain slopes. In the polar Urals it occurs up to 300 m Asl. It normally occurs in drier and cooler regions than those favoured by Emberiza schoeniclus. Wintering grounds are situated outside Europe, mainly in China and Korea (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). Breeding takes place in June and July. The nest is placed on the ground or low in a bush. The clutch, usually three to five eggs, is incubated by the female. The incubation period is 11 days; nestlings are fed by both parents and leave the nest after 11 days. During the breeding season the species is reported to take seeds, beetles, caterpillars and also berries (Copete 2011).

threats:
The population is suspected to be stable (BirdLife International 2015). Hunting of bunting flocks for food in its Chinese wintering range may be a threat to the species.  The melting of glaciers as a consequence of global warming may have adverse effects on the species's breeding habitat in the future (Copete 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Study the pressures in its wintering range, in particular the impact of trapping and hunting on the whole population.


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,010,000-5,540,000 pairs, which equates to 6,030,000-11,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 13,100-40,400 pairs, which equates to 26,100-80,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in the northern taiga and tundra zone. It prefers moist, shrubby terrain and forests with dwarf birch and willow (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). The breeding season of this northern, migratory species is relatively late and starts in June. Some pairs are still nesting in August when autumn migration to the Asian wintering grounds has already started. The nest is built by the female, on the ground hidden under grassy vegetation. The clutch, usually four to six eggs are incubated by both sexes and hatch after 11–12 days. The chicks are raised by both parents and are fully fledged after 14–17 days (Copete 2011). The species feeds both on seeds and a variety of small invertebrate prey. Outside the breeding season it feeds predominantly on seeds (Copete 2011).

threats:
BirdLife (2015) reports habitat shifting and alteration as a consequence of climate change as a future pressure for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This species underwent catastrophic declines in the western part of the large global breeding range during the latter part of the 20th century, and declines  are estimated to have continued at a rapid rate over the past three generations, reaching an estimated 30-49%. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species breeds across the entire European boreal zone (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) in central and northern Fennoscandia and European Russia (Copete and Garcia 2014). Since 1895, its breeding range has extended west into Finland (in the 1910s and 1920s), Sweden (up to 1960), Norway (in the 1960s and 1970s), Estonia (first breeding in 1979) and Latvia (first breeding in 1985) (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 681,000-831,000 pairs, which equates to 1,360,000-1,660,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 181,000-331,000 pairs, which equates to 362,000-662,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the Scandinavian part of its range this species prefers mires dominated by spruce and birch and an undergrowth of shrubs and grasses. It also inhabits damp coniferous forests and birch dominated heaths interspersed with juniper. It may benefit from the construction of dams by beavers (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete and Garcia 2014, Dale & Hansen 2013). The breeding season starts late, ends May to early June. The nest is usually placed on the ground often near water, among grassy vegetation. Occasionally it is built in a low tree. The clutch, usually four to six eggs, is incubated by both the male and female. The chicks hatch after 11–13 days. They are fed by both parents and leave the nest after 7–10 days. Then they are fed by the parents for another 15 days before they are able to fly. The species is migratory; they leave the breeding grounds between late July and mid-September to travel to the wintering grounds in Asia. During the breeding season it mostly feeds on seeds and a wide variety of invertebrate species (Copete and Garcia 2014).

threats:
The numbers of this species have declined in the Scandinavian part of its range since 1980. This decline is associated with forest logging and draining of swamps leading to habitat degradation or even destruction. However the habitat of the species in Norway where it has also declined has remained rather unchanged (Dale & Hansen 2013). It is suggested that habitat destruction and hunting and trapping, taking place in the east Asian wintering grounds, may be the cause of the species's decline in Norway.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct research into the causes of the species decline in its breeding area and in particular its non-breeding area.


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,060,000-7,020,000 pairs, which equates to 8,130,000-14,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,850,000-3,260,000 pairs, which equates to 3,700,000-6,510,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Generally this species inhabits marshy areas with dense low vegetation types in (small) wetlands, such as fens, bogs, reed marshes, riversides and other inland waters. In Siberia it breeds in willow thickets in floodplains. In some regions the species has colonised drier habitats such as young woodland and farmland (maize, cereals and oil-seed rape fields) (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Copete 2011). Oil-seed rape fields have even become the most important breeding habitat for the species in lowland Britain (Gruar et al. 2006). The breeding season starts in early April and ends in August, depending on latitude and altitude. The species is mostly monogamous. The nest is built by the female, mostly on the ground, but sometimes in shrubs. The clutch, usually four or five eggs is incubated by both sexes. The chicks hatch after 12–15 days. They are fed by both parents and leave the nest after 9–12 days. The diet consists mainly of invertebrates during the breeding season and mainly seeds and other plant material at other times of the year. The species is partly migratory, in particular the northern and western European breeding birds, depending on the mean winter temperature. During the winter the species is also found in open fields, agricultural areas and woodland clearings (Copete 2011). Nowadays, in Central Europe it favours fallow and stubble fields overgrown with Chenopodium album and Amaranthus retroflexus forming important winter food sources for the species (Orlowki & Czarnecka 2007).

threats:
Agricultural intensification is considered the main cause of the decline of the species in Europe and especially the endangered subspecies E. s. witherbyi and E. s. lusitanica (Vera et al. 2014). In particular the availability of winter food in farmland has declined as a consequence of crop change and the use of herbicides, resulting in the disappearance of weed-rich stubbles, and the use of advanced technologies reducing the amount of spilled grain (Peach et al. 1999, Orlowki & Czarnecka 2007). In addition the destruction of wetlands and unfavourable management (e.g. intensive reed cutting) is another important threat to the species, including the endangered subspecies E. s. witherbyi and E. s. lusitanica (Vera et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The Mediterranean subspecies (E. s. witherbyi) and the north-western Iberian subspecies (E. s. lusitanica) are classified as Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Atienza & Copete 2014). The species has been moved from the Red to the Amber list of Birds of Conservation Concern in Britain (Eaton et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Implement marsh bird-friendly management of wetlands, for example avoid complete mowing or burning of older reed beds (Pasinelli& Schiegg 2012, Vera et al. 2014). Wintering habitat should be improved by preserving stubble fields. In addition the presence of heavily overgrown root crop and vegetable stubbles should be allowed to ensure the spontaneous regeneration of plant cover on fallows. These objectives should be promoted as part of agri-environmental schemes or within set-aside land options (Orlowki & Czarnecka 2007).

Special attention should be paid to safeguard the small remaining populations of the endangered subspecies E. s. witherbyi and E. s. lusitanica by conducting annual censuses of the subspecies's population numbers, protecting all wetlands where it still occurs and conducting research on its taxonomy and ecology, in particular the species habitat requirements and pressures limiting the population. Other measures include compiling a national subspecies action plan; promoting extensive agricultural practices in areas surrounding the species's habitat in particular with regard to the use of insecticides; and maintaining fallow and stubble fields near its breeding areas as wintering feeding habitat (Atienza & Copete 2014).


population:
The European population is estimated at 18,300,000-31,300,000 pairs, which equates to 36,700,000-62,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 14,600,000-20,300,000 pairs, which equates to 29,100,000-40,500,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the northern part of its range this species is confined mainly to cereal fields and hay meadows. In southern Europe it has a broader habitat array occupying several types of open country, including grasslands and steppes. It avoids extensive bush cover. The species is mainly sedentary. During winter it gathers in flocks and may show rather short distance displacements to favourable feeding grounds, often fallow or stubble fields (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Bos & van Noorden 2010, Madge 2011). The breeding season starts relatively late, from late May onward in north-western populations, but probably earlier in southern European populations. The nest is placed on the ground, hidden among vegetation. It is entirely built by the female. The clutch, usually four to six eggs, is incubated by the female alone. The incubation period is 12–14 days. The chicks are fed by the female (with the male in attendance) and leave the nest after 9–13 often before being able to fly (Madge 2011). The species's diet consists mainly of plant seeds, but during the breeding season it includes a high percentage of invertebrates, primarily small insects (Madge 2011).

threats:
The strong decline of the species in north-western Europe is mainly a consequence of agricultural intensification. Cropped areas of spring-sown cereals have decreased, mowing of hay has been advanced and the use of pesticides has increased. Winter food supplies have decreased as a consequence of the loss of spring tillage, increased pesticide usage and improved harvesting and storage techniques. The increase of winter-sown cereal cropland has affected the species adversely through increased nest losses, as a consequence of early harvesting and the early ploughing of winter cereal stubble fields (Donald and Forrest 1995, Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Madge 2011).The abolition of the European set-aside scheme is of great concern, not only for birds. Set-aside has provided valuable food and nesting sites for many farmland birds whose populations were declining due to agricultural intensification (BirdLife International 2008). The species may be vulnerable to climatic extremes along its northern range limits (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Madge 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is classified as Critically Endangered on the Dutch Red List (Hustings et al. 2004) and Vulnerable on the Swiss Red List (Keller 2010). The species is on the British list of Birds of Conservation Concern (Eaton et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Measures related to the restoration of the species's habitat in farmland should be taken and effectively carried out in agri-environment schemes/targeted management interventions. Specific measures include: increasing invertebrate availability by providing grassy margins or beetle banks and by selective spraying of headlands (Brickle et al. 2000); providing early summer and late summer nesting habitat close to each other to give the species the opportunity to rear two broods in a season; winter barley or late mown hay grown alongside weed-rich or undersown spring cereals would be a good combination; set-aside or similar agri-environment crop types should remain uncut and unsprayed during the breeding season and should preferably be offered close to song-posts, such as overhead wires (Perkins et al. 2012); the provision of unharvested, extensively managed cereal crops as an agri-environment option where intensively managed cereal crops are the main nesting habitat (Setchfield et al. 2012); delayed mowing (as part of agri-environment schemes) in areas where the species still breeds in meadows could significantly improve its breeding performance (Perkins et al. 2013); measures aimed at providing winter food habitat, including stubble fields with cereal seeds (Perkins et al. 2007, Perkins 2008, Bos& van Noorden 2010).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,230,000-2,310,000 pairs, which equates to 2,470,000-4,630,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 14,000-43,100 pairs, which equates to 28,000-86,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in treeless, uncultivated barren rocky terrain, usually near snow. It also uses sea cliffs and commonly nests near or even in human settlements. Outside the breeding season it occupies open fields, shingle beaches, saltmarshes, sand dunes, and stubble fields. In Greenland pair formation occurs by late May. It breeds from mid-May to July in Iceland and begins breeding in late May in Scotland. It is monogamous and the nest is a thick cup of dry grass and moss, lined with finer grasses, fur and feathers. It is sited in a variety of places, often in a crevice or crag in some rocks, but will also use artificial sites such as buildings and nestboxes. Clutches are two to eight eggs. The diet is primarily seeds but in the breeding season it will take small invertebrates. The species is migratory (Rising 2011).

threats:
Declines in Europe of birds wintering in coastal areas of the southern North Sea since are attributed to huge embankment projects and intensified grazing, which have destroyed saltmarshes (the preferred foraging habitat of the species) (Rising 2011). The species is also likely threatened by future climate change (Virkkala et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. Since 1990 grazing around the southern North Sea has been greatly reduced and no further embankment projects are planned, which has allowed this species to begin to recover (Rising 2011).

Conservation Actions Proposed
To minimise the impacts of climate change large areas of continuous habitats should be preserved and protected in a connected reserve network (Virkkala et al. 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 10,500-21,400 pairs, which equates to 21,000-42,900 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 10,300-20,500 pairs, which equates to 20,600-41,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In Europe, this species uses areas without tree cover but with sparse scrub (less than 100 cm), including erosion-prone, poorly vegetated uncultivated areas. In the Canary Islands, it also nests on sandy plains with halophytic and xerophytic scrub (Tucker and Heath 1994). The breeding season is February to June and the species is monogamous. The nest is built by the female and is a loose collection of twigs, plant stalks, down and fibres, grass, animal hair and occasionally feathers. It is set in a shallow depression in the ground, under a rock, shrub or grass tussock, or up to six metres above ground in a pipe or the wall of a house, derelict building or old tomb. Clutches are four to six eggs. The diet is mostly small seeds, shoots and buds of grasses and low ground-loving plants as well as some insects and their larvae, mostly grasshoppers (Orthoptera) (Clement 2010). The species is resident and dispersive or nomadic (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In Europe the species is vulnerable owing to the small size and probable isolation of the population. Illegal trapping with nets at water sources is a problem in south-east Iberia (Tucker and Heath 1994) and poaching is widespread, affecting the whole Iberian distribution. In Spain it is also threatened by the spread of agriculture, urban development, reforestation and the abstraction of water (Madroño et al. 2004). In areas such as the Canary Islands, the development of the tourist industry and uncontrolled use of four-wheel-drive vehicles are a threat to its habitat (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
A large proportion of the island population is found in Special Protection Areas and in the Canary Islands it occurs in many Important Bird Areas (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The continued protection of Cabo de Gata Níjar Natural Park together with the enlargement of the Tabernas Desert and Sierra de Alhamilla Natural Area in Almería would assist in protecting the greatest density of the species in the Peninsula. A ban on the capture of finches along with improved enforcement measures against trappers (Tucker and Heath 1994) and the implementation of awareness campaigns amongst hunters would be beneficial. In addition, the species's nesting areas should be protected as SPAs and afforestation limited in these areas (Madroño et al. 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 17,600,000-31,900,000 pairs, which equates to 35,100,000-63,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 13,800,000-19,000,000 pairs, which equates to 27,500,000-38,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits lowland open heaths and commons, moorlands and hills with scattered trees and light woodlands, open rocky hillsides, mountain slopes, alpine meadows and maquis or valleys with low shrubs. It is also found in woodland and forest clearings and edges, edges of cultivation, fallow fields, scrub and weed patches, plantations, orchards, vineyards, hedgerows, parks and large gardens. During the non-breeding season it also occupies coastal dunes, saltmarshes and shingle banks. Breeding occurs from mid-April to early August and it lays four to six eggs. The nest is built mostly from small twigs, plant fibres and down, roots, moss, animal fur and feathers and is placed low down, in dense bush or shrub, usually in a thorn bush or a hedge or conifer sapling. It feeds mainly on small to medium-sized seeds as well as buds and some invertebrates. The species is partially migratory except for southern European, Mediterranean and Atlantic island races which are entirely sedentary (Clement 2010).

threats:
The species declined over much of central and north-west Europe in the late 20th century due to the intensification of agriculture, resulting in destruction of hedgerows, improved harvesting of cereals, and the eradication of fallow and weedy fields through application of herbicides (Clement 2010). It is not known if climatic factors are driving the southward range contraction in Finland (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is listed on the national Red Lists of the U.K. and Ireland (Lynaset al. 2007, Eaton et al. 2009). In some countries in southern and eastern Europe, the species has declined less due to the maintenance of traditional farming methods (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species would benefit from the maintenance and promotion of traditional low-intensity farming methods. The widespread use of herbicides should also be minimised. Research into the effects of climate change would also help inform conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 27,800,000-42,700,000 pairs, which equates to 55,700,000-85,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 23,500,000-32,500,000 pairs, which equates to 47,000,000-65,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits open or sparse deciduous woodland and mixed deciduous and conifer woods, forest edges, thickets, heaths, hedgerows, streams, riverine and marshy areas with bushes and trees, roadside verges, steppe grasslands with scattered trees to edges of semi-desert areas, scrub, orchards, edges of cultivation and parks and gardens. Breeding occurs from April to early August. The nest is a compact small cup of grasses, moss, plant fibres and down, cobwebs, animal hair and feathers, a few aromatic flowers on outside, placed up to 10 m from the ground, concealed beneath foliage. Clutches are four to six eggs. It feeds mostly on seeds (ripe and unripe), buds, flowers and the fruits of plants but also takes arthropods (Clement 2010). The species is partially migratory, wintering almost entirely within its breeding range and some Mediterranean populations may be sedentary (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species is caught over most of its range and is popular as a cage bird (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The decline of commercial bird catching may have been responsible for population increases in Britain, Ireland and Belgium since 1950 (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 21,600,000-33,100,000 pairs, which equates to 43,200,000-66,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 18,100,000-26,000,000 pairs, which equates to 36,100,000-52,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a wide variety of habitats in boreal, temperate, steppe and Mediterranean zones, including the edges of lowland forest, deciduous and mixed forests, woods, plantations, copses and groves, orchards, churchyards, hedgerows, parks, edges of cultivation and gardens. Outside the breeding season it is found in similar habitats, but also in open fields, marshes and along the shoreline of open coasts. It breeds from mid-March to mid-August and is principally monogamous although occasionally polygamous. The nest is built 1–20 m from the ground in a bush, hedge, tree, creepers and occasionally in old or disused nests of other species or sometimes in an artificial site. It is a well-made cup of dry twigs, grasses, moss, lichens, plant fibres and down, animal hair, feathers and occasionally some man-made material. Clutches are four to six eggs. The diet is made up of a wide range of seeds, buds, flowers, berries and fruit as well as some arthropods. Some populations of the species are migratory while others are sedentary (Clement and de Juana 2013).

threats:
The species has suffered significant declines in the U.K. from trichomonosis, caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas gallinae, which lead to a fall in the population of ca. 35% between 2005 and 2010 (Lawson et al. 2012). The species is trapped in some parts of its range.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research on how trichomonosis developed as an emerging infectious disease is required to determine if and how outbreaks would occur in the future (Lawsonet al. 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Serinus citrinella (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into citrinella and corsicana following Sangster et al. (2002) and moved to the genus Carduelis following Dickinson (2003).

population:
The European population is estimated at 250,000-283,000 pairs, which equates to 500,000-565,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 243,000-261,000 pairs, which equates to 487,000-523,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is generally found in montane and submontane woods of spruce (Picea), larch (Larix) and pine (Pinus), usually along the edges and in clearings. It also inhabits scattered clumps of conifers in otherwise open areas, as well as alpine meadows, ski-runs, roadside edges, and around alpine huts and gardens in towns. In the non-breeding season it is found in similar habitats in sheltered valleys at lower levels. Breeding begins at the end of March to mid-April and continues until August. The nest is a cup of dry grass, plant fibres, lichens, animal hair, feathers and occasionally wool or paper and usually placed up to 30 m above the ground against the trunk of a tall tree or at the tip of strong horizontal branches. Clutches are three to five eggs (Clement and de Juana 2013). It feeds on small to medium sized seeds and sometimes green material from a wide range of plants and some insects (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is a partial short-distance migrant and an altitudinal migrant (Clement and de Juana 2013).

threats:
This species is threatened by the future effects of climate change (Maggini et al. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, although this species may have a restricted range it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 18,000-20,500 pairs, which equates to 36,000-41,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits lowland maquis to montane dry scrub and open to semi-open conifer forests, mainly of European black pine (Pinus nigra) and maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), and heathland with tree-heath (Erica) and bushes, mainly Genista and bramble (Rubus), also alder (Alnus) groves and areas of lightly scattered conifers. In subalpine zones it is found in low juniper (Juniperus). Outside the breeding season it moves to maquis and scrub vegetation in lower-level valleys, plains and coastal areas. Breeding begins at the end of March to mid-April and continues until at least June. The nest is a loose and shallow cup of fine grasses, plant fibres and down, moss, animal hair and feathers and usually placed up to three metres above the ground in low tree-heath, Genista, bramble, evergreen oak (Quercus ilex) or juniper. Clutches are two to five eggs. It feeds on the seeds of European black pine, grasses (Poa, Briza) and herbs and on Sardinia it also takes larval and pupal ermine moths (Parahyponomeutidae). The species is an altitudinal migrant (Clement 2010).

threats:
There are not thought to be any current significant threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Carduelis flammea (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into C. flammea, Common Redpoll and C. cabaret, Lesser Redpoll (Knox 1988, Knox et al. 2001; see Sangster et al. 2002) but this treatment is not adopted by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group fol

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,070,000-14,500,000 pairs, which equates to 12,100,000-29,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 870,000-2,290,000 pairs, which equates to 1,740,000-4,590,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the north of this species's range it breeds in lowland treeless tundra and dry heath with dwarf birch (Betula) and stunted shrubby osiers (Salix), as well as open taiga of pine (Pinus) and spruce (Picea) and scrub. Further south it prefers wooded slopes, swampy hollows and riverine thickets with birch, willow (Salix), juniper (Juniperus), alder (Alnus) and rowan (Sorbus), along with mixed birch and pine. In Iceland it also breeds in introduced conifer plantations and parks. Breeding occurs from late-April to August. Nests are generally built up to five metres above ground in a shrub or tree and frequently on branches close to the trunk and are a cup constructed of grasses, small twigs, plant fibres and roots, bark strips, moss, animal hair and feathers. Clutches are four to six eggs. it feeds mainly on seeds and buds, as well as small invertebrates (Clement 2010) which are usually taken in the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). In northern Europe small numbers are resident but most migrate to non-breeding grounds in Fennoscandia and European Russia (Clement 2010).

threats:
In Poland afforestation and disturbance from recreational activities pose a threat (Jakubiec 2001). This species may also be affected by future climate change (Marthinsen et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Locally, protection of important areas of habitat should be protected from change and disturbance. Research should be undertaken to assess the effects and impacts of climate change.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abc+3bc+4abc). Since the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
The world population of this species is split into two main centres: one in northwest Europe and the other in the Caucasus, Turkey and Russia spreading into Asia. The northwestern population breeds up to the July 10oC isotherm, in Ireland, Finland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the UK (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Clement 2010).

population:
The European population is estimated at 164,000-756,000 pairs, which equates to 328,000-1,510,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,200-15,600 pairs, which equates to 12,400-31,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on lower montane and submontane plateaux, open moorland, barren hillsides, scree slopes, boulder-strewn areas with little or sparse vegetation, steppes, alpine meadows and areas with stunted bushes and often near boggy areas. Race pipilans breeds mostly on grassy hillsides and moorlands with heather (Erica) and bracken (Pteridium) and also in coastal heather in Scotland (including Shetland). Outside of the breeding season it occupies similar open habitat at lower altitudes. The breeding season is from April to August. The nest is a compact, deep cup of plant fibres and roots, mostly heather, bracken, grass, moss, animal hair and feathers. It is generally sited on the ground or very low down within three metres of the ground in dwarf willow (Salix), heather, bilberry (Vaccinium), bracken, rushes or grass tussocks. Clutches are three to six eggs. The diet is made up mostly of seeds and buds and small numbers of invertebrates. The species is generally migratory although some populations are resident (Clement 2010).

threats:
In Scotland, declines are thought to have been caused by overgrazing and agricultural expansion, (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Clement 2010) and changes in agricultural management causing habitat degradation and fragmentation. In addition climatic factors may have an impact on the species, influencing warmer or drier summers.  In the Waddenzee area of the North Sea coast the development of large embankments and increased grazing is thought to have driven declines (Clement 2010). Changes in land use and overgrazing also pose a threat in Ireland (McLoughlin 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is listed on the national Red Lists of the U.K. and Ireland (Lynaset al. 2007, Eaton et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species requires the preservation and expansion of heterogeneously mixed moorland and the avoidance of agricultural improvement in foraging areas (McLoughlin 2009).


population:
The European population is estimated at 13,600,000-21,100,000 pairs, which equates to 27,200,000-42,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,490,000-5,460,000 pairs, which equates to 6,980,000-10,900,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in boreal and temperate lowland, submontane and montane conifer forests, mainly spruce (Picea), and in fairly open mixed deciduous and conifer forests, including fir (Abies) and pine (Pinus). It also frequents a wide variety of other trees, including larch (Larix), alder (Alnus) and birch (Betula), together with non-native conifers in plantations, parks and gardens. It is found in similar habitats outside the breeding season as well as on heaths, commons, orchards, weedy thickets, parks and gardens. The breeding season begins late February or March and runs until August and the timing is dependent on the cone crop. The nest is a small ball of conifer twigs, bark strips, plant fibres, roots and down, heather, grass, moss, lichens, animal hair, feathers and cobwebs and is placed against the trunk or in the outer branches of a tall tree, up to 20 m above ground. It lays three to five eggs (Clement 2010). It feeds principally on seeds, particularly of conifers, alder, birch and herbs and in the breeding season it also takes invertebrates. Northern populations are mostly migratory while some southern populations are resident (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In some areas the species fluctuates significantly due to irregular resource availability (Clement 2010).


range:
The species is a summer visitor across most of Europe, occurring more patchily farther south. The nominate race erythrinus breeds in northern, central and eastern Europe and in the south from Croatia, Romania and northern Ukraine east to Russia. Race kubanensis breeds in northern and eastern Turkey and the Caucasus (Clement and Christie 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 7,810,000-14,100,000 pairs, which equates to 15,600,000-28,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 360,000-783,000 pairs, which equates to 719,000-1,570,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in lowland to montane moist forests, woodlands and thickets of willows (Salix), alder (Alnus), poplar (Populus), tamarisks (Tamarix), scrub and bushes in taiga forest edges and clearings. It also occurs in riverine thickets, reedbeds and patches of bushes in meadows, forest edges, hedges, orchards, cherry (Prunus) trees and the edges of cultivation. In forest-steppe and higher areas of montane foothills it found in bracken (Pteridium), dwarf willows, juniper (Juniperus) and on bush-covered slopes with isolated birch (Betula) and firs (Abies).

The breeding season is from May to August and the species in monogamous. The nest is a loose or untidy cup of twigs, plant stems and fibres, grass, flowerheads, plant down, moss, lichens and animal hair. It is set low down in a bush, juniper or spruce or willow sapling and is well hidden in a tangle of foliage or against a trunk, occasionally in scrub tangle and rarely on the ground. Clutches are four to six eggs. The diet is mainly plant and tree seeds, buds, catkins, shoots, leaves, fruit and berries but it will also take nectar, insects and their larvae and other arthropods (Clement and Christie 2013). The species is migratory, with most populations being long-distance migrants (Snow and Perrins 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research to identify the drivers of population declines and appropriate conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not found in the EU27 and is Not Applicable (NA).

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,100-10,300 pairs, which equates to 10,100-20,500 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in alpine and subalpine areas with stunted and sparse vegetation, montane and submontane plateaux, usually above the rhododendron (Rhododendron) zone, in barren, desolate and windswept hillsides, around rock faces and valleys with occasional dwarf birch (Betula), juniper (Juniperus) and willow (Salix) thickets and boulder-strewn and rock-strewn screes. It also occupies the edges of glaciers and ice-fields, alpine meadows, and open fields at edges of cultivation. Outside of the breeding season it is found at lower levels in similar habitat (Clement 2010). In Europe breeding is from July to August (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The nest is constructed mainly from thin twigs, plants stalks and root fibres, grass, moss, animal hair, wool and feathers. It is set in a crevice in a rock face or in a low bush on cliff face and exceptionally in a deserted building. Clutches are four to five eggs. The diet is chiefly seeds, buds, shoots and flowers of small alpine plants but it sometimes takes berries and small insects as well. The species is resident and an altitudinal migrant, moving to lower levels from October to March (Clement 2010).

threats:
In Europe, declines are attributed to the destruction of habitats rich in Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) scrub and predation by Alpine Couch (Pyrrhocorax graculus) (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). During the winter and increasing number of the species are being trapped as cagebirds (Tucker and Heath 1994). The size of the European population could also render it susceptible to the risks affecting small populations (Birdlife International 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Essential, is the conservation of winter habitats rich in Hippophae rhamnoides, especially in the river valleys bordering the Kabardino-Balkarian and North Ossetian highland reserves, where the majority of the species winters. Sustainable exploitation of Hippophae berries should also be ensured. A complete ban on catching and keeping birds should be implemented until it effects can be investigated. Accurate monitoring of the species and its population trends should also be undertaken as well as an assessment of the impacts of predation by Alpine Chough (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,600,000-5,070,000 pairs, which equates to 5,200,000-10,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,690,000-3,260,000 pairs, which equates to 3,390,000-6,520,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers broadleaved forest, in particular oak-hornbeam, and also mixed forest. Besides more natural forests it also occupies parks and gardens, (cherry) orchards and olive groves in some areas of its range. In the drier southern parts of its range it inhabits steppe-woodlands and thorn thickets. It breeds up to 1,300 m in central Europe and up to 2,200 m asl in the Caucasus (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, Calladine & Morrison 2010, Collar et al. 2010). Although northern populations of the species are partly migratory, it is resident in large parts of its European range. Short distance seasonal movements can take place, depending on food availability. Generally it breeds between March and mid-August.

The species is monogamous, forming pair-bonds for more than one year. It occasionally breeds in small colonies. The nest is built by both parents, in a tree up to 14 m. The clutch size is normally three to five eggs but may be even larger in some areas with optimal habitat conditions. The eggs are incubated by the female for 11–13 days. The chicks are reared by both parents and leave the nest after 11–13 days and become independent after about 30 days (Hagemeijer& Blair 1997, Collar et al. 2010, Tomiałojć 2012). The diet of the species consists predominantly of seeds, buds and shoots of trees and shrubs. In particular the nestlings are fed by small invertebrates. Food is collected at all levels in trees and also on the ground (Collar et al. 2010).

threats:
Generally there is no evidence for substantial threats. Since the 1990s the species has expanded its European range. Now the population is suspected to be stable. Declines in some countries are possibly related to destruction of deciduous forest, removal of old orchards and increased predation (Collar et al. 2010, BirdLife International 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species was added to the British list of Birds of Conservation Concern in 2009 (Eaton et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Further research is needed to determine the factors which are affecting this species and then identify potential management methods to counter these (Eaton et al. 2009).


taxonomicNotes:
Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002b). Rhodopechys mongolicus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been transferred into the newly erected genus Eremopsaltria following Kirwan and Gregory (2005) who argue that all four 'desert-

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large breeding range across central Asia, extending into Europe only in small numbers in Turkey and Armenia. The population size within the region approaches the threshold for classification as Vulnerable and the population trend is stable; the species could therefore be listed as Near Threatened but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted by one category to Least Concern (LC°).

The species does not occur within the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA).

population:
The European population is estimated at 510-1,000 pairs, which equates to 1,000-2,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits montane and submontane, arid, desolate and semi-desert areas with slopes, cliffs, screes, ravines and steep valleys, as well as open stony, sandy areas with grassy patches or low scrub (e.g. Caragana). It is also occasionally found on the edge of alpine meadows and cultivated fields. It occupies similar habitats at lower altitudes outside of the breeding season. It breeds from mid-April to late July or August and lays four to six eggs. The nest is a loose foundation of twigs, plant stalks, down and fibres, leaves, grass and animal hair. It is usually placed in a shallow saucer or depression on the ground, under a low bush or grass tussock, in scree slope, between rocks or boulders, in crevice or niche in cliff or rock face, or in the wall of a building, well or ruin. The diet is mainly small seeds, but buds and shoots are also taken (Clement 2010). The species makes short-distance and altitudinal migratory movements (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The size of the European population makes it vulnerable to the risks faced by small populations; however it is adjacent to a large non-European population (Birdlife International 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 185,000,000-269,000,000 pairs, which equates to 371,000,000-537,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 81,300,000-125,000,000 pairs, which equates to 163,000,000-250,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits lowland and lower montane deciduous, mixed and conifer woods with a slight preference for beech (Fagus), hornbeam (Carpinus), mature oak (Quercus), spruce (Picea) and pine (Pinus). It also uses forest edges and glades, copses, heaths, edges of tundra and agricultural areas, hedgerows, orchards, parks and gardens. In the Canary Islands it is found in laurel (Lauraceae) forest and areas of dense vegetation (Clement 2010). Egg-laying occurs mainly from late-April to mid-July but clutches can be found from mid-March to mid-July (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is placed up to 35 m above ground on a branch, against a trunk or in the fork of a tree or bush. It is a deep cup made of plant fibres, grass, fine roots, lichens, moss, bark strips, animal hair and feathers. Clutches are four to five eggs. The diet is varied and is mostly small invertebrates and their larvae, seeds and buds. The species is resident, partially migratory and migratory, with populations in the north and northeast moving south and southwest between mid-September and the end of November (Clement 2010).

threats:
Particularly in northern areas populations may fluctuate in response to weather conditions, with cold conditions resulting in temporary declines (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The species is trapped in some parts of its range. In the Canary Islands the race palmae is threatened by forest fires, wood harvesting and predation by introduced mammals, while race ombriosa is threatened by forest fires, wood harvesting and drought (Madroño and González 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Fringilla coelebs ombriosa is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. In the Canary Islands, both palmae and ombriosa have had much of their habitat protected as Natural and Special Protected Areas and the species has benefited from protection measures for other species (Madroño and González 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Across its range this species is not threatened, however the races palmae and ombriosa in the Canary Islands are threatened. It has been recommended that a management plan be produced for these races, in addition to research on reproductive success, impacts of introduced predators and habitat selection. Regular monitoring should also be carried out (Madroño and González 2004).


range:
The species breeds in northern and north-eastern Europe east in a broad band to eastern Russia and populations winter in western, central and southern Europe (Clement and Arkhipov 2010).

population:
The European population is estimated at 15,200,000-24,000,000 pairs, which equates to 30,300,000-48,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,650,000-5,010,000 pairs, which equates to 5,310,000-10,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in birch (Betula) and conifer woodland and also in mixed deciduous and conifer woods. Along the northern edge of the tundra it occurs in dwarf birch and willow (Salix) scrub and farther south in riverine alder (Alnus). During the non-breeding season it is found mainly in areas of deciduous trees, including woods, forests and small copses and shelter-belts, especially those containing beech (Fagus) or hornbeam (Carpinus), along edges of open agricultural fields, as well as in weedy and stubble fields and orchards. It breeds from May to early August and is monogamous. The nest is built above ground in a fork or against the trunk of a tree, or exceptionally low down in scrub or on the ground. It is a large, loose cup of grass, heather, birch or juniper bark strips, moss, lichens, plant down, animal hair or fur, feathers and cobwebs, sometimes with pieces of string or paper added. Normally lays five to seven eggs (Clement and Arkhipov 2010). It feeds on seeds and berries and in the summer on invertebrates as well. In its winter quarters it specialises in beechnuts (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory, although a small number in Scandinavia are resident (Clement and Arkhipov 2010).

threats:
Birds in subalpine Fennoscandia vary annually, apparently alongside the abundance of caterpillars of autumnal moth (Epirrita autumnata) and winter moth (Operophtera brumata) (Clement and Arkhipov 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research to identify the causes of population declines and appropriate conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species is endemic to Europe and the EU27, where it has a small range and a moderately small population in the Canary Islands (Spain). The taxon F. t. polatzeki of Gran Canaria is rare and highly threatened, but the area of suitable habitat on Tenerife (the majority of the range) is increasing overall, which suggests that the population is also increasing, and the range is not severely fragmented. However, forest fires remain a serious and plausible potential threat and have the potential to cause a rapid population decline which would warrant the species being uplisted to Vulnerable or Endangered. For this reason, the species is classified as Near Threatened (D2).

Were appropriate action to be taken which reduces the risk of serious fires such that they no longer represent a plausible threat, the species may be eligible for downlisting to Least Concern in the future.

range:
The species is found only on Tenerife (subspecies teydea) and Gran Canaria (subspecies polatzeki) in the Canary Islands, Spain (Clement 2010).

habitat:
It is largely dependent on Canary pine (Pinus canariensis) and will inhabit reforested areas where these fall within the natural distribution of this tree. During the breeding season, it is found in pinewoods at 1,000–2,000 m with a high proportion of broom (Chamaecytisus proliferus) in the understorey (Garcia-del-Rey et al. 2009). It has been recorded from 800 to 2,300 m at other times.

The breeding season lasts from April to early August. The nest is built by the female mostly from pine twigs, tree-heath or broom, plant fibres and down, pine needles, grass, moss, lichens, animal hair, feathers and cobwebs. Generally it is placed up to 12 m above ground against trunk of Canary pine and sometimes in laurel or heather (Clement 2010). Two eggs are normally laid. Although Canary pine seeds constitute its main food source, birds occasionally feed outside pinewoods during severe weather. The species selects sheltered sites for feeding during the non-breeding period with the selection of less sheltered sites mediated by pine seed availability (Garcia-del-Rey et al. 2009). The species is resident although vagrants occur on Lanzarote in the east of the Canary Isles (Clement 2010).

threats:
It suffers from being captured and kept in cages, and possibly also still from illegal trade, primarily to Italy, Germany and Belgium, which may have an effect on population levels. Its pinewood habitat has been subject to intense commercial exploitation which has resulted in habitat fragmentation and population isolation, particularly on Gran Canaria. Forest fires have been important in the destruction of pinewoods on Gran Canaria, most recently in the summer of 2007 when significant areas were destroyed including one of the most important sites on Gran Canaria. Protected areas are heavily used for recreation and leisure on Gran Canaria and this may cause disturbance. Inbreeding may also be a significant threat in the Gran Canaria population (Barov and Derhé 2011). The main cause of breeding failure is predation, mostly by the Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) (Rodríguez and Moreno 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. It has been legally protected from hunting, capture, trade, egg or chick collection since 1980. Key areas on Gran Canaria have been protected since 1982 and El Teide forest on Tenerife and six important areas on Gran Canaria were designated as National Parks or Natural Areas in 1987. A conservation programme was initiated in 1991 and a captive breeding programme began in 1992. An action plan was published in 1996 (González 1996) and reviewed in 2004 (Nagy and Crockford 2004) and 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Captive breeding on Gran Canaria was started anew in 2005, and the first chicks were expected to be released in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Fire prevention measures are implemented, particularly during the summer, and access to suitable habitat is limited on Gran Canaria. There is also an ongoing project that focusses on the restoration of fire-damaged pine forest on Gran Canaria. Control measures against alien species are being implemented on Tenerife and cats have been controlled on Gran Canaria since 1996. Research is being conducted into the potential threat of inbreeding in the population on Gran Canaria (Barov and Derhé 2011).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring and research should be continued and expanded. An official governmental action plan should be produced to detail conservation requirements such as habitat restoration, prevention of forest fires and eradication of illegal trade. In addition, the species should be included under CITES and adequate protection should be ensured under the Countryside Law and Wildlife Protection Law. Forest management should focus on thinning areas of dense pine trees (as in García-del-Rey et al. 2010) where no undergrowth persists and reafforesting areas within the former range of pine forests on the islands (García-del-Rey and Cresswell 2005). Carry out further work to divert recreational activities from important sites. Conduct public awareness campaigns. Protect drinking sites.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 9,100,000-17,300,000 pairs, which equates to 18,200,000-34,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 922,000-2,610,000 pairs, which equates to 1,840,000-5,220,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a species of lowland to submontane conifer forests and woodlands. Northern Palearctic populations are mostly found in taiga forests of spruce (Picea) and southern breeders (southern Britain south to the Mediterranean region) in pines (Pinus), including Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Race guillemardi occupies black pine (Pinus nigra) and race corsicana occurs in cultivated Corsican pine (P.n. larico).  It also uses larch (Larix), cedar (Cedrus), alder (Alnus) and birch (Betula). On passage and in the non-breeding season it occurs in pine and deciduous trees in coastal woodlands, parks and gardens, including in suburban areas and city centres, also exceptionally along tideline. 

The breeding season is generally determined by food abundance but is typically from August to April/May in northern and central Europe, mid-January to mid-May in Scandinavia, February to mid-May in northern Russia and March to early November in Cyprus. The nest is a deep cup of conifer twigs, bark or rotting wood strips, plant fibres, grass, moss, lichens, animal hair and feathers. It is sited 3–35 m above the ground, usually beneath the outermost foliage, close to the crown of a tall conifer and often close to the trunk in a spruce or along the branch of a pine. Clutches are three to four eggs. The species is resident and a partial migrant and is commonly irruptive and nomadic in the non-breeding season (Clement and Christie 2014).

threats:
In Finland, the species has declined due to forest fragmentation. This is principally as a result of overall shortening of rotation times leading to a reduction in the average age of forests (Clement and Christie 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Large areas of mature forest should be protected for this species. Management should include increasing rotation times and setting aside core tracts of old-growth forest and be applied over as much as of the species's range as possible, owing to its habit of travelling over extremely large areas (Clement and Christie 2014).


taxonomicNotes:
Loxia leucoptera (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into L. leucoptera and L. megaplaga following AOU (2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,500,000-4,260,000 pairs, which equates to 3,000,000-8,510,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,200-56,000 pairs, which equates to 4,400-112,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies dense conifer forests and plantations, mainly larch and larch-pine (Larix-Pinus) forests. It is found predominantly with Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica) in central Siberia and also uses fir (Abies) and spruce (Picea), and occasionally resorts to deciduous trees in absence of preferred conifers. In eastern Russia it is mostly found in larches and mainly in Spruce and in north-west Russia and Scandinavia mostly in spruce (Clement 2010). The breeding season is from February to mid-May in years of a good seed crop of pine and spruce, but in poor crop years it is delayed to from June to August (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is constructed mostly of conifer twigs, plant stalks, grass stems, lichens, moss, plant fibres and down, animal hair or fur and feathers. It is set 2–20 m above ground against the trunk of a conifer, typically spruce. On occasion it is placed at the end of a branch. Clutches are three to four eggs. The diet consists mainly of conifer seeds, buds, berries and shoots, chiefly of larch and spruce but it also takes a range of invertebrates and larvae (Clement 2010). The species is resident and dispersive but also eruptive in years of poor seed crops (Snow and Perrins 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 424,000-1,560,000 pairs, which equates to 848,000-3,120,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 54,100-212,000 pairs, which equates to 108,000-424,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a species of lowland pine forests and woodlands. It is found predominantly in tall, mature and open woodlands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and occasionally in mixed conifer forests with larch (Larix), spruce (Picea) and rowan (Sorbus). It also occurs in coastal shelter-belts and introduced conifer plantations, usually of large-coned species. On passage and in wintering areas may occur more widely in mixed conifer and deciduous woodlands. The breeding season runs from December to late June and it generally lays three to four eggs. The nest is constructed mostly of dry conifer twigs, bark strips, pine needles, grass, leaves, moss, lichens, plant fibres and down, animal hair or fur, and sometimes also some feathers. It is normally placed close to the trunk, on a branch or in a fork up to 20 m above ground in a conifer at the woodland edge. It feeds mostly on seeds, buds and shoots, commonly of pines (particularly Scots pine) and spruce (Clement 2010). The species is resident and dispersive and also occasionally eruptive (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The population is thought to have declined near the end of the 20th century as a result of the commercial removal of mature pine trees, which affected amount and distribution of conifer seed (Clement 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would likely benefit from the maintenance of low-intensity forestry management practices, including the preservation of mature trees.


taxonomicNotes:
Loxia crossbills are conifer seed specialists for which there is an increasing body of evidence to show that bill morphology and overall body size, the main morphological features by which forms vary, are intimately linked to the cone structure and size o

population:
The European population is estimated at 4,100-11,400 pairs, which equates to 8,200-22,800 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in lowland forests and stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), including open mature plantations and ancient relict forest trees. During the winter it is mostly found in larches (Larix) and in established plantations of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) as well as well-spaced pine woodland with heather (Calluna) understorey. Breeding occurs from January or February to June and the species is monogamous, although occasional polygamy is recorded. The nest is a large bulky cup of twigs (mostly pine, larch or birch), heather, grass, plant fibres, bark strips, moss, lichens, animal hair, leaves and feathers. It is sited six to eight metres above the ground in the upper level of old Scots pine, usually high in the crown or at the end of a spreading branch and very occasionally built in spruce, larch or Douglas-fir. Clutches are three to four eggs. The diet is mainly made up of seeds of Scots pine (bill shape thought to be better adapted for feeding on cones of this species) and when these are unavailable, it takes seeds, blossom, buds and shoots of larch (Larix), spruce (Picea), fir (Abies), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga) and beech (Fagus), and possibly small invertebrates. The species is resident and locally dispersive (Clement and de Juana 2013).

threats:
Suitable semi-natural habitat has declined from approximately 15,000 km2 to fragments totalling 160 km2 over the last 5,000 years. However, the amount of plantation woodland has increased substantially during the 20th century (Clement and de Juana 2013). Habitat may also be degraded through underplanting with exotic conifers and grazing pressure from high numbers of red deer, which prevents forest regeneration (Tucker and Heath 1994). Climate change may be a threat to the species, through driving changes in habitat, however the provision of habitat through commercial forestry may play a role in mitigating this (Summers and Buckland 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. A U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan is being implemented. A survey was conducted in 2008 to assess the current population size (Summers and Buckland 2011). The species is listed as 'amber' on the U.K. national Red List (Eaton et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Carry out further studies to establish whether the species is best adapted to native Scots pine or to plantations of non-native species (and therefore establish the degree of threat it faces). Monitoring of the species needs to be in place in order to determine population trends (Summers and Buckland 2011). Further loss of habitat, from felling and underplanting, needs to be prevented. Red deer numbers should be controlled and excluded with fences to allow the spread of native pinewood (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 92,300-214,000 pairs, which equates to 185,000-428,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 16,800-33,000 pairs, which equates to 33,600-66,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits lowland, lower montane and subarctic conifer forests and woods, including larch (Larix), spruce (Picea), cedar (Cedrus) and fir (Abies). It is also found along the tree-line of northern taiga. It occupies mixed deciduous and conifer, in light or open forest, often along forest edge, on hillsides, in clearings and in damp or marshy areas. In the non-breeding season more widely found in deciduous woods, willow thickets and copses in valleys and woodland patches at edges of cultivation, including orchards, as well as mixed scrub, parks and suburban gardens.

The bird breeds from May to July. The nest is a deep untidy or loose cup built mostly of juniper, spruce, birch or pine twigs and occasionally with plant fibres, pine needles, grass, lichen filaments, moss, animal hair and feathers. It is usually placed two to six metres from the ground close to or against the trunk of a tree, in pine, spruce, juniper or birch, and often well hidden in densest part of the tree. Clutches are three or four. It feeds principally on seeds, buds, shoots and small fruits and takes some invertebrates. The species is resident and a partial migrant and is occasionally irruptive (Clement 2010).

threats:
In central Finland, declines during the latter part of 20th century, may be due to large-scale deforestation (Clement 2010). The species may also be threatened by changes in habitats driven by climate change (Virkkala et al. 2013a).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
In planning future protected areas, their location should be considered in relation to predicted climate change (Virkkala et al. 2013b).


taxonomicNotes:
Pyrrhula pyrrhula (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into P. pyrrhula and P. murina following Ramos (1993) contra AERC TAC (2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This species, endemic to Europe and the EU27, is listed as Endangered as it occurs at only one locality and has a very small range, within which the quality of habitat is thought to be decreasing due the spread of invasive plant species. However, should the population continue to be stable or increase thanks to successful conservation action and despite the spread of invasives, the species may warrant downlisting in the near future.

range:
The species is endemic to the Azores, Portugal, where it is confined to the east of the island of São Miguel (Clement and Christie 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 230-760 pairs, which equates to 450-1,500 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species appears to depend on the native laurissilva forest during the winter and spring, although seeds from the exotic Clethra arborea may be a critical food in December and January (Ceia et al. 2011b). In the summer and autumn (May–November) its habitat use is more conservative, and birds utilise bare ground, vegetation less than 2 m high and also forest margins. Exotic vegetation such as plantations of Japanese red cedar Cryptomeria japonica within 200 m of native forest is also used during summer (Ceia et al. 2009). Birds breed from mid-June to late August, with a clutch size of three eggs (Teodósio et al. 2009). The nest is a cup of twigs, dry grass, plant fibres and moss, placed up to 5 m above ground in conifer, usually cedar (Clement and Christie 2013). The diet comprises of at least 37 different plants of which 13 are known to be important (Ramos 1995). The species appears entirely dependent on native forest for food during many months of the year (Ramos 1995, Ceia et al. 2011). This species is resident but movements of up to 5.8 km between native forest patches have been recorded as birds move to feed on ripening seeds (Ceia 2008).

threats:
The historical decline and its extremely small range are believed to be a consequence of the widespread clearance of native forest for forestry plantations and agriculture. The spread of alien invasive plant species (especially Hedychium gardnerianum, Clethra arborea and Pittosporum undulatum), which have largely overrun the remaining patches of natural vegetation, suppress the natural fruit, seed and bud food supply to the species (G. Hilton in litt. 2006). The species exhibits a preference for non-invaded laurel forest habitat (Ceia et al. 2011), and is entirely absent from highly invaded areas (e.g. P. undulatum copses (Ceia et al. 2009)). Food shortages are potentially a problem throughout the year, but are most severe in late winter (Ceia et al. 2011b). Random environmental and demographic factors can affect such small populations and inbreeding may reduce reproductive output. Predation by introduced rats and mustelids may also be affecting nesting success (G. Hilton in litt. 2006, Ceia 2008, Teodósio et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is protected under Portuguese law. Pico da Vara/Ribeira do Guilherme has been designated as a Special Protected Area, and this was enlarged to 6,067 ha in 2005 (LIFE Priolo Project 2007). Ecological research was conducted during 1991-1993 and habitat management began in 1995. A short booklet on the species has been distributed to schools in São Miguel. A species action plan was published in 1996, and a second action plan was produced in 2009 (Teodósio et al. 2009). A number of actions have already been implemented as part of an ongoing EU LIFE-Nature project for the species, including the development of a management plan for the SPA, the clearance of invasive plant species and replanting with native species in over 70 ha in the core of the species's range and the planting of traditional fruit trees at lower altitudes (Teodósio 2005; Teodósio 2006, LIFE Priolo Project 2007). During 2005-2007, 156 individuals were captured and colour-ringed (Ceia 2008), and 'visual recapture' monitoring of these birds continues (SPEA 2009). As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian, SPEA (Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves), are implementing the following actions (SPEA 2009): habitat management including the creation of fruit tree orchards, clearance of alien invasive plant species and planting native species in the core area and buffer zones; raising public awareness through production of a website, CD-ROM, brochures and school kits, and through collaboration with the regional Ministry of Tourism on nature trails and tourist information; evaluating the economic benefits of the project and analysing the ecosystem services offered by the protected area; establishing an interactive Environmental Interpretation Centre with displays about the species, native laurel forest and the threats both face; and researching and monitoring population size, distribution and habitat quality. The first complete census took place in 2008, involving 48 volunteers surveying all suitable habitat in a single day (SPEA 2009). The São Miguel Natural Park, including Pico de Vara SPA, was classified in July 2008, and a management plan is to be developed by the regional government. In September 2006, recently fledged juveniles were seen at Salto do Cavalo (R. Ceia in litt. 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue and expand the population monitoring scheme. Investigate the possibility of breeding at Salto do Cavalo. Continue the removal and exclusion of exotic flora. Continue the replanting of native vegetation (particularly key food plants). Monitor the species's response to ongoing habitat restoration. Promote land use changes in the buffer areas around the SPA. Investigate the impact of rat predation on nesting success.


population:
The European population is estimated at 7,650,000-13,000,000 pairs, which equates to 15,300,000-26,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,000,000-3,780,000 pairs, which equates to 4,000,000-7,560,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits lowland and lower montane deciduous forest and woodlands, thickets and copses, as well as heaths, hedgerows and scrubby areas, parks and the edges of cultivation, including orchards and gardens in towns and cities. It occurs mostly in conifers and mixed and broadleaf forest in Siberia and other parts of Russia . In the Caucasus it favours in pine (Pinus) and tall beech (Fagus) forest, while in northern Europe it prefers conifer forests with well-developed undergrowth of spruce (Picea), cedar (Cedrus), larch (Larix), also birch (Betula) and yew (Taxus).

The breeding season is typically from late April to mid-September. The nest is generally constructed of dry grass, plant fibres, roots, moss, lichen and leaves set on a loose base of dry twigs and placed up to five metres from the ground in thick bush, brambles and honeysuckle or on a flat low branch of a conifer. Clutches are four to six eggs. It feeds on a range of seeds, buds and shoots of various plants, as well as some invertebrates (Clement and Christie 2013). The species is sedentary to migratory, with most populations likely being partially migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Since the late 1970s numbers have declined in Britain owing to changes in agricultural practice, which is thought to adversely affected supply of weed seeds (Clement and Christie 2013). The exact mechanisms, which link land-use change and declines of the species, are poorly understood however (Siriwardena et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
In the U.K. it is a priority species under the U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Further research is needed on the importance of hedgerow structure and woodland understorey vegetation on this species (Siriwardena et al. 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,000-6,000 pairs, which equates to 6,000-12,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in lowland and submontane dry, arid and semi-arid areas of open plains, semi-deserts and wadis with sparse vegetation, low scrub, thickets and scattered trees. It also occurs in irrigated areas and on the edges of cultivation, particularly orchards and vineyards. The species is monogamous and both sexes build the nest which is an untidy cup constructed mostly of twigs, plant stalks, fibres and down and occasionally also animal hair or fur and scraps of cloth. It is set in the fork of a branch in a shrub or low tree, in semi-desert areas usually tamarisk (Tamarix) or Arthrophytum, in agricultural areas often in orchard and then in Prunus, vine (Vitis) or pistachio (Pistacia) and also in eucalypt (Eucalyptus), acacia (Acacia) or pine (Pinus), poplar (Populus), elm or mulberry (Morus). Clutches are four to six eggs. The diet is mostly small seeds, buds and shoots but it also takes some insects (Clement 2010). The species is mainly sedentary in Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998).


taxonomicNotes:
Rhodopechys sanguineus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into R. sanguineus and R. alienusfollowing Kirwan et al. (2006) and Tobias et al.(2010), who split the form aliena on the basis of longer bill and tarsus (score 1) and shorter tail (scor

population:
The European population is estimated at 51,500-211,000 pairs, which equates to 103,000-422,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on montane and submontane slopes and in high-level valleys (Clement 2010). It is generally found on stony slopes and ridges with sparse arid scrub and herbage, in the scrub and juniper zone above the trees and on almost bare, dry, eroded clay hills. It winters at lower altitudes on bare areas and arable cultivation (Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds from April to mid-July. The nest is a neat, loose cup of dry grasses, cereals, plant stems and fibres and sometimes animal hair. It is placed on stony ground on a scree slope, under an overhanging rock, in lava or in a crevice, grass tussock or thorn-scrub, or occasionally in a low bush, on a cliff ledge or in the wall of a derelict house. Clutches are four to five eggs. It feeds mainly on small seeds, buds and the shoots of grasses, semi-desert and alpine plants. It also takes some insects. The species is an altitudinal and short-distance migrant (Clement 2010).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,500,000-2,520,000 pairs, which equates to 3,000,000-5,050,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits a wide variety of lowland and submontane forests of pine (Pinus), laurel (Lauraceae), the edges of cultivation and wooded valleys (barrancos) with almonds (Prunus), tamarisk (Tamarix) thickets, myrtle (Myrica) hedges, tree-heaths (Erica) and especially areas of broom (Cytisus) It is also found in parks and gardens and on Desertas (Madeira) it breeds in open semi-arid areas with little or no vegetation cover. Breeding occurs from January to July and it is monogamous. The nest is a deep compact cup made of twigs, plant fibres and down, grass, moss and lichens, small leaves, animal hair (mainly sheep wool) and feathers, sited above ground in a fork at the end of a thin branch or in the crown of a small tree. Clutches are three to four eggs. It feeds mainly on seeds, particularly of herbs and grasses, as well as buds and fruit and a small number of insects. The species is resident, undertaking short-distance dispersive movements (Clement 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
In order to supplement the population there 12–15 individuals were released onto Fuerteventura in 1980. The species is widely kept in captivity in most areas of the world (Clement 2010).

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant (Cyprus) in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 280,000-845,000 pairs, which equates to 560,000-1,690,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in montane and submontane forests of birch (Betula), pine (Pinus), juniper (Juniperus), spruce (Picea), willows (Salix) and larch (Larix), usually at or towards edge of forest, and rarely in dense areas. It also uses areas of dwarf junipers and scattered barberry (Berberis) scrub on open hillsides and above the tree-line, rhododendrons (Rhododendron), scree slopes, alpine and subalpine meadows, ravines and the upper edges of steep valleys. Outide the breeding season it is found in similar habitats as well as orchards and gardens at edges of human settlements, scattered trees on hillsides with low scrub, river valleys, rocky wadis and edges of cultivation. It breeds from April to August and usually lays three to five eggs. The nest is a neat, compact cup of dry grasses, strips of bark, plant fibres and down, moss, lichen, feathers and cobwebs, placed low down in bush or higher on branch or in fork, or against trunk, or on rock crevice, cliff ledge or in a hole in scree (Clement 2010). It feeds mainly on seeds, fruits and other plant material and sometimes takes small insects. The species is resident and an altitudinal migrant (Snow and Perrins 1998).


population:
The European population is estimated at 20,900,000-31,500,000 pairs, which equates to 41,900,000-63,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 20,000,000-28,500,000 pairs, which equates to 40,000,000-57,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occurs in lowland to lower montane mosaics of wooded hills with conifers and open country, maquis slopes with pine (Pinus) woods, small stands of cedars (Cedrus), junipers (Juniperus), cypress, European silver fir (Abies alba) and thuja (Thuja). It is also widespread in olive (Olea) and citrus groves, open agricultural areas, tall hedges and windbreaks, orchards, vineyards, plantations, suburban parks, avenues and gardens, ravines and gorges with trees and shrubs. The breeding season runs from February to early August. The nest is sited above ground among the outermost branches in the crown or on a branch against trunk of a bush or tree. It is a small and compact platform of small twigs, plant stems and down, bark strips, roots, grasses, moss, animal hair and feathers. Clutches are three to four eggs. It feeds mainly on seeds, buds, shoots, flowers and small invertebrates (Clement 2010). The species is sedentary to migratory; most birds vacate the northern part of its range, although in some years small numbers remain (Snow and Perrins 1998).


population:
The European population is estimated at 11,200,000-23,600,000 pairs, which equates to 22,400,000-47,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,340,000-17,400,000 pairs, which equates to 16,700,000-34,800,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies open areas, coastal cliffs, cultivation, and human habitations, including towns and cities. In north-west and central Europe, egg-laying occurs from May and in northern and north-east Europe from the end of May. In southern Spain laying occurs from March to May. The nest is built by both sexes and is enclosed with a small entrance hole near the top. It is made of mud pellets, lined with vegetable fibres and feathers and is attached to the outside of a building or, less often, a bridge, usually under an overhang and sometimes inside buildings. It will also occasionally use a natural sea cliff or rock face and rarely a cave or tree (Turner 2004). Clutches are normally three to five eggs. It feeds almost entirely on flying insects, almost always taken by aerial-pursuit (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory, with European birds wintering south of the Sahara (Turner 2004).

threats:
The species is affected by adverse weather which can have significant impacts during breeding and migration. It is also thought to compete for nest sites with House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) and a study conducted in Poland attributed recent changes in breeding sites to this (Turner 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species has benefited from building developments which provide additional nesting sites. Reductions in air pollution resulting in increased numbers of insects in cities have also lead to an increase in population numbers in some cities (Turner 2004). The Clean Air Act in the U.K. saw increases of this species in London, Birmingham and Manchester and in Berlin (Germany) there was a 36% increase between 1979 and 1983-1984 (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
It is known to readily use specially designed nestboxes (Tuner 2004). Although the species is not threatened, populations should be monitored to detect changes in numbers. Continued reductions in air pollution are likely to benefit the species.


taxonomicNotes:
Hirundo daurica and H. domicella (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) have been lumped into H. daurica following Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993). Hirundo daurica (Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993) and H. striolata (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) including ssp. ba

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,450,000-3,340,000 pairs, which equates to 2,900,000-6,690,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,400,000-3,190,000 pairs, which equates to 2,790,000-6,380,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in open hilly country and mountains, river gorges, valleys, sea cliffs, as well as in cultivated areas and human habitations, including towns. In Europe, breeding occurs from April to September and is usually solitary although sometimes in loose groups.  The nest is built by both sexes and is enclosed with a tunnel entrance. It is made of mud pellets sometimes mixed with a little dry grass and lined with a mixture of white feathers, hair, plant down, leaves, pine (Pinus) needles or dry grass. Clutch size varies regionally but is normally four or five in Europe (Turner 2004). The species feeds on insects, taking airborne prey in aerial pursuit (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory and European populations are thought to winter in the savanna zone of the northern Afrotropics (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species may be threatened by competition with other birds which use its nests (Martí and del Moral 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Population sizes within Europe are poorly known (Turner 2004), so monitoring programmes should be implemented across its range to more accurately determine its status. Research should focus on potential threats to this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 182,000-342,000 pairs, which equates to 363,000-685,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 112,000-176,000 pairs, which equates to 225,000-351,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found on mountains, crags and coastal cliffs and also around human habitations. It breeds from May to August. Both sexes build the nest which is an open half-cup made of mud pellets, lined with grass and feathers and the female continues to add lining during incubation. It is placed in a crevice or under an overhang on a cliff face and also sometimes on a bridge or on or in a building. Clutches are generally two to five eggs (Turner 2004). It feeds on insects, usually taken in flight. Northern populations of this species are migratory while elsewhere it is resident, only making altitudinal movements (Snow and Perrins 1998) and post-breeding movements (Turner and Rose 1989).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Currently no conservation measures are needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 29,000,000-48,700,000 pairs, which equates to 58,000,000-97,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 22,500,000-33,500,000 pairs, which equates to 45,000,000-67,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in a wide range of climates and over a wide altitudinal range, preferring open country such as farmland where buildings provide nesting sites and where water is nearby. In Europe it is superseded by the House Martin (Delichon urbicum) in urban areas (Turner and Rose 1989). In Britain and Western Europe, egg-laying begins late April or early May but occurs up to two weeks later in Scandinavia and one week earlier in southern Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is built by both sexes and is a cup or half-cup, made from mud pellets mixed with fibres such as dry grass, straw and horsehair and lined with dry grass and white feathers. Originally nests were built in caves or on cliffs but now almost always on artificial structures. Clutches are two to seven eggs (Turner and Christie 2012). It feeds almost entirely on flying insects (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), although some individuals winter in southern and western Europe each year (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The main threat to the species is the intensification of agriculture. Changes in farming practices such as the abandonment of traditional milk and beef production have resulted in a loss of suitable foraging areas. In addition, intensive livestock rearing, improved hygiene, land drainage and the use of herbicides and pesticides all reduce the numbers of insect prey available. Suitable nest sites are often scarcer on modern farms. The species is susceptible to changes in climate with bad weather in the wintering areas as well as the breeding grounds affecting breeding success (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is occasionally hunted for sport and nests are sometimes removed as a nuisance (Turner and Christie 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Large areas of suitable habitat need to be maintained for this species, through the continuation and promotion of low-intensity, traditional farming. In particular, this requires extensive livestock rearing, a reduction in pesticide use and the preservation of wetland areas and waterbodies (Tucker and Heath 1994). Nesting can be encouraged by providing wooden ledges or artificial nest cups made of cement and sawdust or papier maché (Turner and Christie 2012). Long term monitoring and further research into the impacts of climatic variation is also needed (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,640,000-8,000,000 pairs, which equates to 7,280,000-16,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,260,000-2,800,000 pairs, which equates to 2,530,000-5,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species nests colonially in newly eroded banks of rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs and coastal cliffs (Tucker and Heath 1994, Turner 2004). Quarries are important nesting sites (Tucker and Heath 1994) and birds may use other man-made habitats including road and railway cuttings and building work excavations. Breeding occurs between late April and August usually with two clutches of between three and six eggs. Burrows are excavated by both male and female but male initiates the process. Erosion at breeding sites is vital for creating new nest sites which birds prefer. Sand martins may roost in reedbeds. They forage approximately 15 m above ground (Turner 2004) feeding mainly on insects but also taking spiders (Tucker & Heath 1994, Turner 2004). Important foraging habitats include water-bodies, grassland and farmland (Turner 2004). Urban and forested areas are less important. This species is migratory with Eurasian birds typically wintering in the Sahel zone and East Africa south to Mozambique (Tucker and Heath 1994). Adult birds migrate soon after breeding. Juveniles roam over a wide area. Most adult birds return to the same breeding colony in subsequent years (Turner 2004).

threats:
Breeding sites are generally ephemeral and can often be lost through human activities (e.g. flood control, erosion control on rivers). In Europe, it is often dependent on artificial breeding sites such as quarries (Turner 2004), however quarry work can adversely affect breeding, though workers often take measures to prevent this. The use of pesticides causing declines in prey species, may impact the species (Tucker and Heath 1994). In the past droughts in wintering areas have caused severe large-scale population declines in western Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994, Turner 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. In the U.K. the species is legally protected from disturbance during the working of quarries (Tucker and Heath 1994) and is included in several local Biodiversity Action Plans.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Due to the impermanent nature of breeding sites for the species the artificial sites should be created and old quarry sites should be acquired and protected in order to secure nesting areas. Flood alteration schemes should also be managed to provide breeding areas (Tucker and Heath 1994). Research should be undertaken in order to find out more on its distribution, habitats and behaviour during winter and on migration (Garrison 1999) as should monitoring of populations where possible. Reducing pesticide use is also likely to increase prey items for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 7,440,000-14,300,000 pairs, which equates to 14,900,000-28,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,500,000-6,790,000 pairs, which equates to 7,000,000-13,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in temperate and Mediterranean climates (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997). It requires sunny, warm, usually dry, and level or gently sloping terrain, with scattered bushes, shrubs or low trees providing hunting posts overlooking areas of short grass, heath or bare soil. High-quality habitats tend to feature mosaic-like grassy vegetation with alternating areas of tall and short growth and bare areas, with perches. In agricultural areas occupies neglected overgrown patches, heaths, open downs, overgrown orchards and gardens, hedgerows, and scrub along railways or roadsides. It is found also in temporary steppe-like habitats, such as military training areas, burned forests, forest clearings and spruce (Picea) plantations (Yosef et al. 2012). Egg-laying occurs from May to July (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997) and clutches are generally three to seven eggs. The untidy-looking nest is  a loose foundation of often green plant stems, roots, grass, lichen, hair, or similar, compactly lined with grass, hair, moss, fur, reed (Phragmites) or reedmace (Typha) flowerheads, plant down and similar material, situated in dense, often thorny bush such as hawthorn (Crataegus), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), bramble (Rubus) or dog-rose (Rosa) (Yosef et al. 2012). It is an opportunistic feeder, feeding mostly on insects and other invertebrates as well as small mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles. The species is migratory, wintering in eastern and southern Africa (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997).

threats:
Declines are probably due mainly to the loss and fragmentation of habitat resulting from afforestation and agricultural intensification, and the increased use of pesticides causing loss of food resources (Yosef et al. 2012). The heavy application of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer causing the earlier and denser growth of vegetation may also be a threat (Tucker and Heath 1994). In northern and western edges of range, its breeding is affected by cooler, wetter summers (Yosef et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I.
Conservation Actions Proposed
The species requires wide-scale habitat conservation through the promotion of low intensity farming. Management should include the conservation or creation of open grasslands with a mixture of tall and low vegetation and thorny bushes, conservation of hedges and bushes bordering fields, the planting of bushes in intensively managed orchards and vineyards and the maintenance of fallow areas. In addition the linking of suitable habitat fragments by a series of protected areas would likely benefit the species. The use of broad-spectrum pesticides should also be reduced (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Lanius excubitor (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into L. excubitor, 'Northern Grey Shrike' and L. meridionalis, 'Southern Grey Shrike' (including pallidirostris), by AERC TAC (2003) (Sanster et al. 2002), but this treatment is not followed by the

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This shrike is undergoing rapid population declines in Spain, which holds the majority of the European population within an extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abc+3bc+4abc) in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is widespread across much of Europe, from Iberia and France through to central and eastern Europe to the Caucasus and Transcaspia and up into Fennoscandia. European populations mostly migrate to wintering grounds in areas south of 60°N (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997,  Yosef et al. 2008).

population:
The European population is estimated at 438,000-822,000 pairs, which equates to 876,000-1,640,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 426,000-795,000 pairs, which equates to 852,000-1,590,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in subarctic and temperate climates in open country with trees, bushes, fence posts and powerlines. Northern populations also use clearings in taiga or in the transition zone from taiga to tundra and forest edge. It is sometimes found on marshland and peat bogs. Sparse and low vegetation is an important habitat characteristic for this species (Yosef et al. 2008). The beginning of egg-laying varies with latitude (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997) but is generally from March to June in Europe. The nest is built by both sexes and is a well-made structure with a loose foundation of twigs, grass, rootlets, string, lined with rootlets, feathers and hair. It is generally placed high above ground in a fork or on a lateral branch of a tree, often pine (Pinus) or poplar (Populus) or sometimes in dense shrub. Clutches in Europe are usually six or seven eggs (Yosef et al. 2008). It feeds principally on small vertebrates such as small rodents, particularly voles, but also small birds, lizards, amphibians and large insects (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997). European populations migrate south to below 60° N but many of those breeding in south-west Europe appear largely sedentary (Yosef et al. 2008).

threats:
Habitat for this species has been destroyed and degraded by agricultural intensification. The removal of hedges and trees has reduced the number of available hunting perches and nest sites and reduced food availability. Wide scale use of herbicides and pesticides has also reduced the prey availability. However the cessation of agricultural activity can also have negative impacts, such as the removal of sheep-grazing may lead to the invasion of scrub, resulting in unsuitable habitat for the species. Destruction of peatbogs with scattered pines is thought to explain declines around Moscow. It may also be adversely affected by bad weather and harsh winters. It is also threatened by the development of industry and road building and disturbance from humans, cars and dogs can increase predation by corvids (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is protected in most countries and is frequently listed on national red lists; in some listed as 'highly endangered' and in more countries as 'vulnerable' or 'endangered' (Yosef et al. 2008). A national species action plan has been published in Luxembourg (Biver et al. 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Reducing intensive agricultural management would probably be the most effective conservation measure for this species (Yosef et al. 2008). Broad habitat conservation measures are required including, the maintenance of low-intensity farming practices, a reduction in the use of agro-chemicals, protection of areas of moorland, heathland, fallow lands and peatbogs, prevention of afforestation of fallow lands or low-quality pastures, restoration of standard orchards and the limiting of access to certain areas to minimise disturbance at nests (Tucker and Heath 1994).


