# European_Red_List_2017_December

taxonomicNotes:
Previously this species was included within Squalius pyrenaicus (Günther, 1868), but it is now recognised as a separate species (Doadrio et al. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is known from small populations along the Gallo River (Tagus basin) and its main tributaries (Bullones and Arandilla rivers). It has a very restricted range (extent of occurrence less than 500 km²) and, based on the major threat of pollution from the nearby city Molina de Aragonis, it is known from only three locations. In the last ten years only one individual has been collected in the Gallo River.

range:
Squalius castellanus is known from only one small populations along the Gallo River (Tagus basin) and its main tributaries, both Bullones and Arandilla Rivers, Central Spain (Doadrio et al. 2007).

population:
In the last ten years only one individual has been collected in the Gallo River.

threats:
The main threat to the species is pollution from the city of Molina de Aragon.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place.


range:
North, Baltic, northern Black, White, Barents and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France), Great Britain north to 56°N, Scandinavia: southern Finland, Sweden north to about Stockholm. Mediterranean basin from Var to Hérault (possibly Aude) (France) drainages. Introduced elsewhere. Naturally absent from Italy and Adriatic basin.

habitat:
Habitat: Most abundant in small rivers and large streams of barbel zone with riffles and pools. Also along shores of slow-flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams. Spawns in fast-flowing water above gravel bottom, rarely among submerged vegetation. Biology: Juveniles are gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years, females longer than males. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-4 years, females at 4-6. Maturity is influenced by environmental factors and individuals may mature much later. Spawns in May-August, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Females deposit the sticky eggs into the gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with Alburnus alburnus.


taxonomicNotes:
YesIt is not clear if the Lesbos population belongs to this species.Yes

redListCategoryRationale:
Based on the current understanding of this species concept it is only found within Europe on the island of Lesbos in the northern Aegean (extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km²). The species is locally threatened by pollution, water abstraction and drought. The number of locations the species is found in is less than 5.     European Union 27 = EN B1ab(iii). Same rational as above.

range:
Turkey; Lake İznik basin, streams Simav and Biga (Sea of Marmara drainage) as well as from the stream Menderes on the Biga peninsular (Aegean Sea drainage). Greece; Lesbos.

habitat:
Habitat: Streams, lakes and sometimes restricted to isolated pools during droughts. Biology: No data.

threats:
Droughts (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution and water abstraction.


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors consider this species as doubtful (Bianco and Knezevic 1987). There has been a recent change of genus from Leuciscus to Squalius (Zardoya and Doadrio 1999, Bogutskaya and Zupancic 1999, Sanjur et al. 2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
L. illiyricus has not declined in the past 10 years. It occurs in two rivers (Cetina and Krka basins) where there is a possibility of alien species being introduced. However it is a robust species and is thought that the alien species that have been introduced in the region would probably not have a major impact (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm). It could qualify for VU D2 depending upon the potential impact of introduced species.

range:
It is restricted to the Cetina and Krka River basins in Croatia.

population:
Hasn't declined in the past 10 years (M. Mrakovcic, pers comm).

habitat:
Lives in karstic river. A robust species able to withstand impacts of invasive species (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm).

threats:
Habitat destruction (dams), potential introduction of exotic fish species and water pollution.

conservationAction:
Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Part of range is included in a National Park.


redListCategoryRationale:
A. baeticus survives in only 7–8 sub populations and is suspected to have undergone a population decline of 50% in last 10 years. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is <500 km² and is in continuous decline due to a loss in habitat caused by pollution, destruction and to introduced species (Gambusia holbrooki, Fundulus heteroclitus and Procambarus clarkii) (Carmona, J. pers comm.). Although reintroduction programmes have been undertaken, this species could be extinct in the wild in the next ten years.

range:
It is restricted to the lower Guadalquivir region and in streams located on the southern Atlantic slope of Spain, including Coto Donana National Park.

population:
Decreasing, only 7–8 fragmented populations are known.

habitat:
It lives in freshwater and hypersaline lagoons, tidal channel, and in small streams. It is characterized by a short life span and large fluctuations in population size, as adaptations to a highly variable environment.

threats:
Habitat destruction and water pollution (mine spill in 1998 in Coto Donana), repeated drought, and introduction of exotic fish species Gambusia holbrooki and Fundulus heteroclitus as well as the swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii.

conservationAction:
Included in Regional Andalucian Law 8/2003 of conservation of flora and fauna.


redListCategoryRationale:
A. fasciatus is widely distributed, abundant and has no major widespread threats. European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
It is distributed in all countries of the Mediterranean region to the exception of the Iberic Peninsula. It is restricted to coastal waters including islands. It is found in several Mediterranean islands, except Crete (Bianco et al. 1996). The Species is also found in the Suez Canal (Lotan and Ben-Tuvia 1996).

habitat:
It lives mainly in brackish and salty waters, mainly in lagoons.

threats:
Habitat destruction and eutrophication may be threats at a local scale.

conservationAction:
It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.


redListCategoryRationale:
It is estimated that A. iberus has undergone a population decline of at least 50% in the past 10 years due to pollution and introduced fish (Carmona, J. pers comm). The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km², is fragmented and is in decline due to pollution and habitat destruction. This species is also in continuous decline with subpopulations regularly disappearing. Although a reintroduction programme using captive stock might help this species to recover, the threats will still be present.

range:
It is restricted to the Mediterranean coast of Spain and north-western Algeria. It is believed that the Algerian population is a separate species, but not yet described.

habitat:
It is a ubiquitous and short-lived species that can withstand wide salinity and temperature ranges. It lives mainly in salty lagoons where Gambusia and Fundulus are absent

threats:
Habitat destruction, drought, water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species.

conservationAction:
It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in the Appendix II and III of the Bern Convention.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has undergone a population decline of more than 80% in the past 10 years due to habitat (marsh) destruction for urbanisation, agricultural pollution and the introduction of alien predators (Carmona, J and Elvira, B. pers comm).

range:
It is restricted to six locations on the Mediterranean coastal area of Spain. (Elvira, B. pers comm).

habitat:
It lives in marshes, wetlands and springs.

threats:
Drought, habitat destruction, water extraction, domestic and agricultural pollution and introduction of Gambusia holbrooki.

conservationAction:
It is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix II of the Bern Convention. There have been introductions of the species into man-made marshes (Elvira, B. pers. comm).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has undergone a suspected population decline of at least 50% in the last 10 years as based on a decline in extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) and the impact of introduced species, and pollutants. The projected decline is even more severe with an estimated decline of more than 80% over the next 10 years expected due to continued decline in AOO and EOO and the impacts of introduced alien species. In addition, the species has a restricted distribution (estimated EOO <5,000 km², estimated AOO <10 km²), which is severely fragmented and continues to decline. The number of locations and the number of mature individuals also continues to decline. The species therefore qualifies as Critically Endangered under criterion A3. Recent investigations have shown that this species has disappeared from at least two locations (Corfu and Lefkada islands), however new locations have been found. Re-introduction and/or translocations, combined with effective conservation measures, would help to stop the decline of this species.

range:
Restricted to the southern part of Albania (Butrint lake) and to western Greece (it is thought probably extinct on the islands of Corfu and Lefkas) in the Thyamis (=Kalamas), Louros, Arachthos, Agios Dimitros, Acheloos rivers, and the Vlychos and Chiliadou springs. It is also found in Peloponnese (Pinios and Alfios rivers). The species is known from a few locations along the coast (each of a few square meters). It is not know from inland.

habitat:
Lives in freshwaters rich in submerged vegetation, which provides food, spawning substrate, and protection against predators.

threats:
Habitat destruction, water abstraction, and aggressive interaction with Gambusia.

conservationAction:
It is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention [incorrectly listed as Valaenncia hispanica - possibly since corrected].


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats, however some local populations are impacted by habitat alterations. European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
Caspian, Black, Baltic, White, Barents, Arctic, North and Aral Seas and Atlantic basins, southwest to Adour drainage; Mediterranean basin, in Rhône drainage and northern Italy. Widely distributed in North America and Siberia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea basin). Historically absent from Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean France, central Italy, southern and western Greece, eastern Adriatic basin, Iceland, western Norway and northern Scotland. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe.

habitat:
Habitat: In a wide variety of habitats with aquatic or periodically flooded vegetation. Often semi-anadromous in part of northern Baltic basin with lower salinity. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 170-350 mm SL, females at 250-400 mm SL, at 1-6 years. Reproduction closely related to the presence of submerged vegetation. Spawns in late winter or early spring, between February in the south and June in the north, when temperature rises above 5°C. Several males court a single female. Eggs are deposited in flooded areas and on submerged vegetation over a period of 2-5 days. Juvenile survival is negatively related to biomass of older individuals and positively related to the area of the patches covered by submerged vegetation. Feeds on various small vertebrates, predominantly fish, and large invertebrates as decapod crustaceans. Cannibalism is common. In arctic lakes, it is sometimes the only fish species in a given water body; in such cases, juveniles feed on invertebrates and terrestrial vertebrates; large individuals are predominantly cannibals.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a scattered distribution in the Danube drainage from Vienna to the delta, and in the lower reaches of Dniestr drainage. River regulation for water transport, and drainage of wetlands for agriculture, has reduced the number of backwaters (oxbow lakes etc.) where, in the last phases of succession, the species is found. It moves between the backwaters during times of flooding, which has also been regulated by the channelization and damming of the rivers. The succession of the backwaters takes many years to develop and the number of available and suitable sites for this species is slowly reducing as they dry out and no new ones are created. The species is known to have been extirpated from many locations. It is estimated that the population has declined by more than 30% in the past 10 years.For the European Union 27 region, this species is also assessed as Vulnerable (VU A2c), with the same rationale as above.

range:
This species has a scattered distribution in the Danube drainage from Vienna to the delta; and the lower reaches of Dniestr drainage.

population:
The population has been declining for many years.

habitat:
HabitatThis fish occurs in very densely vegetated water bodies, usually in small ditches, oxbows, backwaters and shallow lakes. BiologyThe species lives at least five years, spawning for the first time at one year. It spawns in March–April, when temperatures reach 12–16°C. Eggs are laid in a nest of plant material or in a shallow depression in the bottom. Females protect the nest until the larvae leave it. It is able to breathe air and may therefore colonise habitats with very low oxygen concentrations. The species feeds on a variety of small animals.

threats:
River regulation for water transport has reduced the number of backwaters (oxbow lakes etc.) where, in the last phases of succession, the species is found. Drainage of wetlands to reclaim arable land has (and still does) pose a threat. The species moves between the backwaters during times of flooding, which has also been regulated by the channelization and damming of the rivers. The succession of the backwaters takes many years and the number of available and suitable sites for the species is slowly reducing as they dry out and no new ones are created. The species is known to have been extirpated from many locations.

conservationAction:
The species has been included in the national Red Lists of Slovenia, Croatia, Moldova and Austria. In Hungary, this fish is protected and local action plans have been developed.


taxonomicNotes:
The genus Lota is in a need of critical revision. Populations from eastern Siberia and North America represent a distinct species, L. maculosa.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species but locally threatened by river regulation. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Europe: from Loire drainage (France) eastward to White, Barents and Arctic Sea basins; upper Volga drainage; southeastern Caspian basin; rivers draining to Black Sea; Rhône drainage (France); in Italy, native only in Po drainage; eastern England (now extirpated). In Siberia eastward to River Lena. Originally absent from Iberian Peninsula, central and southern Italy, Adriatic basin, Greece, Ireland, western and northern Great Britain and western France.

habitat:
Habitat: All well oxygenated flowing waters and large lakes. Known from estuaries of large lowland rivers as well as from small mountain streams. Biology: Generally nocturnal. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three in Central Europe. Spawns in November-March, at temperatures below 4°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. Spawns at night, in groups of up to 20 interlaced individuals forming a ball about 60 cm in diameter constantly moving and rolling on the bottom, releasing eggs and sperm. Eggs are semipelagic, slightly sticky and 1.2-1.8 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch after 40-70 days. Larvae are positively phototactic, float below surface in March-April. After about two months, juveniles are benthic, grow rapidly, reach about 80 mm SL within first year. In contrast to most freshwater fish, very active during winter even below ice cover. Larvae feed on drifting invertebrates or zooplankton. Juveniles and adults feed on large invertebrates and small fish.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from the upper Dragonja River system in Slovenia. It has an extent of occurrence less than 500 km². It is not known or suspected to be declining at present, but due to its restricted range (one location, based on potential threats) and the potential threats from introduced species and droughts, it is assessed as Vulnerable (VU D2).

range:
This species is endemic to the upper Dragonja River system in the Adriatic Sea basin in Slovenia (Bogutskaya and Zupancic 2010).

population:
It is locally abundant. The species is not known or suspected to be declining at present.

habitat:
The species lives in rivers and streams.

threats:
No current threats to the species are known, However, introduced fish species and increasing severity of droughts due to climate change are real potential threats.

conservationAction:
There are no current conservation actions for the species.


taxonomicNotes:
There has been a recent change of genus from Leuciscus to Squalius (Zardoya and Doadrio 1999, Bogutskaya and Zupancic 1999, Sanjur et al. 2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
There is an inferred 50% population decline in the last 10 years based on decline in area of occupancy (AOO) (the river has dried out in places and there is no potential for recolonisation as the fish is sedentary in habit), and an observed massive loss of fish as a result of pollution from the orange juicing factory. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km², and the estimated AOO is less than 500 km². It is restricted to a single location, and experiences an ongoing decline in AOO, habitat quality, the number of subpopulations, and number of mature individuals.

range:
Restricted to the Evrotas River in south-eastern Peloponnese in Greece. The Evrotas is inclined to become a seasonal stream.

habitat:
It is a strongly rheophilic species, confined to open sites within rivers with a fast flow and relatively cool waters. It has a maximum length of 150 mm. It spawns in May.

threats:
Water extraction and pollution (agriculture), and drought.


range:
Spain: Ebro and Llobregat drainages. France: from Tech and Agly drainages, probably also Aude (Languedoc-Roussillon); possible introgression with S. cephalus in southern Garonne tributaries and Adour drainage.

habitat:
Habitat: Streams with flowing, clear water. Biology: No data.


taxonomicNotes:
Recent change of genus from Leuciscus to Squalius (Zardoya and Doadrio 1999, Sanjur et al. 2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
The species has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km². It is restricted to three river basins, which are treated as three separate locations due to the major threat of introduced Chondrostoma genei. With a continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO) and AOO, habitat quality, and the number of subpopulations the species is assessed as Endangered.

range:
Restricted to the Tuscany-Latium district of Italy where it is present in the Tibern, Arno, Ombrone and Serchio river basins with 10–12 subpopulations.

habitat:
It is a warm-water obligate riverine species living mainly in small brooks.

threats:
Water extraction, and competition with introduced Chondrostoma genei.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a very restricted range, it is known only to occur in the Guadalmina and Guadiaro rivers (extent of occurrence more than 100 km² and less than 5,000 km²). It is found in five locations based on the major threat of water abstraction (mainly to supply the proliferation of golf courses). Because of the level of water abstraction the species population and area of habitat is declining.

range:
Spain; Guadalmina and Guadiaro rivers in Andalucia.

habitat:
The species inhabits streams with clear water and gravel bottoms and prefers moderate flowing water.

threats:
The species habitat has been reduced by water abstraction, mainly due to the proliferation of golf fields.


taxonomicNotes:
Genus changed from from Leuciscus to Squalius (Bogutskaya 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
L. microlepis is restricted to three locations in the Neretva river basin. One small population is in a karstic stream in Livanjsko Polje and the main population is in two lakes, Buska and Mandecko lakes near Livno. The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be around 10 km², and there is continuing decline in AOO and quality of habitat due to habitat destruction, pollution and water extraction.

range:
It is restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. Karstic streams in livanjsko polje, Buska and Mandecko lakes near Livno. Introduced (possibly) to the Blidinje lake more than 100 years ago, and Prolosko & Ricice lakes near Imotski, Matica drainage near Vrgorac (Croatia), Tihaljina and possibly Trebizat (a neretva tributary) drainages (Bosnia-Hertzagovina).

population:
Declining. The subpopulation in the small stream is very restricted; the main population is in three lakes (two native and one introduced) (Mrakovcic, M. and Freyhof, J. pers. comm).

threats:
Habitat destruction, water pollution and extraction, introduction of exotic fish species.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in Lake Stymphalia (3 km²) and Vouraikos drainage (about 20 km), it is possibly present in other drainages of northern Peloponnese. Lake Stymphalia was dry in 1998 (caused by drought and water abstraction) and the species was not observed in 2002, however Squalius larvae were present in 2004. The assessment is based on its known distribution it has an extent of occurrence of less than 500 km² and an area of occupancy of less than 25 km².

range:
Greece: Lake Stymphalia and Vouraikos drainage; possibly present in other drainages of northern Peloponnese.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine and streams with flowing, clear water. Biology: Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-May. Feeds on a variety of plant and animal food.

threats:
Lake Stymphalia dried out in 1998 caused by drought and water abstraction. Climate change is predicted to increase the severity of droughts in the future. The Vouraikos stream is also threatened by the same threats.


redListCategoryRationale:
Only known from the Maritza drainage (extent of occurrence estimated at around 53,000 km²) where the population is reasonably safe as there is a number of populations, however some of these are threatened by water abstraction in dry season.

range:
Maritza drainage (Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey).

habitat:
Habitat: Streams to rivers, stretches with moderate current. Biology: Omnivorous; feeds mainly on insects and aquatic invertebrates. Spawns in April-June in shallow areas with gravel bottom.

threats:
Locally threatened by water abstraction and drought.


range:
Greece: Kalamas, Acheron, Louros and Arachthos drainages; Lake Pamvotis. Possibly extends northward to Neretva drainage.


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors have also included populations from western Greece in this species, or as a different species related to Squalius svallize.

redListCategoryRationale:
This is a widespread species with no major widespread threats.

range:
Restricted to streams and lakes of western Peloponnese, Greece. In Stymphalia lake the species is referred as the subspecies moreoticus (Barbieri pers comm).

habitat:
It lives in streams (preference) and in Lake Stymphalia. It is a small size chub (< 220mm).

threats:
Water extraction and pollution, and drought.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is known from the Drin drainage, including Skadar Lake basin, in Montenegro and Albania. The species has an Extent of Occurrence of less than 10,000 km2 but within its distribution area, it is abundant and has no known major threats.     European Union 27 = NA. The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
The species is known from the Drin drainage, including Skadar Lake basin, in Montenegro and Albania. It occurs in both lake and rivers of the basin, for example, Sasko Lake, rivers Radika, Beli Drin and its tributaries, Morača (middle and lower reaches) and tributaries Oraoštica, Kiri, Zeta (middle and lower reaches). It is suspected, that Squalius from Ohrid lake and Drin river also belong to this species (Zupancic et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly known as Leuciscus prepensis, it is also considered by some authors as a subspecies Leuciscus cepahlus prespensis Fowler, 1977.

redListCategoryRationale:
Although the range of this species is relatively restricted, it is abundant, and the population is thought to have increased over the past ten years. The Prespa Lakes are not treated as a single location in this case as there is no major threats thought likely to impact on the entire population. This species is not thought to be at significant risk from the introduction of invasive species.

range:
Restricted to the Prespa lakes in northern Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

habitat:
It is a large lacustrine species that completes its full life cycle within the lakes.

threats:
Overfishing, water extraction and pollution. Water levels are vulnerable to decline due to the karstic nature of these lakes.


taxonomicNotes:
Assessments of Squalius pyrenaicus published before to 2010 included a subpopulation from the Gallo River. That subpopulation is now recognised as a separate species: Squalius castellanus Doadrio, Perea & Alonso 2007.

redListCategoryRationale:
S. pyrenaicus is well distributed, however it is not abundant, is severely fragmented and has many widespread and serious threats which are predicted to increases in severity in the future. It is suspected that it may meet criterion A in the future.

range:
It is restricted to numerous river basins in Portugal and Spain.

threats:
Water extraction and pollution and introduced predators.


redListCategoryRationale:
Based on the current known distribution the species has an extent of occurrence of about 7,000 km² (this may increase if the species is found to be further widespread in Albania). There is a continuing decline in quality of habitat due to pollution and water abstraction. However as the species occurs in the upper reaches of the river it occurs in more than 10 locations.

range:
Aoos drainage in Greece and Albania. Maybe also present in adjacent drainages in Albania.

threats:
Water abstraction, pollution (especially in Albania), drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).


taxonomicNotes:
The status of this population is not clear, and the available molecular data are conflicting.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is restricted to the lower stretch of Manikiotiko stream (<5 km stretch) on eastern slope of Evia (Euboea) Island. In dry years, the stream dries completely and the species survives only in a few pools. If water abstraction intensifies the pools may disappear. Climate change also poses a threat as it is predicted that the severity of droughts will increase.

range:
Greece: lower stretch (less than 5km) of Manikiotiko stream on eastern slope of Evia (Euboea) Island.

habitat:
Habitat: Stream on gravel bottom, flow usually interrupted in summer when only a few pools may subsist. Biology: No data. In June, individuals over 110 mm SL had nuptial tubercles.

threats:
Water abstraction for agriculture and drought are causing the stream to almost totally dry up in summer. Climate change also poses a threat as it is predicted that the severity of droughts will increase.


taxonomicNotes:
Note that correct spelling of species name is 'squalus' without 'i'. Populations from Savuto drainage (Calabria, southern Italy) are distinguished by having 91/2 branched dorsal rays. They have been treated as, and indeed could be, a distinct taxon. If this is confirmed, the name S. ruffoi is available for it.

range:
Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea basins, from Genova to southernmost Italy, Ionian Sea basin in southern Italy (Sini and Basento drainages), Adriatic basin from Ofanto drainage (southern Italy) to Krka drainage.

habitat:
Habitat: Most abundant in small rivers and streams with riffles and pools. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats in fast-flowing water. Also along shores of slowly flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams or spawning in very shallow water, over stones close to surf zone. Biology: Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-3 years, females at 3-5. Spawns in April-July, when temperature rises above 14°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles or lake shores. Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms hybrids with Alburnus arborella and A. albidus.


redListCategoryRationale:
L. svallize is only found at one location in the Neretva and Trebisnjica drainage. The main threats of introduced species and water pollution can impact across its whole range.

range:
It is found in the Neretva and Trebisnjica drainage in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm).

habitat:
It lives in river systems of the karst region.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a small range (Karstic streams in Livanjsko polje, Lakes Buško and Mandečko and Cetina) with an area of occupancy of less than 500 km² and an extent of occurrence of less than 2,000 km² where it is threatened by water abstraction and drought (Livanjsko polje is almost dry). However the species may survive in the underground karst system during droughts.

range:
Karstic streams in Livanjsko polje, Lakes Buško and Mandecko near Livno and river Cetina. Possibly introduced to Lake Blidinje (Bosnia-Herzegovina) more than 100 years ago.

population:
Abundant in Lakes Buško and Mandecko and Cetina. However Livanjsko polje is almost dry and the species is only found in a small part.

habitat:
Habitat: Slow-flowing and still waters and lakes. Possibly enters subterranean waters during winter or droughts. Biology: Spawns in April-June. In lakes, adults prey on small fishes.

threats:
Water abstraction and drought (which are predicted to increase in severity due to climate change)


taxonomicNotes:
There has been a recent change from genus Leuciscus to Squalius (Zardoya and Doadrio 1999, Sanjur et al. 2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
S. torgalensis is restricted to only one river basin, the Mira and has an area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km², an extent of occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km² and is not very abundant. Threats such as water extraction, drought and introduction of exotic fish species are impacting upon the species and its habitat causing a decline in AOO and quality of habitat.

range:
It is restricted to one river basin in southern Portugal, the Mira river basin.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in nine separate rivers and one lagoon on the Mediterranean slope of Spain, between the Mijares and Vinalopo rivers.  In the past decade the species habitat and population has declined due to water abstraction (for agriculture), construction of dams, and introduction of alien fish species. The species extent of occurrence is estimated at 10,000 km².

range:
Spain; from the Mijares to the Vinalopo river, on the Mediterranean slope (Mijares, Turia, Jucar, Serpis, Bullent, Gorgos, Guadalest, Monebre/Verde, Albufera de Valencia Lagoon, Vinalopo).

population:
The species is found to be the dominant species in small rivers, but becomes local and rare in larger ones. However overall, the species population is declining.

habitat:
The species inhabits streams in the lower basins (prefers moderate flow), with clear water and gravel bottom.

threats:
In the past decade the species habitat has been reduced by water abstraction (for agriculture), construction of dams, and introduction of alien fish species.


range:
From Aliakmon to Nestos drainages (Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria).


taxonomicNotes:
Recent change from genus Leuciscus to Squalius (Zardoya and Doadrio 1999, Bogutskaya 2002, Sanjur et al. 2000).

redListCategoryRationale:
S. zrmanjae is locally abundant and stable with no current major threats. However it is close to meeting VU D2 as the area of occupancy (AOO) is slightly larger than 20 km².

range:
It is restricted to the Zrmanja river basin and Krka river basin in Dalmatia, Croatia. It is introduced into the Ricica Polje in Croatia.

population:
Locally abundant and stable (Freyhof, J. & Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).

threats:
There is one dam on the Zrmanja but this does not seem to have adversely affected the species (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).


taxonomicNotes:
Transferred from genus Pseudophoxinus to Telestes.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a relatively restricted range (estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km²) and is only found in 2–5 separate locations. It has been reported as declining since the 1970s and this decline continues. The AOO has declined with the loss of the species from the Assopos river, and habitat quality and extent continues to decline due largely to water extraction for the tobacco plantations.

range:
It is restricted to the catchment rivers for Lakes Yliki and Paralimni [now totally drained] and the rivers Assopos and Kifissos in Greece.

population:
Local declines are reported but the sub-population is stable within Livadia city (a large system of springs).

habitat:
Lives in running water with aquatic plants.


taxonomicNotes:
Following Eschmeyer (2004) Paraphoxinus croaticus was transferred to Phoxinellus croaticus.

redListCategoryRationale:
P. croaticus is found in 3–5 locations (depending upon the connectivity of the karst caves). There is a continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO) as subpopulations have been lost, in area of occupancy (AOO) due to drought in some localities, in quality of habitat due to pollution, and number of mature individuals due to invasive species.

range:
It is restricted to endoreihic river systems in the karst region in Croatia including Jadova, Novcica, Ricica, Otuca and in Gacko Polje.

habitat:
It lives in rivers in karst region and can be found in caves.

threats:
Water pollution (from intensive agriculture), water extraction, dam construction and introduced alien species.


redListCategoryRationale:
P. fontinalis has an extremely limited distribution with an area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km² (extent of occurrence (EOO) <100 km²) as it is only found in one karstic spring Modro Oko. Due to drought and alien species there is a continuing decline in EOO and sub populations (it has disappeared from streams in Krbavsko Polje streams).

range:
It is restricted to one karstic spring (Modro Oko) in Krbavsko Polje in Croatia. It disappaered from Krbavsko Polje streams.

habitat:
It lives in the springs and pools of the karst region. It enters subterranean waters during winter or summer drought.

threats:
Drought, water pollution and extraction. Construction of road close to the site. Introduction of exotic fish species. Also there is a possibility that war in the region has damaged the karstic system (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).


taxonomicNotes:
Following Eschmeyer (2004) Paraphoxinus metohiensis was transferred to Phoxinellus metohiensis.

redListCategoryRationale:
P. metohiensis has an extent of occurrence (EOO) <20,000 km² (area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km²) and is found in at least five and no more than 10 locations (karstic streams and springs in southern Dalmatia). There is a continuing decline in habitat quality in some areas due to pollution leading to eutrophication and a decline in AOO due to water extraction and drought.

range:
It is restricted to karstic streams and springs in the Musica river, Nevesinjsko polje, Gatacko Polje, Cernicko Polje, Dabarsko Polje and Ljuta river in southern Dalmatia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

habitat:
It lives in rivers, springs and caves in the karst region.

threats:
Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species (trout).


taxonomicNotes:
Recent change from genus Leuciscus to Telestes (Ketmaier et al. 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
T. montenigrinus has a reasonably small distribution but it is very abundant, there is no current decline in population and there are no major widespread threats.

range:
It is restricted to the Moraca and Bijeli Drim river basins in Montenegro. It is also described in Skada lake in Albania (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).

threats:
Introduced species. Water extraction and pollution.


taxonomicNotes:
Molecular analyses revealed a remarkable genetic distance between populations from northern, central and southern Italy which should be recognized as different species (P.G. Bianco pers. comm.).

redListCategoryRationale:
T. muticellus has a widespread distribution, is abundant and has no widespread major threats.

range:
It is restricted to northern and Central Italy, to the southern part of Switzerland and to the Bevera stream in south-eastern France. It has been introduced in Liguria.

population:
Abundant. The congeneric Telestes agassizi was introduced in the Soce River (upper course of River Isonzo in Italy), which caused the extinction of T. muticellus in this river. In rivers Volturno and Sele, southern boundary of this species in Campania, only two or three very localised populations exists: main threats to this possibly new species are introduction of trout, heavy pollution and water extraction.

habitat:
Moderately cold-water adapted; obligate riverine; residential; single spawner; reproduction from February-March to June in southern Italy.


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly treated as Leucisus pleurobipunctatus, but now known as Telestes pleurobipunctatus.

redListCategoryRationale:
A fairly widespread species with no major widespread major threats although a few localised sub-populations are threatened by water extraction and pollution.

range:
Restricted to western Greece from the Peloponnese (Pinios River) to Epirus.

habitat:
Found in streams and is pretty ubiquitous throughout its habitat.


taxonomicNotes:
Changed from genus from Leuciscus to Telestes (Banarescin 1998).

redListCategoryRationale:
L. polylepis is only found in one location, Stanicka Jaruga, a stream 1 m wide and 2 km long (area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km² and extent of occurrence (EOO) <100 km²). There is also a continuing decline of AOO, habitat quality and mature individuals due to water extraction and introduced trout species.

range:
It is only found at a very small karstic stream, Stanicka Jaruga in Croatia (Cikola River). There are historical records from Zagorska Dreznica, Dobra and Mreznica drainages (not confirmed) (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).

threats:
Water extraction, introduced species (trout).


taxonomicNotes:
T. souffia agassii is often used for the Danube and Rhine populations, but there is no published evidence that they differ from the Rhône populations. In any event, if it were justified, the correct name for a Danube-Rhine species would be T. rysela and not T. agassii.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. However it is locally threatened by damming.

range:
Mediterranean basin, from Aude to Var drainages (France, Switzerland; literature records from Tarn system [Garonne drainage] in fact refers to Hérault [each has a tributary named Dourbie]); Soca drainage (Italy, Slovenia); Cetina drainage (Croatia); uppermost Rhine drainage in Germany and Switzerland; Danube drainage: western tributaries in Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and part of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and upper Tisza system (Romania, Ukraine). Record from Aegean basin in Bulgaria based on misidentification of a possibly unnamed species. Introgression zone with T. muticellus in Var drainage (France).

habitat:
Habitat: Middle reaches of streams and rivers with clear water, moderately swift current and gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on gravel bottom. Biology: Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in March-May when temperature rises above 12°C, only once in each season. Feeds on insect larvae and algae.

threats:
Locally threatened by damming of rivers.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has only been recorded at four small localities around the Velika  Kapela and Mala Kapel mountains, Croatia with an area of occupancy less than 4 km². The species is threatened by significant  anthropogenic impacts (water abstraction and pollution) and is also potentially impacted by the introduction of Salmonid species. Also in  2008, a large infection of Ichthyophthirius with a secondary bacterial  infection was discovered at two sites but it is not known if this is  part of a natural cyclical process.

range:
This species has only been recorded at four localities around the Velika Kapela and Mala Kapel mountains, Croatia: Stanjica Creek in Stanjica field; Susik Creek in Lug field; and Jezero Lake and Jasenicica Creek in Jasenak field. These locations are very small and the species has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of 4 km².

population:
The most abundant population has been found in Lug Field. The population in Jezero Lake and in Jasencica Creek the population is also abundant and reproducing.

threats:
This species has suffered loss in habitat area and quality. Susik Creek has turbid water and is subjected to significant anthropogenic impacts; in the summer the creek dries to less than 20 cm deep (from a two metre depth in spring). It is believed that this fish survives this dry period by retreating to underground waters. These karstic systems are also under threat across the region from water abstraction and pollution.Salmonid species are also a threat; their presence has led to the exclusion of Telestes sp. nov.In 2008, a large infection of Ichthyophthirius with a secondary bacterial infection was discovered at Susik Creek but it is not known if this is part of a natural cyclical process (a similar occurrence was observed at Stanjnicka Jarug Creek).

conservationAction:
Stocking of salmonids at these sites should be prohibited. Further investigation into the species population genetics should be conducted to determine the conservation units along with research into the species biology and ecology. The species also needs some degree of protection from national legislation. Part of the species range is also under protection from the National Ecological Network of Croatia (Stajnicka Field, Lug Field and Jasenak Field.


taxonomicNotes:
Genus changed from Leuciscus to Telestes. (Ketmaier et al. 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
L. turskyi has an extremely limited distribution. It was thought to be extinct but has recently been found in May 2002 by Freyhof and Bogutskaya (Freyhof, J. and Bogutskaya, N. pers comm). It has an extent of occurrence (EOO) <100 km² and area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km² and survives at one location, the Cikola River. There is a continuing decline of area of occupancy due to water extraction and drought.

range:
It is restricted to the Cikola River with extremely limited distribution. The Cikola is a tributary of the Krka river in Croatia.

population:
No data. The species was thought to be extinct but has recently been found in May 2002 (Freyhof, J. and Bogutskaya, N. pers comm).

habitat:
Slow and stagnant water (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).

threats:
Drought, water extraction and pollution. (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).


taxonomicNotes:
Genus changed from Leuciscus to Telestes (Banarescin 1998).

redListCategoryRationale:
Telestes ukliva was last recorded in 1988. Surveys have taken place since and no specimens have been found. There are no areas close by that could harbour this species (M. Mrakovcic pers comm.).

range:
It was restricted to the Cetina River basin in Dalmatia, Croatia.

population:
The last specimen was recorded in 1988. This area has been surveyed since and the species has not been found again (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).

habitat:
It lived in a river system in the karst region.

conservationAction:
Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.


redListCategoryRationale:
Hypothesised to be native in most of Europe where it is locally threatened by river engineering and the degradation of wetlands. European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
Stocking throughout Europe for centuries has blurred the original distribution pattern. Hypothesised to be native in most of Europe, naturally absent only in Ireland, Scandinavia north of 61°30'N, eastern Adriatic basin and western and southern Greece where it is now introduced. In Asia, native eastward to western Yenisei drainage south of 60°N. Introduced to North and South Africa, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand, India, North America, Chile and probably elsewhere.

habitat:
Habitat: Typically in shallow, densely vegetated lakes and backwaters. Often overwinters buried in mud. Spawns among dense vegetation in still water. Biology: Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-6 years and 70-250 mm SL, females a year later than males. Pelvic rays more robust, longer and extending beyond anus in male. Spawns in May-October, in Central Europe usually in June-July, at temperatures above 19°C, mostly at 22-24°C. Several males follow each female, which releases eggs in several portions above vegetation. Females may spawn 1-9 times each year, every 11-15 days, if suitably warm weather persists. High embryonic mortality observed when temperature fluctuates strongly. Larvae and juveniles restricted to dense vegetation. Tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and salinities up to 12 ?. Feeds on detritus, benthic animals and plant material. Adults often feed predominantly on molluscs.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although this species has a restricted range, it is abundant and there are no known major widespread threats to the species or its habitat.

range:
Restricted to the River Pinios in the western Peloponnese, and to the Aitoloakarnania region (Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia and Amvrakia, Acheloos river basin) in Greece.

habitat:
Lives in lakes and large rivers. It is a small size species (<110 mm).

threats:
Water pollution, and bycatch in fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a restricted range species (estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km², estimated area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km²) found in an estimated 10 locations, where locations are defined on the basis of the main impact which is pollution from olive mills and orange presses. There is ongoing decline in AOO, habitat quality, and the number of subpopulations and mature individuals.

range:
Restricted to few small rivers and streams (from Nedas to Evrotas) in southern Peloponnese in Greece.

habitat:
It is a species of small size (<100 mm) which lives near the river/stream edges avoiding the main stream currents.

threats:
Water extraction, pollution, and drought. It is reported that effluent from the olive pressing mills is discharged into the rivers in the dry season, when fish are in isolated pools, such that the river often runs black.


redListCategoryRationale:
The taxonomy of this species remains uncertain. One author argues that this species is the same as Vimba vimba. There is also little published information on its abundance, population trends, or threats.

range:
Restricted to Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace in Greece and the Evros river bordering Greece and Turkey. Also reported to extend into Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

habitat:
A predominantly riverine species also present in reservoirs.

threats:
Habitat destruction. Water pollution and extraction. Dam construction may cause problems but it is not yet clear if this species makes spawning migrations.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species but semi-anadromous populations strongly declined in Black Sea (due to damming in the 1950s and 1960s) and Baltic Sea (possibly due to pollution), and extirpated in the Crimea. However, overall the species is still widespread and has no major population decline or current major widespread threats.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
Caspian, Black and Baltic Sea basins (Sweden and Finland north to 62-63°N), North Sea basin from Elbe to Ems drainages. In Finland restricted to coastal waters. In Black Sea basin, absent in Anatolia west of Çoruh drainage (eastern Anatolia)   but present in Marmara basin and Aksu-Egirdir basin in Central Anatolia. Extirpated in Crimea. Introduced in Rhine.

population:
semi-anadromous populations declined in the Baltic and Black Sea basins.

habitat:
Habitat: Brackish estuaries, large to medium rivers and some large subalpine lakes. Sedentary populations occur even in small rivers of barbel zone. Spawns on gravel in riffles in shallow, fast-flowing streams and rivers. Biology:   Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Spawns in May-July when temperature rises above 15°C. Spawns earlier (April in Terek), and at lower temperatures in some subalpine lakes and anadromous populations in Sweden. Semi-anadromous populations forage in freshened parts of sea and undertake long distance spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations migrate to fast-flowing tributaries. In Dniepr and Kuban, spawning migration starts in September, decreases in winter and resumes in March-May. Individual females spawn several times during a period of 2-3 weeks. Usually spawns for several years. Spent adults return to foraging habitats. Feeds predominantly on small molluscs and insect larvae.

threats:
Pollution is the possible reason for the population reduction of the semi-anadromous populations in the Baltic basin. Damming in the 1950s and 1960s in the Black Sea basin.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species was discovered in 1997 and it has not been observed in Almiri spring since 2003 (probably extirpated). The only other location the species is known from, Meligou spring (much less than 10 km²), was transformed into a bathing area, where the species is still thought to survive in surrounding habitat in the lagoon.

range:
Greece: two springs, one near Almiri (probably now extirpated) and the other at Meligou (Peloponnese).

population:
At Almiri Spring in 2002 the species was not observed in a survey, in October 2003, five larvae were found and it has not been seen since where it is now expected to be extirpated (Kottelat pers comm.). At Meligou the species seems to be surviving in the lagoon adjacent to the bathing area in 2004.

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh and brackish water springs (up to 23 ‰ salinity). Biology: Observed in areas with slow current.

threats:
Habitat loss. One of the two springs the species is known from, Meligou, has been converted to a bathing area. At Almiri Spring, once brackish water, was observed to be totally marine in 2002 for unknown reasons.


taxonomicNotes:
Populations from the Atlantic and Black Sea basins have not yet been compared in detail. Preliminary observations suggest that they are probably distinct species.

range:
North Sea coasts of Scotland and Scandinavia, coasts of Iceland and White Sea, Atlantic coasts from Ireland northward, southeastern shore of Baltic Sea and its basin (Odra and Vistula drainages), shores of Black Sea and its northern basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). Almost absent inland in Finland, except north of 68°N. Hybrid zone with G. gymnurus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to northern Italy.

habitat:
Habitat: At sea: shallow coastal areas. In freshwaters, prefers small streams, but may be found in a variety of habitats including lakes and large rivers. Biology: Anadromous, with numerous resident populations in brackish or pure freshwater, rarely in marine waters. Usually forages at sea until two years old, then moves to lower part of rivers in March-April to reproduce. Freshwater populations usually spawn for the first time at one year. In spawning season, males develop a bright orange to red belly and blue-green flank and eyes. They defend territories, in which in April-June they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas, very rarely attached to plants. They make a depression up to 14 × 10 cm to which they bring plant materials (especially filamentous algae), which are glued together with kidney secretions. Several females are individually led to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour is very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in 7-8 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days after which male abandons the nest. Anadromous individuals usually die of exhaustion after spawning cycle while freshwater individuals are able to complete several cycles within one year or sometimes over several years. Juveniles move to sea (anadromous populations) or to deeper, larger water bodies (freshwater populations) in July-August where they form large feeding schools. Feeds on small aquatic invertebrates, especially insects and crustaceans.

threats:
No major widespread threats known. However the species has been listed as threatened in some of its range states such as Endangered in Croatia where the species does not occur naturally.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species was last recorded in the 1960's. The extinction is a result of hybridisation with G. aculeatus. The springs inhabited by G. crenobiontus used to be separated from the habitat of G. aculeatus by a hypersaline lake that served as a barrier between the species. Irrigation works transformed the lake into a brackish one, which was invaded by migratory G. aculeatus. Survey work since the 1960's, most recently in 1998, have failed to find the species.

range:
Romania: freshwater springs of hypersaline littoral Lake Techirghiol (south of Constanta).

population:
Last recorded in the 1960's. Further surveys, most recently in 1998, all failed to find the species.

habitat:
Habitat: Freshwater springs. Biology: Spawns during an extended period, in February-October.

threats:
Hybridisation with G. aculeatus which invaded its habitat when irrigation transformed the hypersaline lake which served as a natural barrier between the two species.


taxonomicNotes:
The name G. leiurus is often and erroneously used for this species. Preliminary observations suggest that several of the isolated populations in the Mediterranean basin should possibly be recognized as distinct species.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no major widespread threats, however it is locally rare or extirpated in several Mediterranean drainages due to various threats. European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
Mediterranean basin (including Mallorca, Sardinia, Corsica), Atlantic basin south of English Channel and along western slope of British Isles; Rhine drainage. Hybrid zone with G. aculeatus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to Switzerland.

habitat:
Habitat: Streams, lakes and ponds with slow to moderate current, clear water, sand bottom. In Mediterranean basin, commonly in spring-fed water bodies, also found in other habitats (including brackish water in Po delta). Biology: Freshwater, non-migratory species. Reproduces in April-May in Spain, in Italy in May-July in springs and earlier in brackish waters. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. In spawning season, males develop a vivid red belly. They defend territories, in which they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas. They dig a depression to which they bring plant materials, which are glued together with kidney secretions and covered by sand, leaving only the entrance distinct. Several females are then led in turn to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in about 10 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days, after which the male abandons the nest. Feeds mainly on small invertebrates.

threats:
Locally threatened in the Mediterranean basin.


range:
Iceland; some populations with low scute number in Norway and northern Finland possibly belong to this species.

habitat:
Habitat: Streams and lakes. Biology: No information. Most likely similar to G. aculeatus. Morphological differences are reported in several lakes between individuals inhabiting different substrates (mud, lava), especially in Lake Thingvalla.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is restricted to a very small area of remaining habitat (estimated area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km²) and is undergoing a continuous decline due to ongoing water extraction, pollution, and habitat destruction. The population is now extremely fragmented such that individual sub-populations are at an increased risk from stochastic events.

range:
Restricted to an estimated ten separate, deep, isolated pools in the Sperchios River catchment in Central Greece: the Aghia Paraskevi spring, and a system of drainage and irrigation canals and a small number of natural wells in the areas of Lycochoria and Valtos and near the village of Kompotades.

habitat:
Lives in springs and drainage and irrigation systems with cool springs or slow-running waters with rich vegetation. The water temperature never exceeds 20°C in summer. Its present location appears to provide the only remaining suitable habitat where it can survive.

threats:
Water extraction (some springs have been completely capped for water extraction), and pollution.

conservationAction:
Both the Aghia Paraskevi spring and P. hellenicus have been granted protection by law No 67/1981 of the Greek State and official decision of the Phthiotis Prefect. However, the law is not effectively enforced. It is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.


taxonomicNotes:
Very similar to and earlier considered as a subspecies of P. pungitius. There is a narrow fringe in northern France and Netherlands where some naked individual occur among populations usually with a low number of lateral plates; this is considered as an area where the two species came into contact after the Pleistocene glaciations and have hybridised.

range:
Coastal areas of western Europe, from Netherlands to Garonne drainage (France), Ireland, southern Great Britain.

habitat:
Habitat: Shallow still water with dense vegetation. Biology: Spawns at one year in April-June. Males build a nest hanging to aquatic vegetation and take care of eggs and larvae. Eggs hatch in 10-20 days. Dies at end of spawning season. Feeds mainly on zooplankton, small crustaceans and benthic insects.


taxonomicNotes:
P. aralensis, from the Aral Sea basin, earlier considered as a subspecies of P. platygaster, is a distinct species.

range:
Lower course of rivers draining to northern shore of Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, Danube drainage as far upstream as Belgrade; isolated populations in Axios and Aliakmon drainages (Greece). Also in Lower and middle reaches of Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya, Sary-su River, Lower Chu River; headwaters of Ob' river (Nura River, Kurgal'dzhin Lake). In 1980s invaded Ishim River (tributary of Irtysh) and spread downstream to Ust'-Ishim and Tyumen' Province in Russia

habitat:
Habitat: Swamps and slow-flowing streams with dense vegetation; occasionally enters brackish water. Biology: Spawns for the first time at one year. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Spawns in spring when temperature reaches 17°C. Territorial during spawning season. Males build a nest made of filamentous algae and submerged plants, with a separate entrance and exit. Males guard nest until the young swim away a few weeks later. Females lay about 90 eggs.


range:
Coastal areas of northern Europe, from Netherlands to northern Russia, including southern Norway and Baltic basin. Widespread inland in eastern Scandinavia. In north eastern Europe in rivers of White Sea and Barents Sea from Onega to Kara, extends eastward to Siberia and Japan, but it remains to be demonstrated that East Asian populations are conspecific with European ones.

habitat:
Habitat: Small freshwater streams and ponds, with dense aquatic vegetation. Enters brackish water along shores of Baltic and Barents Seas, rarely along North Sea shore. Biology: Individuals born in early spring may mature in 3 months and spawn the same year. Territorial during spawning season, in March-September in central Europe, June-July in Arctic areas. Males build a tube-shaped nest anchored on aquatic vegetation or to the bottom, with a separate entrance and exit. The nest is made of pieces of plants or filamentous algae. Males guard nest from spawning until larvae swim away a few weeks later. Eggs hatch in 6-7 days. Feeds predominantly on aquatic invertebrates.


range:
Coasts of Mediterranean, Black Sea (absent from Sea of Azov) and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway, southern Iceland and Faroe Islands.

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic near shores, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. Biology: Usually lives in schools along shores, frequently enters lagoons and estuaries, juveniles easily adapt to freshwater. Lives up to 12 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three, later in northern areas. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in February-April. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in April-June, return to sea in summer. Juveniles feed on zooplankton; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.


range:
Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway and British Isles (not reaching southern Baltic); northern Red Sea. Introduced in Caspian Sea.

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries, rarely into freshwaters. Among Mugilidae recorded from European freshwaters, this is the least tolerant of freshwater. Spawns at sea. Biology: Usually lives in schools. Spawns in September-November. Juveniles move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in winter and especially in spring. Juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger individuals feed on algae, vegetal detritus, and sediment.


range:
Mediterranean, Black Sea, Azov Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Baltic and British Isles (not reaching northern Scotland). Migrates north during summer. Landlocked population in Fratel reservoir, Portugal. Introduced in Lake Kinneret (Israel).

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic near shore, entering lagoons and lower reaches of rivers, often found in polluted waters. Spawns offshore at sea. Biology: Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four or later. Females somewhat larger than males. Spawns several million pelagic eggs in September-December, April-July on British coast. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn and especially winter. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic animals and plants. Adults filter algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.


range:
Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Angola to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Caspian Sea.

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea. Biology: Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in May-August, rarely until early October. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in summer and autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic organisms until 50 mm SL; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.


range:
In all tropical and subtropical seas; Mediterranean, Black Sea and Atlantic, reaching northward to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Lake Trasimeno (Italy).

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic near shores, sometimes forages in lagoons, estuaries and lower courses of rivers. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. Biology: Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns several million of pelagic eggs in July-October. Eggs develop optimally at full marine salinity. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, larger individuals filter algae, vegetal detritus, sediment and small invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
Less than 5% of the species global population is found within Europe, it is therefore listed as Not Applicable. European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Rivers, estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from Kara drainage to Chukotka (eastern Siberia) and to Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); in America, from Copper to Kobuk (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.

habitat:
Habitat: Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal waters of open sea; freshwater of lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Anadromous populations pelagic at sea, commonly at 4-5 m depth and spawning in rivers. Landlocked populations may spawn in lakes or migrate to their tributaries. Spawns along shallow river shores and in backwaters with little or no current, often in lakes, on sand or gravel bottom. Biology: Anadromous and landlocked populations. Does not migrate long distances. Enters deltas and lower reaches of rivers in September-December to overwinter, then returns to sea and rivers for spawning. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July. Eggs are about 0.75 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch in 11-16 days. Juveniles remain close to spawning sites for a year or longer, then migrate to sea or estuaries. Feeds on zooplankton, mostly crustaceans.


taxonomicNotes:
Earlier treated as subspecies or synonym of O. mordax but morphological and genetic data indicate they are distinct species, O. mordax being restricted to the East coast of Canada and the North American Great Lakes.

range:
Estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from White Sea to Chukotka (eastern Siberia), Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); America from Vancouver Island to Coronation Bay.

habitat:
Habitat: Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal shallows and bays; fresh water in lowland and piedmont rivers. At sea, pelagic, at 4-8 m depth. Spawns in rapids, in clear water, over stone-gravel bottom and depth 0.2-0.5 m. Biology: Anadromous. Enters rivers only for spawning, first at 3-4 years. Lives up to 11 years. Spawning migration starts in April-May under ice. Distance of migration depends on availability of spawning sites, from tens to thousands of kilometres. Usually spawns in May-June and returns to sea soon after. Spawns at 7-14°C. Eggs are yellow, 0.8-1.0 mm in diameter, and adhere to pebbles and stones. Eggs hatch in 18-25 days at 5-18°C. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger juveniles mostly on gammarids and mysids. By August, juveniles migrate to sea. Becomes piscivorous when reaching sexual maturity. Feeds mostly on smaller, schooling fishes, usually juveniles of cod (Gadus morhua), Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Coregonidae.


taxonomicNotes:
Available data do not exclude the possibility of two species possibly confused under the name O. eperlanus: O. eperlanus, usually with 33-38 gill rakers, are primarily lacustrine, from coastal areas of White, Barents and Baltic Seas, and O. schonfoldi, usually with 27-32 gill rakers, are primarily anadromous, from Atlantic, southern Baltic and North Sea. The two species would be sympatric in parts of Poland, Denmark and southern Baltic.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread distribution with no known major widespread threats. However, locally threatened by pollution and barriers to migration. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Coastal waters of White, Barents, Baltic and North Seas, Great Britain, western Ireland, Atlantic Ocean southward to Garonne estuary. Landlocked populations in lakes of coastal areas of North, Baltic, White and Barents Seas. North to about 68°N in Scandinavia.

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic inhabitant of marine waters, estuaries and large lakes. Spawns in tributaries of lakes or along shallow shores of lakes and rivers, on sand, gravel, stones and plant material, preferably in fast-flowing water. Biology: Anadromous and landlocked populations. Anadromous individuals spawn at two years, landlocked ones often at one year. Anadromous individuals live up to seven years. Landlocked populations and large parts of anadromous populations usually reproduce only once in their life. Spawning migration starts in September-October, when mature fishes aggregate in estuaries to overwinter. Upriver migration starts in March-April when temperatures rise above 4-6°C and during rainy and stormy weather. Spawning migration reaches only the lower part of rivers. Older individuals and males migrate earlier than younger ones and females. Spawns in March-April at 4-12°C. Eggs are sticky and attached to substrate. Large numbers of eggs are washed from substrate and drift, with attached sand above river bottom. Eggs hatch in 20-35 days; larvae drift to estuaries. After spawning, adults migrate to sea, remain in coastal waters close to estuaries. Juveniles prefer fresh or brackish water until they mature. May reach high densities and experience large fluctuations in abundance. Feeds on zooplankton and small fishes, which often are juveniles of its own species.


redListCategoryRationale:
A restricted range species only known from Lake Trichonis (estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) <100 km²). The lake is treated as a single location on the basis of the lake wide impact of land reclamation and lake level fluctuations which effect the entire population as it only reproduces in the shallow water habitats, which are being lost.

range:
Restricted to Lake Trichonis within the Acheloos River basin in western Greece.

habitat:
Prefers sand and gravel substrates with submerged vegetation and large stones. Reproduction occurs in May–July. The maximum size for females is 50 mm and for males 61 mm.

threats:
Habitat destruction through land reclamation, water abstraction, water pollution, and sewage.


redListCategoryRationale:
S. fluviatilis is not threatened across its entire, almost pan-Mediterranean, distribution, but local populations are threatened especially in the west of the distribution area. It is widespread and can withstand the impacts of water pollution and introduction of exotic species, therefore it is assessed as Least Concern.European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
The species occurs across the Mediterranean basin in Europe, Turkey, Israel, Morocco and Algeria. In the Iberian Peninsula it is found in the Fluvia, Ebro, Jucar, Segura, Guadiana and Guadalquivir drainages. In France in the Aude, Rhône (including Lake Bourget; introduced to Lake Annecy around 1980) and Var drainages (presence in Garonne drainage possibly due to invasion through Canal du Midi), Corsica. In Italy it is present in most streams with stone bottom, Lakes Garda, Maggiore, Lugano and Mergozzo, Sicily, Sardinia. It is present also in Croatia, Montenegro, Albania and Greece where it occurs in the Kalamas, Acheron, Acheloos and Aliakmon drainages, in Crete in most drainages of Peloponnese, Lakes Doiran, Koronia, Volvi and Vistonis. Sometimes listed as a recent invader of subalpine lakes of Apennine Peninsula, but in fact recorded from Lake Maggiore as early as 1836.

population:
Few data to no data. In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The populations are very fragmented.

habitat:
Lakes and streams with moderate current and stone bottom. In streams, the deepest and fastest microhabitats are preferred; sometimes in coastal lagoons with low salinity. It is Territorial and lives under stones. Lives up to 5 years. Spawns for first time at end of first yea and spawns up to 3 years, but most females die at end of first spawning year. Reproduces in May – August in France, April – July in Spain and Italy, at temperatures above 18°C. Female spawns up to 1200 eggs (usually 200–300) in a single layer under a large stone; spawns several egg portions during a spawning season. Male cleans, fans and defends eggs until hatching. Several females may spawn with one male, which may guard eggs at different stages of development. Eggs hatch in about a week. Larvae are planktonic until about 15 mm, are drifted to and remain in quite pools or side arms of rivers. Larvae are capable to exist under full marine conditions and might spread through the sea. Feeds on insects, crustaceans and fry.

threats:
Gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization that fragment rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction. Most riverine populations have declined in recent years because of habitat alteration (especially siltation and alteration of stream morphology) and predation by exotic species. The presence of habitat suitable for the larval 'pelagic' stage downstream of spawning sites is a limiting factor. Lacustrine populations are apparently safer.


taxonomicNotes:
Recently transferred from Neogobius to Babka.Future investigations may show that B. g. macrophthalmus from Caspian basin is a distinct species.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats, known from the Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Since the late 1990s, this species has been an invasive immigrant in the rivers of the northern Black Sea basin.        European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Since late 1990s, invasive immigrant in rivers of northern Black Sea basin. In Danube up to Vienna (about 2000 km from sea), in Dniepr up to Belarus. Recorded in 1996 from middle Vistula in Poland, where it arrived from Dniepr via a navigation canal. Fast spreading in Vistula observed in 2002. Invaded Volgograd reservoir through Volga-Don canal.

habitat:
Habitat: Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with low salinity (< 2 ?). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers up to small, fast-flowing streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mainly found in well vegetated or high-complexity habitats. Abundant in backwaters and still channels. Biology: Lives up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June, occasionally until mid-August. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Usually spawns only for a single season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.


redListCategoryRationale:
Only known from one doubtful specimen from the Caspian basin, one  specimen from the Danube basin, in the lower Dneiper river and recorded  from near Kiev, Lake Shabla in Bulgaria. Although the species has been recorded from widespread locations, it is very rarely caught and it may now be extirpated from some of these locations. More information is needed on its current distribution and impact of threats.    European Union 27 = DD. Same rational as above. Only known from one  specimen from the Danube basin.   Same rational as above. Only known from one specimen from the Danube basin and from old records from Lake Shabla in Bulgaria.

range:
Only known from one doubtful specimen from the Caspian basin, one specimen from the Danube basin, in the lower Dneiper river and recorded from near Kiev, Lake Shabla in Bulgaria.

population:
Its population is unknown as it is very rarely recorded. It may only be extant in the lower Dneiper, or could be wide spread across the Black sea.

habitat:
Habitat: Very rarely observed. Estuaries, coastal lakes and lower part of rivers, at depths up to 15 m, in still, fresh and brackish water. Biology: Lives only one year. Spawns in July-August, possibly only a small batch of about 20-30 eggs. Feeds on small crustaceans, gastropods and insect larvae.

threats:
Suspected that the narrowing of the brackish zone due water abstraction and flow regulation (Bogutskya, N. pers comm.). Also climate change is predicted to increase the severity of drought.


taxonomicNotes:
Earlier considered conspecific with B. stellatus.

redListCategoryRationale:
Not a very widespread species (extent of occurrence around 20,000 km²), but it has no known major threats.

range:
Sea of Azov: Taganrog Bay of the Sea of Azov and Don River from mouth upstream to the upper stretch of Tsymlyansk Reservoir. Prefers freshwater and does not penetrate into the sea, abundant in fresh waters at river mouths. Introduced (mixed with mysids) in Kuibyshev reservoir on Volga, from where it spread in Volga, from Gorgy to Volgograd reservoirs.

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh and brackish waters. In coastal areas of Sea of Azov, but mostly at river mouths (saline water, up to 3 ‰), lower reaches of rivers, and reservoirs. Prefers silty sand with mollusc shells. Biology: Lives about one year. Spawns in May-August. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions inside or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on insect larvae and small molluscs.


range:
Coastal areas of the whole Caspian Sea, especially abundant at northern and eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea, at river deltas, in particular, of Ural and Volga (up to Astrakhan).

habitat:
Habitat: Both fresh and marine waters; prefers brackish and slightly saline zones in deltas and estuaries. In summer inhabits shallow coastal waters (0.5-20 m) and shallow channels of deltas, moves to deeper areas (down to 60-70 m) in winter. Biology: Spawns after first winter. In northern Caspian Sea and Volga delta, spawns in April-July in shallow water. Feeds mostly on molluscs and crustaceans.


range:
Widely spread but not abundant in coastal areas of almost the whole Caspian Sea. In the south, reliably known from Gorgan Bay. Not reported from eastern Central Caspian

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh, brackish, rarely marine waters, prefers salinity below 9 ‰. In still or slowly flowing water over mud bottom. At depths around 0.5-10 m in summer, moves to deeper places in winter. Biology: Lives about one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs in two, sometimes more, portions. Females die shortly after last release of eggs, males 3-4 weeks later. Males probably guard a clutch of eggs until hatching. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly molluscs.


range:
Lower reaches and deltas of Volga, Ural, Samur, Terek (Berg, 1949; Ragimov, 1966, 1981, 1985а; Vasilieva, 1983, 2000).  In Central Caspian along the western coast, and in South Caspian further eastward to Gorgan Bay (ZISP and IZA collections). We suppose that the species does not occur along the eastern coast of Central Caspian Sea; reports on its distribution there most probably refer to the later described B. mahmudbejovi.

population:
One of the most abundant species in North Caspian.

habitat:
Habitat: Shallow coastal waters and estuaries, usually at 0.5-10 m depth, over mud bottom; lower reaches of rivers. Widely distributed but rare. During warm seasons prefers coastal waters down to 10 m. In northern Caspian Sea, moves to deeper areas (20-25 m) in winter. Biology: Lives about one year. Forms schools during spawning season (April-July) in coastal shallows over hard mud bottom with mollusc shells. Females lay eggs in at least two portions into empty shells. Feeds mostly on molluscs and fish (small gobies), also worms and crustaceans.


range:
Eastern part of the Sea of Azov: Miusskiy, Eyskiy, Kurkuy and other limans, estuarine and deltaic areas, Gulf of Taganrog.

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh and slightly brackish waters with salinity below 11‰, usually over mud bottom. Biology: Lives about one year. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions within or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on molluscs, crustaceans and chironomid larvae.


range:
Along most coasts of Caspian Sea (at depth 3-15 m in North Caspian, and at down to 50 m in Central and South Caspian), abundant in Volga delta (Ragimov, 1976, 1977, 1981, 1985b). recorded in Volga downstream from Volgograd (Lagunova, in Ragimov, 1981) but a single sample is reliably known only from the upper part of the Volga delta (45 km upstream from Astrakhan', Ragimov's matererial, IZA uncat.).

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh and brackish waters, salinity up to 13 ‰. Down to 50 m, mature adults at 1-11 m. Biology: Lives about one year. Spawns in May-September, until December in southern Caspian. Some individuals may spawn for the first time at 6-7 months. Females probably lay eggs in three portions. Females die after spawning, males probably 3-4 weeks later.


range:
In Tendrovskiy Bay, limans and coastal lakes of north-western Black Sea, lakes of Danube delta. It occurs rather far upstream: in Danube to Iron Gate dam, in Dniester to Bendery, in South Bug to Gard rapids. Native range in Dnieper not clear. Invasive in reservoirs in Dnieper after damming in late 1940s where distributed now up to Kiev, in Ingulets up to Snegirevka (Smirnov 1986, Pligin et al. 2002; pers. obs.).

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh and slightly brackish waters. Prefers lowland rivers, deltas and coastal lakes. In rivers, usually abundant in main stream. Usually on silty sand with mollusc shells. Biology: Lives about one year. Spawns in May-August. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions inside or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on chironomid larvae, amphipods and molluscs.


range:
Gulf of Taganrog and limans of eastern coast of the Sea of Azov; also along western coast especially in high-water years when the species is recorded in central parts of the sea, too (Iljin , 1927a, 1927c, 1930; Maiskiy, 1955, 1960). The species is formally described from Voronezh (Upper Don R. system, 51.8ºN 33.5ºE) but have never been recorded in Don so up since (Fedorov, 1960). According to our samplings, along the main course of Don it only occurs up to the upper reach of Tsymlyansk Reservoir. Benthophilus stellatus may be present in Severskiy Donetz and Manych (Solodovnikov, 1930; Vitkovskiy, 2000) and in Lower Kuban' River (Emtyl' et al., 1988) together with Benthophilus durrelli but this needs clarification. Prefers shallow coastal lagoons and lowland rivers.

habitat:
Habitat: Shallow coastal lagoons and lowland rivers, in fresh and brackish water with salinity below 12 ‰. In rivers, prefers mainstream, more than 3 m deep and with mud bottom. In Sea of Azov over sand, avoiding silted areas. Biology: Spawns after first winter, in May-June. Females die shortly after spawning, males some weeks later. Feeds mainly on molluscs, insects and crustaceans.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a widespread distribution and is not thought to be threatened.

range:
Lower reaches, deltas and limans of rivers draining to northern Black Sea (Dniestr, Dniepr), Sea of Azov (Don and Kuban deltas, mouth of smaller rivers) and Caspian Sea (delta and lower reaches of Volga).

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh and slightly brackish water with salinity up to about 10 ‰; usually over mud bottom. Biology: Probably lives only one year. Spawns in May-August, in shallow areas, at 0.5-0.8 m depth (also reported down to 20 m), with some current, hard sand, mud or clay bottom and with rare vegetation. Spawns in empty mollusc shells. Probably spawns eggs (4.3 × 1.8 mm) in several portions. Males probably tend the nest. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, rotifers and algae.

threats:
Shortening of the brackish zone, due to water abstraction and flow regulation of the rivers.


taxonomicNotes:
Was incorrectly included on the 2006 Red List under the misspelt name Economidichthys pygmeus.

redListCategoryRationale:
A fairly widespread species with no major widespread threats.

range:
Restricted to western Greece, north of Patraikos Gulf, including Lefkas Island (may now have disappeared). Specifically, it is present in the Louros and Arahthos Rivers and in Trichonis Lake, possibly including the Mataranga river although this river dries out in the summer. Also found in the lower drainage of rivers Kalamas river and Acheloo and Pahvotis Lake (introduced), in Blykos spring, and in a small river the Agios Dimitrios. Occurrence further north in Albania needs to be confirmed.

population:
Common in western Greece. Probably stable.

habitat:
It lives exclusively in freshwaters, rivers, springs and lakes. Maximum length is ca. 54 mm for females and 51 mm for males. Minimum size at maturity is 24 mm. Reproduction is in the spring and summer. Phragmites plants are required for reproduction. The males provide parental care.


redListCategoryRationale:
A common species, although its population status is unknown. It is restricted to two lakes (estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km², area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km²) which are suffering from eutrophication, loss of reed beds due to land reclamation, and lake level decline due to water extraction. The species distribution is treated as a single location due to the connection between the two lakes.

range:
Restricted to Lake Trichonis and Lyssimachia in southwestern Greece.

population:
Common in specific sites within the lakes. Maybe declining.

habitat:
A lacustrine species. It is the smallest freshwater European teleost at maturity: 18 mm with a maximum length of 25 mm. It is a semelparous species dying just after spawning. The males provide parental care.

threats:
Water pollution, water extraction (lake level now fluctuates), and potentially habitat impacts from bottom trawling.

conservationAction:
The integrated water resources management plan for the Trichonis Lake (developed in the framework of the Life - Nature '99 project entitled: 'Actions for the preservation of Calcareous fens in Trichonis lake') should be implemented in the area aiming to eliminate the present high water level fluctuations in the lake on both annual and monthly basis. This will decrease the environmental impacts from the water abstractions for irrigation during the dry period and will facilitate preservation of the ecologically important habitats, in the broader area.


taxonomicNotes:
Placed in a separate genus Hyrcanogobius by some authors on the basis of slightly different organisation of cephalic sensory pores.

range:
Northern and southeastern Caspian Sea; deltas of Ural and Volga; along western coast southward to Daghestan.

habitat:
Habitat: A near-pelagic coastal marine species; found in areas with different salinities, including fresh water. Biology: Lives one year. Matures at 18-20 mm SL. Spawns after first winter, in May-July, down to 2-7 m. Females probably lay 2-3 portions of eggs (0.4 × 1.0 mm), separately attached inside a mollusc shell. Adults probably die soon after spawning. Feeds on small crustaceans.


redListCategoryRationale:
Possibly extinct. Not found at the only known location (the type locality, a small brackish lagoon near Portita, south of Danube delta) and adjacent water bodies since 1994. Presence in similar habitats elsewhere in Danube delta should be investigated.

range:
Romania: known from a single small lagoon near Portita, south of Danube delta in the Golovita-Sinoe-Razelm Lake complex.

population:
Last recorded in 1994, when it was described. The site was visited the year later and none were found. Another survey in 1998 also failed to find the species.

habitat:
Habitat: A small and shallow lagoon behind coastal sand dunes with brackish water and mud bottom. Biology: No data.


taxonomicNotes:
The variability (morphological and ecological) reported for K. caucasica suggests that this is a complex of several species.

range:
Saline, fresh and estuarine waters along coasts of Black, Azov; Caspian and Aegean Seas west to Aliakmon drainage (Greece); identity of populations from along the eastern shore of Adriatic questionable. Has been recorded from freshwater lakes and lowland rivers more than 100 km from coast. Introduced in Aral Sea (but now extirpated).

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh to hypersaline waters (salinity up to 5.5%) of lakes, estuaries and lagoons. Most abundant in shallow, well vegetated habitats. Biology: Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20-23 mm SL. Spawns in March-July, up to four portions of eggs. Eggs are attached to the roof of a cavity under stones, plant material or shells and are defended by male. Postlarvae are pelagic. Feeds on small invertebrates. In Trichonis Lake: on mud to gravel bottom, at depths less than 2 m; feeds mainly on copepods and larvae of the mussel Dreissena polymorpha.


taxonomicNotes:
See Kottelat (1997) about effective date of publication being 1994 and not 1996.

redListCategoryRationale:
K. croatica is restricted to between 5–10 locations (in the River Matica, Neretva and Lake Bacina (Polje Jezero)), and has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of around 20 km². There is a continuing decline in quality of habitat due to pollution, eutrophication and water extraction.

range:
It is restricted to the karstic River Matica, Neretva and Lake Bacina (Polje Jezero) in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

habitat:
It lives in the freshwater karstic Matica river, its upper part drys out in summer. It can be found also in the brackish Lake Bacina. Spawning season in February.

threats:
Eutrophication, water pollution and extraction and alteration of the habitat.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has not been found at its only known location despite recent observations. It may, however, be present in other lagoons that have not yet been thoroughly surveyed. More survey is required to determine the status of this species.

range:
It is only known from a single spring on Corfu island, Greece. Recent attempts in the late 1990's have failed to find it (Kottelat, M. pers comm.).

threats:
Water extraction, which has possibly led to increased salinity in the springs, and pollution.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. European Union 27 = NA. Less than 5% of the species range is found within the European Union (Bulgaria and Romania coastal areas) it is therefore listed as Not Applicable.

range:
Caspian, Azov and Black Sea basins. Close to sea.

habitat:
Habitat: Fresh to saline water of coastal lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and lagoons, in shallow, well vegetated habitats. Biology: Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20 mm SL. Spawns in March-July. Individual females may spawn several times during a season. Males defend eggs in cavities under stones, plant material or mollusc shells. Eggs hatch at 3.0-3.8 mm. Feeds on small invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a restricted range species, with an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) <100 km², and area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km², which is only known from a single location: the River Acheron Delta. Ongoing land reclamation within the delta is causing a decline in EOO and AOO, and the quality of habitat is declining due to water pollution and dumping of waste.

range:
Restricted to the River Acheron delta in western Greece.

population:
Declining and the local people have been draining the area.

habitat:
It is found in fresh and brackish waters, often with abundant vegetation, and sand or mud substrates.

threats:
Land reclamation: local authorities are planning to reclaim approximately 50% of the swamp. Water pollution - in particular from the local village.

conservationAction:
This is a Natura 2000 Site, which is apparently providing no effective protection as there are plans to drain part of the area.


redListCategoryRationale:
Not enough information is available to be able to determine the extinction risk for this species. It is therefore assessed as Data Deficient. More research is needed for a future reassessment.

range:
This species occurs in the River Morača, southern Montenegro, where it is found in the lower part of the river. This distribution corresponds well with previous records of freshwater gobies identified as Knipowitschia panizzae (Verga, 1841) in the lower Morača (Marić 1995). Knipowitschia montenegrina most probably also occurs in Lake Skadar, because Ivanović (1973) and Marić (1995) recorded Knipowitschia panizzae there. It also may well occur throughout the whole Ohrid-Drim-Skadar system.

habitat:
The species has been recorded from shallows with slow current in the Morača River and in pools remaining in gravel pits after river flooding.

threats:
No information is available on current or potential threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Research is needed on the species, particularly on its distribution and potential threats.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was listed as Knipowitschia sp. nov. ‘Visovac’ by Kottelat and Freyhof, 2007. It was also mentioned as "Knipowitschia mrakovcici" by Mrakovcic et al. (1994), which was not a valid name. It has since been formally named Knipowitschia mrakovcici Miller, 2009.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a very restricted range, Visovac Lake in the lower Krka  drainage (extent of occurrence estimated to be 20 km²). It is currently  experiencing a population decline, but the reasons for this are unknown. Pollution from two towns (Knin and Drnis) could be a cause. A study is currently under way to determine the threats and conservation  measures for the species.For the European Union 27 assessment, this species is recorded as Not Applicable (NA); it is not found within the European Union.

range:
This species occurs in Lake Visovac, in the lower part of the Krka River.

population:
The species is declining massively (Mustafic pers. comm.).

threats:
The reason for the population decline is unknown. However pollution from nearby towns (Drin and Knin) could be a cause and sometimes fish kills are seen but without any obvious reasons (Mustafic pers. comm.).

conservationAction:
There is ongoing research to determine the reasons for the decline of the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above

range:
Restricted to the Adriatic catchment. It has been introduced in the Tyrrhenian catchment in Italy. In Greece it is only known from the Evinos delta, but the identity of this population needs confirmation.

habitat:
A eurihaline species found in fresh and brackish waters

conservationAction:
It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention and in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive.


redListCategoryRationale:
The population is thought to be decreasing but there is a lack of information to confirm or refute this suspicion. It has a relatively restricted range (estimated area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km²) but fails to qualify as threatened as it is found in just more than 10 locations, where locations are determined as interconnected networks of springs.

range:
It is restricted to north-eastern Italy.

population:
It was previously believed to exist in only a few places but it has recently been found to be more widespread.

habitat:
Lives in springs and cold clean streams on the flat plains.

conservationAction:
There is localised conservation as some springs are included within protected areas. However, protection is at the site level with no protection of the actual watershed.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from the type locality, a small karstic stream (Norin stream - 10 km long) in the Neretva drainage (Croatia). It is not believed that the species is wider distributed as in similar habitat nearby other similar goby species are recorded. There is a potential threat from the water abstraction, making the species occur in only one location, however the area is currently protected in order to maintain the water quality.

range:
Only known from the type locality the Norin stream (10 km) in the Neretva drainage (Croatia).

habitat:
Habitat: Outflow of a karstic spring, discharging 3.5-6.0 m/s in summer, down to 5.5 m, with gravel to mud-gravel bottom. Biology: No data. Adults observed in deepest parts of stream, juveniles in shallow areas among vegetation.

threats:
Water is abstracted from the spring and used for drinking water. However the habitat is in good condition.

conservationAction:
The area is protected to maintain clean drinking water.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has been largely extirpated from Lake Karla, due to almost total draining of the lake, and from the Kefalobriso spring (the type-locality), near the village Chasambali due to water extraction. It is still present, and possibly stable, in less than five locations (one location being the interconnecting channels of Lake Karla) within the Pinios river catchment with an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) <20 km².

range:
Restricted to the Pinios River catchment in Thessaly in Central Greece. Formerly, it was common in lake Karla, which has since been almost drained leaving only a few remaining isolated subpopulations.

habitat:
Lives in springs and well-oxygenated streams rich in aquatic vegetation. It is also found in creeks, in brackish water, and in irrigation channels. It does not appear to need well-oxygenated waters.

conservationAction:
Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention as Gobius thessalus.


taxonomicNotes:
M. nonultimus (nape scaled) from Caspian basin, usually listed as a subspecies of M. batrachocephalus, is a distinct species. It does not enter freshwaters.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species, known from the lower South Bug and freshwater Lake Siut Giol on Romanian coast and the Black and Azov Seas. Locally threatened by periods of hypoxia following algal blooms.  European Union 27 = LC. Relatively restricted in range to the Romanian and Bulgarian coastal areas, but still widespread and no major threats.

range:
Black and Azov Seas; lower South Bug and freshwater Lake Siut Giol on Romanian coast.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons on sand or rock bottom. Often very deep in summer (down to 100 m). Rarely in pure freshwater. Biology: Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in February-May, only once a year. Eggs large, deposited under or between stones. Feeds predominantly on fish.

threats:
Locally threatened by periods of hypoxia following algal blooms.


range:
Azov and Black Sea basins. Usually close to estuaries. Invasive in rivers of northern Black Sea basin, recorded in 1997 from middle Vistula (Poland), which it reached from Dniepr via a navigation canal. In Danube upriver to Hungary, in Dniepr up to Belarus.   Accidentally introduced in lower Rhine and actually invasive there. Introduced in Lake Balaton (Hungary) around 1970.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium sized rivers and streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mostly found on open sand or mud bottom. One of the most abundant fish species in lowland rivers. Biology: Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July, locally until September, when temperature rises above 13°C. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Males have completely black body with yellow fin margins during spawning season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males excavate nests under any kind of hard substrate and guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.


range:
Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins. Invasive in Baltic basin, which it reached via navigation canals. Reached westwards to German Baltic coast in 2002 and to Elbe estuary (North Sea basin) in 2009. Recently recorded in lower parts of rivers in Gulf of Gdansk (Poland). Also moving upwards in rivers of its original range; in Volga upstream to Moscow and north to Lake Rybinskoye; in Dniepr up to Belarus, in Danube reached Austria in 2000 and Germany 2005. Accidentally arrived in North America in 1991 and lowermost Rhine (Netherlands) in 2004 with ballasts water in ships. In 2006 first recorded in upper reaches of Rhine drainage close to canal connecting it with Danube. Meanwhile has colonized the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine and is slowly invading the upper Rhine.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on sand or rock bottom. To 50-60 m deep in Black Sea during winter. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. Biology: Lives up to four years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4, females at 2-3. Spawns in April-September. Males have entirely black body during spawning season. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season every 18-20 days. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until eggs hatch, in 2-3 weeks. Males usually die after spawning season. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish. Egg clutches are supposed to be occasionally transported attached to the hull of ships, facilitating the invasion of new areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread spec ies with no known major widespread threats.European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Caspian basin; common in Volga drainage, upriver to Moscow. Introduced in Aral basin in 1954.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium-size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Usually on open sand or sand-shell bottom. Biology: Lives up to three years. Spawns for the first time at one, rarely at two years. Spawns in April-September. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (mainly crustaceans and insect larvae) and small fish.


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a widespread resilient species with no known major threats. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Restricted to southern Switzerland, northern Italy, southern Slovenia and River Zrmanja in Croatia. It has been introduced to the Tiber and Mignone rivers and a number of other small rivers in central and southern Italy.

population:
Generally stable but locally decreasing. It is considered a major pest species outside its natural range.

habitat:
Lives in small rivers in the hill zone where there is fast running water and a stony substrate. Also found in large lakes south of the Alps. Where it has been introduced outside its natural range it is considered to be the principle threat to Padogobius nigricans.

conservationAction:
It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention where it is misidentified as Gobius fluviatilis (Not valid) and Padogobius (inferior synonym) martensi.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is relatively restricted range (etimated area of occupancy (AOO) < 2,000 km²) and is only known from six river basins and two lakes, which are treated as separate locations on the basis of the likely threats. Formerly the species was extremely common but it has now disappeared from two rivers and has become rare in many others mostly as result of interaction with the introduced, congeneric species, Padogobius bonelli. Other causes of decline are water extraction and rising water temperatures due to lower water levels, pollution and predation by alien species.

range:
Restricted to the Tyrrhenian catchment of Central Italy.

population:
The species is threatened mainly by introduction of the congeneric alien P. bonelli, which caused local extinctions in at least the river basins of Ombrone, Amaseno and Mignone in central Italy.

habitat:
Lives in small rivers with fast running water and stony substrate. It reproduces from late April to July according to the water temperature in different rivers. Also found in lakes.

threats:
Habitat destruction, water extraction, and invasive species (Padogobius bonelli, in particular).

conservationAction:
It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.


taxonomicNotes:
In lacustrine freshwater populations of Croatia and Montenegro, there is a tendency to reduction of squamation and cephalic canals; in some populations most individuals are naked and without cephalic canals.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats.    European Union 27 = LC. Within the European Union the species is only known from the north-western Italian and Slovenian inshore/estuarine habitats with an Extent of Occurrence of an estimated 5,000 km2. However the species is abundant and has no known major threats.

range:
Adriatic basin, from Italy to Montenegro.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, lakes and large to medium size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Found mainly on open sand or mud bottom. Biology: Spawns after first winter in March-July. Individual females spawn several times during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.


range:
Coastal waters of Atlantic from northern Morocco northward to southern Norway, Baltic northward to about 63°N; isolated records from northwestern Mediterranean.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes connected to sea, large to medium size rivers. Usually found on sand or mud. Biology: Lives up to two years. Spawns after first winter. Spawns at sea in February-September, depending on latitude. Individual females spawn several times during a season. Adhesive eggs, 0.9x0.7 mm, are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Juveniles enter freshwater habitats in late summer to forage. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.


taxonomicNotes:
Pomatoschistus sp. Skadar is a name used in earlier assessments (from Kottelat and Freyhof 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is abundant in Lake Skadar basin with no major threats.European Union 27 = NA. Not found in the EU 27.

range:
This species occurs in the River Morača and in Lake Skadar, southern Montenegro.

habitat:
Lives in the slow current shallows of the Moraca River and in pools remaining in gravel pits after river flooding. The substratum is gravel, covered with fine sediment and overgrown by dense filamentous algae, within which gobies are concealed.

threats:
There are currently no major threats to this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Recently transferred from Neogobius to Ponticola.

redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe, only known from the western tributaries of River Kuban in northern Caucasus. The species EOO may be less than 20,000 km2 however locally abundant in suitable habitats and has no known threats.    European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
In Europe, western tributaries of River Kuban in northern Caucasus. In Asia, coastal Black Sea drainages of southern Caucasus from Chorokh to Psyrtskha.

habitat:
Habitat: Freshwater, in a wide variety of flowing waters from cold hill to foot hill streams. Never found in brackish water. Biology: Males guard eggs in gravel or rocky cavities. Biology not studied.


taxonomicNotes:
YesRecently transferred from Neogobius to Ponticola.Yes

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. European Union 27 = LC. Relatively restricted in range from the Bulgarian and Romanian coastal areas, but has no known major threats. In freshwater only in the Danube delta.

range:
Azov and northern Black Sea basins from Bulgaria to eastern Crimea. In freshwater only in Danube delta.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, brackish lagoons, estuaries and lower part of large rivers, usually associated with rock bottom or sunken trees.  Biology: Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in December-April. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Feeds mostly on crustaceans.


range:
Caspian basin. In Volga upriver to Astrakhan until 1977, since spreading upriver to Lakes Ivankovskoje and Rybinskoje (2000). Invaded Don drainage (Black Sea basin) through Volga-Don canal (first record in 1972). Now abundant in Lake Tsimlyansk and lower Don.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mainly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. Biology: Most females spawn for the first time at one year, males at two years. Spawns in April-May, rarely until July. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds mostly on small fish, as well as on a wide variety of invertebrates.


taxonomicNotes:
Recently transferred from Neogobius to Ponticola. P. gorlap from Caspian Sea, often treated as a subspecies of P. kessleri, is a distinct species.

range:
Black Sea basin: Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages. Since late 1990s, range regularly expanding upstream in Danube drainage, in 1999 recorded for first time in Germany (2,400 km from sea) and in 2005 in upper reaches of Rhine drainage close to canal connecting it with Danube. Meanwhile has colonized the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine and is slowly invading the upper Rhine. In Dniepr up to Kiev. In Dniepr up to Kiev.   Absent in Azov Sea basin.

habitat:
Habitat: Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with very low salinity (less than 2). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom in still waters as well as in rapids. Biology: Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in March-May. Adhesive eggs deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates. Larger individuals take mostly small fish.


taxonomicNotes:
Recently transferred from Neogobius to Ponticola. Records from upper Danube refer to B. gymnotrachelus.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. European Union 27 = NA. Less than 5% of the species range is found within the European Union (Danube delta) therefore the speices is listed as Not Applicable.

habitat:
Habitat: Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, large rivers on mud bottom. Restricted to coastal areas. In Caspian Sea does not enter rivers Biology: Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Spawns in March-June. Individual females may spawn twice during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. Native in the Volga delta but it is spreading, reportedly facilitated by canalization of main river and reservoirs or slow-flowing waters created by hydroelectric plants.    European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Azov and Caspian Sea basins. In Volga, native in delta, now up to Lake (Resevoir) Rybinskoye.

habitat:
Habitat: A variety of slow-flowing or still waters. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks.  Biology: Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. It is increasing its range in the Danube and Rhine, reportedly facilitated by canalization of main river and reservoirs or slow-flowing waters created by hydroelectric plants.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Black Sea basin; Maritza and Struma drainages in eastern Aegean basin. In Danube, historically present up to about Vienna, invasive since 1970s, now reaching upstream to southern Germany. Recorded in 1999 from Rhine where it arrived from Danube through a canal and spread as far as the Netherlands (2002). In South Bug and Dniepr native far upriver. Arrived to North America in ballast of ships in 1991.

habitat:
Habitat: A variety of slow-flowing or still waters from estuarine to small, slowly flowing premontane streams. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks. Often very abundant in backwaters and lakes, proliferates in reservoirs and channels. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
It is found in a very limited stretch of stream (about 1 km in the summer) in the Chornaya drainage below the Chornaya Gorge. If water abstraction continues to intensify, the stream may totally dry up in the summer time. The species is also susceptible to climate change as the severity of droughts is predicted to increase.

threats:
High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase, so that the river below Chornya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted increase.


range:
All European coasts. Absent from White, Barents, Baltic and Caspian Seas and from Northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.

habitat:
Habitat: Coastal waters and estuaries. Biology: Lives up to 30 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-7 years and about 350 (males) and 420 (females) mm SL. A pelagic spawner in open sea, in January-June at temperatures above 9°C. Larvae planktonic. Juveniles move inshore as they grow, aggregating in brackish estuarine nursery areas where they usually remain until their second summer. Large juveniles and adults show a complicated migration pattern at sea, coming close to shore and entering freshwaters of estuaries during summer to forage. Juveniles feed on invertebrates, taking increasingly more fish with age. Adults piscivorous.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species, known from the Dniestr, South Bug, Dniepr, Don and Kuban drainages, and not threatened but rare in most of its range.

range:
Basin of northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov: Dniestr, South Bug, Dniepr, Don and Kuban drainages. In Dniepr up to Belarus.

habitat:
Habitat: Flowing waters, also lakes with clear water; in summer in rapids; over sand and gravel bottom but prefers hard compact sand. Spawns in river stretches with heavy current and sand or gravel bottom. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, 120-160 mm SL. Spawns in small schools. Female lays slightly sticky eggs in several portions: first at 6-8°C, second at 12-14°C. Eggs hatch in 6-8 days at 14-16°C. Newly hatched larvae first lie on bottom; at 9 days (when pectorals are developed), they actively move to middle water layers and drift downstream. At 12 days (6.5 mm SL), they start active feeding on small invertebrates in shallow shoreline habitats. A benthic species that aggregates in small schools. Usually crepuscular but feeds also during daytime. In September, starts forming large schools and moves to deeper places and remains inactive until ice melts. Does not migrate for long distances. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (crustaceans, insect larvae, molluscs), rarely on small fish.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to Lake Amersee (which has an area of 41 km²) where its population is suspected to be declining primarily due to the introduced fish species Gymnocephalus acerina.

range:
Endemic to Lake Ammersee (which has an area of 41 km²), Germany.

population:
The population is suspected to be declining.

threats:
The species is suspected to be impacted by introduced fish species (Gymnocephalus acerina) which is present in the lake.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place for the species.


range:
Danube (from delta to Bavaria), Dniestr and Dniepr (from delta to Kiev) drainages.

habitat:
Habitat: Open sand and muddy bottom in backwaters, large rivers with moderate current. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-3. Migrates from river mainstreams to backwaters to spawn. Nocturnal, benthic, feeding on small invertebrates.


range:
Caspian, Black, Baltic and North Sea basins; Great Britain. North to about 69°N in Scandinavia. In Asia, Aral Sea basin, Arctic Ocean basin eastward to Kolyma drainage. Introduced or invasive in France west of Rhine, northern Italy, northern Great Britain and Greece. Introduced to Great Lakes region, North America.

habitat:
Habitat: Eutrophic lakes, lowland and piedmont rivers. Prefers still or slow-flowing water with soft bottom, without vegetation. Most abundant in estuaries of large rivers, brackish lakes with salinities up to 10-12? and reservoirs. Generally increases in abundance with increased eutrophication. Biology: Females live up to 10 years, males up to seven. Spawns for the first time at 1-3 years, males one year earlier than females. Spawns in March-May, until July in the north, on a variety of substrates at depths of about 3 m or less. Spawns at temperatures above 6°C in the north and above 10°C in the south. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Eggs become adhesive on contact with water and stick to stones or plants. Females may spawn intermittently, laying eggs in two or more portions, usually separated by about 30 days in summer. Eggs of first portion are larger than those of second portion. Larvae without, or with only a brief, pelagic larval stage, switching early to benthic life, secretive and solitary, not forming schools. Survival of larvae is poor below 10°C and above 20°C. Crepuscular or nocturnal. The well-developed cephalic lateral line system and tapetum lucidum in eyes makes it an efficient predator at night and in turbid waters. Usually feeds on benthic chironomid larvae and amphipods, which can be detected in the top layers of the substrate by sensory canals on head. Pelagic in coastal lakes and tidal estuaries, feeding on zooplankton and fish. When they coexist in deep lakes, Perca fluviatilis and G. cernuus partly occur at different depths, G. cernuus being more abundant in deeper layers.

useAndTrade:
--- Other purpose text ---Often used as live bait


habitat:
Habitat: Open sand and mud bottom of large rivers with moderate current. Biology: Gregarious, nocturnal. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, 120-160 mm SL. Spawns in April-June. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Females attach eggs to stones. Larvae are benthic. Usually crepuscular but feeds also during daytime. Feeds on small invertebrates, especially molluscs.


range:
Throughout Europe to northernmost extremity of Scandinavia, except Iberian Peninsula, central Italy and Adriatic basin; Aegean Sea basin: Maritza and from Struma to Aliakmon drainages; Aral Sea basin; in Siberia, in rivers draining to Arctic Ocean eastward to Kolyma (replaced by P. flavescens in North America). Introduced in Ebro delta (Spain), central and southern Italy, Lake Skadar (Montenegro, Albania), Amur (Siberia), Australia and South Africa.

habitat:
Habitat: A very wide range of habitats from estuarine lagoons, lakes of all types to medium sized streams. Biology: Lives up to 21 years, usually to about six years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-4 years. Spawns in February-July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperature reaches about 6°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. A female usually spawns with several males, once each year. The female circles the spawning site, followed by one male, while other males remain stationary. The egg strand is released as the female swims in spiral clockwise movements, folding herself into a U-shape. All eggs are released and fertilised within about 5 seconds in a single strand, which becomes twisted around and entangled with spawning substrate. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic, live in open water and feed on pelagic organisms. They may be widely distributed by currents. An opportunistic diurnal feeder, preying mainly at sunrise and sunset, using all available prey. Larvae and small juveniles usually prey on planktonic invertebrates. During first summer, many juveniles come near shores to feed on benthic prey. Often becomes piscivorous at about 120 mm SL. Stocks with different life-histories may co-occur in some lakes (littoral, benthic feeding, pelagic zooplanktivorous), sometimes with different spawning sites and times.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is currently known from the lower reaches and coastal waters of the northwestern Black Sea, with a relatively restricted range (extent of occurrence estimated to be about 25,000 km²). It is likely to be impacted by increasing levels of salinity as the water flow in the major rivers continues to be reduced, changing the salinity of the coastal waters and lagoons where the species breeds. The species is therefore assessed as Near Threatened as it is believed it may be close to meeting A3 (30% decline in the next three generations or 10 years).For the European Union 27 region, this species is assessed as Endangered (EN B1ab(iii)). Within the European Union the species has a restricted range, being found only in the lower reaches and coastal waters of the Danube in Romania. Its extent of occurrence in this region is less than 5,000 km² and it is threatened by increasing levels of salinity which is impacting the species breeding areas (see above).

range:
This species occurs in the northwestern Black Sea basin in the estuaries and coastal lakes, and the rivers Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr and their lower reaches.

population:
The species is more or less abundant in the lower reaches of rivers and coastal lagoons.

habitat:
This fish occurs in fresh and brackish waters with salinity up to 7%. It is abundant at depths around 5 m over black mud.

threats:
The species may become threatened by increasing salinity due to reduced flow in all the large rivers within the species range which are now dammed.


range:
Eastern and northeastern Sea of Azov: Gulfs of Taganrog and Temryuk. Bolshoi Akhtanizovski Liman, Kuban delta, rare in Don delta.

habitat:
Habitat: Coastal fresh and brackish waters with salinities up to 7 ‰, and river mouths. Biology: A gregarious, bottom-dweller. Females live up to four years, males up to three. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in least saline part of Gulf of Taganrog in June-July, at 24-25°C. Eggs are released over mud bottom; although slightly sticky, they do not adhere to bottom but become coated with minute substrate particles. Soon after spawning, adults migrate to open sea. Eggs hatch in two days. Larvae first lie on bottom, moving to the to surface at four days. From about 6 mm SL they actively prey on planktonic crustaceans, at 16-40 mm on larger copepods and mysids, and from second the year of life on Knipowitschia longecaudata, Clupeonella cultriventris, benthic worms, molluscs, and insect larvae.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species was known from River Arges and its tributaries Vaslan and Raul Doamnei, however it is now only extant in a 1 km stretch of the Vaslan river. During construction of a reservoir on River Arges (1965) no water was left in the river downstream of the dam and the species disappeared. In the Valsan river, the population has been seriously impacted by stone extraction from the river, overfishing, pollution and damming of the upper part of the river. The survival of this species now depends on the continuity of water released by a single reservoir, and is was the focus of a project of the EU Life programme.

range:
Danube drainage in Romania; formerly known from upper River Arges and its tributaries Valsan and Raul Doamnei. Today restricted to 1 km of upper River Valsan upstream of Bradet village, but adjacent basins still unsufficiently surveyed.

habitat:
Habitat: Fast-flowing, cold and clear mountain streams. Usually hidden under stones. Biology: Nocturnal, bottom dweller. Territorial; possibly spawns in second half of May. 120-150 eggs are deposited under stones. Feeds on insect larvae including mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and stoneflies (Plecoptera).

threats:
Threats to the species were deforestation, construction of roads, extraction of stones, pollution and dam constructions has driven this species to the edge of extinction. Currently the species occurs only below a dam, and exists only because enough water is released from the dam.

conservationAction:
Presently the focus of a project of the EU Life programme (now finished), but the species distribution is within a protected area.


taxonomicNotes:
Earlier knows as Stizostedion lucioperca and Lucioperca lucioperca.

range:
Caspian, Baltic, Black and Aral Sea basins; Elbe (North Sea basin) and Maritza (Aegean Sea basin) drainages. North to about 65°N in Finland. Introductions began in 1878 in Great Britain, followed by Italy, Strymon drainage (Greece) and continental Europe west of Elbe, Ebro, Tagus and Jucar drainages in Iberian Peninsula, Onega and Severnaya Dvina in White Sea basin. Widely introduced outside Europe in Anatolia, North Africa, Ob and Amur drainages (Siberia), Lakes Issyk-kul (Kyrgyzstan), Balkhash and many smaller basins in central Kazakhstan.

habitat:
Habitat: Large, turbid rivers and eutrophic lakes; brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. Biology: Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-10 years, usually at four. Spawns in April-May, exceptional from late February until July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperatures reach 10-14°C in spawning grounds (lowest temperature for egg incubation 11.5°C). May undertake short spawning migrations. Individuals foraging in brackish water migrate to freshwater habitats (migrations of up to 250 km have been recorded). Homing well developed, even nearby populations may be relatively isolated. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions about 50 cm in diameter and 5-10 cm deep in sand or gravel, or among exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually in turbid water and at 1-3 m depth. Spawns in pairs, at dawn or night. Female remains over the nest while male circles rapidly around, at about 1 metre from nest. Then male takes a vertical orientation and both swim around swiftly, and eggs and sperm are released. After all the eggs are released female leaves the nest site. Male defends the nest and fans the eggs with his pectorals. Females spawn once a year. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic and feed on pelagic organisms after they leave the nest for open water. Piscivorous, feeding mostly on gregarious, pelagic fishes.


range:
Northern Black Sea basin, from Danube (up to Vienna) to Kuban drainages (where it is introduced); Caspian basin (Volga and Ural drainages). Also locally introduced in Anatolia.

habitat:
Habitat: Large, turbid rivers and lakes; in brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. Biology: Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years and 200-300 mm SL, females usually a year later than males. Spawns for about one month in April-May, at 10-22°C. Individual females may spawn 2-3 portions of eggs. May undertake short spawning migrations. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions in sand or gravel, or exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually along shallow shores at 1-2 m depth. Nests often close to nests of S. lucioperca. Most active at dusk and dawn, foraging on small fish and invertebrates. Larvae and juveniles pelagic, feeding on zooplankton.


redListCategoryRationale:
Z. asper survives in four fragmented subpopulations with a combined area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km² with no hope of connectivity between them due to dam construction. A continuous decline in habitat quality has been observed due to pollution and water extraction. Two, or maybe three populations out of four have less than 250 adults. The fourth is probably larger. One or two of those subpopulations might become extinct over the next 10 years.

range:
It is restricted four fragmented subpopulations in the Rhône River basin in France and Switzerland. May occur in more locations.

population:
Decreasing. There are only four fragmented subpopulations remaining: the Drome subpopulation with few fish; the Durance subpopulation with 200 fish/ha; the Beaume subpopulation with 80 fish/ha; and a subpopulation in the upper part of River Doubs in Switzerland with a total number of individuals estimated between 80–160 individuals. Today it only occupies 17% of its former range.

habitat:
It inhabits the grayling zone and the upper barbel zone. It is a strictly nocturnal species feeding on benthic invertebrates. It prefers pebbles and stones, intermediate depth (0.3–0.8 m) and moderate water velocities (0.05–0.4 m/s). During reproduction, it prefers riffles. It is short-lived species up to 3.5 years old reproducing generally once, maximum twice in a life time.

threats:
Fragmentation, modification and destruction of the habitat due to dams and water pollution.

conservationAction:
It is listed in Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.


redListCategoryRationale:
There are no data on the abundance, population trends or threats to this species.

range:
Restricted to the Vardar (Axios) River in the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM). Potentially it may also be present in the lower reaches of the river in Greece.

population:
No data. It is only known from a few museum specimens. The last specimen was collected in 1986 but no real efforts have been made to collect it since then.

habitat:
It lives in rivers. Nothing else known, but based on the habits of other species in the genus, it requires turbulent water.

threats:
Any modification to river morphology may have a potential negative impact.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species. The species inhabits clean fast running water and is threatened by dams and pollution. However it withstands the effects and does not qualify for a threatened or Near Threatened categories. Pollution levels are now lowering and dam construction has almost halted within the species range. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Known from Danube and Dniestr drainages.

habitat:
Habitat: Main course of small to large rivers, in stretches with strong current. On stone bottom. Biology: Nocturnal, benthic. Spawns in March-May on gravel bottom. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates.

threats:
The species is impacted by dams as it needs strong currents to survive. Pollution also impacted the species, particularly in the upper Danube, in the past however conditions are now improving and populations may be increasing.


habitat:
Habitat: Main course of large rivers, in fast-flowing waters. Biology: Nocturnal, benthic. Spawns in March-April on sand bottom. Single females spawn with several males in a dense spawning group. Eggs very sticky and attached to gravel. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and small fishes.


range:
Circumpolar. In Europe: eastern Atlantic, White and Barents Seas.

habitat:
Habitat: Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. Biology: Spawns in December-May under ice. Spawning in May reported from White Sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.


taxonomicNotes:
In need of critical taxonomic revision; several species seem to be confused under the name P. flesus.

range:
Eastern Atlantic, from White to Mediterranean and Black Seas. Introduced in Caspian Sea and Great Lakes of North America. Enters rivers and coastal streams. In Rhine, recorded up to 650 km upriver.

habitat:
Habitat: Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Migrates to sea in October-December. Spawns at sea, in deepwater, in January-June. Eggs and larvae are pelagic and drift with current. At about 10 mm SL, left eye moves to right side, pigmentation develops, and juveniles switch to benthic life. Pelagic larvae migrate to brackish- and fresh-water habitats with tidal currents; they move in the water column during flood and to the bottom during ebb. First pelagic flounders are usually recorded in estuaries in March. Juveniles start to migrate upriver to forage by mid-April. Not all individuals enter brackish- and fresh-water. Spawned adults do not return to brackish or freshwater but remain at sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species which is vulnerable to overfishing in the sea, but this is not currently thought to be causing a decline great enough to qualify the species as threatened. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Western Mediterranean and along all European coasts to White and Barents Seas; absent from northern Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas. Regularly reported from freshwaters in Kanin Peninsula (Barents Sea). Occasionally reported from freshwater outside Barents Sea basin, but individuals might be misidentified P. flesus.

habitat:
Habitat: Mud and sand bottom from a few metres down to about 100 m, at sea and in estuaries, rarely entering freshwaters. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Spawns at sea, in January-June, in deep water, at temperatures around 6°C. Eggs and larvae are pelagic and drift with current. At about 10 mm SL, left eye moves to right side, pigmentation develops, and juveniles switch to benthic life. Juveniles enter freshwater to forage in mid-June in Kanin Peninsula, remaining there until August. Not all individual enter brackish and fresh-water. Adults do not move into brackish or fresh water. Feeds on thin-shelled molluscs and polychaetes.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to only two lakes, Lake Thun (48 km²), and Brienz (30 km²), Switzerland. However, in recent surveys it was found to be abundant and the Lakes are in very good condition and well managed, and there are no known or potential threats to the species.

population:
In recent surveys the species was found to be abundant in Lake Thun.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep water. Biology: Spawns in September, at 30-100 m depth. Spawns for the first time at about 120 mm SL.


taxonomicNotes:
Available data do not allow to distinguish C. albula as a whole from C. sardinella and C. vandesius. A very high variability is reported for all morphological characters between the many populations referred to C. albula, suggesting that several species might be involved. Further studies are needed to resolve their identity.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. Identities of some lacustrine populations needs to be confirmed. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Baltic basin, lakes of upper Volga drainage (Seliger, Vseluga, Perejaslavskoe), some lakes of White Sea basin and North Sea basin east of Elbe drainage. Anadromous in Gulf of Finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of Gulf of Bothnia. North to about 69°N in Lake Inari, northern Finland. Frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in northern and central Germany and Poland.

population:
Very common. The species extended its range to the north through shipping canals and translocations.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine and marine in open water. At sea, forages close to coast. Spawns along shores, at 3-10 m depth, rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface. Spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters. Biology: Anadromous, marine and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years (2-3 in Lake Onega), males usually earlier than females. Spawns in October (central Finland), December (northern Germany) at 6-7°C. Anadromous populations start migrating to rivers in August (Neva). Eggs hatch in March-April and juveniles migrate to sea in late summer of first year in anadromous populations. Larvae pelagic close to water surface, usually close to shore. Usually occurs in deep waters in daytime and moves to upper layers at night. Feeds on zooplankton.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to only one lake, Lake Thun (48 km²), Switzerland, where in recent surveys it was found to be rare. However, the lake is in very good condition and well managed and there are no known or potential threats to the species.

population:
In recent surveys the species is rare but present.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep water. Biology: Spawns in August-December, at 40-150 m deep, mainly near torrent deltas. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially chironomids.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Lake Constance (539 km²) and has been artificially hybridised with C. macrophthalmus, another native species to Lake Constance, through ranching programmes (which stopped in 2004 as conditions in the lake were improved) and it is not known to what degree the hybridisation has had an effect on C. arenicolus.

range:
Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Introduced in lakes of Po drainage (where it possibly has hybridised with other introduced species).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, near flat shores, or near bottom, sometimes on steep slopes. Spawns in shallow water, along shores. Biology: Spawns in late November-December. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (especially mussels, snails, worms and insects).

threats:
Hybridisation with C. macrophthalmus (another native species in Lake Constance) happened through a ranching programme. This was stopped in 2004.


taxonomicNotes:
In Mondsee, spawns one month earlier than in Attersee. Mondsee population was introduced to Attersee in the early 20th century. After introduction, early spawning individuals were recorded also from Attersee. Further studies are needed to demonstrate that the Mondsee population really belongs to the present species. Today, about half of the Coregonus harvested in Mondsee result from stocking.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in only one location, Lake Attersee, Austria (and possibly also in Modsee) and has survived for many years alongside introduced coregonids (competition and hybridisation). The species has undergone a decline, but this was more than 15 years ago (three generations) therefore the decline in numbers and quality of habitat is neither recent or current and is now just an uncommon species in the lake. It is therefore not Critically Endangered (no continuing decline), but Vulnerable (D2) as it is found in one, possibly two, locations. The Mondsee (13 km²) population is probably an undescribed species.

range:
Austria: Lake Attersee. Presence in Lake Mondsee questionable.

population:
Some decline has occurred after the 2nd World War (presice date is unknown).

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic, usually at depths of 10-30 m. Spawns in open water close to surface, above depths of 20-40 m (Attersee) or at 2-3 m and close to shore (Mondsee). Attersee is an oligo-mesotrophic lake and Mondsee a mesotrophic lake. Biology: Lives up to six years (Mondsee). Spawns for the first time at four (Attersee) or three years (Mondsee). Spawns in early February-mid March (Attersee), late December-mid January (Mondsee). Eggs sink to bottom. Individual fishes usually spawn 2-3 seasons. Feeds on zooplankton and small amounts of benthic invertebrates.

threats:
Introduction of non-native coregonids, leading to hybridisation and competition.


redListCategoryRationale:
An important commercial species, and catches and abundance have reduced in recent years. However the species has a very widespread distribution and the overall population decline is not thought to be close to meeting 30% in the past three generations (30 years).    European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
All drainages (except Ob River and Lake Baikal basin in the Yenisey drainage) of Arctic Ocean in Eurasia from Mezen eastward; America from Cape Barrow to Coronation Bay. Introduced in many localities of former USSR, but not established.

population:
Commonly reported in catch statistics from Canada (J. Freyhof pers comm). The population in Russia is in decline.

habitat:
Habitat: Migratory. Mostly larger lowland rivers. At sea, in salinity up to 22 ?. Northernmost distribution among whitefishes; in summer enters open waters of Kara Sea and reaches Novosibirsk Islands. Biology: Lives 10-12 years, rarely up to 20. Spends 6-8 years at sea before maturing and returning to rivers in June-July, to spawn in September-October of same year. A second run in autumn; those fishes remain a year in rivers before spawning. Moves far upstream, sometimes up to 1,500 km. Spawns in shallow tributaries with some current in well oxygenated water over gravel bottom. Individual females do not spawn every year; spawns only 2-3 times during entire life. After spawning, adults return directly to sea. Embryonic development lasts up to seven months. Alevins migrate downstream in May-June. At sea, feeds on larger crustaceans and small fish. No feeding during spawning run.

threats:
Overfishing, and pollution - mainly in Siberia.


taxonomicNotes:
It is not yet clear whether other coregonids 'forms' are conspecific or not with C. baerii. These includes the 'common' Ladoga whitefish (C. baerii 'natio ladogae'), the Svir whitefish (C. baerii 'natio swirensis') and the Onega whitefish (C. poljakovi).

redListCategoryRationale:
The species main spawning sites (Volkhov and Svir River) have been blocked by damming (Volkhov in 1926), but it still persists so it is presumed it also spawns in the lake. The current threat to the species is overfishing, but the impacts are unknown as the catch data from Lake Ladoga does not distinguish between different Coregonus species (catches are in decline), although its presence is still recorded by fisheries scientists. More information is needed on the impacts of this fishing effort.

range:
Lake Ladoga, especially southeastern part. It used to enter rivers (including the Volkhov and Svir) and migrate very high upstream to spawn in ruffles.

population:
Catch data from Lake Ladoga do not distinguish between different species of Coregonus species. However it is still recorded as present by fisheries scientists.

habitat:
Habitat: Alevins and juveniles mostly occur along eastern shore, adults in deeper places. Used to migrate to River Volkhov up to its uppermost reaches for spawning, now blocked by a dam. Biology: Lives up to 10 years. Migrates to eastern coast before spawning, starting in May-June. Spawns in October-early November. In Volkhov, used to spawn high upstream, in riffles. Information about spawning in the lake is very sparse, but continued presence confirms lacustrine reproduction. Spawning is now assumed to occur in Volkhov estuary, probably also in River Svir. Feeds on benthos (crustaceans, insect larvae, molluscs).

threats:
Dams have blocked the access to the river spawning sites (Volkhov dammed in 1921).Overfishing is the main current threat to the species, but the impact is unknown as catches are identified to species level. Coregonus catches are decreasing in Lake Ladoga. The species is listed in the Red List of Russia.


taxonomicNotes:
Old literature records 18-21 gill rakers. Published data from the 1930's report 19-28. The only recently (2003) caught individual was 245 mm SL with 30 gill rakers.

redListCategoryRationale:
A very rare and declining species found in only one location, Lake Ammersee (41 km², the deep water where the species occurs is probably an area of less than 10 km²).The species has only been recorded three times by local fisherman since 2000. It used to be a commercial species supporting a fishing industry in the 1940s. However the decline is suspected to have occurred in the 1970s when the eutrophication was at its peak. This species may be on the verge of extinction as the lake is still mesotrophic.

population:
Since 2000 only three individuals have been caught. In the 1940s the species was an important commercial species.

habitat:
Habitat: At depths of 60-85 m, down to 60 m in summer. Spawns on bottom at depths of 40-50 m. Ammersee is a mesotrophic lake. Biology: Spawns in June-July, usually between 15 June and 15 July.

threats:
The major threat to the species is eutrophication, caused by pollution from domestic sources. The lake is still mesotrophic.

useAndTrade:
--- Other purpose text ---In the 1940s the species was an important commercial species. Now too rare to be of any commercial interest.


redListCategoryRationale:
Known only from Lake Bourget in France where it disappeared apparently in the 1960s (based on interviews with local fisherman) due to unknown reasons. The last unambiguous identifiable documented specimen was caught in the late 1800s.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep waters. Biology: Spawns in January-February, at 70-80 m depth, on mud bottom.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from one lake, Neuchâtel (204 km²) in Switzerland. Eutrophication caused a population decline (1970s), but the water quality is now improved and the introduced coregonids may have impacted the species when they were first introduced. There is no current, or recent, decline in quality of habitat or mature individuals. Therefore the species is listed as Vulnerable (D2) and not Endangered (B1ab(iii,iv)+B2ab(iii,iv)).

range:
Switzerland: Lake Neuchâtel. Introduced in Lake Maggiore (where it has possibly hybridised with other introduced species).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, deep waters. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four. Spawns in January, on sand or mud, in deep water, at depths up to 90-130 m.

threats:
Introduced species (coregonids) - competition, may have impacted the species when they were first introduced. Eutrophication (1970s) of the lake caused a population decline, but the conditions in the lake are now improved.


redListCategoryRationale:
Good stocks remain in this species' natural range, and two translocated stocks have been established in reservoirs. There are no current, or definite future threats. However the introduction of alien species is a potential threat and has occurred in many lakes in the UK in recent years.

range:
Scotland: Loch Lomond and Loch Eck; introduced in two reservoirs in Loch Lomond basin (Loch Sloy, Carron Reservoir).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in open water. Biology: In Loch Lomond, spawns in late December-early February, usually in early January, on offshore banks and reefs at temperatures close to 6°C. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.

threats:
Introduction of alien species is a potential threat


taxonomicNotes:
The bondelle of Lake Bienne is apparently this species. Genetic data suggest that it is distinct from C. candidus from Lake Neuchâtel.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is now only known from lake Bienne (33 km²), possibly also Lake Neuchâtel (204 km²), it is extirpated in Lake Morat (21 km²). There are no current or definite future threats to the species in its remaining locations. There is a potential threat of the introduction of alien coregonids.

range:
Switzerland: Lakes Morat and Bienne, possibly also Lake Neuchâtel.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, deep waters. Biology: Spawns in December-January, in Lake Morat on sand or mud at 35-40 m depth, in Lake Bienne on slopes, at 2-20 m depth.

threats:
Extirpated in Morat due to eutrophication and water level management. There are no current threats to the species in Lakes Bienne and Neuchâtel, but the introduction of coregonid species is a potential threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
Still frequent in Lake Traunsee (25 km²). Hybridisation has been shown to occur (over the past 30 years) with introduced coregonids but it is not thought to cause a decline in the number of mature individuals of C. danneri as the hybrids seem to rarely survive. There is a potential threat of the introduction of other coregonids which may have a negative impact.

habitat:
Habitat: At depths of 40-60 m, up to surface in summer. Spawns close to shore. Traunsee is a 25.6 km² oligotrophic lake at 422 m above sea level (maximum depth 191 m, average depth 90 m). Biology: Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns from mid-October to early March.

threats:
The introduction of non-native coregonids, has led to hybridisation.


taxonomicNotes:
In both Lakes Thun and Brienz, there are forms (?) of this species spawning as deep as 70 m, some with a deeper body. They were reportedly more distinct earlier and had more distinct spawning seasons. The original pattern might have been blurred by hybridisation with introduced species.

redListCategoryRationale:
Only known in Lake Lakes Thun and Brienz. However, there are no known current or future threats to the species and there is also no potential threat from the introduction of species as it is commercially valuable and the stocks and lake are sustainably managed.

population:
One of the most abundant species in Lake Thun.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in midwater. Biology: Spawns in December, along shores at 0-30 m depth.


redListCategoryRationale:
It was last recorded in Lake Geneva in 1920. Although the name féra is still used for the only coregonid present in Lake Geneva, this is not the original species but the introduced C. palaea.

population:
It was last recorded in Lake Geneva in 1920. Although the name féra is still used for the only coregonid present in Lake Geneva, this is not the original species but the introduced C. palaea.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in moderate depth. Biology: In summer, feeds on insects. Moves to deeper water in winter. Spawns in February in deep water over aquatic vegetation.

threats:
The reasons for the extinction are thought to be eutrophication and overfishing in the early 1900s.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is very restricted to a single lake, Stechlin (4.2 km²). However the whole lake catchment is located within a well managed nature reserve. The species has no commercial value, and there are no known current, future or potential threats to the species.

range:
Northern Germany: Lake Stechlin (4.2 km²).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, inhabit deep water layers (20-60 m), migrate above 20 m at night. Lake Stechlin is a 4.25 km² oligotrophic lake (mean depth 23 m, maximum depth 69 m) formed during Weichselian glaciation (about 12,000 years BP). Biology: Spawns for the first time at two years, 65-110 mm SL for females. Spawns in April-September, usually May-June. Most individuals spawn only for a single season. Feeds mainly on Cladocera and Copepoda.

conservationAction:
The whole lake catchment is a nature reserve, which is well managed.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species was endemic to Lake Costance and was a commercial species in the 1960s but it is thought to have become Extinct in the 1970s when the eutrophicaton of the Lake peaked, which is said to have impacted egg development. It has not been recorded since in spite of several surveys over the past 10 years specifically to find the species as the conditions in the lake have improved.

range:
Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).

population:
Thought to have gone extinct in the early 1970s.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep water. Spawns in 10-60 m water depth. Biology: Spawns in July-November. After spawning migrates to deeper places, at depths of up to about 140 m. Migrates to 50-60 m in March-April. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (especially mussels and snails).

threats:
Eutrophication which peaked in 1979. Natural reproduction in coregonids is said to have almost stopped during the period of high eutrophication as the eggs could no longer develop in the low-oxygen substrates.

useAndTrade:
--- Other purpose text ---a comercial species in the 1960's but it is thought to have gone extinct in the 1970's


taxonomicNotes:
There is presently a homogenous population in Lake Walenstadt, spawning in October-November. There were reportedly two populations about 50 years ago, one spawning in July-September, one in December-February. The winter-spawning population is said to have appeared in 1899. After the severe environmental problems that impacted on the lake at the beginning of the 19th century, it has been hypothesised that displacement of spawning grounds, changes in temperature, and possibly invasion by a species from Lake Zurich resulted in a hybrid population (involving two or three species), which is now stabilising.

redListCategoryRationale:
More information is needed to be able to assess this species beyond Data Deficient at present. The presence of the fish needs to be confirmed in both Lakes Walenstadt and Zurich, as the species may be Extinct or it may be Least Concern.

range:
Switzerland: Lakes Zürich and Walenstadt.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep waters. Biology: Spawns in July (or until December?) in Lake Zurich, in deep water. Spawns near shores, at depths of 20-80 m, in October-November in Lake Walenstadt. Feeds on plankton in midwater and on benthic invertebrates (snails, chironomids).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species was last recorded in its only known location, Lake Geneva, in the early 1900s. If the species still existed today, it is highly likely that it would have been recorded in one of the many surveys that have taken place since.

population:
Last recorded in the early 1900s. If the species still existed it would have been recorded in one of the many surveys that have taken place.

habitat:
Habitat: The species is found in deeper parts of the lake. Biology: In December, moves to spawn in shallower areas, near shore, on gravel.


taxonomicNotes:
There are indications that a smaller species exists in Chiemsee, spawning at depths of 12-15 m at about the same time. Coregonus of unknown origin have been stocked in Chiemsee since 1876.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species was still present in Lake Chiemsee in the 1940s, and according to fisherman the species was still present until the late 1980's. Examined material of the Corgonus now present (in 2004) in Chiemsee all belong to an introduced species. The species has been searched for twice (2002 and 2004) and was not found, however it is believed that more surveys are needed to confirm the species status.

population:
Last recorded in the 1940's. Fisherman indicate its presence until the late 1980's.

habitat:
Habitat: Spawns in shallow water 1-5 m deep, on gravel or rock bottom. Chiemsee is mesotrophic lake. Biology: Lives up to six years. Spawns in mid-November to early-January, usually in first week of December. Feeds on zooplankton and small insects.

threats:
Stocking of alien species, most likely Coregonus macropthalmus.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is native only in Lake Ladoga (17,556 km²) (widely introduced to Russia). However, it has no known current or potential threats.

range:
Lake Ladoga. Widely introduce to lakes in Latvia, European Russia and Siberia.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Biology: Spawns for the first time at two years and 30 g (males) and 60-70 g (females). Juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on fish (mostly Osmerus eperlanus). Reported to hybridise with other Coregonus species.


taxonomicNotes:
At some time, the name C. lavaretus has been used for about all Eurasian coregonids (and many North American ones). Its use is now restricted to the present species.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species was extirpated from Lake Geneva (537 km²) in the early 1900s. There are no current or future threats to the species in Lakes Bourget and Aiguebelette, however the introduction of non-native coregonids is a potential threat.

range:
Native to Lakes Bourget (France) and Geneva (Switzerland, France). Population of Lake Aiguebelette (France) apparently introduced, but a 'lavaret' had already been recorded from there in the 17th century.

population:
Abundant in Lake Bourget. In Lake Aiguebelette its population status is unkown. The species is extirpated in Lake Geneva (early 1900s), but as offspring of Lake Bourget population are hatched and reared in Thonon (on the shores of Lake Geneva), escapes should be expected.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Biology: Spawns on gravel, near shore, in shallow water, in December.

threats:
In lake Bourget there are no threats known. The reasons for the extirpation in Lake Geneva are unknown.


redListCategoryRationale:
Only known from a single lake, Lake Breiter Luzin (3.5 km²), where the population heavily declined, in the 1970s, due to euthrophication, but is now recovering along with improved water quality. There are no current threats to the species but the introduction of alien species is a potential threat even though part of the lake basin is within a protected area.

population:
Since the 1970's, when the lake was eutrophic, the species has increased in abundance along with the water quality.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, reported to inhabit deep water layers (20-58 m) and move to shallow waters to spawn. Lake Breiter Luzin is a 3.5 km² mesotrophic lake (formerly oligotrophic), maximum depth 85 m. Biology: Lives up to six years. Matures at two years. Spawns in April-July, usually May-June. Feeds mainly on chironomids and Mysis relicta.

threats:
The species survived heavy eutrophication in the 1970s, caused by sewage and agricultural pollution. Stocking of alien species is a potential threat to the species.

conservationAction:
Part of the catchment is covered by a nature reserve.


taxonomicNotes:
It is not yet clear whether populations from Lake Onega belong to this species or are part of an endemic species flock.

redListCategoryRationale:
This is the most abundant species found in Lakes Ladoga (17,566 km²) and Onega (9,886 km²), where it has no current or potential threats.

range:
Lakes Ladoga and Onega, introduced in many natural and artificial water bodies in European and Siberian parts of Russia.

habitat:
Habitat: In summer, mainly along coasts of southern part of Lake Ladoga, and in winter, along the northern coast. Prefers stone and gravel bottom. No data from Lake Onega. Biology: Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years. Forms large aggregations in July-August in a few localities along southern coast of both lakes for intensive foraging, and again in late October-early November (when first ice appears) over stone bottom in southern part of lakes. Spawns during 10-15 days along shores, at a maximum depth of 2 m, on rocks or gravel bottom. After spawning, moves to deeper places to overwinter. Feeds on benthos (insect larvae, molluscs and crustaceans), in summer usually moves to upper water layers to feed on zooplankton especially Cladocera.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only native in Lake Constance (451 km²), where it is very abundant and there are no known current or future threats. Lake Constance is a cross border lake (Austria, Germany and Switzerland) and has a well managed and strictly regulated management and harvest plan. Because of this management plan it is not believed that the introduction of alien species or overfishing is a potential threat.

range:
Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Introduced in lakes of Po drainage (where it possibly has hybridised with other introduced species) and probably in several other European lakes.

population:
The second most abundant species in Lake Constance.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, midwater along shores. Spawns in shallow water, on bottom, along shores. Biology: Spawns in November-December. Feeds on insects and plankton.

conservationAction:
Lake Constance is a cross border lake (Austria, Germany and Switzerland) and has a well managed and strictly regulated management and harvest plan.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is usually known as Coregonus lavaretus in Baltic Sea basin.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is widespread in the Baltic basin. However, there are only few natural populations left. Most of the natural populations declined because of pollution, blocking of spawning rivers, and overfishing. Apparent abundance only reflects the massive stocking programmes in Germany, Poland and Scandinavia without which the populations would rapidly decline. In the Gulf of Bothnia alone, about six million juveniles were stocked annually (1995–1998) to support commercial fisheries. The major population crash of the wild population took place during major dam construction which ended more than 15 years ago, however there have still been some new dam constructions blocking the spawning grounds of Coregonus maraena (e.g., on the Kyrojnoki River in Finland which was constructed in 1993 (Himberg pers. comm.)) and there are still plans to construct more hydro-power dams in the Baltic basin. Even though the population has been in decline since before World War II, it is suspected that the wild native wild population has declined by more than 30% in the past three generations (15 years) as new dams have been built, and it is surviving at very low levels.In the European Union 27 region, this species is also Vulnerable (VU A2cd), with the same rationale as above.

range:
The species occurs in the Baltic Sea area: Swedish coast (including Bothnian Gulf, missing in Gotland); in southern Baltic, German coast, extending from River Schlei to Gulf of Finland. Southeastern North Sea basin: Ems, Weser and Elbe drainages and small rivers of Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark. Landlocked populations also occur in Lake Miedwie (former Madüsee) and other lakes in Poland, Lakes Vättern, Vänern, Mälaren, Siljan (Sweden), Ladoga (Russia) and others. It has been introduced and transplanted in many drainages within its native range and outside westward to Rhine drainage.

population:
Populations have declined across most of the species range. In Germany and Poland, since World War II, all populations have been extirpated except one, and there is only one population remaining in Denmark. In Sweden and Finland the populations have also massively declined.

habitat:
HabitatThis fish forages along coasts and spawns in freshened parts of estuaries or in lower stretches of rivers. It also occurs in deep, oligo-mesotrophic lakes. Spawning occurs in shallow water, in rapids or small rivers or over firm sediments in lowland rivers and estuaries. In Lake Vänern, it spawns at 8–20 m depth, over firm bottom.BiologyThe species has both anadromous and landlocked populations. It spawns for the first time at 3–5 years. Adults enters rivers in June–October (northern Baltic) until November (southern Baltic), when the temperature falls below 10°C. In the River Tornionjoki (Finland), individuals ascending from sea in June–August can be distinguished by DNA markers from fish ascending in September. It spawns in October–November (Finland) until November–December (Poland), when the temperature falls below 6°C. Spawners overwinter in rivers or at sea very close to estuaries. Eggs hatch in early spring (March–April in Odra) and drift to sea or to estuarine bays. Juveniles migrate to sea in June–August (Odra). It may migrate up to 700 km from the spawning river to forage at sea (Bothnian Bay). Northernmost stocks undertake the longest migrations between spawning and foraging grounds. Some females spawn every second year. The species feeds on benthic prey (crustaceans, molluscs, large insect larvae, small fish).

threats:
Water pollution, impoundment of rivers and overfishing.

conservationAction:
The species is ranched in all of its range states. In Gulf of Bothnia alone, about six million juveniles were stocked annually in 1995–1998 to support commercial fisheries.


range:
Sweden: Lakes Vänern, Locknesjön, Skalka-Parkijaur, Storvindeln, Storlaisan, Storuman, Vojmsjön, Siljan, Övre Särvsjön, Östra Vattnan, Orten-Randsjön, and probably others.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deeper waters. Biology: Spawns in October-February, on gravel to stone bottom, at 1-10 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, molluscs and insect larvae.


range:
Lakes of Baltic and White Sea basins from southern Norway to Karelia and Kola Peninsula (and possibly further eastward), e.g. in Lakes Gruda, Krøderen, Randsfjorden (Norway), Bullaren, Bolmen, Vänern, Vettasjärvi, Siljan, Storsjön, Tåsjön, Ormsjön, Flåjsön, Övre Särvsjön, Nedre Särvsjön, Östra Vattnan, Orten-Randsjön, Ansjön (Sweden), Inarijärvi (Finland), Onega, Ladoga, and Imandra (Russia).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. In Lake Ladoga, mainly at depths less than 50 m. Migrates to spawn in bays at beginning of autumn and spawns in November over clean pebble or silt bottom at depths of 2 to 10 m. Biology: Gregarious, forms shoals. In small lakes and low altitude often sole species of genus. Spawns in September-February, depending on latitude and habitat, in flowing water in mid-autumn, in deep water in winter. In Lake Vänern, spawns in November-December, at 2-5 m depth, over gravel or sand. Feeds on plankton in summer, may take benthic prey too.


redListCategoryRationale:
Less than 5% of the species global range occurs within Europes, therefore it is listed as Not Applicable. European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages. Introduced or stocked in many lakes in northern and central Russia.

population:
Not declining (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.).

habitat:
Habitat: Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes and their tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, marine waters with salinity up to 6-10?. Rivers during migration. Biology: Anadromous, semi-anadromous, lacustrine, lacustrine-riverine, and riverine stocks are reported. Most stocks are migratory. Spends most of year at sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Enters rivers in July-August and reaches spawning sites by October-November. In larger rivers, moves upriver up to 2000 km (average speed 20 km/day). Spawns for the first time at 6-14 years, 470-500 mm SL. Spawns in rapids or shallows, at 1-2°C, when rivers start freezing. Adults leave spawning sites in winter. Eggs hatch in 150-180 days; peak hatching usually in April. Juveniles feed on planktonic crustaceans. Adults feed on plankton in winter (during which they do not cease active foraging) and benthic invertebrates in summer.


range:
All drainages of Arctic Ocean from Volonga (46°E) and Pechora to Alaska (102°W). Rarely at sea, in water with salinity up to 9-15 ?.

habitat:
Habitat: Lowland rivers and lakes. Biology: Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 4-8 years, females at 5-9. Adults start upstream migration in late July-August and reach spawning sites by October-November and spawn in stretches with swift current and sand-pebble bottom, often under ice. Spawning lasts 5-7 days and fish leave spawning site soon after, migrating downstream to overwinter in deeper places of lower stretches of rivers together with older juveniles. In spring, alevins drift from spawning sites downstream with flood-water and forage in floodplain lakes and oxbows where they remain until end of summer before moving to river or reaching maturity (if lakes are large enough and do not dry out). Alevins and juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on benthos, mainly chironomid larvae and molluscs.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. Known from lakes of western central Baltic basin, Sweden, southern Norway, Denmark, Poland. In Poland, restricted to a few lakes in lower Odra drainage.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Lakes of western central Baltic basin, Sweden, southern Norway, Denmark, Poland. In Poland, restricted to a few lakes in lower Odra drainage.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, pelagic. Biology: Spawns in November-March, along shores, at 5-10 m depth, on firm bottom, or in lower part of tributaries. Feeds on zooplankton.


redListCategoryRationale:
Only known from Lake Vierwaldstätter (Lake Lucerne 102 km²). Thought to be extinct, due to eutrophication of the lake in the 1970s, but was re-discovered in early 2000s. The population seems to be on the increase as water quality improves. There are no known current, future or potential threats to the species as water quality is improving and there is strict controls on the introductions of species in Swiss lakes.

population:
Thought to be extinct, but was re-discovered in early 2000s. The population seems to be on the increase.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, pelagic, feeding at 5-30 m depth. Biology: In July-September, moves to depths of up to 80-200 m to spawn. Feeds on crustaceans.

threats:
Eutrophication was thought to have caused the species to go extinct. Now conditions in the lake are improving.


taxonomicNotes:
Usually considered to be present in all tributaries of North Sea basin. 'Houtings' from Danish North Sea basin and German rivers from Eider, Elbe west to Ems are C. maraena, a species widespread in Baltic basin.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species has not been recorded from its range (Southern North Sea basin: Schelde, Rhine and Meuse drainages) since about 1940. The species relied upon estuaries and brackish water to forage, where pollution was at it its most concentrated and coregonids are very sensitive to pollution. Many surveys have been undertaken since (most recently in 2005) within its previous range, and the species has never been recorded.

range:
Southern North Sea basin: Schelde, Rhine and Meuse drainages (exceptionally northern France). Ascended Rhine up to Köln [recorded to have reached Strasbourg (France) but this is probably erroneous]. Occasional records from southeast coast of England.

habitat:
Habitat: In brackish water and main rivers; no evidence that it enters marine waters. Biology: Spawns in October-December in rivers. Young move to brackish habitats where they remain until mature. Feeds on zooplankton, supplemented by benthic invertebrates in adults.

useAndTrade:
--- Other purpose text ---Now extinct - last recorded 1940


redListCategoryRationale:
The species was extirpated from Lake Morat in the early 1900s, but it is still abundant in Lakes Neuchâtel (204 km²) and Bienne (40 km²) where there are no known current, future or potential threats as the peak of eutrophication is over and the stocking of invasive species is banned and well controlled in Switzerland.

range:
Switzerland: Lakes Neuchâtel, Bienne and Morat. Introduced in Lake Geneva and other lakes and reservoirs in France and Switzerland.

population:
Abundant in Lakes Neuchâtel and Bienne. Extirpated in Morat in early 1900s due to water level management and polluton (eutrophication).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4 years, females at five. Spawns on gravel near shore or, depending on population, in depths up to 50 m. Spawning time depends on depth and apparently of temperature at that location, from November-December in shallow water to February in deepest places.

threats:
Eutrophication is the probable cause of the species extirpation in Lake Morat. There are no current threats to the species in lakes Neuchâtel and Bienne.


range:
Large lakes of northern Sweden (Parkijaure, Hornävan, Storlaisan, Storuman, Vojmsjön, Storlögdan), Finland and Russia (Karelia). Only sporadically in Baltic near Neva and Narva estuaries.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Often enters rivers to spawn. Biology: Spawns in October-November, on gravel to stone bottom, near shores. Feeds on zooplankton and insects from surface.


taxonomicNotes:
Record from Sweden (lake Storvindeln) apparently is C. pallasii. Russian authors recognize four groups of populations, which partly occur in sympatry and which seem to be distinct species: 1) river peled; living in river, spawning in river, extending from Mezen to Ienissei drainages; 2) lake-river peled; in same drainages but absent from Ob' River; 3) large lacustrine peled; spawning in lakes, reaching up to 440 mm SL; 4) dwarf lacustrine peled; living and spawning in lakes, reaching up to 250 mm SL, with a shallower body and several rows of small black spots on body. It is presently not clear, which of them is the 'true' C. peled.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. Even if the species is split into four different species (see taxonomic notes) they would all be Least Concern. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Russia: Arctic Ocean basin from Kolyma (eastern Siberia) westward to Mezen drainages. Hybrids involving C. peled introduced in many reservoirs and lakes (Onega) throughout Russia, eastern and central Europe.

habitat:
Habitat: Lakes and rivers. Biology: Lives up to 12-13 years (5-6 in dwarf form). Different populations of different forms greatly differ in growth rate. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years, males one year earlier than females. Females ripen very fast just before spawning; most females spawn each year. Spawns in autumn-early winter depending on local climate, over hard sand (shallows in lakes), sand, gravel or stone bottom (in rivers). In northern lakes, spawns under ice. Depth at spawning sites depends on ice thickness and changes in water level, commonly 1-3 m. Spawning lasts 12-16 days at 2-3°C. Feeds on zooplankton (mostly crustaceans), benthic animals (especially insect larvae and mussels, also algae) and insects from surface.


redListCategoryRationale:
Known only from Llyn Tegid (Wales) (4 km²), where it is threatened by a declining water quality, low summer and fluctuating water levels and introduced Gymnocephalus cernuus (Ruffe) (introduced to the lake in the 1980s) which attacks spawning C. pennantii and predates upon eggs and young fish. There is an introduction programme, where fertilised eggs from the fish have now been relocated to nearby Llyn Arenig, it is currently unknown if this has been successful.

range:
Wales: Llyn Tegid [Lake Bala]. Introduced into Llyn Arenig.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in open water. Biology: Spawns in January-February in shallow bays on stones and gravel. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.

threats:
Declining water quality, a lack of oxygen and the depths of the lake in summer, human activity and fluctuating lake levels.Gymnocephalus cernuus (ruffe) - introduced to the lake in the 1980s - attacks spawning C. pennantii and predates upon eggs and young fish.

conservationAction:
Fertilised eggs from the fish have now been relocated to nearby Llyn Arenig as part of a two year project.


redListCategoryRationale:
Widespread species with no known major threats to the species. European Union 27 = NA. Less than 5% of the species global distribtuion occurs within the European Union, it is therefore listed as Not Applicable.

range:
Arctic Ocean basin, from Finland (Lapland) to eastern Siberia, Alaska, Canada eastward to Mackenzie drainage.

habitat:
Habitat: Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes with tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, brackish waters. Rivers during migration. Biology: Males reproduce for the first time at 4-7 years, females at 5-8. Migratory. In July-August, congregates in large schools and migrates upriver to spawning sites. Lacustrine-riverine stocks enter lake tributaries. Distance of migration varies, commonly not very long. Most individuals spawn annually in August-November, sometimes later, in smaller streams or shallows of larger rivers with heavy current over gravel or stone bottom. Lacustrine stocks not migratory. Female lays only a single portion of eggs. Adults migrate downriver to deeper holes of middle stretches to overwinter. Usually starts downstream migration to feeding areas with ice melting. Feeds mainly on large benthic invertebrates (molluscs, gammarids, mysids, chironomids) and plankton in summer, small fishes and terrestrial insects in autumn.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is known from five Irish Loughs, Lough Neagh (385 km²), lower and upper Loughs Erne (139 km²), Lough Ree (111 km²) and Lough Derg (134 km²). The main threats to the species are eutrophication of the lakes, alien species introductions and warming of the lakes. The only remaining self sustaining population is in Lough Neagh, the rest of the locations rely upon stocking (ranched individuals) for survival. The species therefore has an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 385 km² and is found in only one location (Lough Neagh) until the other populations do not rely upon the stocking for survival.

range:
Ireland: Lough Neagh, lower and upper Loughs Erne, Lough Ree and Lough Derg.

population:
Only abundant in lough Neagh, where after a decline in the 1970's, the population is on the increase and may number several million (Whilde, A. 1993. Threatened mammals, birds, amphibians and fish in Ireland. Irish Red Data Book 2: Vertebrates. HMSO, Belfast). The species relies upon stocking in the other Loughs. It was on the verge of exinction in Lough Erne where, in 1992, only two individuals were caught.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in open waters. Biology: Lives up to nine years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in October-December on rocky or gravel shallow areas. Feeds mainly on crustaceans (Mysis relicta), supplemented by insect larvae, shrimps and small fishes.

threats:
Eutrophication of the loughs, the introduction of alien species (competition with cyprinids), overfishing and potentially warming of the water due to climate change. In Lough Neagh competition with roach is a serious threat.

conservationAction:
Fishing regulations and stocking for conservation purposes.


taxonomicNotes:
Several species are possibly confused under the name C. renke. In the early 20th century, a small, pelagic feeding species with terminal mouth and 37-44 gill rakers, spawning at the surface in the middle of the lake was present in sympatry with C. renke in Starnberger See. It is apparently extinct.

redListCategoryRationale:
Several species are possibly confused under the name C. renke. The type locality (Starnbergersee 59 km²) has been heavily impacted by pollution (eutrophication) and stocking of alien species, the species may be Extinct or threatened. More species taxonomy needs clarification before a full assessment can be made.

range:
Germany: Lakes Ammersee, Starnbergersee, Tegernsee, Schliersee, Kochelsee; Austria: Traunsee, Hallstädtersee. In 1480, introduced from Kochelsee to Walchensee (not previously inhabited by Coregonus).

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic in surface layers. Usually spawns above gravel or rocks on bottom or along shores. Spawns below surface in Ammersee. In Traunsee and Hallstädter See, reported to migrate to spawn in tributaries. Biology: Lives up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in late November-early December at 3-4 m depth (Schliersee), in mid December-late January at 10-20 m depth (Tegernsee), in second half of November at 2-3 m depth (Starnbergersee), in mid-December at 80-100 m depth (Kochelsee, Walchensee), in November below surface (Ammersee). Feeds mainly on zooplankton, rarely on benthic invertebrates. May consume large amounts of small fish in summer.

threats:
The type locality (Starnbergersee 59 km²) has been heavily impacted by pollution (eutrophication) and stocking of alien species


redListCategoryRationale:
Last recorded in 1890. Survey work in the 1950s found no Corgonus in the lake at all. The Corgonus that are present in the lake now originate from stocked individuals from other species. In 1950 it was already considered that eutrophication was responsible for the species extinction.

population:
Last recorded in 1890. Survey work in the 1950s found no coregonus in the lake. The Coregons that are present in the lake now originate from stocked individuals from other species.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep waters. Biology: Spawns on sand or mud at 35-40 m deep, in January.

threats:
Eutrophication which happened before 1950s.


redListCategoryRationale:
Less than 5% of the species population is found within Europe, the species is therefore listed as Not Applicable.

range:
Lakes and lower course of large rivers of Arctic Ocean basin, from Pechora drainage to eastern Siberia; North America eastward to Bathurst (Canada). C. 'albula' from Lakes Mjosa and Osensjoen (Norway) might also belong to this species.

habitat:
Habitat: Lakes, estuaries and large rivers. Semi-anadromous populations forage in estuaries, lower courses of rivers, backwaters and lakes. Spawns on sand and gravel, in deep pools. Biology: Lacustrine and semi-anadromous populations. Lives up to 10 years, exceptional records up to 22 years in Norway. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Semi-anadromous populations migrate upstream in June-September; in Pechora up to 800-1000 km from sea. In Kara, spawns in estuary. In Kara and some Siberian rivers, two spawning runs are known. First run enters rivers in August and spawns in September; second run starts in September and spawns in October soon before or after appearance of ice. Eggs hatch in spring and juveniles remain near spawning site until first autumn, then move downriver. In tundra lakes, spawns under first ice in October. Feeds on zooplankton, crustaceans and small fish. Adults do not feed during spawning migration. An isolated, dwarf stock growing to about 100 mm SL is known from Vashutkiny lakes, in upper Usa drainage, a Pechora tributary. The Pechora population may at least partly result of hybridization between C. albula and C. sardinella.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from four lakes in Cumbria, UK. Haweswater (3 km²), Ullswater (14 km²), Brotherswater (<0.5 km²) and Red Tarn (<0.5 km²). The population has strongly declined in Hawswater (17% of its total range) which is still ongoing, due to water abstraction and cormorant predation. The area of occupancy of the species is around 20 km².

range:
England: Lakes Haweswater, Ullswaterand, Brotherswater and Red Tarn (Cumbria).

population:
In Haweswater the population has seen a decline. Stable in the other three lakes.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in open water. Biology: Spawns in January-February, in shallow bays on stones and gravel. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.

threats:
Water abstraction and cormorant predation.

conservationAction:
Cormorant control measures are being practised. Reducing the level of water abstraction.


taxonomicNotes:
The above diagnosis is based on Lake Vierwaldstätter population. Populations from the smaller lakes apparently exhibit a greater variability and their identity requires confirmation. There have been a number of introductions and there are indications that several lakes are now inhabited by hybrid populations and that the original populations or species are extinct. This is probably the case of the original population of Lake Sempach; descriptions of material collected in the 19th century suggest that in fact it might have been a distinct species. Populations from small lakes have also been impacted by eutrophication.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is native in Lakes Vierwaldstätter (abundant), Zug and Alpnach, where there are no known current or future threats. There is also no potential threat from introduced species due to the strict management of Swiss lakes.

range:
Switzerland: Lakes Vierwaldstätter, Zug, Alpnach, possibly in Sempach, Baldegg and Hallwil; introduced in Lakes Aegeri, possibly Lungern, Maggiore and Locarno (possibly has hybridised with other introduced species).

population:
Very abundant in Vierwaldstätter. Status in other lakes unknown.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, feeds on benthic (spring) and pelagic prey (summer). Biology: Fast growing species. Spawns in November-December, along gravel to stone shores, in very shallow water. Feeds on crustaceans, insect larvae and molluscs. Survival of Lake Hallwil population depends on stocking as eutrophication makes the lake unsuitable for reproduction since 1960.


taxonomicNotes:
We retain all the above listed populations (including some winter spawning ones) in C. trybomi. Allozyme data suggest that the different populations have arisen independently from a sympatric population of autumn spawning ciscoes and are distinct species. In this case, three of the four species endemic to Sweden are already extinct.

redListCategoryRationale:
A single known population of the species remains in Lake Fegen (20 km², area of occupancy probably less than 10 km² as it is only a deep water species) on the Atran drainage, Sweden. It is already extirpated from Lakes Ören, Hålsjön and Äsunden (1970s and 1980s) probably because of acidification (acid rain) and stocking of alien species (including Sander lucioperca).The populations from Russia and Finland are most likely not conspecific and are not included in this evaluation (J. Freyhof pers. comm.).

range:
Sweden: Lakes Ören (Motalaström drainage), Hålsjön (Viskan drainage), Äsunden, Fegen (Ätran drainage); Other populations in Finland (Lakes Änättijärvi, Kostonjärvi, Kokkamo, Pirttijärvi, Suomunjärvi (winter spawning), Sokojärvi, Kajoonjärvi, Luovijärvi, Siikajärvi (spring spawning)) and Russia (some lakes of Karelia (winter spawning; e.g. Korpiselkä)) are most likely not conspecific (Freyhof pers comm.).

population:
The species is no longer present in Lakes Ören (Motalaström drainage), Hålsjön (Viskan drainage), Äsunden.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, deep water. Biology: Spawns in late April-early May (Sweden), December-January (winter spawning, Finland) or March-May (spring spawning, Finland), at 10-30 m depth. In all lakes, spring spawning C. trybomi occur in sympatry with C. albula. Winter spawning C. trybomi occur with C. albula only in Lake Änättijärvi, Finland. Feeds on plankton. In October-November rises to surface, probably to feed on spawn of C. albula.

threats:
Alien species (including Sander lucioperca) and water pollution from acid rain has caused the extirpation from Swedish lakes.

conservationAction:
Fishing has now been banned in Lake Fegen for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
The populations of Cumbria and Scotland differ somewhat in morphology and might be distinct species. On the other hand, available data do not allow to distinguish C. vandesius from the assemblage of all populations referred to C. albula and C. sardinella. 

Available data do not allow to distinguish C. albula as a whole from C. sardinella and C. vandesius. A very high variability is reported for all morphological characters between the many populations referred to C. albula, suggesting that several species might be involved. Further studies are needed to resolve their identity. However, C. vandesius is clearly distinct from C. albula populations from eastern Baltic basin, but it is similar to some populations from the western Baltic.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is currently extant (within its native range) in two lakes, Derwentwater (5.4 km²) where it is protected and deemed to be safe and Bassenthwaite (4.5 km²) where it is suffering from low population abundance and inconsistent recruitment. It has been extirpated in Castle Loch (1911) and Mill Loch (1970's) due to eutrophication. The species has been established (benign introduction) in Loch Skene (from Bassenthwaite Lake) for conservation purposes. The species is therefore found in three locations and its area of occupancy is less than 500 km² and its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km².

range:
England: Lakes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite (Cumbria); Scotland: Castle Loch and Mill Loch near Lochmaben. It has been introduced for conservation purposes in Loch Skene.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in open water. Spawns on gravel or stone shores. Biology: Gregarious, shoaling. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in November-December. Males gather in spawning places and females join these shoals and spawn together in midwater. Eggs sink to bottom and develop between stones. Shoals move to deeper water in warm weather. Comes closer to shores in late summer. Feeds mainly on crustaceans (Entomostraca), supplemented by small insects.

threats:
Eutrophication was the cause of the species extirpation in Castle Loch which occurred in 1911 and Mill Loch in the early 1970s. The main threat to the species in Bassenthwaite is Gymnocephalus cernuus, an introduced species which eats the eggs of C. vandesius. There is no plausible threat to the Derwentwater population.

conservationAction:
Fishing for the species is now banned in its remaining locations.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is abundant in Lake Belozero (estimated area of 1,200 km2), where there are no known current or future threats to the species. It is invasive and spreading in Volga drainage.

range:
Russia: native in Lake Belozero [Beloe, Beloe Ozero], northern Volga drainage (60°11'N 37°34'E). Invasive in upper and middle Volga reservoirs downriver to Saratov reservoir.

habitat:
Habitat : Lacustrine.Biology: Lives up to 21/2 years. Spawns for the first time at 2 years, males may spawn for the first time in their first year. Spawns usually around 10 November. Most individuals spawn only for a single season.


habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, pelagic, usually at 0-40 m during summer. Spawns at surface over deep water, off-shore. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in first half of December, when temperature falls below 7°C. Males aggregate at surface and females ready to spawn come from deeper water to join these aggregations. Eggs sink to bottom and hatch in March. Larvae swim to surface and start to feed after about 8 days. Feeds on plankton and insects; preys on juvenile Perca fluviatilis in summer.


taxonomicNotes:
Diagnosis based on Ladoga population (true C. widegreni). Baltic, Swedish (C. polonica) populations referred to this species are probably misidentified as they are shallow water, small-sized species (up to about 200 mm SL), while the true C. widegreni is a deep-water, large size species.

redListCategoryRationale:
It is most likely a species complex, and if proved to be so, true C. widegreni would only be found in a small area in Lake Ladoga. More work needs to be done on the species taxonomy.

range:
Baltic: Bothnian Gulf, Gotland (missing along Swedish coast southward of Stockholm); southern Baltic: from Germany to Gulf of Finland; several landlocked populations in northern Germany (almost extirpated), Sweden (lakes Vänern, Vättern, Locknesjön, Storvindeln, Storlaisan, Skalka-Parkijaur, Arjeplog), Russia (Neva drainage, Lakes Ladoga and Onega).

habitat:
Habitat: At sea, coastal waters. Lacustrine, at depths greater than 30 m, in Lake Ladoga commonly at 50-150 m. Biology: Anadromous and landlocked populations. Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-6 years. In northern Baltic, spawns along shores or in lowermost stretches of rivers, in October-January. In Lake Ladoga, spawns at 50-100 m depth, in late November-December (later than other sympatric Coregonus species), overwinters in deep water and moves to higher water layers (25-40 m) only in summer. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, molluscs and insect larvae.


redListCategoryRationale:
Extirpated in Lakes Pfäffikon and Greiffensee (before 1950). Even though the species is only extant in two lakes, Zürich (60 km²) and Walenstadt (18 km²), there are no known current or future threats to the species and it is abundant. There is also no potential threat from invasive species as the Swiss lakes are now strictly managed.

range:
Switzerland: Lakes Zürich, Walenstadt, Pfäffikon and Greiffensee.

population:
Extirpated in Pfäffikon and Greiffensee. Abundant Lakes Zürich and Walenstadt.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in midwater. Biology: Spawns in November-December, at depths of 12-100 m. Feeds on plankton.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is known from Lakes Vierwaldstätter (102 km²), and possibly also Alpnach (3 km²) and Sarnen (7 km²) and was extirpated from Lake Zug (31 km²) before 1950. The species is very abundant in Lake Vierwaldstätter where there is no known current or future threat. There is also no potential threat from introduced species due to the strict management of the Swiss lakes.

range:
Switzerland: Lakes Vierwaldstätter, Zug and possibly Alpnach and Sarnen.

population:
Extirpate in Zug (before 1950). Very abundant in Vierwaldstätter.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, pelagic feeder. Biology: Most individuals spawn in November-December, at depths of 20-80 m, along littoral slope. In lake Vierwaldstätter, a very rare "albeli" is spawning in July-August. Its identity needs further investigations. Feeds on zooplankton and insect nymphs.

threats:
No current threats to the species are known.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is severely fragmented within the Danube drainage, where most populations exclusively depend on stocking and natural reproduction is very limited due to habitat alterations and flow regime changes. The main current threat to the species is the flow regulation from hydropower dams which impact the species, and their prey's, habitat and pollution. Documented self-sustaining populations are very few. For example, these include the Drau, Mur, Melk, Pielach, and lower Gail rivers in Austria. Globally, they will have a combined area of occupancy of less than 500 km² (based on spawning areas).

range:
Native only in the Danube drainage, where it has a very fragmented distribution. Very locally introduced in some headwaters of Odra, Vistula (Poland), Lake Constance (Germany), Tagus (Spain), Rhône (France) and probably other drainages where it apparently maintains only by stocking.

population:
The species has undergone a massive decline starting over 100 years ago. More recently the majority of the stocks rely upon re-introductions (from farmed stock and ranched) for angling and conservation. It is almost impossible to identify if any stocks are self sustaining.

habitat:
Habitat: Montane and submontane reaches of large streams and swift rivers with gravel beds, well oxygenated, fast-flowing water and temperatures rarely above 15°C. Prefers deep pools and shady water under overhanging vegetation. Spawns in very clean gravel in fast-flowing water, usually in small river tributaries. Biology: Lives more than 20 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4 years and about 1 kg, females at 4-5 years and 2-3 kg. Spawns every year in early spring, usually March-April, rarely early May, when temperatures reach 6-10°C. Commonly migrates upriver for spawning in upper reaches of tributaries. Males arrive first at spawning sites. Males guard females against other males. Both sexes excavate a redd about 1.2-3.0 m in diameter, 10-20 cm deep, and defend a small territory in spawning grounds against other individuals. Usually spawns during daytime. During spawning act, both sexes cover the eggs with substrate. Both sexes may defend the spawning site up to two weeks after spawning. Eggs usually hatch after 25-40 days. Larvae remain in gravel until yolk sack is absorbed after 8-14 days. Juveniles inhabit fast-flowing waters and feed on drifting invertebrates, becoming piscivorous after 1-3 years. Adults feed on fishes as well as small terrestrial vertebrates. Juveniles and adults are territorial.

threats:
Historically overfshing, pollution and dam construction caused the decline of the species. Currently the main the threats are hydropower stations which heavily regulate flow regime (which impacts upon their prey and habitat), and pollution in some countries (Bosnia and Croatia).

conservationAction:
Restocking, fishing regulations. A EU LIFE project in Austria to improve habitat conditions (now finished and seems to have been successful). Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.


redListCategoryRationale:
Taxonomy needs to be confirmed using molecular data. No information for abundance, trend and threats.

range:
It is restricted to the Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).


range:
It is restricted to the Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).


redListCategoryRationale:
S. carpio is restricted to Garda lake in northern Italy and its population has been reduced by more than 80% in the past ten years due to introduced species, overfishing and other unknown reasons. The decline in this species is based upon fisheries catch data.

range:
It is restricted to Garda lake in northern Italy. It has been introduced into numerous lakes in Italy and other countries.

habitat:
It is a lacustrine species. It has two spawning seasons: one in winter and one in summer.

threats:
Overfishing, destruction of habitat and water pollution (past threats). Introduced species (Coregonus spp).


taxonomicNotes:
Often appears in the literature as S. macrostigma, a species endemic to Algeria. Trouts retaining parr marks in adults are also present in southwestern France (southern Garonne tributaries and Adour drainages, Atlantic basin; Aude drainage, Mediterranean basin) and Iberian Peninsula (Ebro basin, Mediterranean basin). They have also been called S. macrostigma but apparently represent several distinct, unnamed and unstudied species.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is found in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Tyrrhenian basin of Italy from Magra drainage southward (streams in hilly areas; in lowland in karstic resurgences) where it is threatened by water abstraction, overfishing and stocking of non-native trouts (resulting in hybridisation and competition). It is suspected that in the past three generations (10 to 12 years) the population has declined by almost 30%, and it will continue to do so as water abstraction will most likely increase.

range:
Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Tyrrhenian basin of Italy from Magra drainage southward.

habitat:
Habitat: Streams in hilly areas; in lowland in karstic resurgences. Clear waters around 10-20°C, usually with dense subaquatic vegetation. Biology: Resident ecotype only. Spawns in January-March, on gravel bottom, in shallow water. Feeds mainly on aquatic insects.

threats:
Water abstraction, overfishing and stocking of non-native trouts (hybridisation and competition).

conservationAction:
There are local reserves set up specifically for the species in Italy.


redListCategoryRationale:
Very little information exists for this species. It is suspected that it hybridises with introduced trout species, but more information is needed to know the impacts of this. Illegal fishing is also a potential threat as the species is a large fish and most likely targeted. The taxonomy of the species also needs clarification before a full extinction risk assessment can be made.For the European Union 27 region, this species is also assessed as Data Deficient (DD), with the same rationale as above.

range:
This fish is known from the Adriatic basin, from Krka to Aoos drainages (Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia); possibly present in Alfios (Peloponnese, Greece).

habitat:
HabitatThe species occurs in lakes and large rivers. It spawns on gravel bottom. BiologyA resident in lacustrine ecotypes, in the Lake Skadar basin the species overwinters in deep parts of lake, moving to main tributaries in summer.

threats:
Hybridisation with introduced trouts and illegal fishing are potential threats.

conservationAction:
No information available. More information is needed for this species, in particular on its threats, and it is in need of taxonomic clarification.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is known only from Lake Kezenoi-am (2.4 km²)  in the northern Caucasus where it is being impacted by the introduction of Squalius cephalus, which feeds on its fry. Prior to the introduction of Gobio holurus and Squalius cephalus, S. ezenami was the only fish in the lake. Levels of harvesting are unknown as the area is a war zone (Chechnya).

range:
Russia: Lake Kezenoi-am (formerly Eizenam (Daghestan)) in northern Caucasus at 1870 m above sea level. In 1963, introduced in Lake Mochokh (Daghestan), probably established.

habitat:
Habitat: Lake Kezenoi-am is a mountain lake, 2.4 km²,with a maximum depth of 74 m,, temperatures about 5°C below 20 m and 5-18°C in upper layers in summer, covered by ice in winter, high oxygen concentrations down to bottom year-round and low plankton density. Spawns in lake, close to underwater springs; large-sized form probably migrates to tributaries. Prior to the introduction of Gobio holurus and Squalius cephalus, S. ezenami was the only fish in the lake. Biology: Lacustrine, migrates to tributaries. Two forms are known: small-size (adults 160-260 mm SL, 200-350 g) and large-size (adults 380-1130 mm SL, over 1 kg). Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Spawning period extends over almost entire year. Young juveniles feed mostly on gammarids, chironomid larvae; larger juveniles and adults feed on molluscs, benthic invertebrates and fry; largest individuals are mostly piscivorous, especially since the introduction of G. holurus.

threats:
Introduction of alien species (Squalius cephalus), which feeds on its fry. The region is hard to access as it is a war zone (Chechnya) so levels of harvesting are unknown.


taxonomicNotes:
Several populations of large, piscivorous trouts from Ireland, northern Scotland, Cumbria and Wales are called ferox trouts. They are recognized as a distinct species on the basis of their existence in sympatry with genetically distinct S. trutta in several lakes, but it remains to be demonstrated whether all ferox trouts are conspecific. Some of these individuals or populations might be old, large, piscivorous, lacustrine S. trutta.

redListCategoryRationale:
Several populations of large, piscivorous trouts from Ireland, northern Scotland, Cumbria and Wales are called ferox trouts. They are recognized as a distinct species on the basis of their existence in sympatry with genetically distinct S. trutta in several lakes, but it remains to be demonstrated whether all ferox trouts are conspecific. Some of these individuals or populations might be old, large, piscivorous, lacustrine S. trutta. More information is needed on the distribution, status and population and threats of S. ferox in these lakes.

range:
British Isles: Loughs Melvin, Erne, Corrib and Mask (Ireland), several lakes of northern Scotland, apparently also Lakes Ullswater and Bassenthwaite (Cumbria) and Llyns Padarn and Peris (Wales).

habitat:
Habitat: Large oligotrophic lakes; in Scotland usually only in lakes inhabited by Salvelinus species on which it preys. Spawns only in the larger and deeper tributaries. Biology: Lives up to 23 years. Spawns in November-December. Feeds on fishes and a variety of insects. In Scotland, feeds on invertebrates until about 300 mm SL, then switches to a fish diet, mostly Salvelinus species.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species' entire range (Lake Posta Fibreno, 0.29 km² and tributaries) is included in Lago di Posta Fibreno Nature Reserve. However, there is still a potential threat of fish introduction or accidental pollution.

range:
Italy: Lake Posta Fibreno and tributaries.

habitat:
Habitat: Lake Posta Fibreno is an elongated karstic lake with underwater springs and caves, 1.1 km long, 0.1-0.3 km wide, 0.29 km², 289 m above sea level, 15 m deep (average depth 2.5 m), about 10°C year-round and clear and well oxygenated water. Spawns close to underwater springs. Biology: Lacustrine, sometimes entering lake tributaries. Spawns in December-January (local S. cettii population in February-March).

threats:
Potential threats of introduced species and pollution.

conservationAction:
The species entire range (Lake Posta Fibreno, 0.29 km² and tributaries) is included in Lago di Posta Fibreno Nature Reserve.


taxonomicNotes:
Genetic data show that resident trouts from the northern Black Sea basin represent a lineage very different from those of the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Caspian basins, but there is no published morphological comparison. Presently, a single species of Salmo is recognized in the northern Black Sea basin (in addition to the extinct S. schiefermuelleri). A population from upper Vardar (Lipkovska) is tentatively referred to S. labrax; it is superficially distinguished from all Balkan species by its very slightly emarginate caudal. In upper Danube, S. trutta is present and hybrid populations are or might be present in lower Danube, Dniestr, Dniepr and Don.

redListCategoryRationale:
Because the species has been impacted by the construction of dams (mostly more than three generations ago), it has now stabilised at a lower level and, therefore, does not qualify for the threatened or Near Threatened category. The anadromous ecotype is very rare in Europe now. Because of dams, most returning adults are unable to reach spawning sites. The resident populations are less impacted by the dams.European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Rivers draining to northern Black Sea. Lipkovska stream in upper Vardar drainage (Macedonia). Anatolian populations have recently been show to be two distinct species, Salmo coruhensis and S. rizeensis, reducing the distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Habitat: At sea, along coasts at depths of up to 50 m. Migrates to hill streams. Resident part of populations in streams and uppermost reaches with fast current, cold clear water and stone or gravel bottom. Spawns in upper reaches with fast current. Biology: Anadromous, lacustrine and resident ecotypes. Spawns in October-January. Parrs spend 2-4 years in rivers and streams, then smoltify and migrate to sea or mature in freshwater. Spends 2-4 years at sea. Anadromous individuals return to rivers in April-May and again in October-November. Eggs hatch in 6-8 weeks. Parrs and resident adults feed on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. Anadromous and large lacustrine individuals feed mainly on fish and large crustaceans. Anadromous individuals feed while in rivers.

threats:
The anadromous ecotype is very rare in Europe. Because of damming, most returning adults are unable to reach spawning sites. The resident populations are less impacted by the dams.


redListCategoryRationale:
Taxonomy needs to be confirmed using molecular data. There is also little information on abundance, trend and threats.

range:
It is restricted to Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

habitat:
It lives at depths of 60–80 m within the lake. Spawning season is in January-February. This trout makes up the bulk of catches of salmonid in the Albanian waters of Ohrid lake.


redListCategoryRationale:
Taxonomy needs to be confirmed using molecular data.

range:
It is restricted to Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

habitat:
It lives at depths of 60 to 80 m within the lake. Spawning season is in January-February and spawns in tributaries around the lakes.

threats:
Destruction of spawning areas, water pollution, overfishing.


redListCategoryRationale:
The taxonomy needs to be confirmed using molecular data and there is no information on abundance, or population trends.

range:
Restricted to the upper Vardar river basin in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

population:
Probably decreasing but there is no hard data.

threats:
Future habitat loss, water abstraction, and water pollution.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Slovenia there is estimated to be around 10,000 individuals of the pure species at seven locations with a combined area of occupancy (AOO) of <20 km². The subpopulations in Italy need more research, as more subpopulations are likely to be found in addition to the three already identified. The stocking of foreign trout continues and may reduce population numbers of genetically pure marble trout. However, the populations in Slovenia, and to a lesser extent in Italy, are safe and have no major widespread threats (Crivelli, A. pers comm).

range:
It is restricted to southern Switzerland, northern Italy and Adriatic basin of Slovenia. It has been introduced in several countries in Europe. There are seven pure subpopulations in Slovenia and three known pure subpopulations in Italy (more research needed as there may be more).

population:
Rare. The population declined in the early 1900s.

habitat:
The remaining population of Marble trout are found in headwaters of mountainous streams.

threats:
Hybridization with foreign trout stocked for angling. Water extraction and pollution.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Lough Melvin (21 km²), Ireland. There is a potential threat to the species from eutrophication and introduced species. Eutrophication has caused the extinction of fish species from other Irish lakes.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, pelagic, in relatively deep water. Moves to tributaries for spawning. Biology: Spawns in November-December in most lake tributaries. Feeds mainly on mid-water plankton, especially Cladocera, and chironomid pupae.

threats:
Eutrophication and invasive species are potential threats to the species. Arctic charr have gone extinct in other Irish lakes due to eutrophication.


redListCategoryRationale:
S. obtusirostris occurs at only four locations. In all of those locations, it is being threatened by overfishing (sportfishing and for food) and hybridisation with introduced trout. The total area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km², and there is a continuing decline in mature individuals due to overfishing and poaching, especially at Zeta, Imotski and Krka. (Freyhof, J. pers comm).

range:
It is restricted to a few Adriatic rivers in Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro: Krka (very rare), Jadro, Neretva, and Zeta river basins. It is introduced into the Zrnovnica.

habitat:
It lives in rivers of the karstic region.

threats:
The main threats are overfishing (sportfishing, food, including poaching) and hybridizitation with foreign trout. Habitat destruction (dams), water pollution.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is threatened by artificial hybridisation with Salmo letnica, by overfishing and poaching, and by degradation of the water quality. However, with no current information to demonstrate a population decline it is assessed as Vulnerable D2 being restricted to Lake Ohrid.

range:
It is restricted to Lake Ohrid in Albania and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

habitat:
It is a lacustrine species living at depth 40 to 60 m. Spawning occurs in December to February in the coastal areas. It is commercially exploited and also reared in fish farms.

threats:
Intentional hybridization with Salmo letnica in fish farms during the last 50 years. The long-term impacts of this hybridization are however, unclear (Rakaj and Flloko 1995). Also subject to heavy fishing but it is still abundant. Future threats include water pollution due to agriculture and tourism.

conservationAction:
Existing fisheries regulations should be helping to protect the species but they are seldom enforced


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in the upper tributaries of the Lower Vardar and Aliakmon. The main threat of overfishing and introduced alien trout (which hybridise with S. pelagonicus) is impacting the fish in the Greek part of species range (Aliakmon). The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and is only found in two locations (Vardar and Aliakmon drainages) based on the threat of the introduction of alien trout.

range:
Tributaries of the lower Vardar (Crna system) and Aliakmon drainages (Macedonia, Greece); populations from Stumica drainage possibly represent a distinct species.

habitat:
Habitat: Mountain streams. Biology: Resident ecotype only.

threats:
In the Greek part of the species range the main threat is overfishing and poaching, and the introduction of alien trout (hybridisation). The introduction of alien trout is also a threat, but has not yet happened, in FYROM.


taxonomicNotes:
It is considered sometimes only as a subspecies.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is present in two locations and has an area of occupancy (AOO) <500 km² and an extent of occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km². These two populations have not yet been confirmed to be the same species, although it is believed that they are, and a survey is planned for the near future (Crivelli, A. pers comm). In one location (possible S. peristericus) there is a continuing decline in habitat quality due to domestic water pollution, overgrazing and erosion that destroys the spawning area. In the other location (definite S. peristericus) there is poaching, but this is not causing a continuing decline in the population (Crivelli A. pers comm). If these two populations are not the same species then S. peristericus will be VU D2 based on it being found in one location, with the potential threat of introduced species. Taxonomic work is required to confirm the status of the questionable subpopulation.

range:
It is restricted to the Agios Germanos stream in the Prespa Lakes region, north-western Greece. It might be also present in one or two streams in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) part of Lake Megali Prespa.

population:
Its population in Agios Germanos stream has been estimated between 3,300 and 6,700 individuals (Crivelli, A. unpublished data).

habitat:
Its lives in a mountain stream. The population is present in 24.5 km out of 34.5 km. Habitat is fragmented by some impassable waterfalls.

threats:
Water extraction (although it is downstream), erosion within the catchment due to overgrazing, poaching with nets and chlorine, and organic pollution. Small electro-power stations.

conservationAction:
Angling is regulated according to the National law. Part of the species range is covered by a National Park.


taxonomicNotes:
The diagnostic four broad bars are present in populations of Dourbie (upper Tarn system, France), which is distinguished by the presence of red spots and dorsal, pelvic and anal with white anterior margin. This is possibly an introgression zone between S. rhodanensis and S. cf. cettii.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is a recently recognised species (previously included under S. trutta) known from the Rhone drainage. The population of true S. rhodanensis is unknown as several populations include a significant proportion of hybrids with S. trutta produced in aquaculture and stocked (for over 100 years). Work to determine the level of hybridisation is needed.

range:
Rhône drainage, except Lake Geneva basin (France, Switzerland). Apparently eastward to Roia drainages (France, Italy), possibly further eastward in Ligurian Sea basin.

habitat:
Habitat: Rivers and streams, in clear, cold, well oxygenated water, with slow to fast current. Biology: Resident ecotype only. Spawns for the first time at four years. Spawns in late December, at temperatures about 4°C, on gravel or coarse sand. Feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians.


taxonomicNotes:
Ancient literature records the presence of deepwater trout in several subalpine lakes of Austria, Germany and Switzerland. Some records are ambiguous and probably refer to lacustrine ecotypes of S. trutta. Others are more detailed and indicate that different stocks existed. There is no indication whether and which of these populations survive; some may still be extant, but they do not seem to have received attention. Here, Kottelat and Freyhoff (2007) tentatively use the name S. schiefermuelleri. As originally described, S. schiefermuelleri was a heterogeneous assemblage of several species and Kottelat and Freyhoff (2007) restricted it to the 'mayforelle' of the Austrian lakes (mayforelle is apparently still used locally, but not for the original stock). The 'schwebforelle' of Lake Vierwaldstätter (Switzerland) has a somewhat similar appearance but is unlikely to belong to the same lineage as S. schiefermuelleri as they occur in different drainages. Other populations known from some Alpine lakes, exhibit distinctive phenotypes and it is still unclear whether or not they are reproductively isolated. One such case is the Engadine trout (Lakes St. Moritz and Silsersee, Switzerland, Danube drainage), which has a distinctive morphology and colour pattern.

redListCategoryRationale:
The nomenclature of this taxon (see taxonomic notes above) needs to be resolved before it can be properly assessed. The species is therefore listed as Data Deficient even though it may well be Extinct.

range:
Austria: subalpine lakes in Danube drainage (Attersee, Traunsee, Fuschlersee). The same or similar species were apparently recorded in subalpine lakes in Switzerland (e.g. Vierwaldstätter [Rhine drainage]).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in deep water. Spawns along shores. Biology: Lacustrine species, not reported to migrate to tributaries. Only caught in May (hence the vernacular name) when it comes in to shallow waters, presumably to spawn. Eggs white, about 2 mm in diameter. Feeds on fishes.


taxonomicNotes:
Similar trouts have been recorded from Loughs Neagh, Conn and Corib (Ireland) and from Lochs Fadagoa, Mulach-Corrie and Assynt (Scotland). There are no data that allow a conclusion on whether they are conspecific with the Melvin ones. The above diagnosis is based on the Melvin population only.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Lough Melvin (21 km²), Ireland. There is a potential threat to the species from eutrophication and introduced species. Eutrophication has caused the extinction of fish species from other Irish lakes. S. stomachicus may be more widespread in other lakes of Ireland and Scotland - if this is proved to be true the species could be Least Concern

range:
Ireland: Lough Melvin (21 km²); possibly other lakes of Ireland and Scotland.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, in shallow benthic waters. Spawns near or in lake outlet. May also spawn on sandy bays in middle region of northern shore. Biology: Spawns in November-December. Juveniles swim upstream to return to lake. Feeds primarily on snails and trichopteran larvae, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates.

threats:
Eutrophication and introduced species are potential threats to the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from the Moraca drainage and its tributary upper Zeta. The introduction of alien trouts (ongoing for over 100 years) is the major threat as they may hybridise with S. taleri. However the impact of this hybridisation is unknown and the species could be Extinct or Least Concern.

range:
Montenegro: Moraca drainage and its tributary upper Zeta river.

threats:
Introduction of trouts which may hybridise with the species.


taxonomicNotes:
Genetic data indicate that S. trutta and some populations of hybrid origin are native in some rivers draining to the Mediterranean, the Black Sea (at least in upper Danube drainage) and the Caspian Sea (at least in upper Volga drainage). The present published data do not always enable to identify the head water populations of the different species on the basis of morphological characters (they may be distinguishable, but this simply has not been investigated).

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species and overall Least Concern. However, anadromous part of populations (sea trout) and many lacustrine stocks have in many cases markedly declined because of pollution (and possibly from impacts from salmon farming). The phylogeographic structure is almost destroyed by stocking.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Atlantic, North, White and Baltic Sea basins, from Spain to Chosha Bay (Russia). Present in Iceland and in northernmost rivers of Great Britain and Scandinavia. In Rhône drainage, native only to Lake Geneva basin, which it entered after last glaciation. Native to upper Danube and Volga drainages. Introduced throughout Europe, North and South America, southern and montane eastern Africa, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Japan, New Zealand and Australia.

habitat:
Habitat: Cold streams, rivers and lakes. Spawns in rivers and streams with swift water. Lacustrine populations migrate to tributaries and lake outlets, rarely spawning on stone, wave-washed lake shores. Spawning sites usually characterised by downward movement of water into gravel. Sea and lake trouts forage in pelagic and littoral habitats, sea trouts mostly close to coast, not very far from estuary of natal river. Biology: Anadromous, lacustrine and resident ecotypes. Spawns in couples between late October and March, usually in November-December. Females select spawning sites and deposit the redd. Males guard and defend females against other males. Eggs are covered with gravel by female. Both sexes usually survive spawning and anadromous trout migrate back to sea or lake in autumn or overwinter in rivers and migrate in spring (5-70 % repetitive spawners in Norway). Sea trouts generally feed in freshwater. Eggs are covered with 3-30 cm of gravel. Redd depth is positively related to female's size. Eggs in deep redds are less vulnerable to spates and wash-outs and more vulnerable to low oxygen concentrations and pollution. Fry usually emerge from gravel between March (Spain) and July (Finland). Parrs and resident trouts are territorial, feeding on drifting and benthic invertebrates. Success in finding and defending a feeding territory is positively correlated to size of fry and to mother's size. Being large is clearly advantageous at this stage of life cycle. Resident trouts usually spawn for the first time at 2-3 years and spawn 2-3 seasons. Smoltification usually complete at 2-3 years and 120-220 mm SL, but up to seven year old smolts are reported. Mean smolt age increases with latitude. All juveniles seem to have the genetic ability to smoltify and migrate; in some small, summer-dry streams all migrate. In other streams, almost none seem to migrate. Factors triggering the 'decision' of an individual to smoltify or not are not well understood. If migration is impossible, smolts may interrupt migration and become resident again. In most rivers, a greater proportion of females than males seems to migrate, apparently a response to a greater need for reproductive energy. Therefore, sex ratio is usually skewed towards females in smolts. Large anadromous females may spawn with small resident males (the reverse is not reported but is expected to be possible, too). Smolts start to migrate downstream in April-May when temperature increases from low winter level, reaching beyond 5-11°C; migration peaks at rising water levels with increased turbidity.There is a great variability in life history details of lacustrine populations. In some lakes, fry may migrate to the lake and at least males may spawn for the first time at two years. In other lakes, parrs smoltify after spending 1-3 years in spawning streams and males feed 4-6, females 5-8 years before first reproduction. At sea and in lakes, trouts feed on small fish and large crustaceans. In lakes, aquatic and terrestrial insects may form an important part of the diet. After at least 18 month at sea, sea trouts start to return to rivers to spawn. The pattern and timing of upstream migrations depends on particular river, sex and age. Homing accuracy is not as high as in S. salar. After spending one summer at sea, whitling start to migrate in July-September to lower reaches of rivers to overwinter or mature and migrate to spawning sites. Anadromous adults migrate in May and enter rivers until late October. Most maturing whitlings are males and the proportion of whitlings might be up to 30 % among spawners. Whitlings usually sneak in to spawn in redds of large couples, as resident males do, too. Large males attack, injure and often kill sneakers. After one spawning season as whitling or resident male, individual trouts may spawn again as large sea trout. The factors triggering the 'choice' to reproduce as whitling or as large male seems to be related to body size of young parrs since larger parrs more frequently develop the whitling tactic and smaller parrs the large male tactic. During upriver migrations, the silvery colour evolves into a dark breeding colour, the skull of males enlarges and the lower jaw develops a kype. Sometimes hybridises with S. salar.

threats:
Locally threatened by water pollution and impacts from salmon farming (sea lice etc.)


taxonomicNotes:
Anadromous, semi-anadromous, lacustrine, fluviatile-lacustrine and dwarf stocks are known, sometimes in sympatry. For most of them, detailed data are not available. Once available they are likely to show that several species are involved, whose identity is presently masked by unclear species definitions. If Alpine and northern European populations are considered conspecific as still asserted by numerous authors, then the name S. alpinus is not available for the present species but must be replaced by S. umbla, as required by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.  S. alpinus was previously included in the IUCN Red List (assessed as LR/lc in 1996); that species has since been split into 20 separate species (S. alpinus, S. colii, S. evasus, S. fimbriatus, S. gracillimus, S. grayi, S. inframundus, S. killinensis, S. lepechini, S. lonsdalii, S. mallochi, S. maxillaris, S. murta, S. obtusus, S. perisii, S. struanensis, S. thingvallensis, S. umbla, S. willoughbii, and S. youngeri).

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. However, several populations have significantly declined.    European Union 27 = NA. Less than 5% of the species global range is found within the European Union, therefore the species is listed as Not Applicable.

range:
Iceland, Scandinavia, northern Russia [absent in rivers draining to Baltic and White Seas] present in rivers of Barents Sea basin from Volonga to Kara, Jan Mayen, Spitzberg, Kolguev, Bear and New Zemblia islands, northern Siberia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland; 'real' S. alpinus might be restricted to Europe and Greenland. Despite its scientific name, does not occur in the Alps.

habitat:
Habitat: Mainly lacustrine. Estuaries, rivers and lakes with cold, clear water. At sea, along coasts. Usually spawns on pebble to stone bottom in lakes. Riverine stocks spawn in rivers with slow current (0.2-0.8 m/s). Some riverine anadromous stocks in Norway spawn every year in fast-flowing waters of riffles. Biology: In large lakes, sympatric with S. lepechini. Most stocks differ in details of mode of life, migration, growth, reproduction, food. The following information apply to the species as a whole but do not apply exactly to a particular stock, which normally would have much less variable characteristics. Stocks north of about 65°N are anadromous. Juveniles spend their first 1-9 years in freshwater then move to the sea where they spend the short Arctic summer, returning to overwinter in frozen lakes. Some authors report that there is apparently no strict homing and that marine-feeding individuals become more opportunistic with age as to the choice of the river and lake they return to; in other areas, they consider that there is a strict homing. At sea, they remain in coastal areas; the longest documented marine migration is 940 km. Landlocked populations migrate within river drainage or are sedentary, lacustrine. Dwarf stocks are known in some Finnish lakes and upper stretches of rivers, characterised by a very slow growth rate; mature adults reach only 300-350 mm SL and 250-300 g (2000-5000 g in partly sympatric 'normal' lacustrine stocks). Lives up to a maximum of 32 years (usually up to 15). Anadromous stocks spawn for the first time at 4-10 years, lacustrine ones at 2-5; all individuals spawn every 3-4 years. Anadromous stocks grow much faster than lacustrine and riverine ones. Usually spawns in October-December; some populations spawn in spring, summer or winter. Prefers pebbles where males build nests 2-3 m in diameter. Usually, males are territorial and may spawn with several females. After spawning, some stocks return to sea, others remain 1-3 years in lake before returning to sea. In freshwater, feeds on benthos, plankton and small fish. At sea, feeds mainly on fish; anadromous individuals feed little in freshwater and not at all during migrations.


taxonomicNotes:
We treat S. scharffi and S. trevelyani as synonyms.

redListCategoryRationale:
In the last few decades the decline of the species has increased rapidly, leading to the species becoming extirpated from many lakes (dates unknown, but some probably more than three generations ago - est. 15 years) which equate to about 30% of its population. The species is still extant in lakes in Donegal, Galway, Mayo and Kerry (more than 10 lakes/locations) with an area of occupancy of much less than 2,000 km², and is being impacted by many threats including eutrophication, introduced species and acidification of the water. The species is close to meeting the A2 and B2 criteria.

range:
Ireland: several lakes draining westward, in Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Donegal and Westmeath Counties.

population:
About 30% of population is extirpated (Igoe & Hammer 2004). In the last few decades the decline of the species has increased rapidly (e.g. high profile extinctions in Corrib and Conn). The species is extirpated in all the lakes in Clare (Loughs Cloonsnachta, Fin, Gortglass, Inchiquin, Licken), two lakes in Galway (Loughs Boffin, Corrib), two in Mayo (Castelbar, Conn), two in Donegal (Erne, Minitiaghs) and two in Westmeath (Ennell, Owel).

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Biology: Spawns in November-December.

threats:
Eutrophication of lakes, introduced fish species (both predation and competition from non native species and introgression from farmed charr) and acidification.

conservationAction:
Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive.Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe et al. 2003).Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe et al. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
The deep water charr reported from Lake Attersee is most likely not conspecific with S. evasus.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Lake Ammersee (41 km²), Germany. There are no current threats to the species and it has persisted through many past threatening events including the introduction of alien species into the lake including other char species, the lake has been eutrophic (currently mesotrophic), it has been the target of commercial fisheries for many years, the catchment is heavily populated and still the species has not seen any decline in population (unlike the other lake endemic - Coregonus bavaricus). However the species is small and the introductions of more 'productive' fish (larger, faster growing fish), the main reasons for the previous introductions, is still a very real possibility.

habitat:
Habitat: Deep water (below 80 m). Biology: Almost no data. Spawns in all seasons with a peak in September and October.

threats:
There are no known threats. Many species have been introduced into the lake including other char species, the lake has been eutrophic (currently mesotrophic), it has been the target of commercial fisheries for many years, the catchment is heavily populated and the species has not seen any decline in population (unlike the other lake endemic - Coregonus bavaricus).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Lough Coomasaharn (Kerry, Ireland) (<5 km²), a small oligotrophic lake about 9 km from the sea where there is currently a healthy population. However many char populations have been extirpated from Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species and these are potential threats to S. imbriatus.

range:
Eire: endemic to Lough Coomasaharn (Kerry), a small oligotrophic lake about 9 km from the sea.

population:
Healthy population in Lough Coomasaharn.

threats:
Eutrophication and introduced species are potential threats to the species. Many char populations have been extirpated in Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species (e.g. Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Rutilus rutilus, Esox lucius, Perca fluviatilus, Abrabus brama and Tinca tinca).


taxonomicNotes:
Long recorded only from Shetland Islands. This or a similar species has recently been recorded from northern Scotland. Above diagnosis based largely on latter population.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in Loch Girlsta  (<5 km²) on the Shetland Islands and possibly in Scotland (Loch More - 4 km², Sutherland). There are no known current threats to the species however there are potential threats, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and fish farms with non-native Arctic Char.

range:
Shetland Islands (Loch of Girlsta); possibly Scotland (Loch More, Sutherland).

population:
Last collected in 2006. Population trends unknown.

threats:
Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Lough Melvin (Donegal, Ireland) (20 km²), where the population may be in decline. Fisheries surveys have declined from 33 in 1975 and 42 in 1986 to only 12 in 2001. Also recent conservation work, with aim of translocating stock to nearby reservoirs to set up refuge populations, failed to find any specimens in 2003. Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) were introduced around 20 years ago (1980s), and recently a rudd/roach hybrid was caught, indicating that roach have recently been introduced. There is also increasing levels of phosphorous entering the lake from its catchment. Many Char populations have been extirpated from Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Biology: Lives at depths of 10-30 m, except during spawning season. Feeds on Cladocera. Spawns in November, in shallow rocky area.

threats:
In Lough Melvin, rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) were introduced around 20 years ago (1980s), and recently a rudd/roach hybrid was caught, indicating that roach have recently been introduced. The lake is also experiencing increasing amounts of phosphorous from its catchment. Surveys in the past few decades have seen a decline in the number caught, in 1975 33 specimens were caught as part of a fisheries survey, 42 in 1986 which declined to 12 in 2001. As part of a conservation plan (translocate stock to a nearby reservoir to set up a refuge population) in 2003, 30 fyke nets were set up at a range of depths and failed to catch any specimens of char, snorkelling along shorelines also found no signs of spawning activity. (Igoe, F. http://www.charr.org/char/melvin. 20/02/2007).Many char populations have been extirpated in Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species (e.g. Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Rutilus rutilus, Esox lucius, Perca fluviatilus, Abrabus brama and Tinca tinca).

conservationAction:
A conservation action plan has been developed to translocate stock from Melvin to nearby reservoirs in County Tyrone, which would serve as refuge populations. It has been unsuccessful so far to locate any Char to translocate.In general, Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive. Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe et al. 2003).Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe et al. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
Long known only from the original description, based on material from Orkney Islands. This or a similar species has recently been recorded from Loch Meallt. Above diagnosis largely based on latter population.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is regarded as extirpated from its type locality on the Orkney Islands (last recorded in 1908 when it was described), but there is no recent confirmation. A population of Salvelinus from Loch Mealt (photographed by Alexander and Adams in 2000) is tentatively identified as S. inframundus, but this needs confirmation. The impacts of the fish farming in Loch Mealt (Canadian Arctic Char) upon the native char population is unknown. More information is needed on the taxonomic identity of the char in Loch Mealt and the impact of the fish farming before a full Red List assessment can be made. The species could be Vulnerable to Extinct.

range:
Orkney Islands (Heldale Water, Hoy Island) - presumed extirpated (last recorded in 1908), Scotland (Loch Mealt, Isle of Skye).

habitat:
Habitat: Loch Meallt is a small eutrophic lake, up to 3 m deep, on top of an exposed cliff. Biology: Feeds on sticklebacks, molluscs, insect larvae.

threats:
Canadian arctic charr are farmed on Loch Mealt, but the impacts upon the native charr are unknown. (http://www.snh.org.uk/futures/Data/pdfdocs/FRESHWATERS.pdf pg 88 20/02/2007)


taxonomicNotes:
Long formally recorded only from Loch Killin. This or similar species have recently been recorded from several other lakes of Scotland. Above diagnosis largely based on latter populations.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is known from Loch Killin (2 km²) (Inverness-shire), Loch Doine (3 km²) (Trossachs), possibly Loch Builg (<5 km²) (Cairngorms) and other lakes. The species has no known current threats but the introduction of alien fish species from fish farms or angling is a potential threat.

range:
Scotland: Loch Killin (Inverness-shire), Loch Doine (Trossachs), possibly Loch Builg (Cairngorms) and from several other lakes.

habitat:
Habitat: Deeper part of lakes. Biology: In Loch Killin, moves to shallow areas to spawn. Feeds on insect larvae, bivalves and crustaceans.

threats:
Fish farms and other means of introductions of alien fish species are a potential threat to the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
A rare species but widespread and no known major widespread threats. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Found in lakes in Sweden, Norway, southern Finland and northern Russia (Kola Peninsula, northern Karelia, including Lakes Ladoga and Onega).

habitat:
Habitat: Large deep lakes, very rarely in rivers. Benthic. Spawns in lakes, in shallow water along sand-pebble shores. Biology: In larger lakes (Ladoga, Onega), two forms: one in relatively shallow waters, about 30-50 m deep, the other one at 70-150 m. Both forms feed on fish, amphipods, molluscs, insects and gammarids. Growth is slow. Spawns for the first time at 4-6 years, spawns once every 2-3 years. Spawns in August-October.

threats:
May be impacted by stocked Salvelinus alpinus or S. umbla.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to Haweswater (3 km²) (Cumbria, England) where there is some concern about the future of the population due to the levels of predation upon the species by cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo). This may not have been a threat to the species if its natural habitat (lake) had not been flooded and converted into a reservoir.

range:
England: Haweswater (Cumbria). A resevoir that was created by the construction of a dam in 1929, which flooded two lakes (Highwater and Lowwater) and raised the water level.

threats:
The level of cormorant predation of the species in Haweswater is causing concern (Maitland et al. 2007). A tree nesting colony of these birds first took up residence at Haweswater in 1992, numbers have since increased and in 1998 50 pairs bred there.(www.countryside.wales.gov.uk/fe/fileupload_getfile.asp?filePathPrefix=1396&fileLanguage=e.pdf)

conservationAction:
Control programmes for the cormorants have since been set up, but these do not kill the birds only scare them and the results of which are unknown.


taxonomicNotes:
Long known only from the original description, based on material from Loch Scourie. This or a similar species has recently been recorded from lakes of northern Scotland. Above diagnosis largely based on latter populations.

redListCategoryRationale:
Known from Loch Scourie (1 km²) and Loch Shin (38 km²) (Sutherland), where there are no know threats. However alien fish species introduced via fish farming or angling is a potential threat.

range:
Scotland: Loch Scourie (presumed to be Loch a'Ghriam) and Loch Shin (Sutherland).

population:
Still present in both lakes but no information on population trends.

threats:
No major threats known. But alien fish species introduced from fish farming and angling is a potential threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
Long known only from the original description, based on material from a lake near Ben Hope. This or a similar species has recently been recorded from several lakes of northern Scotland. Recorded from several lakes in northern Scotland, especially draining to North Minch (strait between Highland, Skye Island and Hebrides Islands): Loch near Ben Hope (7 km²), possibly Loch Merkland (2 km²) (Sutherland), Loch Clair (0.5 km²), Loch Coulin (0.5 km²), possibly Loch Maree (35 km²) (Wester Ross), Loch Langavat (1 km²), Loch na Craobhaig (1 km²) (Isle of Lewis). The species has a small area of occupancy = 47 km² and is found in five, possibly sevens lakes. However there are potential threats to the species, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and fish farms with non-native Arctic Char.

range:
Recorded from several lakes in northern Scotland, especially draining to North Minch (strait between Highland, Skye Island and Hebrides Islands): Loch near Ben Hope, possibly Loch Merkland (Sutherland), Loch Clair, Loch Coulin, possibly Loch Maree (Wester Ross), Loch Langavat, Loch na Craobhaig (Isle of Lewis).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in Iceland: Lake Thingvalla (77 km²). There are no major current or potential threats to the species, the lake has very little population in its catchment and no agriculture or forestry, and the lake is within the Thingvallir National Park.

habitat:
Habitat: Open waters. Biology: Pelagic. Lives up to 18 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years. Spawns in October. Feeds on zooplankton (Daphnia, Cyclops) and insects. A few individuals are piscivorous, have a slightly different morphology, tend to live closer to shores and develop a colour pattern somewhat similar to S. thingvallensis; they feed mainly on Gasterosteus islandicus, supplemented by small planktivorous conspecifics. Recent data suggest that they might be a distinct species.

threats:
There are no major threats to the species. The lake has very little population in its catchment and no agriculture or forestry.

conservationAction:
Lake Thingvalla is within the Thingvallir National Park.


redListCategoryRationale:
S. neocomensis was known definitely only from Lake Neuchâtel where it is now reported to be Extinct, it was last recorded in 1904. Further research has been undertaken (1950s and 2003) which failed to find evidence of its survival.

population:
The species was last recorded in 1904. Further research has been undertaken and failed to find the species.

habitat:
Habitat: Deep water (below 80 m). Biology: Spawns on muddy sediments in Lake Neuchâtel. Feeds mainly on insect larvae, snails, crustaceans and fish eggs.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is known from Loughs Leane (19 km²) which is eutrophic, and Lough Muckross (1.5 km²) where the last record was in 1904 and its current status is unknown (Kerry). It has been extirpated from Loughs Tay (Wicklow), last recorded 1908, and Dan (Wicklow) where it was last recorded 1988 and subsequent surveys in 1994 and 1996 failed to record any char. In Lough Acoose (Kerry) surveys in 1983 failed to find any Char. The species is therefore only found in one location (Lough Leane and Muckross are linked) where it is threatened by eutrophication.

range:
Eire: The species is known from Loughs Leane (19 km²), last recorded in 1999 (current status unknown), and the oligotrophic Lough Muckross (1.5 km²) where the last record was in 1904 (current status unknown) in Kerry. It has been extirpated from Loughs Tay (Wicklow), last recorded 1908, and Dan (Wicklow) where it was last recorded 1988 and subsequent surveys in 1994 and 1996 failed to record any char. In Lough Accose (Kerry) surveys in 1983 failed to find any char.

threats:
Lough Leane is eutrophic which is impacting the species, it also suffered from domestic pollution in the early 1980s. The reasons for the extirpations in Lough Tay and Dan are believed to be the increased acidic conditions caused by afforestation in the catchment. High levels of inorganic aluminium were recorded from a river that drained a heavily afforested catchment into Lough Dan (Igoe et al. 2003).

conservationAction:
Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive. Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe et al. 2003).Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe et al. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in six locations in north Wales. Four native locations; Lakes Llyn Peris (0.5 km²) where the species was extirpated when the lake was drained for the construction of a water pumping scheme in 1970s, Padarn (1 km²), Cwellyn (1 km²) and Bodlyn (<0.5 km²) (Gwynedd) and two benign introductions in Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy (translocated from Llyn Peris before the water pump construction). The populations in the remaining lakes are all healthy apart from Llyn Bodlyn where its status is unknown. The species total area of occupancy is estimated at around 5 km². There are no current threats to the species and two of the lakes are afforded official protection (Llyn Cwelyn is an cSAC and Lyn Padarn is a SSSI). However potential threats to the species do exist from increased recreational use including angling, and therefore also the risk of introduced species. One lake (Llyn Bodlyn) has no protection and is dammed and used as a water supply.

range:
Wales: Lakes Llyn Peris, Padarn, Cwellyn and Bodlyn (Gwynedd). Stock from Llyn Peris were translocated to Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy.

population:
The populations in Padarn and Cwellyn are healthy, in Bodlyn the status is unknown and in Peris it is extirpated (1970's). The translocated fish from Llyn Peris, in Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy are both healthy populations.

habitat:
Habitat: Deep lakes. Biology: Forms shoals at surface in summer, probably for feeding on insects or plankton. Spawns in November-December. In Llanberis lakes, used to move in November from lower lake (Llyn Padarn) to lower part of upper lake (Llyn Peris), where it spawned in shallow areas. Construction of Dinorwic hydroelectric scheme disrupted this migration; now mainly living and spawning in Llyn Padarn.

threats:
Used to move from lower lake (Llyn Padarn) to lower part of upper lake (Llyn Peris), where it spawned in shallow areas. Construction of Dinorwic hydroelectric scheme (1970s) disrupted this migration, it is now extirpated from Llyn Peris.In the 1980s there was concern that eutrophication was causing faster growth and larger adult size in the fish in Llyn Padarn, but a phosphate stripper installed on the sewage has solved this problem. There is also potential impacts to the Llyn Padarn population from increased angling use and other recreational use (currently low).Llyn Cwellyn currently has low angling and recreational use and although a dam was constructed on the outflow from the lake in 1976 an operational agreement between the owners of the dam and the Environment Agency to ensure levels of water are not reduced to levels that would be harmful to the species during spawning season.Llyn Bodlyn has no official level of protection and may be at the most risk. The lake is very small (16 ha / 0.16 km2 max of 22 metres deep) so that climate change may reduce deep water thermal refuge in the lake. A dam was also built on the outflow of the lake and provides a regulated water supply.

conservationAction:
Llyn Padarn is a protected area (SSSI). Llyn Cwellyn is protected as a SAC (Special Area of Conservation - EU). Llyn Cwellyn has an operational agreement between the owners of the dam and the Environment Agency to ensure levels of water are not reduced to levels that would be harmful to the species during spawning season.Approval for the draining of Llyn Peris, and the construction of the water pumping scheme was only granted on the condition that the Arctic Char were translocated into suitable lakes in North Walse (Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy).


taxonomicNotes:
S. profundus was known definitely only from Lake Constance where it is now extinct. Although a local population is now sometimes recorded as tiefseesaibling, this is not the original one but a phase of S. umbla.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species was endemic to Lake Costance and was a commercial species in the 1960s but it is thought to have gone extinct in the 1970's when the eutrophicaton peaked, which is believed to have impacted egg development. It has not been recorded since and there have been several surveys in the past 10 years specifically find the species as the conditions in the lake have improved.

habitat:
Habitat: Deep water (below 80 m). Lives and feeds on bottom. Biology: When brought to surface in nets, usually appears with a greatly bloated belly because of expansion of gas bladder resulting from reduction of water pressure. Possibly spawns on an extended period between July-February (or maybe even at all seasons), at depths around 60-80 m, on pebble bottom in most lakes. Feeds mainly on cocoons of Turbellaria and copepods.

threats:
Eutrophication which peaked in 1979. Natural reproduction in Salvelinus species is said to have almost stopped during the period of high eutrophication as the eggs could no longer develop in the low-oxygen substrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
Fjellfrøsvatn, an oligotrophic subarctic lake on a tributary of River Målslev (17 km², 69°N), Tromsø County, northern Norway. Potentially threatened from introduced species (stocking of other Arctic Charr) and eutrophication.

range:
Fjellfrøsvatn, an oligotrophic subarctic lake on a tributary of River Målslev (69°N), Tromsø County, northern Norway.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine, below 20 m depth. The lake is oligotrophic, 6 km2, maximum depth 80 m, flat and muddy bottom in deeper part, covered by snow and ice from November-December to May-June. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 70 mm SL. Spawns in late February-early March. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.

threats:
Potentially threatened from introduced species (stocking of other Arctic charr) and eutrophication.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from Loch Rannoch (14 km²) and Loch Ericht (21 km²), where it is currently common. However there are potential threats to the species, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and escapees from fish farms with non-native Arctic Char.

habitat:
Habitat: Pelagic zone of fjord-like lakes, usually less than 20 m below surface. Biology: Reaches up to eight years. Adult males have dark red flank and belly, white pelvic-fin edges. Spawns in late September-October on gravels along shelving shores of lakes. Feeds on zooplankton, especially Cladocera (Daphnia).

threats:
Potential threats to the species, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and escapees from fish farms with non-native arctic char.


habitat:
Habitat: Shallow littoral zone, in water 0-10 m deep. Biology: Active at night, hides between stones during day. Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Usually spawns in October-November, but in areas with cold water springs, some individuals may spawn in July-September. Feeds mainly on snails, and to a lesser extent on benthic insects.


taxonomicNotes:
The different populations grouped here under S. umbla exhibit a great diversity of shape and colouration; detailed comparative studies are needed to establish their identities.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is found in many Alpine and sub-Alpine lakes in France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Austria. In many lakes its population crashed due to eutrophication in the 1960s and 1970s, and was extirpated in some locations. In some of these lakes the populations are maintained only by stocking programs or by transplantation from other lakes. Overall the population is recovering and is locally threatened by habitat destruction.

range:
Alpine and subalpine lakes in Italy (Trentino, Alto Adige), France (Lake Bourget), Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Introduced in numerous high altitude lakes.

population:
In some lakes it was extirpated (e.g. Mondsee) in many cases restocked from other lakes. In some lakes it is recovering (e.g Constance where it was almost extirpated, Geneva). In some lakes the population has always been healthy (e.g. Grundl and Konigsee). In general, there was a population collapse in the 1970s and the population is now recovering.

habitat:
Habitat: Deep lakes in glacial valleys, high altitude lakes. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in November-December, on pebble to stone bottom on steep slopes, at 30-120 m depth. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and benthic fauna; a few individuals develop as large piscivores and develop a distinct morphology. Numerous dwarf, stunted populations exist in Alpine lakes (up to 2680 m); all seem to result from introductions.

threats:
The major threat to the species was eutrophication which occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Habitat destruction is also a local threat.

conservationAction:
In the lakes where the species was extirpated stock from other lakes were often introduced.


taxonomicNotes:
Spring and autumn spawning charrs occur sympatrically in Windermere; they do not interbreed in the wild (but can be crossed under laboratory conditions) and are reportedly not distinguishable morphologically except by gill raker counts (which broadly overlap) and more brilliant coloration for the spring spawner. Another morphological study concluded that they differ, but did not explicitly state how they differ. There are indications that they are genetically isolated, for which reason they are here treated as distinct species. Autumn and spring spawners occur in other Cumbrian lakes but they co-occur only in Windermere. No information is available on spawning period of charrs in other Cumbrian lakes (Goat's Water, Wast Water, Lowes Water). The Ennerdale population is said to be phenotypically distinct, but the differences have never been described; its status cannot therefore be evaluated. Differences between S. willoughbii and S. maxillaris, are slight and they are possibly conspecific. In the past, numerous populations in intermediate areas have been referred to S. willoughbii, but more data are needed to decide their identity.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is currently only found in two lakes in Cumbria, England (Windermere and Ennerdale - combined area of occupancy/extent of occurrence less than 20 km²). There are concerns over the status of the species in both these lakes due to the impacts of introduced species, eutrophication, and possibly also land use change.

range:
England: Lakes Windermere and possibly also found in Ennerdale Water (Cumbria).

population:
There are concerns over the stocks in Windermere and Ennerdale.

habitat:
Habitat: Deep lakes. Biology: Spawns in early November, in shallow water (1-3 m deep) and in main tributaries, on stone bottom. Eggs hatch in 64-80 days.

threats:
Eutrophication and introduced species and possibly impacted by land use change.

conservationAction:
Lakes Windermere and Ennerdale are both nationally protected as SSSI (Sites of Special Scientific Interest). There have also been translocations (unknown whether it is the spring or autumn spawning Char) from Windermere to Grimwirth Reservoir (Yorkshire) (1989, 1990, 1991), where the species is most likely still present.


taxonomicNotes:
Long recorded only from the original description, based on material from Loch Eck. Above diagnosis based on Loch Eck population. This or similar species have recently been recorded from several lakes of western and central Scotland; they differ in having a somewhat smaller eye (4.0-4.5 times in HL), darker body, and small pale spots, often indistinct. Loch Doon population is reporded to have a "substantially lower" number of branchiostegal rays [actual numbers not stated], which, if confirmed, suggests it could be a distinct species.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species known from Loch Eck (5km²), and possibly also recorded from Loch Awe (57 km²)(Argyll), Loch Lee (1 km²) (Angus), Loch Earn (11 km²) (Perthshire), and Loch Doon (9 km²) (Ayrshire). There are potential threats to the species, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and escapees from fish farms with non-native Arctic Char.

range:
Scotland: Loch Eck, and possibly also recorded from Loch Awe (Argyll), Loch Lee (Angus), Loch Earn (Pertshire), and Loch Doon (Ayrshire); Loch Doon population has been introduced in Megget and Talla reservoirs.

habitat:
Habitat: Lacustrine. Biology: In Loch Doon: Lives up to nine years. Spawns in October, over gravel and stones in shallow water, along stone shore line. Feeds on zooplankton in summer, on benthic invertebrates rest of year.


redListCategoryRationale:
Construction of dams led to the loss of all spawning grounds for the species (the Volga, Ural and Terek drainages). Native stocks are reportedly extinct and survival depends exclusively on stocking, which has decreased since the Soviet era. In 2004, only about 100 spawners were caught below Volgograd dam and used for ranching. Increasing illegal fishing in the Volga and in the Caspian Sea is now a very critical concern. S. nelma was introduced in the northern Volga drainage and is now expanding and might threaten surviving populations and cultivated stocks through hybridization. In the 1960s, it was already extremely rare in the Ural, where it has not been recorded since. No individuals of the species (wild or 2nd generation reintroduced) exist in the species in native range.

range:
Caspian Sea (commonly central and southern Caspian in summer), Volga, Ural and Terek drainages.

population:
Native stocks are reportedly extinct and survival depends exclusively on stocking. In the Volga all spawning grounds were above Volgograd dam. In 1959 only a few spawners remained. Up to 33 million (1988) juveniles were stocked during Soviet times. Between 1996-99 only 600,000 juveniles were stocked and the spawning population is in a drastic decline again. In 2004, only about 100 spawners were caught below Volgograd dam. In the 1960s, it was already extremely rare in the Ural, where it has not been recorded since.

habitat:
Habitat: At sea, throughout basin in pelagic zone with temperatures below 18°C and 20-50 m deep. Juveniles and adults overwinter and forage at sea. Large lowland rivers during migration. Prior to the construction of dams, migration route was over 3000 km long, reaching up to uppermost reaches of Ufa and Belaya drainages (Kama tributaries). Spawns on gravel shallows. Biology: Anadromous. Spawns for the first time at 5-8 years, females usually two years later than males. In autumn, starts migration from sea to estuaries. Mature adults enter Volga, only few individuals enter Terek and Ural. Migration takes almost a year. Spawns in September-October at temperatures below 6°C. Adults migrate back to sea soon after spawning, but many die. Eggs adhere to gravel and rocks. Embryonic development lasts about six months, alevins appear in April. Fry actively migrates to sea soon after start of exogenous feeding. At 30 days, juveniles already start to feed on fry of other fishes. Adults feed exclusively on fish. Active predator, feeds on all available fish, commonly small schooling species.

threats:
Construction of dams led to the loss of all spawning grounds for the species (the Volga, Ural and Terek drainages). Increasing illegal fishing in the Volga and in the Caspian Sea is now a very critical concern. S. nelma was introduced in the northern Volga drainage and is now expanding and might threaten surviving populations and cultivated stocks through hybridization.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species, however stocks in European rivers are declining due to overfishing and pollution, however not at a rate to qualify the species for a threatened or Near Threatened category.    European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Arctic Ocean basin, from Ponoi (Kola Peninsula, White Sea basin) eastward to Anadyr (Siberia), Yukon (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.

population:
Declining in European and Siberian range.

habitat:
Habitat: At sea, in pelagic zone with water salinity up to 20?. Large lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Prefers cold water with temperatures below 16°C. Forages and overwinters in lower reaches of large rivers, deltas, estuaries and sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Migrates for spawning in rivers, moving upstream for long distances, up to uppermost reaches in European rivers. Lacustrine populations migrates into tributaries. Spawns over shallows with sand-gravel bottom and 2-3 m depth. Biology: Anadromous or semi-anadromous, resident in some rivers and landlocked in some lakes. Resident and anadromous populations co-occur in some rivers in North America. Anadromous populations spawn for the first time at 600-900 mm SL and 8-16 years, females 2-3 years later than males. Freshwater populations may mature earlier, males at four, females at five years and have shorter life cycle. Usually spawns only 1-2 times during life, rarely three, usually every 2-3 years. Starts migration in early spring just after ice melting, reaches spawning sites by autumn. Spawns in September-October, 80,000-420,000 non-sticky eggs. Adults actively feed after spawning and spend following winter and spring in river, return to lower reaches and sea by next summer. Embryonic development lasts 250-260 days, larvae (12-14 mm SL) appear in May-June. Fry migrates to sea soon after start of active feeding or remain 2-3 years in rivers. Juveniles feed on mysids, insect larvae and fry, become exclusively piscivorous at about 300 mm SL. Active predator feeding on all available fishes. Occasionally hybridises with Coregonus species.

threats:
Locally threatened by overfishing and pollution.

conservationAction:
There are special fishing regulations in some territories, and in places it is illegal to catch for consumption (M. Skopets, pers. comm.).


redListCategoryRationale:
Less than 5% of the species global range is found within Europe, therefore the species is listed as Not Applicable. European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Arctic Ocean basin, in Siberia from Ob' to Ienissei drainages, in Europe in some tributaries of Pechora (Usa, Kos'yu, Kozhim), Korotaikha and Kara.

population:
The population is increasing as the water quality increases due to the decline of many industries and towns since the collapse of the Soviet era.

habitat:
Habitat: Piedmont and montane cold rivers and lakes with high oxygen concentrations. Spawns in montane streams with heavy current on shallows with rock-gravel bottom. Biology: Includes several ecotypes (lacustrine, riverine-lacustrine, riverine, brook) differing in migratory pattern and duration of different stages of life cycle. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years, brook short-cycle ecotype at 1-2 years. Breeding males are brighter coloured and have an enlarged posterior part of dorsal. In April-May, migrates to upper reaches for foraging and spawning; in summer, returns downriver to larger streams and lakes, then, in winter, moves to deeper places. Spawns in May-June at 6-12°C. Embryonic development takes 10-14 days. Feeds on benthic organisms, small fish, algae and plants. Larvae and small juveniles feed on small crustaceans and other small objects, then up to 70 % of diet contains insect larvae, worms, molluscs, and terrestrial insects.

threats:
Pollution from industry, now decreasing.


taxonomicNotes:
A similar species, T. baicalensis, has been introduced to Czechia and Slovakia in 1959. It first established a breeding population, but later disappeared around 1975, reportedly as a result of hybridisation with the local T. thymallus. Reported genetic variability suggests that at least the Adriatic and Loire populations are distinct lineages, but diagnostic morphological data are not yet available. Because of extensive stocking throughout the northern Adriatic basin it might be too late to investigate the original morphology, variability, genetics, and distribution.

range:
Barents Sea basin west of River Ob, White, Caspian, Black, Baltic, White and North Sea basins, Atlantic westward to Loire drainage; Rhône drainage. Introduced in Po and Soca drainages, and over most of southern and central Finland.

habitat:
Habitat: Submontane reaches of rivers with a hard sand or stone bottom and well oxygenated, cold and fast-flowing water. In Scandinavia, in clear lakes and semi-anadromous in freshened part of northern Baltic basin. Usually in hollows behind boulders and shaded water under overhanging vegetation. Spawns in shallow stretches (usually 20-40 cm deep) or riffles, with moderate current (about 0.5 m/s) and clean gravel bottom. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, females usually one year later than males, in northern Europe later than in central Europe. Spawns in early spring, usually in March-April, later in north, when temperatures reach 4-8°C, with a peak at full moon. Adults make short spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations often spawn in lake tributaries. Males start to defend small territories at spawning site in late morning and spawning usually starts in early afternoon at highest daily temperature. Females deposit eggs into substrate. Eggs hatch usually in 10-40 days. Alevins remain in gravel until yolk sack is absorbed (4-10 days). Feeding larvae live 3-4 weeks in open water below surface. Juveniles are benthic, in fast-flowing waters. Feeds predominantly on drifting invertebrates and terrestrial insects.

threats:
No major, widespread threats known but regionally suffers from river pollution, dam constructions and river regulation. In its southern distribution area increasingly vulnerable to climate change. Locally susceptible to high populations of predatory birds.Yes


redListCategoryRationale:
Known from the Adour and Nivelle drainages (France, Spain), with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km² and an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², however there are no known current or potential threats to the species. Even droughts are not thought to be a threat as the drainages have their headwaters in the Pyrenees.

range:
Adour and Nivelle drainages (France, Spain).

habitat:
Habitat: Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. Biology: No data.


taxonomicNotes:
The different populations assembled under this name may represent more than one species.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from a few specimens from the upper Loire, Dordoigne and Lot. More information is needed on the species distribution, biology and impacts of dams. The different populations assembled under this name may also represent more than one species.

range:
Only known from a few localities. France: upper Dordogne and upper Loire drainage. Populations from upper Lot possibly conspecific.

threats:
Dams in the Loire and Dordogne impact the habitat up and downstream.


taxonomicNotes:
Considering its wide range and the observed morphological diversity, future research on C. gobio is likely to show that it is in fact an assemblage of several species.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats, however several populations are locally threatened. Future research on C. gobio is likely to show that it is in fact an assemblage of several species and each should be re-evaluated.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Northern Baltic basin in Scandinavia south to stream Maurine (53°51'N 10°56'E) in southwesternmost corner of Baltic basin (Germany). Lower reaches of streams and rivers and along coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia southwest to Estonia. Danube (except upper tributaries Save and Arges), Elbe, Ems, Weser and Rhône drainages. Tributaries of upper Rhine downriver (northward) to about Mannheim. A few of the uppermost tributaries of River Tevere, Central Italy. Adriatic drainages, from Potenza (Italy) to Zrmanja (Croatia), except Timavo spring (inhabited by C. scaturigo). mtDNA and microsatellite data show that sculpins from the stream Steenputbeek (4°17'N 50°43'E) in Scheldt drainage represent C. gobio, suspected to be introduced. Sculpins reported from Neretva drainage (Bosnia-Herzegovina) probably also belong to C. gobio.

habitat:
Habitat: Cold, clear and fast-flowing water of small stream to medium-sized rivers. As well on gravel or rocky shores of cold lakes and in slightly brackish waters along eastern Baltic coast. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn for several years. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching; a single male may guard the egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only known from the description and type locality River Beli Vit (Danube drainage). More information is needed on the species distribution, biology, habitat and threats.

range:
Only known from the original description at the type locality. Bulgaria: River Beli Vit (Danube drainage), possibly in other lower Danube tributaries.

habitat:
Habitat: No data. Probably similar to C. gobio. Biology: No data. Probably similar to C. gobio.


redListCategoryRationale:
It is known from the southern (Pyrenean) Garonne drainage (France, Spain) with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km² and an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², however there are no known current or potential threats to the species. Even droughts are not thought to be a threat as the drainage has its headwaters in the Pyrenees.

range:
Southern (Pyrrenean) Garonne drainage (France, Spain).

habitat:
Habitat: Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. Biology: No data. Probably similar to C. gobio.


taxonomicNotes:
C. koshewnikowi and C. gobio form a hybrid zone in northern and eastern Gulf of Bothnia. Both species have largely allopatric ranges and where they come into contact, they have different ecologies, with C. gobio in partly brackish coastal habitats and C. koshewnikowi in pure freshwater inland habitats. C. milvensis from River Pechora is included here, but could be a distinct species.

range:
Upper Volga drainage and northern and eastern Gulf of Bothnia from Estonia eastward and northward to Finland and northern Sweden. Cottus populations from Dniepr, Ural and Pechora drainages might be conspecific.

habitat:
Habitat: Medium sized rivers to small streams, lake shores. Biology: No data. Probably similar to C. gobio.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a relatively restricted range (to the upper Save river system in the Danube basin) but it has no known threats.

range:
Slovenia: upper Save system (Danube drainage).

habitat:
Habitat: Small streams to medium sized rivers. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn for several years.


taxonomicNotes:
C. microstomus, C. gobio and C. koshewnikowi possibly form a hybrid zone in the eastern Baltic basin. Earlier hypothesised hybrid zones in Odra and Vistula drainages seem to be pure C. microstomus.

range:
Black Sea basin: Dniestr. Southern Baltic basin in Poland, most likely further east to Lithuania.

habitat:
Habitat: Small streams to medium sized rivers. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on the ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching; a single male may guard egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
Common in England, very few fragmented populations in Belgium and France, several of them threatened by pollution, water abstraction and alteration of river morphology.

range:
Great Britain; Atlantic drainages from Garonne (tributaries draining from Massif Central) to Scheldt [French: Escaut] in France and Belgium. Lower, middle and northern upper Rhine mainstream in Germany and the Netherlands, reaching upriver (southward) to Karlsruhe. Also in rivers Mosel and Sieg in Germany. Might also be present in other major Rhine tributaries, the French stretch of the upper Rhine and the lower Meuse.

habitat:
Habitat: Small streams to medium-sized rivers. Biology: Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year in Belgium; up to four times, in February-early July, in stream Bere (southern England). Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.

threats:
Pollution, water abstraction and alteration of river morphology.


redListCategoryRationale:
C. petiti occurs in one small restricted location (3 km stretch of the Lez River) with an area of occupancy (AOO) <20 km². Future introduction of C. gobio could cause the extinction of the species. Recent genetic work (Eppe et al. 1999) showed that this species is not different than any Cottus gobio populations. Consequently, its taxonomy might be wrong and further investigations on a large geographical scale is needed.

range:
It is restricted to a 3 km stretch of the Lez River (Le Lez) from the
spring to the Lirou tributary in southern France north of the town of
Montpellier.

habitat:
The Lez River is fed by a large resurgence draining a karstic plateau. Substrate is gravel and stony beds, temperature rarely exceed 20°C. Discharge is very regular.

threats:
Water pollution, drying out of River Lez, and introduction of Cottus gobio are major threats. Water extraction for drinking water for the Montpellier town.

conservationAction:
It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.


taxonomicNotes:
Cottus populations from the Kolyma, Amur and Korean drainages belong to other species.

redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats, however the species is extirpated in Germany.European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
Streams in Carpathians draining to Danube, Dniestr, Vistula and Odra. Baltic basin, especially in northern Sweden and Finland between 64 and 68°N, central Finnish lakes area, a few streams in southern Finland, Lake Ladoga and southern Lake Onega drainage, a few lakes in northern Germany (extirpated), Lake Hancza (Poland) and Skjernaa drainage (Denmark). In Siberia from River Ob eastward to Lena. Absent in rivers draining to Baltic Sea south of Iijöki drainage in central Finland and in rivers draining to the White and Barents Seas.

habitat:
Habitat: Northern, and mountain and foothill streams, oligotrophic lakes. In Carpathian streams usually more upstream than C. gobio, very rarely syntopic. Biology: Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, about 40 mm SL. Spawns in February-April, when temperature rises above 5°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Nocturnal, shifts to day-activity during winter in the Arctic. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.


taxonomicNotes:
Although C. rhenanus can be distinguished from individual C. gobio populations adjacent to its distribution, it can at present be diagnosed from C. gobio as a whole only by the shape of the first dorsal and by molecular characters. Further work on C. gobio is likely to show it comprises several distinct lineages and once this is resolved, C. rhenanus may become identifiable also by other characters.

range:
Rhine and Meuse drainages, in Rhine upriver (southward) to about Mannheim, including tributaries of Main and Neckar.

habitat:
Habitat: Small, cold streams with gravel bottom. Biology: Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 years.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is only found in three stretches of stream (each a few hundred metres long) in one small coastal drainage (Hérault, Southern France) where drought (exacerbated by water extraction and climate change) is a major potential threat to the species and would impact the whole drainage (making it one location).

range:
France: three disjunct populations in Hérault drainage.

habitat:
Habitat: Small stream with clear, swift water and stone bottom. Biology: No data. Probably similar to C. gobio.

threats:
Drought (potentially increasing due to climate change) and increasing water abstraction is a potential threat to the species, especially as the species occurs in a very restricted range.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species' range is highly restricted (Timavo spring, north of Trieste) with an area of occupancy of about 100 m², but has no known current or future threats that could lead to a continuing decline in population or habitat. However, there is a plausible threat from the nearby road, where pollution from an accident or dumping could impact the whole population making the species occur in one location.

range:
Italy: Timavo spring, north of Trieste. Timavo spring is the resurgence of River Reka, which flows from Slovenia after 35 km of underground course through the Kras (Karst) plateau. There is no record of Cottus species in Reka.

habitat:
Habitat: Large, very cold spring. Biology: Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March. Most individuals live only 1-2 years.

threats:
The species is restricted to a very small area, but there are no known current threats to the species. However the spring is very close to a road which may pose a threat.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has only been recorded once in 1998 from the type locality, the upper Arges in the Danube. More information is needed on the species distribution, habitat, ecology and threats.

range:
Recorded once in 1998 from the Danube drainage: upper Arges. May be present in other tributaries of lower Danube.

habitat:
Habitat: Known from a cold and fast-flowing small river. Biology: No data.


taxonomicNotes:
Earlier called Myoxocephalus quadricornis and Oncocottus quadricornis.

redListCategoryRationale:
Least concern, but landlocked populations (Landlocked populations in Sweden, central Finland and Karelia) are locally threatened. European Union 27 = LC. Same rational as above.

range:
Baltic coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia and southwestward to eastern Poland. Western coast of Sweden to northern coast of Norway, eastward to White and Barents Sea basins. In Siberia eastward to about Anadyr estuary. Northern North America. Landlocked populations in Sweden, central Finland and Karelia.

habitat:
Habitat: Cold brackish and moderately saline water near coast; enters coastal rivers up to 200 km inland. Also landlocked in lakes. Spawns in shallow waters. Biology: Diurnal in winter, largely nocturnal in summer. Lives up to 14 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Males are territorial. Spawns on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. After spawning, female leaves the nest. Juveniles move to shallow water in autumn and again to deeper water in spring, where they remain in summer. Feeds on invertebrates and fishes.


taxonomicNotes:
Note correction to spelling of the generic name from Siluris to Silurus.

redListCategoryRationale:
There is insufficient information on population status to make an assessment at present.

range:
Restricted to Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia and Amvrakia in western Greece. In the 1980s it was introduced to Lake Volvi, northern Greece and to Lake Pahvotis in western Greece (date of introduction unknown).

conservationAction:
It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. However, the species is locally threatened due to river regulation destruction of shallow spawning sites. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
North, Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, as far north as southern Sweden and Finland; Aegean Sea basin, in Maritza and from Stuma to Sperchios drainages; Turkey. Absent from rest of Mediterranean basin. Introduced in Rhône drainage in 1857 and in British Isles during second half of 19th century. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe and Lake Balkhash basin (Kazakhstan).

habitat:
Habitat: Large and medium size lowland rivers, backwaters and well vegetated lakes. Spawns in shallow, warm and well vegetated riverine habitats without current. Biology: Lives up to 80 years in the wild. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and 1-2 kg. Spawns in April-June, in northern areas until August, when temperature reaches about 20°C. In spawning grounds, males defend small territories and build nests of plant material, dig shallow depressions or clean spawning substrate such as willow (Salix) roots. Nests are defended by males until larvae emerge. Spawns in pairs. During spawning act, the male embraces the female. Eggs hatch in 2-3 days and larvae remain in nest until yolk sack is absorbed (2-4 days). A nocturnal predator, feeding near bottom and in water column. Very sensitive to extra-aquatic sounds. Head sensory canal system allows to track the wakes [a trail of hydrodynamic and chemical signatures left by a swimming fish] of prey up to 10 seconds old over distances up to 55 times the length of the prey. Larvae and juveniles benthic and negatively phototactic, feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates and fish. Adults feed on fish and other aquatic vertebrates.

threats:
River regulation destroying shallow spawning sites.


range:
Coastal habitats and lower reaches of rivers in Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Sea basins; Atlantic coast from Gibraltar to southern Bay of Biscay; in Danube reaching Romanian-Hungarian border; in Dniepr reaching Kiev. Introduced in reservoirs of middle and lower Volga with mysids brought from Don estuary, now spreading and already south of Moscow.

habitat:
Habitat: A wide range of marine, brackish- and fresh-water habitats, mostly associated with dense submerged vegetation but as well found on open mud bottom. Biology: Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs into a brood pouch on ventral surface of tail of males. Males fertilise the eggs as they enter the pouch. Eggs incubate in the male's brood pouch for about 20-25 days. Feeds on small invertebrates.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is restricted to the Caspian Sea basin. It has seen a sharp decline after the construction of the dams in the 1950s and 1960s. In Europe, currently the species is rare with only a few remaining spawning sites in rivers draining from eastern Caucasus (including Sulak) and Volga where it might have stabilised at a low level. There are indications that it has formed landlocked populations in reservoirs in the lower Volga. Still abundant in tributaries to the Caspian Sea in Iran, but there also, most spwning sited have been blocked by dams.The area of the remaining spawning sites is unknown, but it is suspected that the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². The current threat to the species is the drying of the rivers (drought), so there is most likely more than 10 locations. The species is close to meeting VU under the B2 criteria.    European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Caspian Sea and tributaries in Europe (Ural, Volga, Terek, Kuma) and Asia. Migrates to uppermost tributaries in Volga.

population:
Only single individuals have been caught in fisheries catches in the past few years (N. Bogutskaya, pers comm.) at the Volga river mouth. There is an indication that there is a landlocked population above the Volgograd dam (status unknown). The species has aparently disapeared in the Kuma, Terek and Kura. In Iran individuals are still caught regularly (A. Abdoli, pers comm. to J. Freyhof).

habitat:
Habitat: Adults live in sea and spawn in reaches of rivers and streams with strong current. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Anadromous. Spawns in couples in March-July (River Sakmara, Ural drainage), when temperatures reach 15-23°C. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoete stage lasts 2-4 years in freshwater. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis, juveniles migrate to the sea. In lower Volga, the occurrence of small (about 190 mm TL) and large (370-550 mm TL) mature adults implies that adults may feed one or two summers before breeding. Feeds on invertebrates and dead fish. Feeding behaviour unknown. Adults start to migrate to rivers in autumn and winter, usually in October-February. Spawning migration is not interrupted by ice flow in Volga.

threats:
Dams of rivers in the Caspian sea in the 1950's and 1960's blocked off many spawning grounds, causing a population decline. Current threats to the species is the drying of the rivers (drought), as the species has found some new spawning grounds below the dams. The species is not poached.

useAndTrade:
--- Other purpose text ---Until 1868, all catches were dried and used as candles or for production of oil. Only thereafter it was used as food for humans, and is now considered a valuable and delicious fish. (Holcík, J., 1986)


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species, known from the Tisza and Timis systems (Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary in the Danube drainage). It has a suspected slow decline with recent and on-going economic development (pollution, damming in headwaters) in eastern Europe. However, not at a rate to qualify the species for a threatened or Near Threatened category.

range:
Danube drainage: Tisza and Timis systems (Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary).

habitat:
Habitat: Piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Ammoecoetes feed on detritus and insect larvae; they usually metamorphose in July-August. Metamorphosis lasts 1-5 months and feeding starts in the following March. Spawns in spring, usually after one year of predatory life, in April-June in uppermost reaches of brooks. Dies after spawning. Adults feed on live and dead fish; they usually kill their prey and feed on body tissues or swallow the whole fish.

threats:
Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.


taxonomicNotes:
Work is needed to confirm that the Lourus population is conspecific with the type locality in Strymon.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is only known from two river basins with a total estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) <100 km² and area of occupancy (AOO) <10 km². Extensive survey has failed to find this species in one of these basins, the Louros, indicating a decline in the EOO and AOO. There is also a reported decline in quality of habitat due to water pollution, the number of locations, and number of mature individuals. It is also quite possible that the population within the Strymon river basin no longer exists — more survey work is recommended. On this basis the species is assessed as Critically Endangered.

range:
Only known from the Strymon and Louros basins in Greece. In the Strymon basin, it is located only in two brooks (Ayannis spring and Mylopotamos Kefalari). More recent, extensive survey has, however, failed to find the species in the Louros basin.

habitat:
It lives in cold water springs and spring-fed streams. Reproduction takes place in December and January. It is a non-parasitic lamprey and it does not feed as an adult.

conservationAction:
Listed in Annex II of European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Protected by a special national law in Greece (not enforced).


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species and abundant in Poland and Ukraine. However it is suspected to be undergoing a slow population decline with recent and on-going economic development, but not at a rate to qualify for a threatened or Near Threatened category.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Tributaries of Baltic (Odra, Vistula, Neman drainages), northern Black (Danube to Kuban drainages) and Caspian Seas (River Sura, Volga drainage). In Danube, restricted to tributaries below Iron Gate; a single record from upper Morava system (Czechia).

population:
Abundant in Poland and Ukraine, but suspected to be gradually declining overall.

habitat:
Habitat: Lowland, piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in September-December, overwinters and spawns in late April-early May, later at higher elevations, when temperatures reach 11-16°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form aggregations. Dies after spawning.


taxonomicNotes:
Anadromous predatory lampreys are reported in the literature and are considered to be extinct. In fact, the literature is ambiguous. The record of a migratory lamprey in the Prut system refers to a non-predatory species close to E. mariae but there is no evidence that it was anadromous. Attempts to obtain migratory lampreys in recent years in the Dniestr, Dniepr and Don have been unsuccessful; fishermen are not aware of its existence.

redListCategoryRationale:
Disappeared from its range (Dniestr, Dniepr and Don drainages) around the end of 19th century for unknown reasons, although it was the target of fisheries in the lower part of rivers in autumn and spring. Attempts to obtain migratory lampreys in recent years in the Dniestr, Dniepr and Don have been unsuccessful and fishermen are not aware of its existence.

range:
Dniestr, Dniepr and Don drainages (Black Sea basin).

population:
Last recorded around the end of 19th century.

habitat:
Habitat: Unknown. Biology: Adults were known to migrate and were the target of specific fisheries in lower part of rivers in autumn and spring (including in lower Dniepr where E. mariae is known to be absent). It is not known whether the migration was restricted to freshwater or included a period at sea. Spawns during spring in headwaters, in clear water, over gravel bottom or recently flooded areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is restricted to the Drin River (extent of occurrence of 25,000 km²) but has no known widespread threats.

range:
Drin drainage including Lake Ohrid and Lake Skadar basins (Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo) .

habitat:
Habitat: Piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Probably similar to E. mariae. Metamorphoses in November-April in Drin drainage (but this requires confirmation).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is widespread, known from the Sava and Drava systems of the Danube and the upper Danube north and west of Drava. However, is suspected to be undergoing a slow population decline with recent and on-going economic development but not at a rate to qualify the species for a threatened or Near Threatened category.

range:
Upper and middle Danube drainage (Sava and Drava systems and upper Danube north and west of Drava). Locally in Timis and Olt systems (lower Danube drainage). Absent from Tisza and Cerna systems.

habitat:
Habitat: Clear, well oxygenated brooks in piedmont and montane zones. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in July-September, overwinters, and spawns in March-May, later at higher elevations, when temperatures reach 7-10°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig shallow nests in habitats with moderate current. Dies after spawning.


redListCategoryRationale:
Still rare in some areas, but populations have markedly recovered following earlier pollution problems in central and western Europe. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Ireland, Great Britain north to Scotland, Atlantic coast of   Portugal (maybe extirpated), France, North Sea north to Scotland and about Bergen (Norway), North and Baltic Sea basins; Mediterranean along French and western Italian coasts   (maybe all extirpated). Occasional records in Adriatic and Ionian Seas and along coasts of Iberian Peninsula. Migrates into rivers of this area. Landlocked populations known from Lakes Ladoga and Onega (Russia), Loch Lomond (Scotland), some lakes in Finland and possibly Lough Neagh (Ireland).

habitat:
Habitat: Adults live in coastal waters and estuaries and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Predatory, with anadromous and landlocked populations. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to spring. Migration is mainly nocturnal and ceases at low temperatures. Spawning season starts when water temperature rises above 9°C, which depends on latitude, starting in late March in France and mid-June in Finland. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig shallow nests in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2½-3½ years. Ammocoetes feed on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis (from late summer to late autumn), most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea in spring. At sea, adults prey on a wide variety of fish species, mostly Clupeidae and Gadidae. Feeds on body tissues of prey, which is usually killed while its flesh is excavated. Adults feed for 2 (rarely 1) summers before migrating to the spawning grounds. Individuals feeding for only a single summer before breeding are smaller. Landlocked population of Loch Lomond feeds for only one summer, then stops feeding and migrates in autumn to spawning grounds in River Endrick.


redListCategoryRationale:
Still rare in some areas, but populations have markedly recovered following earlier pollution problems in central Europe. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Great Britain north to Scottish highlands, rivers draining to North Sea north to Scotland and about Stavanger (Norway), Baltic Sea basin, Atlantic as far south as Adour drainage (France, Spain) and an isolated population in Tagus (Portugal), Mediterranean basin in France and western Italy (south to about Tevere drainage). Locally in Ireland, upper Volga, upper Danube and some of their tributaries, and Pescara drainage on Adriatic coast of Italy.

habitat:
Habitat:Found in the lowland, piedmont and montane zone in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depends on latitude when temperature exceeds 9°C, starting in February in Italy and mid-June in Finland. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Dies after spawning. Single individuals may survive until September. Ammocoetes stage usually lasts 21/2-3 1/2 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, starts metamorphosis in June-July (fully transformed individuals usually found in September), overwinters and spawns following spring. There are indications that L. planeri might be an heterogeneous (polyphyletic) assemblage of several lineages evolved independently from different populations of L. fluviatilis (see family introduction).


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is assessed as Least Concern as it has a relatively wide distribution (estimated Extent of Occurrence >20,000 km²) and is found in more than 10 locations. In Slovenia there have, however, been major declines in range.    European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Restricted to the upper adriatic river drainages, including northern Italy, the Adriatic basin of Slovenia and Croatia (Neretva and Matica rivers). Two sub-populations have been found also in Central Italy in the Esino and Potenza river basins. Presence in Switzerland not formally established, but records of L. planeri from the Po drainage are most likely L. zanandreai.

population:
Extensive survey in Italy has found many sub-populations in restricted areas.

habitat:
Lives in cold-water brooks near springs. It is a non-parasitic lamprey as adult does not feed. It requires a gravel substrate. The larvae remain hidden in the gravel for 3-5 years then the adult emerges and spawns over a one-month period in summer. It is important to conduct surveys at times when the adults have emerged in the summer.

threats:
Water extraction, pollution and drought.

conservationAction:
Listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive, and in Appendix III and II of the Bern Convention. In Slovenia the species has been effectively protected since the mid-1990s.


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread species with no known major widespread threats. The species is impacted by local pollution and river regulation in Siberia, but no actual risk because of large distribution range.    European Union 27 = The species is not found within the European Union.

range:
Circumpolar; seas and freshwaters of northern Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, Arctic, White and Barents Sea basins of Russia and Norway, from Pechora (Russia) to Pasvik (Norwegian-Russian border) drainages.

habitat:
Habitat: Adults live in coastal and estuarine waters and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Anadromous, predatory. Adults migrate into rivers in late summer and autumn, until rivers freeze. The migration is mainly nocturnal. Spawning season depends on latitude, when temperatures reach 12-16°C, from April to August. Both sexes dig a shallow nest in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3½ years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer. Most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea the following spring and early summer. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of fish, mostly Clupeidae and Salmonidae. Feeds on body tissues of the prey, which is usually killed. Adults feed for 1-3 summers before migrating to spawning grounds. Large and small mature individuals might represent different age classes returning from sea to spawn. Landlocked populations are not found in Europe, but are known in Alaska. Individuals of these populations are smaller.


taxonomicNotes:
Lampreys identified as L. kessleri from Arctic basin are L. reissneri and part of those from Sakhalin, Japan and rivers of the Sea of Japan belong to L. reissneri and two unnamed species.

range:
Drainages of Arctic and Pacific Oceans. In Europe in Umba (Kola Peninsula), Severnaya Dvina, Mezen and upper Pechora drainages. In Asia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea); Amur drainage; Sakhalin Island; Hokkaido (Japan).

habitat:
Habitat: All types of rivers and streams, including brackish waters. Spawns in sand-gravel bottom in shallow water. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Enters floodplain meadows during high waters. Biology: Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depend on latitude when temperatures reach 13-15°C, from late March to mid-July or later. Migrates into small brooks to spawn. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2.5-3.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer, overwinters and spawns in spring. Ammocoetes remaining in temporal floodplain pools burrow into the bottom and form a protective capsule of slimy secretion and remain immobile until water returns.


redListCategoryRationale:
Generally rare, but widespread. Populations in central and western Europe, which had declined because of pollution problems, have been recovering since the 1980s. European Union 27 = LC. Same rationale as above.

range:
Both sides of North Atlantic, north to Iceland and along Norwegian coasts to Barents Sea (River Ura, Kola Peninsula). North Sea, Baltic and western and central Mediterranean basins, very rare in Baltic basin, only known to enter Odra, Vistula (Poland, Germany), Western Dvina (Latvia), Narova and Luga (Russia) drainages. Several landlocked populations in North America; none in Europe.

habitat:
Habitat: Adults at sea, off-shore; spawns in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Biology: Anadromous, parasitic. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to winter. Spawns in couples in April-July, mostly in May and early June, when temperature reaches at least 15°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with strong current. Dies after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 51/2-71/2 years in freshwater. Feeds on diatoms and detritus, metamorphoses at 130-150 mm TL in late summer and migrates to sea. At sea, adults parasite a wide variety of fish species and even whales and other cetaceans. Usually does not kill its hosts, but feeds on small amounts of blood and body fluid for several days on a single host. Adults feed for about 3 years before migrating to spawning grounds. In 1921, the landlocked population of Lake Ontario entered the other Great Lakes of North America, 90 years after the opening of the Welland Canal in 1829. In combination with other factors, it caused a sharp decline of many native species and the extinction of three endemic Coregonidae. Expectedly, recent molecular studies suggest that the European and North American populations might be different species.


taxonomicNotes:
Haas (1910) has proposed the genus Pseudunio for this species, in order to distinct it from M. margaritifera. Pseudunio was then synonymised by Ortmann (1911). Pseudunio was used again by Haase (1969) to distinguish M. auricularia and M. auricularia marocana (Pallaray 1918) from the other species of the genus Margaritifera. More recently, the genus Pseudunio was used again by Smith (2001), Falkner et al. (2002) and Nienhuis (2003). We now know (Araujo et al. 2009) that M. margaritifera and M. marocana are different species belonging to a same clade (thus monophyletic), but it is still not clear if we should consider different sub-genus within Margaritifera (Huff et al. 2004).To conclude, we propose not to use the Pseudunio any more, either as a genus or as a sub-genus, as long as no definitive phylogeny recommend it.

redListCategoryRationale:
Over the last three generations (using a 30-year generation estimate), the population size of M. auricularia has decreased by more than 90%, as shown by direct observation and by the drastic reduction in its extent of occurrence. Furthermore, most of the subpopulations are not recruiting anymore. It is therefore considered as Critically Endangered A2ac.This mirrors previous assessment of Critically Endangered, under version 2.3, and whilst there has been progress in finding new populations and managing the habitats for previously known populations, the long generation time of this species means that more time is required to confirm any recovery.

range:
This species was originally known to be widespread in Europe extending in the north to Denmark, east to Italy and to Portugal in the West. Nowadays, it only occurs in France and Spain and is extinct in the rest of Europe (Araujo and Ramos 2001). The current range of this species is recorded from part of the rivers Charente, Vienne and Creuse in France and part of the Ebro river in Spain. Therefore, the species is known from four locations, namely the Charente, Vienne, Creuze and Ebro rivers, with a possible fifth one which has to be confirmed (Dronne river in France). In parts of the range the species has been extinct for hundreds of years (UK), whereas in other regions the decline and disappearance happened in the last century.

population:
Currently in France, reproduction is very scarce in the Ebro and Vienne rivers and therefore these subpopulations are decreasing. In the other rivers, no recruitment is observed at all and most of the subpopulations will have disappeared in the next 20-50 years. The subpopulation from the Oise river (France) was probably extirpated in the last few years.

habitat:
This species occurs in slow-flowing large rivers. It is dependent on well-oxygenated gravel substrate for juvenile development. It relies on the presence of its fish host (which is believed to be the Common sturgeon Acipenser sturio, nearly extirpated in most western European rivers). Nevertheless, the Mediterranean populations (Ebro river) may reproduce thanks to an other fish host (River Blenny Salaria fluviatillis).

threats:
Main threats are/were due to human activities, either by direct killing of individuals or by habitat modification. In particular, dams seriously threat this species, both through habitat modification (siltation) and impeding the migration of the host fish. River regulation, dredging, water pollution and pesticides (there are very large irrigated fields along the banks of the Ebro) and water availability are among the most important reasons for M. auricularia’s decline. Irrational water use in the area is behind all these problems and represents the main threat to the species (Araujo and Ramos 1989).

conservationAction:
This species is protected in France and in Spain. It is listed in the Annex 4 of the Habitat Directive and the Annex II of the Bern Convention. Species Action Plans have been elaborated in France (2009) and Spain (2005). It is necessary to take major actions if we want to ensure the survival of this species: surveys in southwest France will allow to discover remaining populations, research on the ecology (water quality requirement, host fish, population genetics), management of the habitat, in particular of the dams and water quality, the restoration of host fish populations, designation of special protected areas and captive breeding programmes.

useAndTrade:
The species' shell has nacre which was used to manufacture knife hilts, especially in the riverside village of Sástago near the Ebro river, where there were abundant M. auricularia populations. Traces exist indicating that this activity probably began two centuries ago. Álvarez (1998a, b) summarized all the available data on this activity. In the Charente River, M. auricularia's nacre was used to make clothes buttons. With regard to freshwater pearl production, it seems that M. auricularia is not a real pearl mussel, as no reference to pearls is available, at least, none comparable with the pearl production reported in M. margaritifera (Hessling, 1859).Another threat arising directly from people is the possible capture of specimens by poachers, once the risk to the species is known. Collectors may be interested in having specimens of M. auricularia for their value as pretty objects (nacre) and because it is a rare species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Population information is available from EU Article 17 reporting, with no country in the region reporting 'favourable conservation status'.# The deficiencies in recruitment compared with losses from old age are resulting in steep population declines and population losses on an annual basis. The generation time for Margaritifera margaritifera is approximately 30 years, so the 3 generation prediction of 90 year has been used to evaluate the population losses. Overall in the last 90 years for Europe based on the number of viable and recruiting subpopulations left from the original sub populations known in 1920, it is estimated that there has been a decline of  81.5% and# for EU Countries a loss of 87%.# This puts the European populations# into the Critically Endangered (CR) category. The overall Global loss over the  same period is 61.5%.# The unknown element is the number of very large sub-populations that are recruiting as well as they did 90 - 100 years ago. If enough very large sub-populations (1 million +) are replacing 100 year old mussels with the same numbers of juvenile mussels per annum, the future prospects would be for a large range reduction but some stable remaining populations. However, we do not have sufficient information on the best populations to have confidence that this is the case. The most important conservation action for any population has to be  the production and thorough implementation of a catchment management  plan that undertakes measures at source and/or pathway between the land  activities and the habitat within the river, as well as consideration of conservation breeding in situations where  subpopulations have become severely depleted. The species has been in decline for the last century, and past conservation assessments were based on the number of known populations, not knowing that many of these sub-populations have failed to recruit for between 1 and 2 generations and that habitat conditions are not favourable for juvenile growth. Hence the current assessment reflects new knowledge, and the species would have been assessed as Critically Endangered in Europe in 1996.

range:
The following are the most recent revised estimates of current population status of M. margaritifera in Europe. The information is mainly from Geist (2005), and compiled by Geist partly based on data and references in Alvarez-Claudio et al. (2000), Araujo and Ramos (2000), Larsen (2001), Young et al. (2001a), Velasco Marcos et al. (2002), Reis (2003), Morales et al. (2004), Rudzite (2004), Sachteleben et al. (2004), Dolmen and Kleiven (2008) and updated information according to personal communications with M. Porkka, C. Greke, M. Rudzite, D. Telnov, St. Terren, G. Motte, J. Reis, E. Moorkens, I. Killeen, M. Young, G. Cochet, F. Renard-Laval, E. Holder, P. Durlet, T. Ofenböck, J. Hruška, N. Laanetu, L. Henrikson, T. Von Proschwitz, E. San Miguel Salán, R. Araujo, and from personal survey work.Austria: There are 29 sub-populations with 50,000 individuals.Only three of these are large sub-populations and there is a strong decline. Less than 5 of the sub-populations with limited juvenile recruitment. Belgium: There are 5-6# sub-populations with 2,500-3,000 individuals. The sub-populations are almost extinct with a lack of juvenile recruitment. There has been conservation programmes for these sub-populations since 2002.    Czech Republic: There are 6 sub-populations with 80,000 individuals. Three of these sub-populations are at frontier streams plus the 3 further sub-populations have more than 20% of juveniles but only one of these is large (60,000 individuals).#     Denmark: There is a maximum of 1 sub-population# with an unknown number of individuals. This sub-population is probably extinct, as it was last recorded in1970.    Estonia: There is 1 sub-population with 35,000-40,000 individuals. There has been a lack of juvenile recruitment for at least 40 years.    Finland: There are 50 sub-populations with 1,500,000 individuals. The largest remaining sub-population is in the Lutto drainage, Northern Finland. Seventy-five percent of the sub-populations were lost in the 20th century. Eleven important populations remain; some populations with few juveniles, but probably only a few functional populations.      France: There are now 84 sub-populations maximum with 100,000 individuals. It is scarce in most of its former range; it was originally abundant in more than 200 rivers. At present it is found in less than 10 rivers with juveniles; sub-populations are still present in Massif Amoricain (18), Massif Central (57), Morvan (6), Vosges (1) and Pyrenees (2) but there are serious declines; there is one big population in Dronne (16,000 individuals) with little recruitment and the other populations are mostly small with 10 to 100 individuals, maximum of 300 individuals.    Germany: There are 69 sub-populations# maximum with 144,000 individuals. The largest sub-populations with over 10,000 individuals are in Bavaria but there are serious declines. There is only one recovering population with more than 20% juveniles in Northern Germany. Several conservation and breeding programmes have started.        Great Britain: There are more than 105 sub-populations with over 12,000,000 individuals. The best populations are in Scotland but 2/3 of the originally known 155 populations are extinct. Overall there are still over 12,000,000 mussels with one river estimated at having 10,000,000 alone. There are 10 rivers with significant numbers of juveniles and common or abundant adults, and 5 others with some juveniles but scarce adults. In England 10 pearl mussel rivers remain (the best sub-population has over 100,000 mussels but few juveniles and evidence of decline). In Wales there are 10 pearl mussel rivers (the best has less than 1,000 mussels).    Republic of Ireland: There are 139 rivers with sub-populations with 12,000,000 individuals. The best rivers have between 2 and 3 million individuals, however most have just a few thousand. There is a serious decline with few recruiting sub-populations.     Northern Ireland: Ninety percent of the sub-populations have been lost.#     Latvia: There are 8 sub-populations with 25,000 individuals. There is a serious decline, as no sub-population with juvenile recruitment remains.    Lithuania: There is possibly 1 sub-population which the status of is unknown.    Luxembourg: There is 1 sub-population with 1,000-1,500 individuals. This species is# almost extinct in Luxembourg.#     Norway: There are 340-350 sub-populations with probably 300 million individuals. There is a serious decline, especially in the South, however the exact distribution, total numbers and juvenile status is unclear.    Poland: There are no remaining sub-population in Poland and it is considered Extinct here.    Portugal: There are 6 sub-populations with more than 1,000,000 individuals. There is a severe decline, with 3 large populations (22,000; 50,000; 1 million) with evidence for juvenile recruitment remaining , but serious declines expected in two of them due to recent construction of man-made dams.          Russia: There are more than 8 sub-populations with more than 100,000,000 individuals. There is a serious decline, however 4 populations of over 1 million individuals remain.Spain: There are 19 sub-populations; at least 17 in Galicia, 1 in Asturias and 1 in Salamanca; but the number of individuals is unknown. There is a serious decline as there is probably no more than 2 reproductive sub-populations with significant numbers of juveniles.    Sweden: There are more than 400 sub-populations with more than 8,000,000 individuals. There are serious declines; at least 50 populations have significant numbers of juveniles less than 50mm in size.

population:
This species is a special case in having approximately 200,000,000 mature  individuals but due to habitat degradation having very little  replacement as adults die. Functional extinction is widespread throughout most of the range. Most sub-populations are isolated and genetic exchange between sub-populations is unlikely by natural means. Across most of the range adults that die will not be replaced due to habitat changes that cannot support juveniles, so most sub-populations have not recruited for many years. The following are the most recent revised estimates of current population status and estimated past (90 years) and future (90 years) population and individual number estimates of M. margaritifera in Europe. The information is mainly from Geist (2005), and compiled by Geist partly based on data and references in Alvarez-Claudio et al. (2000), Araujo and Ramos (2000), Larsen (2001), Young et al. (2001a), Velasco Marcos et al. (2002), Reis (2003), Morales et al. (2004), Rudzite (2004), Sachteleben et al. (2004),  Dolmen and Kleiven (2008) and updated information according to personal  communications with M. Porkka, C. Greke, M. Rudzite, D. Telnov, St.  Terren, G. Motte, J. Reis, E. Moorkens, I. Killeen, M. Young, G. Cochet,  F. Renard-Laval, E. Holder, P. Durlet, T. Ofenböck, J. Hruška, N.  Laanetu, L. Henrikson, T. Von Proschwitz, E. San Miguel Salán, R.  Araujo, and from personal survey work. (Moorkens pers. comm. 2010).#Overall in the last 90 years for Europe there has been a decline of 81.5%, for EU Countries a loss of 87%.# The overall Global loss over the same period is 61.5%Austria: There are currently 29 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 3. There are currently 50,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 5,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 1,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 82% over last 3 generations)Belgium: There are currently# 5-6 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 2,500-3,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 300,00 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)    Czech Republic: There are currently# 6 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 1. There are currently 80,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 8,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 1,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 0% over last 3 generations)  Denmark (maximum): There is currently# 1 sub-population. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 1 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently an unknown number of individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 10,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0.  (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)    Estonia: There is currently 1 sub-population. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 1 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 35,000-40,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 400,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)    Finland: There are currently 50 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 200 and the estimated future number of populations is 5. There are currently 1,500,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 50,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 100,000.(Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 78% over last 3 generations)    France: There are currently 84 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 200 and the estimated future number of populations is 10. There are currently 100,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 50,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 10,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 96% over last 3 generations)  Germany: There are currently 69 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 100 and the estimated future number of populations is 1. There are currently 144,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 25,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is10,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 94% over last 3 generations)    Great Britain: There are currently# 105 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 200 and the estimated future number of populations is 10. There are currently 12,000,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 20,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 1,000,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 90% over last 3 generations)  Republic of Ireland: There are currently 139 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 150 and the estimated future number of populations is 6. There are currently 12,000,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 20,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 600,000.(Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 96% over last 3 generations)    Latvia: There are currently 8 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 40 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 25,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 5,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)    Lithuania: There is currently possibly 1 sub-population. The past status of the sub-populations is unknown and it is not possible to estimate the future number of sub-populations. The past, current and future number of individuals is unknown or not possible to estimate.# (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)    Luxembourg: There is currently 1 sub-population. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 1 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 1,000-1,500 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 200,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)    Norway: There are currently# 340-350 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 750 and it is not possible to estimate the future number of sub-populations. There are currently 300 million individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 1,000 million and it is not possible to estimate the future number of individuals.  (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 60% over last 3 generation, based on 40% loss and 20% not recruiting)    Poland: This species is considered Extinct in Poland so there are currently no sub-populations or individuals. The estimated number of sub-populations and number of individuals in the past 90 years is 0. It is not possible to estimate the future number of sub-populations or individuals.## Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generation)Portugal: There are currently 6 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 3. There are currently 1,000,000 individuals. The past number of individuals is unknown and the estimated future number of individuals is 100,000. Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 50% over last 3 generation, predicted to be another 2 subpopulations extinct in next 3 generations )  Russia: There are currently 10 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is around 100 and the estimated future number of populations is approximately 3. There are currently 100,000,000 individuals. The past number of individuals is unknown and the estimated future number of individuals is 30,000,000.# Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 90% over last 3 generation    Spain: There are currently 19 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 2. There are currently individuals. The past, current and future number of individuals are unknown or not possible estimate.# Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 89% over last 3 generation    Sweden: There are currently 400 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is approximately 50. There are currently 8,000,000 individuals. The past number of individuals is unknown and the estimated future number of individuals is approximately 1,000,000. Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 81% over last 3 generations.# Based on present subpopulations of 551, of which only c. 100 considered viable and recruiting, with original number of subpopulations in 1920's being over 1000.    Total estimate across Europe for 2010:# 1282 sub-populations, 423 million individualsTotal estimate across Europe for 1920:## 2613 sub-populations, 2000 million individualsTotal estimate across Europe for 2100:## 204 sub-populations, 47 million individuals.

habitat:
Sustainable populations of the freshwater pearl mussel are restricted to near natural, clean flowing waters, often downstream of ultra-oligotrophic lakes. A small number of records are from the lakes themselves.     Margaritifera requires stable cobble and gravel substrates with very little fine material below pea-sized gravel. Adult mussels are two-thirds buried and juveniles up to 5-10 years old are totally buried within the substrate. The lack of fine material in the river bed substrate allows for free water exchange between the open river and the water within the substrate. The free exchange of water means that oxygen levels within the substrate do not fall below those of the open water. This is essential for juvenile recruitment, as this species requires continuous high oxygen levels.    The clean substrate must be free of inorganic silt, organic peat, and detritus, as these can all block oxygen exchange. Organic particles within the substrate can exacerbate the problem by consuming oxygen during the process of decomposition. The habitat must be free of filamentous algal growth and rooted macrophyte growth. Both block the free exchange of water between the river and the substrate and may also cause night time drops in oxygen at the water-sediment interface.    The open water must be of high quality with very low nutrient concentrations, in order to limit algal and macrophyte growth. Nutrient levels must be close to reference levels for ultra-oligotrophic rivers. Phosphorus must never reach values that could allow for sustained, excessive filamentous algal growth.    The presence of sufficient salmonid fish to carry the larval glochidial stage of the pearl mussel life cycle is essential.    Intact natural catchments prevent fine sediment and nutrient losses to the river. As fine sediment losses become chronic, siltation of the substrate can provide a rooting medium for higher plants. Nutrients can also accumulate in the sediment (and may be chronically or intermittently available in the open water), promoting the growth of algae and macrophytes. This exacerbates the stressful environment for the adult and juvenile mussels, and as more adults are lost, further niches for macrophyte growth become available. There is a resultant trophic cascade in the habitat, where oligotrophic conditions succeed to eutrophic conditions and the suite of invertebrate species changes accordingly.# Thus, the conservation targets for mussel populations include maintenance of free water exchange between the river and the substrate and minimal coverage by algae and weed. The# most important requirement is the maintenance of recruitment i.e. the river bed structure required to breed the next generation. Nutrients in the sediment are problematic as they are used by rooted plants. Dissolved nutrients in the water column tend to lead to algal growth. Both come from chronic and/or periodic loss of dissolved nutrients from the catchment.   #

threats:
There are a number of factors leading to the decline and loss of pearl mussel populations (Moorkens 1999, Araujo and Ramos 2001). Margaritifera is highly demanding of very clean river habitats in order to be self-sustaining, but it lives for over 100 years, and thus non-sustainable populations of adult mussels can persist for many years after negative changes in the habitat have occurred. While a range of possible causes of decline can exist (e.g. direct habitat damage, acidification of rivers (particularly in Scandinavia) and depletion of mussels from pearl fishing activities), the overwhelming majority of population declines in Europe have been due to sediment accumulation in the river bed gravels, cutting off the supply of oxygen to juvenile mussels. New generations of mussels cannot be recruited, while older adults that were born before the habitat deterioration remain alive as they are filtering open rather than interstitial water. The source of pressures that lead to this decline come from the catchment into the river, thus protection and rehabilitation of mussel populations is impossible without effective catchment management that is protective to the juvenile mussel habitat. The best populations are known from low-intensively managed isolated catchments with little influence from man. However, some famous historical populations persist in low numbers in large, lowland rivers, where adults may be living in habitats that could not possibly sustain juveniles.    The loss of pearl mussel populations mostly occurs from continuous failure to produce new generations of mussels because of the loss of clean gravel beds, which have become infiltrated by fine sediment and/or over-grown by algae or macrophytes. These block the required levels of oxygen from reaching young mussels. Juvenile mussels spend their first five to ten years buried within the river bed substrate.#         #Other ways in which mussel populations can decline and be lost is through adult mussel kills, or loss of host fish which are essential to the life cycle of Margaritifera. Further details of the life cycle can be found in Moorkens (1999).Fine sediment, once introduced to a pearl mussel river, can continue to cause very serious effects on a long term basis (Ellis 1936, Marking and Bills 1979, Killeen et al. 1998, Araujo and Ramos 2001, Naden et al. 2003). Direct ingestion of silt by adult mussels can lead to rapid death. Turbidity, particularly from fine peat entering the water, causes adult mussels to clam up (they close their shells tightly and do not filter water through their siphons), a response that provides a protection against ingesting damaging fine particles. If the river water remains strongly turbid for a number of days, mussels can die from oxygen starvation, either from remaining clammed, or from ingesting contaminated water while stressed. During a time of year when water temperatures are high, oxygen depletion in the body occurs more rapidly, and mussels die more quickly. The evolutionarily primitive Margaritifera gills and the annual brooding of young in all four of the gills demand a continuous, high supply of oxygen. Even if the adult mussels survive an initial silt episode, food/oxygen deprivation from clamming will have caused them to become stressed, from which they will take a long time to recover. If during that recovery period, there are further incidents of mobilisation of this or other silt, then the stressed mussels will be more susceptible to death than mussels in a cold river in unstressed conditions. Thus, they may continue to die over a period of several months. Higher temperatures throughout the summer further exacerbate this problem.    Once a silt load enters a river that holds a pearl mussel population, it can continue to cause harm. Silt causes river changes, which in turn change the dynamics of the river into the future (Dietrich et al. 1989, Colosimo and Wilcock 2005, Curran and Wilcock 2005). Increases in fine material in the bed and suspended in the water column, and consequent changes in channel form, may affect mussels in many ways and at various stages in their life cycle. The direct kill to adults is only the first stage in the damage that silt causes to the population. Sediment that infiltrates the substrate decreases oxygen supply in the juvenile habitat, which prevents recruitment of the next generation. The sediment subsequently provides a medium for macrophyte growth, a negative indicator in pearl mussel habitats. Macrophytes then smother the juvenile habitat even further, and the macrophytes trap more sediment, exacerbating the problem in the long term. One of the most essential requirements for pearl mussel conservation is the removal of the risk of any sediment reaching the river, as any one single incident has such long term ramifications.      Silt infiltration of river bed gravels can also have a negative effect on the essential species of fish that host the mussel glochidial stage (Levasseur et al. 2006).     As with siltation, nutrient enrichment can have serious and ongoing impacts on both juvenile and adult mussels. Increased inputs of dissolved nutrients to mussel rivers tend to lead to filamentous algal growth, unless combined with siltation, where macrophyte growth can dominate. Filamentous algae can lead to the death of juvenile mussels, through blocking oxygen exchange with the sediment, and cause adults to become stressed, as a result of night time drops in oxygen. Even if filamentous algae are destroyed in a flood, adult mussels may not make a full recovery before the algae re-grows. Adult mussels may eventually die as a result of oxygen/food deprivation.   Death and decomposition of filamentous algae contributes fine particulate organic matter to the river substrate. This further blocks water exchange between the river and the substrate and causes additional oxygen depletion through the process of decomposition. Decomposition also releases dissolved nutrients, promoting further primary productivity. Inputs of organic material, such as slurry, to the river have a similar effect on the mussel substrate as dying/decomposing algae and macrophytes.      Major pressures that are leading to damage of river bed substrate from infiltration of inorganic silt, organic fine peat and decaying organic detritus and from eutrophication are listed below.# These are pressures that are present in many  catchments and their cumulative effects have had very severe impacts on mussels.    Modification of cultivation practices   Agricultural improvement   Explanation: any practice that leads to exposure of bare ground and/or fertiliser applications increase can increase the fine sediment and nutrient load to the river. The cumulative effects of such practices can have very severe impacts on mussels.    Liming of land has a negative effect on Margaritifera populations, through direct toxic effects, and through increased growth rates leading to shortened life expectancy and, thus, loss of reproductive years (Bauer et al. 1991, Skinner et al. 2003). In some countries, acidification problems are so severe that liming is considered to have a more positive than negative effect (Henrikson et al. 1995). However, water chemistry data from declining Irish pearl mussel rivers indicate high peaks of calcium and conductivity levels that are likely to have been caused by liming.    Use of pesticides  Explanation: Toxic pollution can have very serious and long term effects on a pearl mussel river. Of particular concern is agricultural, including forestry, pesticides. Chemical sheep dip is considered to be a very serious ongoing risk to pearl mussel populations, and the most likely cause of a number of major mussel kills (Cosgrove and Young 1998, Moorkens 1999, Skinner et al. 2003, Young 2005). Organophosphates and synthetic pyrethroides used in sheep dipping are highly toxic to species that are a lot less sensitive to nutrient and silt pollution than Margaritifera. The pearl mussel is too endangered to justify specific laboratory toxicity testing, but this should not be used as a reason to be ambiguous about the threat such pesticides present to Margaritifera. Pesticides present the greatest risk when used in a form that requires dissolving in large quantities of water, which is why sheep dip is the most obviously damaging.     Fertilisation  Explanation: any applications of chemical fertiliser or manure can lead to direct run-off of dissolved and particulate nutrients, as well as gradual nutrient release from the soil. The vast majority of Irish pearl mussel populations now exceed the recommended range of nutrient levels for this species. The most seriously damaging nutrient is most probably phosphorus, as it is the limiting nutrient in most Irish pearl mussel rivers.# Phosphorus promotes algal growth.    Overgrazing by sheep, cattle or other animals       Explanation: Overgrazing by sheep in mountainous moor and blanket bog habitats in the upper reaches of pearl mussel catchments has led to loss of vegetation and exposure of peaty soils. This problem has been very serious in some catchments, particularly in parts of the west of Ireland. The bare peaty soil erodes easily and releases fine sediment into the river. Similarly, overgrazing by cattle and other animals along the banks of pearl mussel rivers has lead to, and continues to cause, bank erosion. Furthermore, drinking access for cattle causes direct damage and death to mussels, as well as encouraging further bank erosion and sediment mobilisation.     Restructuring agricultural land holding  Explanation: Removal of hedges, copses and scrub from lands surrounding pearl mussel rivers is linked with possible kills of adult mussels and declines in the quality of juvenile habitat. These land changes lead to exposure of bare ground that causes the release of silt into the river. They are often accompanied by drainage. Drains themselves can continuously erode and be a source of fine sediment. These newly drained areas are more conducive to agricultural practices of greater intensity than before, thus the problem is exacerbated and ongoing.    #General forestry management  Explanation: Forestry planting, drainage, ground preparation, clear-fell, replanting, thinning and all management practices associated with clear fell plantation have been a major source of both silt and nutrients in pearl mussel catchments. The drainage and other preparations of land for planting and the practice of clear felling leads to exposure of bare ground that can erode and release silt into the river. Fertilisation of forestry leads to a release of nutrients into the watercourse, especially on peat and peaty soils. These nutrients, alone or in association with other nutrient sources, raise the trophic level of the river above limits that are tolerable for the mussel. Brash left on site during and following harvesting operations provides further, long-term inputs of damaging nutrients. Ongoing forestry operations do not allow for recovery of the Margaritifera habitat and the future for pearl mussel rivers with continued forestry operations is bleak. Restoration of pearl mussel populations will only be possible if there are significant initiatives to remove clear-fell forestry from Margaritifera catchments. Even given such a commitment, major mitigation works will be necessary during the removal of the forestry and restoration to low-intensity or semi-natural land uses.     Acidification has been well documented as a threat to salmonid populations both internationally (e.g. Maitland et al. 1987, Lacroix 1989, Henrikson et al. 1995) and in Ireland (Allott et al. 1990, Bowman and Bracken 1993, Kelly Quinn et al. 1997). In Ireland, acidification is linked with coniferous plantations in acid-sensitive areas rather than industrial pollution. As salmonid hosts can come from anywhere within the pearl mussel catchment, protection of the entire catchment from acidification is essential.    Acidification has also been noted as a direct threat to Margaritifera from the first international IUCN red data book for invertebrates (Wells et al. 1983). Work carried out in Scandinavia has provided evidence for pearl mussel decline from acidification (Eriksson et al. 1981, 1982, 1983; Okland and Okland 1986, Henriksen et al. 1995, Raddum and Fjellheim 2004). A lowering of pH directly influences pearl mussels through a gradual destruction of their calcareous shell, and also their genital organs (causing infertility), and through problems with regulation of acid-base mantle fluid homeostasis (Vinogradov et al. 1987).    # Stock feeding  Explanation: The introduction of nutrients to Margaritifera catchments through the importation of artificial stock feed, e.g. silage, allows increases in the stock numbers. This in turn can cause trampling damage, soil erosion and nutrient releases.    Leisure fishing   Explanation: If anglers are allowed to enter rivers at pearl mussel beds, serious trampling damage can occur. Systematic physical changes to rivers for the purposes of enhancing fish numbers for angling can also be very damaging to pearl mussel habitat, including bank reinforcement, and the installation of weir and croy structures. Damage occurs during construction, and through changes to flow patterns, leading to scouring of stable gravels and loss of mussels and their habitat in some parts of the river. In other areas ponds are created where silt accumulates with further loss of juvenile and adult habitat.    #Taking / removal of fauna  Explanation: Pearl fishing has been a major problem in the past, and kills from pearl fishing have been observed in recent years in spite of the practice being illegal under EU law.    Margaritifera margaritifera has been exploited for its pearls since Roman times, for leisure and commercial gain, and Ireland's mussels were well known sources of pearls for many years (Cranbrook 1976, Lucey 2005). Pearl fishing has been cited as a threat to pearl mussels across most of its range, and in countries with very low numbers of individuals such as Germany, there are historical records of pearl fishing causing population decline. Recent records of pearl fishing in Ireland are anecdotal, and generally involve Scottish visitors, some of whom come from families that traditionally made a visit to known haunts at periodic intervals. The decline in pearl mussels and the lack of sufficient recruitment has made any pearl fishing unsustainable and the use of tongs to open mussels for pearls has been shown to be damaging (Moorkens and Costello 2004). Thus pearl fishing is outlawed in the EU and any illegal fishing is considered to pose a threat to that population.     Quarries/ Sand and gravel extraction    Explanation: Pearl mussel populations have been damaged in the past and continue to be damaged both directly through removal of gravel from pearl mussel river beds, and indirectly through silt and other pollution from quarrying activities. Severe episodes of silt lead to adult mussel kills, large and small releases of silt destroy juvenile habitat. Another common problem is the release of calcium from limestone quarries, which increases growth rate in adult mussels, thus shortening mussel lives and reducing the long fertile period required for pearl mussel life history strategy.    #Peat extraction  Explanation: Hand and machine cutting of peat, including the drainage channels used in the process, leads to losses of pearl mussel juvenile habitat from infiltration of river bed substrate by fine peat particles released from bare soil.    #Mines  Explanation: Pollution of water courses from open cast and underground mining by mined heavy metals, and chemicals used in the process of extraction of mined products has led to the loss of pearl mussel populations.    #Discharges  Urbanised areas, human habitation  Explanation: Margaritifera is a species of near natural conditions. Continuous urbanisation, discontinuous urbanisation and dispersed habitation have all been associated with depressed water and habitat quality in pearl mussel rivers. Lack of appropriate water treatment (water must reach the river at reference levels), including even small elevation in BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) levels, and even minor increases in ortho-phosphate levels can lead to loss of juvenile habitat. Inappropriately plumbed washing machines can lead to serious nutrient elevations and subsequent filamentous algal growth.    Industrial and commercial areas   Explanation: Pearl mussels have already been lost from intensively industrialised areas, but local and more rural industries such as meat processors and creameries operate adjacent some extant pearl mussel rivers. High BOD levels and other pollutants have led to loss of juvenile habitat and severe depletion of adult mussels.Land reclamation    #Disposal of household waste  #Disposal of industrial waste  #Disposal of inert materials  Explanation: There is evidence of reduced habitat quality for Pearl mussels in rivers where land fill sites are present in the catchment. Decreased habitat quality is also found in rivers where household and other waste is dumped into or adjacent the river instead of being properly disposed of, and in rivers where inert materials such as builder's rubble have been used as infill within the flood plain area to raise and level the ground for more intensive usage.  #  Communications networks  Paths, tracks, cycling tracks  Routes, autoroutes  Explanation: There is evidence of reduced habitat quality for Pearl mussels in rivers where functioning flood plain has been impeded by hard surfaces of roads or paths. It has been reported (Hruska 1999) that juvenile mussels require a direct connection between the groundwater contributing to the interstitial gravels and the unimproved low nutrient vegetation in the flood plain. Building of hard surfaces can release damaging silt into the river. Hard surfaces near a pearl mussel population can also lead to run-off of pollutants into the river. These are permanent effects, i.e. both from construction and operation so road development is considered to present a significant threat to this species.  #  Bridges, viaducts  Explanation: There is evidence of reduced habitat quality for pearl mussels in rivers where bridges have been built, even where they have clear spanned the river. In general, the most negative effects have occurred where structures were not spaced wide enough and, thus, not enough flood plain habitat has been left on either side of the river (see above). The damage is exacerbated where flow changes have occurred, and consequent hard measures such as revetments, walls or rock armouring have been built along the banks in the vicinity of the bridge to prevent bank erosion. Building of bridges can release damaging silt and nutrients into the river. The bridge and nearby road can also lead to run-off of pollutants into the river. These are permanent effects, i.e. both from construction and operation. Other permanent effects include excessive shading under the bridge, and disturbance to adult mussels and reproduction on a long term basis. Where the population of mussels is dense, the mussels form an intrinsic part of the river bed structure, and damage at one area can then cause knock-on long term damage to beds of mussels upstream and downstream of the structure.  #  Energy transport  Explanation: There is evidence of mussel kills where pipe lines have been routed across river beds, from instream works in the river causing silt episodes, and also in silt from bare ground where the pipe has been dug on either side of its entry into the river. to the swathe of habitat removal required before and after it crosses the river.#   Improved access to site  Explanation: There is evidence of increased dumping and pearl fishing at pearl mussel beds that are in close proximity to sites with easy access.  #  Sport and leisure structures  Explanation: There is evidence of increased silt and nutrient releases and depressed pearl mussel habitat where golf courses, sports pitches and camp sites have been developed nearby.  #  Pollution  Explanation: Water pollution, particularly nutrient pollution, leading to increased primary productivity, is associated with agriculture, coniferous clear fell forestry, industrial effluents and insufficient treatment of domestic, municipal or industrial sewage. Very small increases, above natural background nutrient loads can lead to damage. In particular, the normal background ortho-phosphate# reference level# (generally 0.005mg/l P in Ireland) is considered to be essential to the maintenance of oligotrophic waters for reproducing pearl mussel rivers (Moorkens 2006). Small increases in ortho-phosphate can lead to deleterious algal and/or macrophyte growth, so maintaining low levels at all times is considered to be essential. One large input of ortho-phosphate can lead to an algal incident, which in turn leads to detritus/particulate organic matter, causing adult and juvenile deaths and increases the trophic status of the river on a long term basis. Growing algae causes problems by blocking oxygen exchange between the substratum and the water column and through night time depletion of oxygen. Decaying algae causes detritus that not only clogs the interstices, but also causes oxygen depletion because oxygen is used up during its decomposition.    #An increase in trophic status can lead to major habitat changes, particularly a change from Fontinalis-dominated flora/macrophytes to Myriophyllum and Ranunculus-dominated flora where nutrient pollution is accompanied by siltation. These macrophytes are indicative of poor Margaritifera habitat and provide conditions for trapping further silt and continued loss of habitat as a result of changes of flow, sediment and nutrient dynamics (Barko et al. 1991, Wood 1997, Masden et al. 2001, Clarke 2002). Phosphorus that resulted in macrophyte growth continues to be released and mobilised as the macrophytes decompose (Barko and Smart 1980, Rooney et al. 2003).  #  Drainage  Canalisation  Explanation: Both arterial drainage of the river and catchment and field drainage associated with agriculture and forestry impact on pearl mussels. Arterial drainage, canalisation, boulder removal, etc. has destroyed river habitat by replacing natural channel reach patterns of pools and riffles with more uniform runs that suit neither the pearl mussel nor its host fish (Moorkens 1999, 1996; Hastie et al. 2000, Valovirta 2001). Bank reinforcement actions often accompany or are deemed necessary following canalisation. They are a response to external damage to river banks at the site of reinforcement or that has taken place elsewhere but has had ramifications at the site of reinforcement. The reinforcement structures in themselves can affect river dynamics both upstream and downstream of the works (Fischenick, 2003, O'Grady 2006). Hard reinforcement measures are considered to be damaging activities in pearl mussel rivers.    #The increased drainage network has led to an increase in the release of silt into river channels hosting pearl mussels, with the subsequent destruction of juvenile habitat. Drainage of peaty catchments has been shown to increase run-off rates and flood peaks (Müller 2000). Such hydrological changes lead to instability in mussel habitat and increased disturbance.  #  Flooding  Modification of hydrographic functioning  Management of water levels  Explanation: Destruction and damage to habitats in the catchments of pearl mussels, such as through bog drainage and in-filling of floodplains has changed the hydrology of some rivers. A small number of pearl mussel rivers are also regulated above the populations. Flow regulation can have serious negative effects on pearl mussel populations (McAllister et al. 1999, Araujo and Ramos 2001). These manifest mainly in two ways. Firstly, consistent but unnatural flows, particularly more prolonged low flows can cause stress to adult and juvenile mussels by raising temperature, reducing oxygen, concentrating pollutants and providing conditions for silt deposition and algal growth. Secondly, rapid changes in flow regime such as where sluices or dams are opened and closed regularly, is damaging to pearl mussel populations. This may be due to the energy effort of individuals, concentrated on digging into substrate or moving around leading to a state of continuous stress. Where rapid changes are occurring at very sensitive times of the year, loss of# annual glochidial production or newly dropped juvenile mussels can occur. These phases of the life cycle normally occur at periods of low flow, and losses in a natural system through flooding are rare events.  #  #Dumping, depositing of dredged deposits#   Explanation: Dredging has taken place in the past in the large lowland pearl mussel habitats, with large numbers of dead mussels being found afterwards. Kills are likely to have included pearl mussels in the range of the dredging through habitat destruction, and mussels downstream, through siltation.  #  Erosion  Explanation: Erosion of river banks is a serious cause of silt entering the river. Its cause is rarely natural, even when no immediate explanation is obvious, but rather a knock-on effect from river bed or bank changes elsewhere. Where cattle or sheep are allowed to enter the river, serious erosion can occur.   #  Interspecific faunal relations  Genetic pollution   Explanation: Loss of host fish is regularly cited as a potential reason for pearl mussel decline (Araujo and Ramos 2001, Anon 2005). A study on the status of host fish populations and on fish species richness in European pearl mussel populations (Geist et al. 2005) characterised typical fish communities in pearl mussel streams and revealed that a lack of host fish only seems to be limiting pearl mussel reproduction in specific areas. Intact and functional pearl mussel populations were found to occur under extremely oligotrophic conditions with lower host fish density and biomass than in disturbed populations without juvenile recruitment. In Ireland, adequate numbers of host fish occur in at least some rivers with inadequate Margaritifera recruitment, however, where nutrient levels have increased,  more host fish may be required as compensation for lower glochidial production rates in stressed mussels (Geist 2005). A comparison of trout versus salmon dominated rivers of Ireland quickly shows that 100% of pearl mussel rivers are associated with salmon and sea trout. Thus, while brown trout make an effective host fish, the rivers occupied by Margaritifera in Ireland, are of naturally low productivity dominated by salmonids that went to sea to get nutrition. Salmon and Margaritifera have been cited as symbiotic in their relationship, with both species providing a beneficial role for the other (Ziuganov and Nezlin 1988, Ziuganov et al. 1994). Pearl mussels filter the river water and increase its purity, and salmon gills host mussels during their glochidial stage. Pearl mussels have also been shown to prevent early senility in salmon and thus extend their life expectancy (Ziuganov 2005). It is likely that host fish numbers in ultra-oligotrophic situations were never very high, as pearl mussels are naturally adapted to live in rivers with low food levels and very low productivity (Bauer et al. 1991), but an unnatural decline in host fish will inevitably threaten Margaritifera. As well as habitat decline and acidification, impediments to fish movement from artificial barriers can result in losses of mussel populations (Bogan 1993).    Genetic pollution through the introduction of fish stocks not native to the catchment is considered to be a problem, as there appears to be a strong level of adaptation between genetic mussel and fish stocks.    All the pressures referred to above are ongoing and will remain as threats to the population in the future, and in some cases are likely to be exacerbated.  #  In addition, the following are likely threats:  # Climate change    Explanation: Climate change is likely to further threaten the survival of Margaritifera. Increased temperatures will lead to a higher metabolic rate and consequently a shorter life expectancy and thus reduced reproductive episodes per individual. This may exacerbate an already lowered recruitment level. The likely scenario of increased summer droughts and winter storm and flood events may negatively affect the species by increasing the frequency of stressful 'natural' events. These may result in increased siltation incidents during flooding. Habitat space may be reduced as a result of loss of river bed in drought conditions, or instability of gravel beds that are currently stable, through frequent flooding. Climate change may have an as yet unforeseen affect on the salmonid host species or on the food web that they rely upon. Changes in sea level may increase the salinity of a higher percentage of the lower reaches of some mussel rivers, which would have particularly serious ramifications for populations that have now become restricted to the bottom end of rivers. Hastie et al. (2003) predict that a number of Scottish populations may be lost as a result of climate change.  #  Antagonism arising from introduction of species  Explanation: The potential for exotic species spreading into pearl mussel rivers could result in major declines to the native pearl mussel, such as continued spread of exotic Ranunculus (Laughton et al. 2007).  #  #  #

conservationAction:
To date, many pearl mussel rivers within the EU have been designated as Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), and the species is protected under national legislation in most countries with various levels of restriction. In most cases, both national legislation and SAC status have resulted in some improvement on direct damage to mussels such as pearl fishing, and some protection against plans or projects that would be likely to damage# populations, but conservation actions are generally lacking through lack of real engagement in how such rivers and their catchments need to be managed in order to rehabilitate and sustain their mussel populations for the future. It is obvious that if damaging activities are not removed and prevented into the future within pearl mussel catchments, that designation of SACs for the species will not have lead to any protection whatsoever.    Part of the problem of protection of the species within SACs is the design of the directive, which restricts SACs to habitats of importance, so that buffer zones that would be of great value in conservation action cannot be part of any designation. There is in theory a requirement to protect SACs from ex-situ damage, but this has not been effectively operated to date.#     A strong negative indicator of the future prospects of this species has been the very poor response of the various competent authorities to dealing with the damaging effects of intensification of agriculture and coniferous forestry in pearl mussel catchments.     Agricultural and forestry operations continue to intensify in parts of pearl mussel catchments, and need to be reduced to levels that are compatible with the life cycle of the pearl mussel. Recent intensification has resulted from both economic drivers and environmental policy. Pressure on dairy farmers to intensify operations and increase herd sizes has led to use of previously marginal land. A policy for compensation of farmers for more compatible practices should be urgently undertaken, as part of a management plan on a catchment by catchment basis. Any compensation payments made to farmers in Margaritifera catchments should be for practices that are compatible with favourable conservation status into the future.  In general, damage leading to unfavourable Margaritifera status has been from cumulative effects of intensification of agriculture over many years. The most important conservation action for any population has to be the production and thorough implementation of a catchment management plan that undertakes measures at source and/or pathway between the land activities and the habitat within the river. Other conservation actions include captive breeding in situations where populations have become severely depleted. This should never take place without a detailed catchment management plan to allow for the return of captive bred mussels to the wild.    #It is hoped that the Water Framework Directive may help develop policies, legislation and management strategies that could work towards managing damaging land uses and improving water and habitat quality. It is imperative that recoverable pearl mussel populations are given the highest priority and that everyone involved in the implementation of this Directive understands the very demanding habitat requirements of the pearl mussel.  #    #  #

useAndTrade:
Pearl fishing was carried out both casually and by a group of people that regularly took pearls for profit. Some pearl fishing continues today and is a serious threat to the species. Pearl fishing is illegal throughout the EU.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is a widespread species in Europe and is not considered threatened at present, although it is recognised as a species which is declining over parts of the range, in part due to the presence of the invasive species#Dreissena polymorpha. The species is more in decline in Ireland and parts of western Europe#(Moorkens  Killeen 2005). There is an urgent need for more data on the level of impact of#Dreissena polymorpha, as it can stop Anodonta anatina from reproducing (Moorkens  Killeen 2005). It has reduced greatly in numbers in some major river systems in the range and, although there are many identified threats, the precise causes are unknown (D. Aldridge, 2009, pers. comm). The species is a candidate for Near Threatened status, as the data currently demonstrate the decline levels are close to meeting the 25-30% decline threshold over 3 generations (around 25 years) throughout the range and it may become Near Threatened in the next 25 years. The current assessment is as Least Concern.

range:
This species is common and widespread throughout Europe, in some parts the species is scarcer.            There are five subspecies recognised by Fauna Europea (Bank et al. 2006) within the region, each with a different geographical distribution:Anodonta anatina anatina# Distribution: Republic of Ireland (Eire) Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium Luxembourg, France (Mainland) and Germany.  Anodonta anatina attenuata Distribution: Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary.  Anodonta anatina radiata Distribution: Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Germany and Czech Republic.  Anodonta anatina rostrata Distribution: Austria  Anodonta anatina waterstoni Distribution: Greece (including Andikíthira I., Evvia I., Ionian Is., Samothráki I., Northern Sporades Is., Thásos I.).However, as yet there is insufficient data to maintain these as distinct taxa, and as such the data is combined for this assessment.Anodonta anatina is recorded in Russia (Graf and Cummings 2007), where Kantor et al. (2009) currently list many different taxa, that#Graf and Cummings (2007) recognise as synonyms.

population:
This is a species which has an average longevity of eight years. It is  one of the most common species in rivers and lakes and one of the most  tolerant species to pollution, and gets into the upper parts of river  systems.However, it is recognised as a species which is declining over parts of the  range, in part due to the presence of the invasive species#Dreissena  polymorpha.#The species is more in decline in Ireland and parts of western Europe#(Moorkens  Killeen 2005). It has reduced greatly some some major river systems in the range and, although there are many identified threats, the precise causes are unknown (D. Aldridge, 2009, pers. comm).

habitat:
This is a filter-feeding bivalves that lives in the beds of lakes, rivers, reservoirs and canals.

threats:
In the past there have been localised declines and losses as the result of habitat degradation (water pollution from industrial/agricultural sources and channel management for flood protection and navigation), however the most recent threats come from the impact of an invasive mollusc species Dreissena polymorpha, smothering the duck mussel. In some parts of Europe this species has been badly impacted by Dreissena polymorpha and is projected to decline even further as a direct result of this invasive species (e.g. in Ireland,#Moorkens and Killeen (2005)).#The species sits partly out of the river bed to enable the filter-feeding, so#a high proportion of shell is exposed to the water column, and hence is vulnerable to settlement by#Dreissena polymorpha seeking a place to anchor. There is an urgent need for more data on the level of impact of this species as the smothering is known to inhibit reproduction.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are known for this species across the range, although local actions maybe in place (e.g.#In Germany it is listed as specially protected species in Annex 1 in the Federal Species Regulation, Glöer and Meier-Brook (2003)). Although the species is widespread at present, it has been declining in parts of the range. The major threat identified in some areas is due to new invasions of non-native species, and hence further research on the impact of non-native species on Anodonta anatina is urgently needed to determine the likely longer-term threats they present. Following this it can be determined whether further actions are necessary.

useAndTrade:
The species is sold in garden centres and aquaria for ponds.


taxonomicNotes:
Fauna Europaea (Bank et al. 2006) considered there to be four different subspecies, which, once reviewed using molecular systematics may be revealed as concealing cryptic diversity.In addition Falkner (pers. comm.,#2009) considered that two subspecies may exist in Lake Constance, although whether it is an endemic sub-species of Lake Constance is or whether they are conspecific with forms from other Swiss Alpine lakes is unclear.

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is a widespread species in Europe and is not considered  threatened at present, although it is recognised as a species which is  declining over parts of the range, in part due to the presence of the  invasive species#Dreissena polymorpha. The species is more in decline in  Ireland and parts of western Europe#(Moorkens and Killeen 2005).  There is an urgent need for more data on the level of impact of#Dreissena polymorpha, as it can stop Anodonta anatina from  reproducing (Moorkens and Killeen 2005). It has reduced greatly in  numbers in some major river systems in the range and, although there are  many identified threats, the precise causes are unknown (D. Aldridge pers. comm. 2009). Given the decline in populations over the last generation as a result of water pollution and the impact of the various invasive bivalves the species is a candidate for Near Threatened (NT) status in Europe, as it may have declined between 25 and 35% in a significant percentage of the range. Once sufficient data has been assembled to confirm the decline levels the threat status can be reassessed.

range:
This species is common and widespread throughout Europe, but scarcer in some parts. Fauna Europaea (Bank et al. 2006) considered there to be four different subspecies, which may once reviewed using molecular systematics be revealed as concealing cryptic diversity, and hence these are listed for information.Anodonta cygnea cygnea #(Linnaeus, 1758): Mainly northern European: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland, Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland) and Germany.Anodonta cygnea deplanata von Gallenstein, 1852: Austria.Anodonta cygnea gravida Drouet, 1879:# Mainland#Greece.#Anodonta cygnea solearis Held, 1839: Eastern European:#Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Greece (including Andikíthira I., Evvia I., Ionian Is., Samothráki I., Northern Sporades Is., Thásos I.).Outside Europe this species is found as far east as Siberia.

population:
The species is known to be declining through parts of the range in western Europe. In parts of Germany considered rare (Falkner pers. comm. 2009), where it is considered to be present in lakes.

habitat:
This species prefers slow flowing or still waters,#lakes and slow-flowing lowland rivers,#canals, drainage dykes and dam reservoirs (Kerney 1999, Killeen#et al.#2004,#Zettler#et al.#2006). It is intolerant of poor environmental conditions, and can be used as a biodiversity indicator of clean water (Rosińska#et al. 2008).

threats:
In the past there have been localised declines and losses as the result  of habitat degradation (water pollution from industrial/agricultural  sources and channel management for flood protection and navigation),  however the most recent threats come from the impact of an invasive  mollusc species Dreissena polymorpha, smothering the swan mussel. In some parts of Europe this species has been badly impacted by Dreissena polymorpha  and is projected to decline even further as a direct result of this  invasive species (e.g. in Ireland,#Moorkens and Killeen (2005)).#The  species sits partly out of the river bed to enable the filter-feeding,  so#a high proportion of shell is exposed to the water column, and hence is vulnerable  to settlement by#Dreissena polymorpha seeking a place to  anchor. There is an urgent need for more data on the level of impact of  this species as the smothering is known to inhibit reproduction.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are known for this species operating across the range, although local actions are in place. In Poland, this species has been protected by law since 1995 and is listed as Endangered on the Polish Red List (Zając 2005).#This species has special status in Germany by the BArtSchV (Anlage I) legislation (Federal Species Regulation) (Zettler#et al.#2006), and#where it is considered to be present in lakes and#listed with a status of 2 - 'highly endangered' (Falkner pers. comm, 2009). It is also listed on the local Red List of endangered animals of Brandenburg and of Mecklenburg-Przedpomorza in Germany with a status of 3 - 'threatened' (Rosińska#et al. 2008).#The species is classified as Vulnerable under criterion A4ce on the Irish Red List No. 2 (Non-Marine Molluscs) (Byrne#et al. 2009). It is also listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of threatened species of the Czech Republic (Farkač#et al. 2005), and as Endangered on the Norwegian Red List (Byrne#et al.#2009).Although the species is widespread at present, it has been declining in  parts of the range. The major threat identified in some areas is due to  new invasions of non-native species, and hence further research on the  impact of non-native species on Anodonta anatina is urgently  needed to determine the likely longer-term threats they present.  Following this it can be determined whether further actions are  necessary.Data is required to establish whether the species meets the decline threshold of more than 30% over the last 25 years. It can then also be determined whether further actions are necessary.

useAndTrade:
This species is known to be used for sale for large garden ponds and aquariums.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a relatively limited range in southern Europe, and is considered Vulnerable in Italy, based on the loss of populations across the country.# Given that these populations represent the major centre, with extinction in Switzerland and possible extinction in Lake Ohrid, this supports the evidence to maintain the evaluation as Vulnerable (VU) A2c based on c. 35% decline in populations over the range. This species has also been assessed at the regional level:  EU27 regional assessment:# Vulnerable A2ca at the level of the 27 member States of the European UnionEuropean regional assessment:# Vulnerable A2cMediterranean regional assessment:# Vulnerable A2c

range:
#The main range of this species is given as Switzerland and Italy in Fauna Europea (Bank et al. 2006; online database), however records of material in Lake Ohrid cited by Nagel and Hoffmeister (1986) may extend the range to Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia, so the species also inhabits river systems flowing into the Adriatic seas. This species is in decline in Italy, and in Lake Ohrid, despite intensive recent surveys, only a handful of eroded dead shells have been recorded (C. Albrecht, pers. com., 2009). Miensis (Triannual Unionid Report no 20, March 2000) reported that some viable populations within its former range of distribution have been rediscovered in northern Italy (Nagel and Hoffmeister 1986) and Croatia (Fischer 1999). Graf and Cummings (2007) noted that the range could extend to the Middle-East.

population:
This species is in decline in Italy, and in Lake Ohrid, despite intensive recent surveys, only a handful of eroded dead shells have been recorded (C. Albrecht, pers. com., 2009).

habitat:
This species is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.

threats:
The major threats are habitat degradation and pollution.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive as a protected species on Annex V. This species has a relatively limited range in southern Europe, and is considered Vulnerable in Italy, and Extinct in Switzerland, and Possibly Extinct in Lake Ohrid.# Italian populations remain the stronghold for this species, and surveys continue on the status# in Northern Italy (Nagel et al. 2007).# Ex-situ breeding is a possible conservation action for this species, as are surveys and habitat monitoring.

redListAssessors:
Albrecht, C., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. Manganelli, G.


taxonomicNotes:
Potomida is considered a monotypic genus with a circum-Mediterranean distribution (Graf, from Mussel web-site, 2008; http://bama.ua.edu/~musselp/m/mom/archive/2008/08-08.html). The phylogenetic placement of Potomida is also of interest. Unlike the other unionid genera of Europe (like Unio and Anodonta), P. littoralis lacks the hooked-type glochidia of the subfamily Unioninae. Graf and Cummings (2007) left this species as "incertae sedis" within the family to emphasize the cloud that hangs over the higher taxonomy of this lineage.In Europe Bank et al. (2006) recognised 4 subspecies, from France and Greece:Potomida littoralis acarnanica (Kobelt, 1879) – Distribution: Greece. Synonyms: messenicus Westerlund, 1890; pamisinus Drouët, 1894 Potomida littoralis littoralis (Cuvier, 1798) – Distribution: France. Potomida littoralis cuneata (Jacquemin, 1835) – Distribution: France. Potomida littoralis pianensis (Boubée, 1833) – Distribution: France.Araujo (2009) noted that in Spain there were two Iberian subspecies discussed by Haas (1969) – P. littoralis littoralis cuvier, 1798, and P. littoralis umbonata Rossmaessler, 1844# but that both are synonyms of P. littoralis cuvier, 1798.In North Africa, another subspecies Potomida littoralis fellmanni Lamarck, 1801, was recognised by Van Damme et al. (2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species has many subspecies that are much more restricted, usually to a few river catchments where they are declining, and hence whilst the overall distribution is widespread, further research on all the subspecies is required to establish the identity, as some of these may be distinct, declining and potentially threatened taxa (Van Damme et al. 2010).# The species is considered to be rapidly declining in Spain, one of the countries where it is widely distributed, and populations levels have declined by over 30% in last 30 years, hence although the mapped distribution appears widespread, the actual populations have declined markedly.# As a consequence, the species is considered to be Near Threatened (NT) at the European level and at the level of the 27 member States of the European Commission, based on the declining population levels within the significant strongholds of the Iberian Peninsula, continued loss since the 1940's and inferred decline levels between 20-30% over last 30 years.

range:
P. littoralis is a widespread species in southern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. Like other widely distributed freshwater mussel species in the rivers of the western Palaearctic, this one is also highly variable and several subspecies are recognized (Graf and Cummings 2007).# Within Europe it is mainly found in the Iberian Peninsula and France, with one subspecies recorded from Greece. It is not recorded from Italy and so apparently has a disjunct distribution.

population:
In Spain, it is considered to be declining (Verdu and Galante 2009). Araujo (2009) considered that the decline of this species had accelerated in the last 10 years.# In Portugal, it is also reported to have declined significantly (Araujo, pers. comm, 2011).

habitat:
This species occurs in large freshwater rivers, usually in# the# middle to lower river section,s but does not occur in upper parts of the river system. It also has been found in canals and lakes, preferring slowly moving waters, where it is found on the river bed between gravels (or sands) and stones. The species prefers clean waters. Maturity is reached after 4-5 years (size 4 cm), and, in Spain, pregnant  females were observed in July and August, juveniles hatched in  September, glochidia (0.21 mm) were observed from March to October (Araujo 2009).  Known host fishes are Barbus species, perhaps also Chondrostoma (Animalbase, downloaded 2011).

threats:
The major threats lie in river channel management, such as canalisation of the river channel as part of flood prevention schemes and irrigation practices, or navigation of river channels. In the lower reaches of the rivers it is also declining due to water pollution (varied sources including domestic, industrial and agricultural sources). In Spain, Araujo (2009) considered that the decline of this species had  accelerated, with increasing threats on the rivers where it lives (both  natural droughts, flood events changing river channel beds, and domestic  water extraction, dams, eutrophication).

conservationAction:
The species was a candidate for listing on the European Union Habitats and Species Directive Annex.# It is considered to be Vulnerable in Spain, based on populations declines over the last 3 generations (30 years) and it is considered to be declining (Verdu and Galante 2009). Araujo (2009) considered that the decline of this species had  accelerated and recommended for inclusion in  the next Spanish Catalogue of Endangered Species in Category. In Portugal, declines have been reported since 1940, when the species was abundant. In Greece the status is uncertain. In France, it is considered to be a declining species and is listed as a protected species.


taxonomicNotes:
As with all European unionids, numerous synonyms occur. Falkner et al. (2002) lists seven morphologically distinct 'sub-species'.

redListCategoryRationale:
Although this species inhabits a wide range, it occurs in low densities and has been seen to be in decline in many parts of its range. In the UK at least 30% of the habitat has been lost. It is protected in Germany and Poland. There are multiple ongoing threats to the suitable habitat across the range. As this species is a relatively short-lived species, it has to be assessed over 15-20 years period. Although there is a decline across the range, it does not meet the 30% over 15-20 years, although it does meet this criteria in part of the range, and hence is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) approaching criteria A.This species has also been assessed at the regional level as:EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT) at the level of the 27 member states of the European Union.European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT).

range:
This species has a large range found in north-west and central Europe. It has been known from Austria, Belgium (Extinct), Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Latvia, Norway, Sweden, Poland, Lithunia, Denmark, Netherlands, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine and the UK. It is present in some lowland rivers of England, but only in the lower reaches with the most northerly population known from the River Derwent, Yorkshire. The largest sub populations are found in the Rivers Medway, Arun, Waveney, Old West (Great Ouse system), Thames, South Drain (Somerset Levels), Great Stour. The range reaches Wales (River Wye) on the border with England. In Slovakia it is mostly present in the major river systems in the country: Morava, Danube, Nitra, Hron, Laborec and Latorica Rivers, mainly in the lowland and in main channels. In Serbia the species lies in Tisa River system and also the Danube.

population:
This species is generally rare where present, and very patchily distributed. It is often found in localised "hot-spots" and is a winter brooder (McIvor and Aldridge 2007).

habitat:
The species is generally found in flowing water habitats (lotic systems), especially lowland rivers. It does not occur in lakes in the UK, but in Sweden it is present in lakes with riverine through-flows. There is a preference for clean sands and clays with low organic content. It is found to bury more deeply than other unionids, with a stronger anchoring of the foot.

threats:
Siltation and increases in organic and inorganic sediments from agriculture pose threats to sub-populations. Organic pollution may induce premature gill evacuation of immature eggs  (e.g. Reynolds and Guillaume 1998). Further threats include the abstraction of water, channelization and impacts from dams as well as the impacts from dredging and to a lesser extent weed cutting (Aldridge 2000). There has also been decline in populations of the host fish due to water pollution:# phosphates (Reynolds and Guillaume 1998). In the UK, 30% of the habitat has been lost.

conservationAction:
The species is protected by law in Germany where it has been assessed as Highly Endangered having been lost from many sites. Until recently it occurred commonly in the rivers and lakes of Poland, though always in relatively low numbers. But now it is Endangered as is thought to be in decline. Its populations are small, isolated and scattered and protected by law. In the Czech Republic it is assessed as Endangered (EN) in Bohemia and Critically Endangered (CR) in Moravia. However, in Sweden it will soon be classified as Least Concern (LC) as many new sites have been discovered. As there is an identified decline over much of the range monitoring of population and habitat trends is recommended as is monitoring of the identified threats.


taxonomicNotes:
The status of this species is in question, as many researchers consider this a form of Pseudanodonta complanata. Although this species is listed by Fauna Europea for UK, France and  Germany (Bank et al. 2006), it is not recognised as a distinct species in UK, as it is viewed as probably conspecific with P. depressa (Seddon, pers. com., 2011). In France it is  currently treated as a subspecies of P. complanata and in Belgium it is viewed as a subspecies of P. complanata (online Belgian Fauna).

redListCategoryRationale:
The status of this species is in question, as many researchers consider this a form of P. complanata. Although this species is listed by Fauna Europea for the UK, France and  Germany, it is not recognised as present in UK and in France and Belgium it is  currently treated as a subspecies of Pseudanodonta complanata.# Consequently all the data on population trends, distribution and habitats are mixed with Pseudanodonta complanata, a species known to be in decline. Further data is required to confirm the taxonomic status before the species can be assessed in confidence. Therefore it is assessed as Data Deficient (DD).This species has also been assessed at the regional level as:EU27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) at the level of the 27 member states of the European Union.European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD).

range:
This species is listed by Fauna Europea as a subspecies of P. complanata for UK, France and Germany (Fauna Europea, online version 2010). The status of this species is in question, as many researchers consider this a form of P. complanata.  Although this species is listed by Fauna Europea for UK, France and   Germany, it is not recognised as present in UK. In France it is   currently treated as a subspecies of P. complanata and mapped in two departments on the north borders with Belgium and Germany. In Belgium it is viewed as a subspecies of P. complanata (on line Belgian Fauna). Much of the distributional data for this taxon is mixed with distributional data for the declining species P. complanata.

population:
All the data on population trends are mixed with Pseudanodonta complanata, a species known to be in decline.

habitat:
All the data on habitat preference are mixed with Pseudanodonta complanata.

threats:
All the data on population trends, distribution and habitats are mixed with Pseudanodonta complanata, and therefore an assessment of threats to this species is not currently possible.

conservationAction:
All the data on population trends, distribution and habitats are mixed with Pseudanodonta complanata, a  species known to be in decline. Further data is required to confirm  the taxonomic status. Fresh data is required in order to ascertain the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and potential threats.


taxonomicNotes:
Fauna Europea do not recognise this species in Europe. There are many subspecies recognised as P. complanata, however this species is not one of them. The species is recognised by Graf and Cummings (2007). The species is listed by Kantor et al. (2009) for Ukraine and Russia under the name Anodonta middendorffi, where they noted that the types were lost.

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is listed by Kantor et al. (2009) for Ukraine and Russia under the name Anodonta middendorffi, where they noted that the types were lost. It is no longer listed for Europe by Fauna Europaea, however Kantor et al. (2009) list the  species for the catchments of the Oka, Bug, Orel and Dnieper rivers, in  Germany, Ukraine and Russia. However, the precise distribution is  uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species. More data is required to establish the species' status, population trends and distribution before an accurate assessment can be made. Therefore it is assessed as Data Deficient (DD).This species has also been assessed at the regional level as:EU27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) at the level of the 27 member states of the European Union.European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD).

range:
Kantor et al (2009) list the species for the catchments of the Oka, Bug, Orel and Dnieper rivers, in Germany, Ukraine and Russia, however the precise distribution is uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species.

population:
The precise population trends are uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species.

habitat:
The precise habitats are uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species, however the records come from large rivers.

threats:
Any threats to this species are unknown.

conservationAction:
More data is needed in the areas of the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and potential threats before any conservation actions can be considered.


taxonomicNotes:
Anodonta japonica (Von Martens 1874) is part of this species complex, however, there is no available information for this synonym. Anodonta lauta and A. calipygos were treated as separate species by Kondo (2008). This species has also been referred to as Sinanodonta woodiana by Graf and Cummings (2007) and may possibly need a genus change.

redListCategoryRationale:
Sinanodonta woodiana has been assessed as Not Applicable (NA) at both the European level and the level of the 27 member states of the European Union. This species has a widespread and stable native distribution, but is widely introduced in Europe. It is a habitat generalist and successful in introduced areas, expanding its range throughout the Northern hemisphere.

range:
It was first introduced to Europe in 1963 along with introduced carp, and is currently found in at least fifteen European countries including Romania, Czech Republic, Belgium, Hungary, France, Slovakia, Austria, Poland, Ukraine, Italy, Germany, Serbia, Bulgaria, Moldova, Spain and Sweden.This species is widespread and its native ranges is from Indochina and China  north to Korea, Japan, Primorye and the Amur Basin in eastern Russia  (Graf 2007). In the Far East it is found from the Amur and Yangtze River  basins (Soroka 2005); it is widespread in China.

population:
There is no population information available for this species.

habitat:
This species is a habitat generalist found in heavily modified and artificial habitats and is tolerant of high siltation rates (Paunovic et al. 2006). In the Czech Republic it is found in ponds, oxbow lakes and canals (Beran 2008). It prefers substrates of silt and clay, turbid conditions with relatively high water temperatures (30-33 ° C) and is found in either standing or slow-flowing water (Soroka 2005, Zettler and Jueg 2006).

threats:
It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it should be noted that this is an invasive species in Europe.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Subspecies include crassus, gontieri and mongolicus. Accepted species according to Graf and Cummings (2009) incorporating the invalid species are Crassiana irgizlaica, Middendorffinaia ochotica, Middendorffinaia ussuriensis and Unio mingrelicus. Its range is fragmented and Bank et al. (2006) recognise 10 isolated subspecies in Europe within this range, but the populations from Spain and Portugal are now considered to be other species (Araujo pers. comm. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
This long-lived species is present in most of the European countries. Habitat decline has been observed throughout the range due to a wide range of threats. The habitat has no refugia to protect the species from disturbance and these streams are frequently managed. The species decline rate exceeds 50% in parts of its range (Sweden), it is considered Critically Endangered in other parts (Germany, Switzerland and Austria) and is already Extinct from the Netherlands. For a more formal assessment further research on population and habitat trends is needed, however based on current data, the species is assessed as Vulnerable (VU A2ac+3ce) at the European level and Vulnerable (VU A2ac+3ce) at the level of the 27 member states of the European Union.

range:
This species is considered a widespread variable species incorporating  numerous subspecies and synonyms. It is reported from the Atlantic to  the Ural Mountains (European Russia) (Graf 2007), is widespread  throughout Europe (Bank et al. 2006)  and is found in the Tigris-Euprates region (Middle East) and further  east through the Amur Basin (eastern Russian) (Graf 2007). In Europe, the range has now reduced, but it is still widely distributed in northern and eastern Europe. The Mediterranean distribution is under review due to uncertain  taxonomy, but the populations from Spain and Portugal are now considered  to be another species, Unio tumidiformis (Araujo pers. comm. 2009).

population:
There is no information available on population and habitat trends over the entire range although localised declines have been documented (Schultes 2010). The average longevity is 40 years, suggesting 3 generations would be approximately 100 years.This long-lived species is present in most of the European countries.  The species  decline rate exceeds 50% in parts of its range (Sweden), (von Proschwitz, 2010) and it is  considered Critically Endangered in other parts (Germany, Switzerland  and Austria) and is already Extinct from the Netherlands.

habitat:
This species inhabits clean river ecosystems and lakes, with flowing  waters and sandy or sandy-gravel bottoms (Zajac 2009, Schultes 2010). As  a result it is vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, species  composition of the surrounding ichtyofauna and the degradation of  natural river valleys (Zajac and Zajac 2009).# Juveniles are  particularly sensitive to water pollution and reproduction is prevented  in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10 mg/l (Schulte 2010).# This  species requires a host fish in order for successful recruitment.# The  eggs are released in small packets and ingested by species including Cottus gobio, Phoxinus phoxinus, Leuciscus cephalus, Scardinuis erythrophthalmus, Gymnocephalus cernua and Perca fluviatilis. The glochidia are then reliant upon a parasitic period of five weeks in the gills of the fish (Bachmann 2000). Declines  in fish species as a result of pollution, water abstraction and  predation by non-native species have ultimately lead to localised  declines of U.crassus (Nordsieck 2010).The native predator of this species was the otter (Lutra lutra), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America such as the muskrat (Ondathra zibethicus), the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the American mink (Neovison vison) has inevitably contributed to declines of  U.crassus due to  direct predation of the mussel and also as a result of increased  predation of the host species (Bachmann 2000, Nordsieck 2010).

threats:
This species is widespread, and is not considered to be threatened throughout it's entire range, although the range is very fragmented. However this species has demonstrated localised declines as a result of several  major threat processes including water pollution, drainage,  sedimentation and increased predation. This species is vulnerable to  changes in water chemistry, requiring clean waters of flowing rivers.  Juveniles are particularly sensitive to changes in water chemistry and   reproduction is prevented in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10   mg/l (Schulte 2010). The native predator of this species was the otter (Lutra lutra), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America into Europe such as the muskrat (Ondathra zibethicus), the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the American mink (Neovison vison) has inevitably contributed to declines of U.crassus.  Declines in their host species as a result of habitat degradation and  increased predation has reduced recruitment success, therefore  negatively impacting local populations.

conservationAction:
This species has been assessed in IUCN national Red Lists as:Critically  Endangered (CR) in Germany, Switzerland and Austria (Schulte 2010)Vulnerable (VU) in Albania (Schulte 2010)Extinct (EX) in Netherlands (Schulte 2010)Endangered (EN) in Poland (Zajac 2009), where it is also protected by law and parts of its range are within protected areasEndangered (EN) in Sweden, using criteria A2ab(ii) as there has been a decline of more than 50% over the last 3 generations, and some fringe populations have disappeared.This species is listed on the EC  Habitats Directive (92/43/ECC) in appendix II and IV (Bachmann 2000) and  it is possible that conservation strategies may be in place but this  information is unclear. Further research is required on population  trends and distribution.

redListAssessors:
Aldridge, D., Feher, Z. von Proschwitz, T.


