# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Orchis spitzelii is very rare and local with less than 100 individuals in many locations. The area of occupancy is below 500 km² and the populations are threatened by tourism, annual winter sport activities and plant collection.

However, the number of locations is not known and the population is not severely fragmented. Therefore, Orchis spitzelii is assessed as Near Threatened approaching B2ab(iii,v).

range:
Orchis spitzelii is a sub-Mediterranean montane species with a very disjunct range. The species can be found from Gotland (Sweden) in the north, eastwards to the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, the Levant, extending into south Algeria. There are further reports from Morocco and Mallorca. This orchid is extinct in Germany. It can be found between 1,000 and 2,100 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar et al. 2007, Ludwig and Schnittler 1996, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

population:
Orchis spitzelii is very rare and local. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made but the number of locations and the number of plants found at each site are very restricted and often less than 100 individuals. The populations with more than 100 individuals are very rare exceptions. T he trend of the population is decreasing (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar et al. 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

habitat:
Orchis spitzelii is typically found in short mountain grassland, mountain meadows, scrubs, pine woods and open woodland. It prefers dry to moist, alkaline, often calcareous soils, substrates well covered by snow. This species grows mostly in mid-shade and the flowering time is from mid-May to end of June (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar et al. 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

threats:
Orchis spitzelii is affected by annual winter sport activities and tourism. The species itself is threatened by collection for decorative purposes and collection of the tuber for the production of salep. Digging and consumption by animals furthermore disturbs this plant (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar et al. 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

conservationAction:
All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists: Regionally Extinct in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Spain (Moreno 2008) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) Endangered in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) Vulnerable in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) Least Concern in France (UICN France et al. 2010).

The following actions are recommended to protect Orchis spitzelii (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar et al. 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002);
Protection of the habitat, especially the mountain grassland from recreational activities.
Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.
Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.
Sympathetic management of isolated populations. Raise public awareness.
Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.
Ex situ conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.
Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.
Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.

useAndTrade:
The bulb is very nutritious when cooked. It is a source of 'salep', a fine white to yellowish-white powder that is obtained by drying the tuber and grinding it into a powder. Salep is a starch-like substance which can be made into a drink, added to cereals or to bread. It can be prepared in the same way as arrowroot. A jelly can be made from the salep which is used to treat irritations of the gastro-intestinal canal (Plants For a Future 2010). It is also collected for ornamental use.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Platanthera chlorantha is widespread but populations are declining and many populations have been lost and are small. The main threats are clearance or 'coniferization' of woodland, destruction of grassland by agricultural improvement, urban and infrastructure development. Overall, the existing threats are unlikely to cause the populations to decline severely in the near future. Therefore, Platanthera chlorantha is assessed as Least Concern but deserves local conservation efforts in parts of its range.

range:
Platanthera chlorantha is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. It is almost confined to Europe, occurring north in Scandinavia, southern Finland and the Baltic States. The species is found south to the Mediterranean, including Corsica, Sicily, the Aegean Islands, Cyprus and possibly Sardinia. It occurs eastwards to central European Russia, Crimea and the Caucasus. Platanthera chlorantha is also found in North Africa in Tunisia and possibly Morocco and in Turkey, northeast Syria and northwest Iran. It occurs up to 2,300 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva et al. 2008).

population:
Platanthera chlorantha is widespread but populations are declining and many populations have been lost and appear to have only a handful of individuals in each population. T he species has declined greatly in United Kingdom with a loss of 46% of the historical range and 53.5% in Ireland . (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

habitat:
Platanthera chlorantha is found in a variety of habitats such as short grassland, damp meadows, fens, deciduous woodland, woodland edges and open woodland. It prefers dry to damp, often calcareous (chalk, limestone and bas-rich clays), alkaline soils. This species grows in shade to full sunlight and flowers from late May to late July. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

threats:
Platanthera chlorantha is declining rapidly on many sites due to clearance or 'coniferization' of woodland and the destruction of grassla nd by agricultural improvement, urban and infrastructure development. The development of a dense woodland canopy suppresses flowering as the species needs light. Lack of grazing leads to increased competition, but overgrazing also has detrimental affects and the collection of the species for decorative uses has negative impacts. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

conservationAction:
All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists: Vulnerable in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Germany (level 3 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Hungary (Király 2007) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France et al. 2010), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).

The following actions are recommended to protect Platanthera chlorantha (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002);
Protection of the habitat, especially the pastures and hay meadows from ploughing, agricultural use and woodland from urbanisation.
Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.
Clearance of dense woodland canopy to ensure enough supply of light even after an interval of more than 50 years can ensure a dramatic reappearance of flower spikes.
Moderate management of grazing.
Sympathetic management of isolated populations.
Raise public awareness.
Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.
Ex situ conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.
Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.
Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.

useAndTrade:
This orchid is collected for its ornamental value.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Serapias vomeracea is widespread  with a large distribution area but rather rare where it occurs. The existing threats for the species and the habitats are unlikely to cause the populations to decline quickly in the near future. Therefore, Serapias vomeracea is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Serapias vomeracea is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. The species is found north to Charente-Maritime in France and the foothills of the Alps in Switzerland and east to Cyprus. It extends its range into North Africa and west Caucasus. The species occurs up to 1,200 m asl (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

population:
Serapias vomeracea is rather widespread and sometimes abundant where it occurs. T he trend and size of the population remains unknown (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

habitat:
Serapias vomeracea is found in short, poor grassland, garrigue, scrub, damp meadows, olive groves and open woodland. It prefers dry to damp, alkaline to slightly acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and it flowers from March to June. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

threats:
Serapias vomeracea is threatened by collection for salep production and horticulture, digging and consumption by animals, overgrazing, ploughing and other agricultural uses of the habitats. In addition it is affected by urbanisation, tourism and associated infrastructure development. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).

conservationAction:
All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included in the following national red lists:Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) Vulnerable in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) Least Concern in France (UICN France et al. 2010).

The following actions are recommended to protect Serapias vomeracea (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002); 
Protection of the habitat from ploughing and other agricultural uses.
Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.
Control and management of salep production from the tubers
Sympathetic management of isolated populations.
Raise public awareness.
Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.
Ex situ conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.
Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.
Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.

useAndTrade:
The tuber is very nutritious when cooked. It is a source of 'salep', a fine white to yellowish-white powder that is obtained by drying the tuber and grinding it into a powder. Salep is a starch-like substance which can be made into a drink, added to cereals or to bread. It can be prepared in the same way as arrowroot. A jelly can be made from the salep which is used to treat irritations of the gastro-intestinal canal (Plants For a Future 2010). This orchid is collected for its ornamental value.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Traunsteinera globosa is rare but with a large distribution area in Europe. The existing threats for the species and the habitats are unlikely to cause the populations to decline quickly in the near future. Therefore, Traunsteinera globosa is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Traunsteinera globosa has a European and Asian distribution. It occurs in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Vosges, Alps and Carpathians, north to southern Poland, south to the Apennines, possibly to Abruzzo in Italy, and east to Ukraine and Crimea. The species can be found between 1,000 and 2,700 m asl (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva et al. 2008).

population:
Traunsteinera globosa is a rare species. Size and trend of the population remain unknown (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva et al. 2008).

habitat:
Traunsteinera globosa is found in short, poor grassland, mountain pastures, montane marshes, alpine and subalpine meadows. It prefers dry to damp, slightly acidic to alkaline, often calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and it flowers from May to August (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva et al. 2008).

threats:
Traunsteinera globosa is threatened by overgrazing, ploughing of meadows, erosion , urbanisation, and tourism (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists: Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Hungary (Király 2007) Least Concern in France (UICN France et al. 2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).

The following actions are recommended to protect Traunsteinera globosa (Bournérias et al. 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva et al. 2008);

Protection of the habitat, especially the mountain edges and low altitude marshes, from ploughing, agriculture uses and intensive human traffic.
Fencing vulnerable sites.
Moderate grazing and mowing.
Sympathetic management of isolated populations.
Raise public awareness. Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.
Ex situ conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.
Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.
Estimate population size and study their dynamics.

useAndTrade:
Medicinal use is reported in the Balkan peninsula, but without specific applications (Kathe et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


There appear to be no serious threats to this species. Given its wide distribution throughout Europe and its abundance in the northern part of its range, it is classified as Least Concern. This species is declining in some European countries and these populations should be monitored and may require conservation action at local level.

range:
Huperzia selago is native to temperate Asia (Japan), Europe (including Iceland) and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). It occurs at elevations between 0 and 2,700 m asl (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1986).

population:
Huperzia selago is generally a common, widespread species in Europe. The populations are assumed to be locally declining indicated by its listing as threatened in several national red data books. This species is more frequent in the northern European countries, such as Iceland (Kristinsson 2008).

habitat:
Huperzia selago is an evergreen perennial herb found in grassland, heathland, blanket bog in montane mossy areas growing in acid, nutrient poor peaty soils, rocks and cracks (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1986).

threats:
The threats to this species are unknown however they could be threatened by recreational activities such as hiking. It remains unclear why they are declining in some countries but it may be more common in the northern limits of its range. In the past it has declined with habitat destruction, improvements in agriculture and drainage as well as heather burning and over-grazing.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place. It occurs in national parks in the British Isles and throughout Europe. This species is listed on the following national red lists: Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000), Hungary (Király 2007) and Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006); Vulnerable in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000); Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
This species has an active narcotic poison with hypnotic properties. The leaves are edible however chewing three stems induces mild intoxication whilst eight can cause unconsciousness. A poultice of the whole plant is used as a fast-acting emetic and purgative applied in the treatment of headaches. A homeopathic remedy is made from the whole plant, collected during the summer. It is also used as a laxative and to kill worms and can be used as a mordant in dyeing (Plants for a Future 2012). Selagoline is the natural product derived from this plant species as well as Huperzine A and serratidine alkaloids (Stærk et al. 2004). Huperzine A is known to have neuronal protection properties used for improving memory and behaviour in the treatment for Alzheimers Disease (Ma et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is widespread and common throughout mountainous areas in Europe. There are parts where the species is abundant and does not face major threats such as in Ukraine and Russia. But in other parts of its range, the species is listed on national red lists as a loss of habitat is causing populations to decline. The species is a weak competitor and the abandonment of traditional land management, forest plantations and eutrophication lead to changes in vegetation and therefore affect Lycopodium clavatum.


The species had a wide range of medicinal and cultural uses and should be monitored in order to prevent overharvesting becoming a threat.

range:
Lycopodium clavatum has a circumboreal distribution and isolated populations in tropical and subtropical mountains (Natural History Museum 2010). In the UK the species is mostly confined to upland sites in the west and north, or scattered on heaths in the south (Natural History Museum 2010). It can be found in several parts of European Russia: Central, Eastern, Northern, Northwestern and Southern European Russia and in Kaliningrad (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Ukraine, Lycopodium clavatum is widespread in the zone of deciduous and mixed forests in the Polesian lowland, in the lesosteppe (forest steppe) zone and in the Carpathian Mountains. There are isolated localities in extrazonal pine forests in the steppe zone in Ukraine. The plant is relatively common in the Czech Republic, mainly on mountains, but also in river slopes. It is not very common at low altitudes. In Hungary, it is not common because of the low altitudes but only occurs sporadically in the western and northeastern part of the country. In the Baltic States, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, it is a rather common species in suitable habitats. It is rare in the central part of Lithuania because of the absence of suitable habitats (dry forests). In Switzerland, it is widespread but scattered and it occurs between 800 and 2,300 m asl. In Italy, it has been reported from more than 500 localities. There are populations of L. amonostagium in the North of Europe and when these species grow together some confusion may appear.

population:
Lycopodium clavatum is common in the mountains but the populations are decreasing because this is a very slow growing species and it is affected by habitat loss. The parental generation needs about 20 years to produce offspring. Within a long-term and general scale, the population is rather stable but locally affected by some threats (V. Rašomavičius pers. comm. 2010). In Hungary, for example, there are still more than 100 localities but the number of localities and the populations have declining trend especially in the last 20 years. In Switzerland, each population covers a few square metre and could sometimes be formed by only one individual or by several. One single individual is able to cover a wide area and that makes it difficult to count the number of individuals. There is also a slight long-term decline. Forty locations were found after 1994 but there is no clear information about the real distribution nowadays.The Italian populations are also declining. In the Ukraine, the populations are big and stable. In 1960, up to 9.2 tons of Lycopodium clavatum spores were stored in Ukraine (Chikov 1980) and this shows the magnitude of this species in this country.

habitat:
Lycopodium clavatum is a long living but slowly growing species. It is not a good competitor but a slow colonizer just able to compete successfully with short vegetation. It prefers relatively open and dry forests, montane grassland, open woodland, conifer plantations. It is also found in heathland of the class Nardo-Callunetea or at the ecotone of heath and forest. In the UK, it is confined to sandy heaths in lowland sites (Natural History Museum, 2010). It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (list not complete): 9050 Fennoscandian herb-rich forests with Picea abies 91T0 Central European lichen Scots pine forests

threats:
Lycopodium clavatum is mainly threatened by the loss of suitable habitat. Abandonment of traditional land uses such as grazing leads to natural succession processes and as the species is a weak competitor this leads to population declines. The species tends to establish on eroded areas such as the ones that have suffered clear cuttings. Even a decrease in the use of former military paths leads to succession and the disappearance of this species. Intensive agricultural activities on forests edges are another threat as they lead to eutrophication and this leads to a change in vegetation. Here again, Lycopodium clavatum can't compete if faced with the emergence of taller vegetation. Pollution and eutrophication can damage the mycorrhiza in symbiosis with this plant. For other species in this genus it has been reported and it could be a threat for this species as well. Due to reforestation projects, forest areas become larger and forest edges decrease. Dense forest plantations have dark undercanopies and this species needs light. In Lithuania, the main threat is its use as decoration, overall near the big cities, although this gathering is forbidden by national regulations. It is likely this regulations would stop the threat because of their transposition into administrative punishments. The species does not face threats in parts of its range such as Ukraine.

conservationAction:
This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, bark and fruits are subject to this regulation. The genus Lycopodium spp. is listed in the Annex V of the Habitat Directive. The species is listed on several national red lists: Critically Endangered in Luxembourg Endangered in Serbia (V. Stevanovic pers. comm. 2010) Vulnerable in Germany (level 3) Near Threatened in Estonia, Hungary and Switzerland The species is categorized as Least Concern in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) and is not listed in the Ukraine and several other countries. However, the species is under national protection in various states such as Hungary, in some regions of France, in one region in Switzerland. Regulations for its commercial use are in place in Latvia and Lithuania. Its collection is regulated in Italy. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range for example in Switzerland and the Czech Republic were collection of the species is forbidden. In terms of conservation measures needed, it is necessary to manage sites in a way that Lycopodium clavatum can compete with other vegetation, i.e. keep areas open, reintroduce grazing activities. Monitoring of the population trends is recommended.

useAndTrade:
The spores of Lycopodium clavatum are harvested from the cones and sold as Lycopodium Powder. This is used as an explosive in film and entertainment industries, as lubrication on condoms and surgical gloves, as cosmetic powder, as pill coating in the pharmaceutical industry and in homoeopathic medicine (Natural History Museum, 2010). In traditional medicine, the plant is used internally in the treatment of urinary and kidney disorders, rheumatic arthritis, gastritis, etc. and externally it is applied to treat skin diseases and irritations (Plants For A Future 2010). In the Baltic States, the plant is locally still used for medicinal purposes and collected near cities. It is also gathered for religious purposes as it is used to decorate churches during Easter because of its evergreen character (V. Rasomavicius pers. comm. 2010). In the Czech Republic, it can be collected for personal use if it is not within a protected area as the species is not protected. There is no indication about collections for high scale trade. In Switzerland, the collection is regulated in one canton.

redListAssessors:
Rasomavicius, V., Gygax, A., and Dostalova, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution and no major threats.

range:
Hedera helix is the only member of the Ivy family found wild in Europe. It is native to northern Africa, temperate Asia and Europe. The centre of its distribution is in Europe except the far north and Finland but it extends into Turkey and the Caucasus. It is naturalised in North America and Australasia (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2012; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

habitat:
An evergreen perennial woody climber up to 30 m often scrambling over the ground. It is found in woodland, scrub, hedgerows often in dense shade growing over cliffs, trees (which can cause die-back), walls, fences and old buildings. In secondary woodland it can form carpets on the ground. The adult growth bears the flowers and fruits but these are only produced when exposed to sunlight. It is grazed on by deer and stock (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
It is listed as Endangered on the national red lists of Belarus (Ermakova 2005) and Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), but considered Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). There are no conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
It is used in traditional and well established medicine as herbal preparations from dry and liquid extracts used as an expectorant for coughs (European Medicine Agency 2011). Ivy berries and leaves are poisonous as they contain triterpene, sapogenin, hederagenin which if consumed in large quantities can cause vomiting, diarrhoea and nervous depression which are more serious in small children. However its gum can be chewed into carious teeth to relieve toothache (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The plant is used internally in the treatment of gout, rheumatic pain, whooping cough, bronchitis and as a parasiticide. The leaves are harvested in spring and early summer and are used fresh or dried. Recent research has shown that the leaves contain the compound 'emetine', an amoebicidal alkaloid and triterpene saponins, which are effective against liver flukes, internal parasites and fungal infections. An infusion of the twigs in oil is recommended for the treatment of sunburn (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide native distribution within Mediterranean coastal countries, and has been very widely introduced elsewhere in the European region; it is considered a serious weed of agricultural land in some parts of its range. It s considered Least Concern.

range:
The origin of the plant is uncertain. Generally considered to be native to southern Europe, northern Africa, and western and central Asia (GBIF 2011, GRIN 2014), although Sidi and Bourgeois-Gavardin (1952) proposed that it is native to the lower Nile River valley in Egypt. Although native to the Mediterranean basin, members of the Ammi genus have been introduced in other continents (e.g., North America), where naturalization has occasionally occurred (Ruscic and Nikolic 2011). GRIN (2014) consider the species native range in europe to include Ukraine, the Balkan Peninsula (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Slovenia), Greece (including. Crete), and Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), France (including Corsica], Portugal and Spain (including Baleares). The species has been widely established in European countries. Less frequently, the species can also be found in northern regions of Europe (e.g., Great Britain, where the species was first recorded in the wild in 1845; Preston et al. 2002).

population:
The species' population trend is unknown, but is most probably not declining as it is considered as weed and grows in disturbed areas.

habitat:
The species grows mainly in olive groves , cultivated fields , fallow land and urbanized areas from 0 to 1,000 meters altitude . The species is often considered as weed.

threats:
No threats are known for this species. The species is widespread in the Mediterranean basin growing in anthropized rural and urban areas.

conservationAction:
Research into the species native distribution is required. The species is Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).

useAndTrade:
Plants of the genus Ammi have a long tradition of usage as traditional medicine (Ruscic and Nikolic 2011). Seeds have been used as contraceptive, diuretic and tonic (PFAF 2014). In addition, an herbal infusion can be used to calm the digestive system and in the treatment of asthma and angina,and to treat toothache (PFAF 2014). Chewing the root has been used to give protection from strong sunlight (PFAF 2014). Also used as a condiment. The species contains methoxsalen also called xanthotoxin, the main active molecule of the drug Oxsoralen (or Deltasoralen, Meladinine), used to treat psoriasis, eczema, vitiligo, and some cutaneous lymphomas. Found in horticulture and seed and plants available in trade.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide native distribution within Mediterranean coastal countries, and has been very widely introduced elsewhere in the European region; it is considered a serious weed of agricultural land in some parts of its range. It is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species has a wide distribution from the Mediterranean basin to West Asia. In the European region, the species is native to the Mediterranean basin (Cyprus, Albania, Greece, Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), France (including Corsica), Portugal, and Spain (including Baleares) (GRIN 2014), but does rarely occur in central and northern Europe (GBIF 2011, Euro+Med 2014). Although native to the Mediterranean basin, members of the Ammi genus have been introduced to other continents (e.g., North America), where naturalization has occasionally occurred (Ruscic and Nikolic 2011).

population:
No population trend data is known for the species.

habitat:
The species prefers ruderal environments such as embankments, roads and semi-natural stony habitats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are known or needed for this species, although the native distribution requires confirmation.

useAndTrade:
The species has been traditionally used as effective muscle relaxant to alleviate the pain of kidney stones (PFAF 2014). Recent studies have confirmed the validity of this traditional use. The plant contains the organic compound khellin (or khella), from which anti-asthmatic pharmaceutical drugs have been made ( "reference-text">Vanachayangkul et al. 2010). Taken internally, seeds have a strongly antispasmodic action, they also dilate the bronchial, urinary and blood vessels. The seeds are used in the treatment of asthma, angina, coronary arteriosclerosis and kidney stones (Natural Standards 2010, PFAF 2014). "reference-text"> "reference-text">The species has also been used to produce a vertebrate poison (GRIN 2014), and is available in the horticultural trade (as seed).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in many European countries and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present. Originally from the northern parts of the European region, the plant has been widely cultivated and has naturalised outside of its native range for medicinal and alimentary purposes. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The original native range of the species is considered to be northern and eastern Europe to eastern Siberia, Asia (northern, central and the Himalaya) and Greenland (Kylin 2010, USDA 2010, Euro+Med Plantbase 2014, GRIN 2014). In the European region, the plant naturally occurs in northern countries such as Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland, but can also been found in central and eastern European countries. The plant has long been introduced and is naturalised, although considered a neophyte in Great Britain (Kylin 2014). The plant is cultivated in some European countries, in Korea, in India and Thailand (GRIN 2014).

population:
The population trend of the species is unknown. Due to its large natural and naturalised distribution range the population is most probably stable.

habitat:
The species is a tall, aromatic fragrant herb that can reach over a meter high. The subspecies archangelica grows in wet meadows, on river banks preferably on wet, sometimes flooded, nutrient-rich clay soils, whilst the subspecies litoralis grows only in northern European countries, often on seashores, in stony, open habitats (Kylin 2010).

threats:
Threats to the species are not understood.

conservationAction:
The species has been assessed as Least Concern on the Red List of Hungary (Király 2007).

useAndTrade:
In Europe, the essential oil from the plants is used as an ingredient in liquors (e.g., Chartreuse, Bénédictine, Vermouth and Dubonnet), dental preparations and in high-grade perfumes (Vashistha et al. 2006). Roots and seeds have antiseptic properties and depressant action on the central nervous system (Vashistha et al. 2006, PFAF 2014). The species has been used in Nordic countries as a medicinal plant since ancient times, especially the indigenous Finno-Ugric Sami have used the plant both for medicinal and food purpose (Kylin 2010). The species is still used as medicinal herb with applications including inappetence, constipation, coughing, skin diseases, hemorrhoids, inflammations, cramps, ulcer, digestive troubles, menstruation troubles, rheumatism, urination disorders and flatulence (Kylin 2010).


range:
A. graveolens occurs throughout much of Europe, North Africa, Siberia and the Caucasus. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout but it is extremely difficult to distinguish native populations from introduced populations.

population:
Most populations of A. graveolens throughout its European range appear to be stable, although there is concern over its status in Sweden.

habitat:
A. graveolens typically grows in marshy areas near or on the coast, including the upper limits of salt marshes and wetland systems behind beaches.

conservationAction:
A. graveolens is classed as Critically Endangered in Sweden, but this is understood to refer to a very small native population in the south and at the northern limits of the native range of the species, rather than a decline. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
The plant is known under the common name Wild Celery and the leaves, roots and seeds are edible. It is used as a condiment and has several medicinal uses, for example, to reduce blood pressure or relieve indigestion (Plants For A Future 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution within the European region and no major threats.

range:
A Eurasian southern-temperate species. Present in Europe and western and eastern Asia (Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu), Russia, Korea, China, Mongolia, Turkey) (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). In Europe, it is distributed in the south, centre and east (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001). Introduced to the United Kingdom and Scandinavia (Field 1994, Botanical Society of the British Isles & Biological Records Centre 2014).

population:
No information on population trends are available, but it is probably stable, with introductions outside its native range.

habitat:
Biennial or short-lived perennial growing in woods, shrublands, grasslands, cracks in rocks or cliffs, hedge banks, field-borders and gardens (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). Present in lowlands and up to around 2,000 m a.s.l..

threats:
The grazing pressure and urban sprawl are the main threats to the species, however not considered to be significant across the range of the species in Europe.

conservationAction:
A propagation and re-introduction program was done in the only existing population in the United Kingdom (Roscoe et al. 2009). Overall, no conservation actions are needed.

useAndTrade:
The root is used in folk medicine as an anti-cellulite, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, antiviral, against boils, etc. (unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, PFAF 2014). The juice of the roots, mixed with the juice of Centella asiatica , is used in the treatment of liver diseases. Leaves and young shoots can be eaten cooked. dried plants and plant residues are used as a fuel.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs frequently in nearly all European countries and although the native range has been obscured by introductions and cultivation, it is considered an archaeophyte even where introduced, and is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is a biennial plant native to west and central Asia and Europe (Preston et al. 2002), however the plant has long been introduced and cultivated and this obscures the natural distribution (e.g., considered an archaeophyte in Great Britain, first recorded before 1375; Preston et al. 2002). In Europe, the species is widespread in the Mediterranean basin, central, northern and east European-countries (Meusel and Jäger 2011, Euro+Med Plantbase 2014, GBIF 2014, GRIN 2014). The plant has been widely introduced through cultivation in the northern hemisphere, including to North America, where it is considered a noxious weed (GRIN 2014, Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010).

population:
The population is widespread all over Europe and on the global scale. Current population trends are not known, but unlikely to decrease.

habitat:
The plant grows on meadows, sand dunes and a wide range of anthropogenic habitats ((Preston et al. 2002, Lauber et al. 2010). The plant is widely used as spice and therefore also cultivated on large scale.

conservationAction:
The plant is widespread all over Europe. No conservation actions are known for the species.

useAndTrade:
The fruits of caraway, usually used whole, are used as a spice in a wide range of foods. The species is also used for its medicinal properties and has a long tradition in ethnology-pharmacy with a wide range of applications (Duke 2008, PFAF 2014). Preparations help promote lactation in nursing mothers and uterine contractions during labor. Essential oils are used as breath freshener and bath (University of Mainz 2000).


range:
C. virosa occurs from Europe east through Siberia, Mongolia and Kashmir to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. In Europe, it occurs throughout Scandinavia and the Baltic States south to France, northern Italy and the Balkans and east to Poland, Moldova, the Ukraine and North European Russia.

population:
Most populations of C. virosa throughout its European range appear to be stable, although there is some concern in Greece, the UK and Switzerland. Cicuta virosa is known in Greece from a single locality, Lake Pamvotis in northwest Greece, where an old record has been recently confirmed. This population does not seem to count more than 1,000 individuals (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2010).

habitat:
C. virosa occurs in shallow water on the margins of still or slow-flowing water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. It will also occur in wet meadows, in tall-herb fen, marshy pasture and mud and occasionally in deeper water on floating mats of vegetation (Preston et al . 2002).

conservationAction:
Cicuta virosa is classed as Endangered (EN) in Switzerland, Vulnerable in Greece and Nationally Scarce in the UK, it is protected in France in the Departments of Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne, Auvergne, Franche-Comté, Lorraine and Picardie. In the Czech Republic, it is categorized Endangered (EN) (D. Turonova pers. comm. 2010). No other conservation measures are in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
A range of medical applications are reported for the species root; analgesic, antispasmodic, emetic, galactofuge, and sedative (PFAF 2014). The whole plant is highly toxic and is not used in herbal medicine PFAF 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide range throughout much of the European region and is classified as Least Concern as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species populations to severely decline in the near future.

range:
Present in the Atlantic coast of Europe and North Africa, and in the Mediterranean and Black seas (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). In Europe present along coasts from the United Kingdom and Belgium to Turkey and Bulgaria (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001) and Macaronesia. Introduced through cultivation in Norway and North America (GRIN 2014).

population:
No information on population trends are available. Population may have decreased due to urban sprawl and tourism in coastal areas in the last decades.

habitat:
A fleshy perennial herb growing on spray-drenched rock crevices and ledges on sea-cliffs, coastal rocks and on stabilized shingle (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). Also found in maritime grassland and artificial habitats like harbor walls and stone sea defenses.

threats:
The main threat that the species is facing is habitat loss due to urban sprawl and coastal tourism.

conservationAction:
Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. Assessed as Endangered in Bulgaria (Peev and Vladimirov 2011).

useAndTrade:
The species is little used in folk medicine. Leaves are a good diuretic and are used to treat obesity as well as kidney complaints and sluggishness (unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, PFAF 2014). The essential oil is a digestive and used in perfumery. Leaves have a salty taste and can be eaten raw or cooked. Young leaves and seed pods can be cooked to make pickles.


taxonomicNotes:
Daucus carota L. is a primary wild relative of cultivated carrot, D . carota . Thirteen subspecies are native to Europe: D . carota ssp. azoricus Franco, D . carota L. ssp. carota , D . carota ssp. commutatus (Paol.) Thell. , D . carota ssp. drepanensis (Arcang.) Heywood , D . carota ssp. gadecaei (Rouy & E.G. Camus) Heywood, D . carota ssp. gummifer Hook. f. , D . carota ssp. hispanicus (Gouan) Thell., D . carota ssp. hispidus (Arcang.) Heywood , D . carota ssp. major (Vis.) Arcang., D . carota ssp. maritimus (Lam.) Batt., D . carota ssp. maximus (Desf.) Ball, D . carota ssp. rupestris (Guss.) Heywood, and D . carota ssp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Daucus carota is widely distributed Europe with stable populations. As this species is widespread and there is a lack of major threats throughout its native range, this species is regionally assessed as Least Concern. However, monitoring of population trends and habitat deterioration is needed at the subspecies level.

range:
D . carota is native to Europe, temperate Asia and northern Africa, and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). One subspecies ( D . carota ssp. azoricus ) is endemic to the Azores . Three subspecies of D. carota occur in Denmark; however, D. carota ssp. carota and D. carota ssp. sativus are both introduced—only D. carota ssp. gummifer is native (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010). This species is widespread in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), Great Britain, Northern Ireland and Ireland (Preston et al. 2002) and present throughout the Netherlands but less so in the north eastern part of the country (Mennema et al. 1985).

population:
This species is widespread throughout its range, with a stable population trend. However, Preston et al . (2002) note that it has declined at the northern fringe of its range.

habitat:
D. carota is found in banks, fields and waysides across Europe (Polunin 1969). It is found in dry rough open areas in the Mediterranean, often in waste places and roadsides and field margins including sandy and stony pastures (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004, Fletcher 2007). It prefers quite infertile, well-drained and calcareous soils in the UK, and can be found within habitats such as on chalk downs, grassland on roadsides, waysides and railway banks, quarries, chalk and gravel pits, and waste ground (Preston et al . 2002). In the Netherlands this species occurs in grasslands with humid and dry, moderately fertile basic soils, and in grasslands which can be humid or dry on poor basic soils (Tamis et al. 2003).

threats:
There are no major threats to D. carota at the species level. However, for subspecies with specific habitats or a restricted range, threats include tourism and construction.

conservationAction:
The genus Daucus is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. This species is well represented in ex situ germplasm collections. EURISCO reports 4377 germplasm accessions of D. carota held in European genebanks, 408 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 294 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
Wild populations of D . carota may contain important genes for the improvement of carrot.

redListAssessors:
Strajeru, S.,Labokas, J.,Tavares, M.,Bulińska, Z.,Magos Brehm, J.,Korpelainen, H.,Smekalova, T.,Eliáš, P.,Collett, L.,Draper, D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide range within the European region. It is classified as Least Concern as the population declines from existing threats are unlikely to meet the threshold for a threatened category.

range:
The species has a widespread distribution most coasts in the European region, North Africa and the Middle East and West Asia (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). In Europe the species is present along the Atlantic coastline from Scandinavia to Spain,and throughout coats in the Mediterranean and in Black seas (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001).

population:
No information on population trends are available. The species population has probably decreased because of habitat destruction due to urban sprawl and coastal tourism.

habitat:
A spiny perennial herb growing on coastal sand dunes and occasionally on shingle beaches (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014).

threats:
The main threat that the species is facing is habitat loss due to urban sprawl and coastal tourism. Populations in the Baltic Region and Scandinavia are potentially affected by the low efficiency of the generative reproduction (Necajeva and Ievinsh 2013).

conservationAction:
This species is threatened and protected in several countries where it reaches the northern limits of its distribution (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Norway; unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). It is extinct in a small coastal area of Slovenia (Wraber and Skoberne 1989). In touristic coasts with high density of urban areas, the protection of well preserved sand dunes and shingle beaches is recommended. It occurs in several Natura 2000 protected areas within its range.

useAndTrade:
The plant is used in folk medicine mainly because of its diuretic action. Dry root is used to treat cystitis, urethritis, to alleviate kidney stones and to treat inflammation of the prostate gland (Hoffmann 2008, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, PFAF 2014). The root can be eaten cooked. The plant is used for soil stabilization as the extensive root system helps to bind sand on the sea shore.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide distribution in the European region from central and southeastern Europe and through the European parts of Russia (GRIN 2014). The species has been naturalized through cultivation in the horticultural trade in northern countries such as the United Kingdom, Norway, Finland and Sweden (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006), and the species has established in North America (GRIN 2014).

Except in Germany and Romania, the plant has been described as rare, and it has been assessed as threatened in Austria and in parts of European Russia. However there are no known widespread threats to the species and the extent of occurrence is large. It is assessed as Least Concern at present, however a clear study of the species population and distribution changes over time is necessary to correctly assess and understand the plants risk of extinction.

range:
The species is a flowering plant native from central and southeastern Europe to the Caucasus and central Asia and western Siberia (GRIN 2014). It naturally grows in central Europe (Czech Republic, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia), principally in Germany and rarely in eastern Europe (European Russia (Upper Volga (South), Volga-Kama (South and South Ural), Upper Dnieper (South), Wed-Dnieper, Volga-Don, Zavolzhe., Top-Dniester. Bess., Prichern. Crimea (north), Nizh. Don., Nizh-Volga; Plantarium 2014)), Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine (including Crimea). The plant has become naturalized through cultivation in northern countries such as the United Kingdom, Norway, Finland and Sweden (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006). Outside of its native region, the species has established in North America (GRIN 2014).

population:
General population trends of the species are unknown. In Germany and Romania, the species can be encountered frequently and is considered as not threatened, whereas in eastern European countries such Poland and the Czech Republic, the plant is considered rare. In Russia, the species is reported as being present in large numbers where found, although populations tend to disappear and then return, although considered lost from some areas in the Moscow region (IAS PAs Russia 2014).

habitat:
The species grows in wet meadows, pasture grass, river banks, and reservoir and lake margins, preferentially on sandy soils (Fischer et al. 2008). In European Russia, the species is found in forb and grass steppes, in semi-desert in river valleys, and in forest-steppe; found in plains and foothills; often on poor dry sand and calcareous soils; anthropogenic habitats such as railway embankments (IAS PAs Russia 2014, Plantarium 2014).

threats:
In European parts of Russia, threats include the collection of plants, habitat loss (urban development), and competition arising from declining management of grasslands (IAS PAs Russia 2014).

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Least Concern and not protected ('nicht als gefährdet, nicht besonders geschützt') in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). In Austria the species is considered Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000), and Extinct (Data Deficient) in Croatia (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999, Grulich 2012, Nikolic and Topic 2010). Nikolic and Topic (2000) doubt the correct taxonomic attribution of the preserved Croatian specimens; the last observation of the species is over 130 years old and could refer to a different Eryngium species. In European Russia, the species has been assessed as a Category III species (not under threat of extinction, but occurring in small numbers or limited areas such that any threat could quickly lead to their disappearance) in the Kirov, Moscow and Ivanovo regions and as a Category 2 (declining populations) species in the Kostroma region (IAS PAs Russia 2014). The collection of the species from the wild is banned in the Moscow region (IAS PAs Russia 2014). Recorded as occurring in three protected areas in European Russia (IAS PAs Russia 2014), and in Natura 2000 and Ramsar sites in Europe.

useAndTrade:
In Europe, the plant has been reported as a medicinal plant and used in traditional medicine. Infusions from the plants aerial parts and roots of have been used in European folk remedies as an antitussive, diuretic (PFAF 2014), appetizer, stimulant, antidiabetic, expectorant, spasmolytic, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, hemolytic, antimycotic and aphrodisiac. Moreover, a recent scientific study has shown amebicidal properties of plant extracts (Derda et al . 2013). The species and cultivars are widely available in the horticultural trade.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, increasing populations and no known major threats.

range:
The species is native of the Mediterranean region (southern Europe, western Asia and North Africa), but has been naturalized throughout much of Europe, North America, Central America, South America, the Pacific and Australia (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). In Europe, is it considered native in the south and west, but has long been introduced in central and northern Europe.

population:
No information on population trends are available. Populations are probably increasing as new introductions are still being recorded. It is much more frequent now than in 1962 in the United Kingdom and Ireland (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014).

habitat:
Perennial herb found in grasslands, wetlands, waste places, coastal habitats, roadsides, cultivated ground, mediterranean shrublands, plantations and rural gardens (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). It has a deep tap-root, allowing it to survive in dry habitats and making it very persistent.

threats:
Human gathering of the wild plants is the major threat to this species.

useAndTrade:
The species is cultivated in many countries for consumption of the root and seeds (Lange 1998, Kathe et al. 2003, Hoffmann 2008, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann pers. comm. 25.11.2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, PFAF 2014). Leaves, flower heads, seeds and root can be eaten raw or cooked and have an aniseed flavor. Leaves and seeds are used to make herbal tea. Roots, leaves and seeds are used in folk medicine against indigestion, abdominal distention, stomach pains, sore throat and conjunctivitis. Infusions are used to promote milk production in nursing mothers. Seeds are the organ most medicinally active and are used to extract essential oil. The essential oil is also used in toothpastes, soaps, perfumery, air fresheners, etc. Yellow and brown dyes are obtained from the flowers and leaves combined.


range:
O. aquatica occurs from Europe east through the Middle East, the Caucasus and Siberia to Kazakhstan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.

population:
O. aquatica is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, Critically Endangered in Norway , Near Threatened in Finland, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.

habitat:
O. aquatica typically occurs on the margins of shallow pools, ditches and ponds in naturally nutrient-rich habitats, although it can grow permanently submerged in deeper water and occasionally on the gravel beds of fast-flowing rivers.

conservationAction:
O. aquatica is classed as Critically Endangered in Norway, Endangered in Switzerland, Vulnerable in Austria, and Near Threatened in Finland. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
The fruit is reported to have antiperiodic, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant and pectoral properties (Plants for a Future 2010). It is used in the treatment of a range of conditions, including, obstinate ulcers, and the roots have been used externally in the treatment of piles (Plants for a Future 2010). This plant should be used with great caution, and only under the supervision of an experienced practitioner (Plants for a Future 2010). In overdose the fruits cause vertigo, intoxication and other narcotic effects.

A homeopathic remedy is made from the fruits.


range:
O. crocata occurs in western Europe, from Ireland and the United Kingdom south through Belgium and France to the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco and Italy.

population:
O. crocata appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its range.

habitat:
O. crocata typically occurs on the margins of ditches, streams and rivers, in wet pasture and in wet woodland, it will also grow permanently submerged in fast-flowing streams in oceanic areas.

conservationAction:
In France, the species is protected as regional level (Nord-Pas-de-Calais region), otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
Use in veterinary medicine is reported (Viegi et al. 2003).

Use in homeopathic preparations for human use is reported.

The leaves and roots of the species are highly toxic. The toxic principle is oenathetoxin, a polyunsaturated higher alcohol. It is a convulsant poison that is not affected by drying or storage (therefore remains toxic after cutting and chemical control). Very small amounts are sufficient to cause death. Poisoning of farm stock usually occurs without any warning signs. Horses and cattle show salivation, dilated pupils, respiratory distress and spasmodic convulsions; they usually die in convulsion. Animals that do not die may develop diarrhoea for two days, then slowly return to normal. Humans have been poisoned when leaves have been mistaken for those of celery, or the tuberous roots for parsnips (CEH 2005).

The roots have been used as poison for moles and rats, and in Sardinia they have been crushed and used to stun fish (Eland 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a relatively wide distribution in the European region. It is fairly common and the threats it is facing are unlikely to cause its decline in the near future sufficient to meet a threatened category.

range:
Distributed from western Europe to west Asia, and in North Africa (Morocco) (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). In Europe, present in the south, centre and east (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Euro+Med 2014).

population:
No information on population trends are available. The species appears to have become more frequent in the small populations in the United Kingdom (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). In contrast, it is considered extinct from the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann pers. comm. 25.11.2013), although presence in the Czech Republic is uncertain and records may have been based on misidentification (Danihelka et al. 2012). Overall, the populations seems stable.

habitat:
Perennial herb growing in grasslands, shrublands, along roadsides, creek sides, salt-marshes and coastal grasslands (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). It thrives from the lowlands up to 1,800 m a.s.l.. The plant has a considerable tolerance to salinity, but grows best in situations of fresh water. In the southern and eastern parts of its European range, the species is found mountainous grasslands, generally becoming lower with increasing latitude (Randall and Thornton 1996).

threats:
Detected threats are grazing by rabbits, cattle, horses and sheep, and trampling by animals or humans (Randall and Thornton 1996 "Apple-style-span">).

conservationAction:
The species is protected or included in national Red Lists in the Czech Republic, Germany and United Kingdom (unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). There are no other conservation measures needed.

useAndTrade:
The root is used in folk medicine as a diuretic, in the treatment of coughs, bronchial catarrh and fever (Lange 1998, Hoffmann 2008, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, PFAF 2014). Also used in homeopathy.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species can be frequently encountered throughout much of the European region and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present. It is considered Least Concern.

range:
A temperate species with records from Europe to central Asia. The plant is widespread in Europe, North Africa , Turkey (Anatolia), the Caucasus , Iran and Siberia. It is native to Europe from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, growing from sea level to 1,900 m (GBIF 2014, GRIN 2014, Assyov and Petrova 2006), although to lower altitudes at northern altitudes (e.g., to 500 m in Great Britain; Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012).

population:
The species population is widespread. No information on population trends is available across the species European range, however populations have declined in parts of Great Britain (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012). In European parts of Russia the species is considered 'rare' or 'rare but increasing' (IAS PAs Russia 2014).

habitat:
The species grows individually in shaded, moist to moderately dry, usually calcareous, basic soils, mostly on clay, rarely also on silt soils. The plant prefers to grow in hilly to mountainous beech and hornbeam forests (Düll and Kutzelnigg 2011). In Britain, the species is generally found in moist soil in deciduous woodland, but also locally in substantial hedge banks and shaded roadsides, and in the north and west of its British range it is sometimes found in relict woodland in gorges and in sheltered stream ravines (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012).

threats:
No widespread threats for this species are known, although likely to have been impacted locally by habitat conversion (e.g., through urban or agricultural development).

conservationAction:
The species is widespread across all Europe and in most cases is listed as Least Concern or Not Evaluated (Moser et al. 2002). No conservation actions are currently needed for this species. Reported in sixteen Red Books in European Russia (IAS PAs Russia 2014); for example, Moscow (category 5: Rare species whose status is improving; Samoilov and Morozov 2011) and Yaroslavl Oblast (category 3: Rare; Voronin 2004). also reported in Red Books for Leningrad, Altai, and the following Oblasts: Pskov, Kemerovo, Bryansk, Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Orel, Ryazan, smolensk, Tver, and Tula IAS PAs Russia 2014). Occurs in Natura 2000 sites throughout Europe and is recorded from six protected areas in European Russia (IAS PAs Russia 2014);

useAndTrade:
The species has been used for a long time in traditional medicine, with a reputation for healing wounds and treating internal bleeding and a wide range of other traditional applications (PFAF 2014). The medicine is produced from dried ground leaves collected during the flowering (Düll and Kutzelnigg 2011) and the roots in late summer (PFAF 2014). The plant contains the following active substances: triterpensaponines, acylsaniculosides, rosmarinic acid and chlorogenic acid, flavonoids and other organic acids (Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011). In the past, the remedies made of the plant specifics were considered as cure-all, while nowadays, it mostly uses as cough remedy, digestive and for wound healing (Hanelt et al. 2001, Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Achillea crithmifolia is a montane perennial herb native to the Balkan Peninsula and the Carpathians. Though its populations seem to have declined in Hungary, due to habitat degradation resulting from a high level of game stock and non-beneficial forest management practices, it is now a protected species and is cultivated in Hungary.

It is valued in Serbia for its medicinal properties, where there is a quota on its collection; however, the level of enforcement is unknown. There is no information available that suggests the population in the remainder of its range is under threat. It is therefore classified as Least Concern.

More information is required on the population status and potential threats throughout its native range.

range:
Achillea crithmifolia is native to the Balkan Peninsula and the Carpathians. In Romania it is only found in the southern regions of the country (Badarau and Malos 2011). In Bulgaria it is widespread throughout the whole country and found at elevations up to 1500 metres asl (Assyov and Petrova 2006, Lipman 2009). This is an invasive species which has extended its naturalized range into western and central Europe (Greuter 2006-2009, CABI International 2012). It has been introduced into Sweden and into France, where the only confirmed occurrence is in a small area in the north east (INPN 2012). It has been reported in Austria, Czech Republic and Poland where it is found as a casual alien, but its precise distribution is unknown (Greuter 2006-2009). This species does not occur in Italy (Schede de botanica 2013). In Germany it is a locally naturalized neophyte; there is no information on localities (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In Switzerland there is only one record (Info Flora 2012).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown but it is said to be frequent in its native range (Badarau and Malos 2011). The population in Hungary has declined, but as it is an invasive species the overall population is likely to be stable or increasing. It is listed on the Invasive Species Compendium.

habitat:
Achillea crithmifolia is a perennial herb found on mesoxeric forest steppe, growing in bushy areas on rocky substrata in the Balkan and Pannonian regions where the average temperature exceeds 10°C (Badarau and Malos 2011).

threats:
Overall habitat degradation, resulting from a high level of game stock and non-beneficial forest management practices, is responsible for the declines in Hungary (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). This species is collected for its medicinal properties in parts of its range, but it is not known whether this is significantly impacting wild populations; it is not a significant threat in Hungary.

conservationAction:
This yarrow species is listed as Near Threatened in Hungary. It is included in the list of Hungarian protected species which are used as medicinal and aromatic plants, and which have been introduced into cultivation (Baricevic et al. 2004, Király 2007). In Slovakia it is a protected species, and was listed as Critically Endangered in 2001 (Feráková et al. 2001), though was more recently listed as Data Deficient (Eliáš et al. in prep.). In Serbia there is a quota (of unspecified quantity) in force, but the species is not legally protected; it is also a priority species for the Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Working Group in Turkey (Lipman 2009). It occurs in five Natura 2000 sites in Hungary and one in Romania (European Environment Agency 2010). More information is required on the population status and potential threats throughout its native range. Further taxonomic investigation of the native and allochthonous populations as well as differing cytotypes is required (V. Feráková and I. Hodálová pers. comm. 2013).

useAndTrade:
This plant has been studied extensively in Hungary and the aerial parts are known to have high chemical diversity, including essential oils which have strong antibacterial properties (Bernáth 2002, Palic et al. 2003). There are no accurate data on the quantities of plants collected annually; however, in 1999 approximately 420 kg were collected with permission and 38 kg without permission in Serbia, sold on the Serbian market and exported to Europe and North America (Baricevic et al . 2004). In Bulgaria it is not of high interest as a medicinal plant (Lipman 2009). It is not thought to be collected in Hungary since being listed as a protected species, and there is a quota in force for its collection in Serbia. Its cultivation in Serbia is being developed.


range:
Achillea millefolium has a very wide native range occurring throughout temperate Asia to India and Pakistan, North America, Europe and South America (Guatemala and Honduras). It has become naturalised in Australasia, Africa and many other regions and is also cultivated widely (USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012).

population:
A very common species found all over Europe, Asia and North America with no significant trends or declines.

habitat:
A hairy, aromatic, stoloniferous, patch-forming and strong smelling perennial herb found in a variety of grassland habitats, pastures, meadows, grassy heaths, road verges, hedgebanks, lawns, waste places, montane areas wet from snow melt, sand dunes and shingle often growing on calcareous or slightly acid soils but not waterlogged, acid or nutrient deficient soils. It is drought tolerant and produces white/cream and red/pink flowers from July to October (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in the national red lists of Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Yarrow has anti-inflammatory qualities and is used as a poultice to joints affected by rheumatism or a plant infusion drink or whole plant decoction. Extracts are used to treat sprains, swellings and broken bones (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The essential oil and methanol extracts have anti-microbial and anti-oxidative properties (Candan et al . 2003). Medicinally it can be administered internally and externally in the form of a comminuted herbal substance, expressed juice from fresh herb, liquid extract and tincture. An aromatic tea is made from the flowers and leaves and an essential oil from the flowering heads is used as a flavouring for soft drinks. Herba Millefolii consists of the whole or cut dried flowering tops or aerial parts collected during the flowering season. Its uses described in pharmacopoeias is for oral use for loss of appetite, common cold, mild discomfort of the gastrointestinal tract and fevers. It is used externally for skin inflammation and wounds. In traditional medicine it is used as an eyewash, laxative, sleep aid, stimulant tonic and also to treat baldness, prostatitis and vertigo or externally for treatment of haemorrhoids, haematoma and burn injuries. An extract of the flowers shows antimicrobial properties. However, none of these medicinal uses is supported by clinical data (European Medicines Agency 2011, World Health Organization 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is assessed as Least Concern due to its wide distribution, its ability to live in a wide variety of habitats and as no evidence for dramatic declines or major threats could be found.

range:
This species is native to Europe and found in most parts of the continent (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
The overall population trend is unknown. Declines have been reported from the United Kingdom (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012), but it is indicated as Least Concern in many national Red Lists therefore it can be assumed that the declines are neither fast nor steep.

habitat:
This plant is a perennial herb found in wet and damp habitat such as fens, springs, marshes, rush-pasture, stream sides, wet heath, flushes on hill slopes and in shrubland. It has also been reported from commercially used grassland, roadsides and waste ground (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Klotz et al. 2002).

threats:
The threats to this species at European level are unknown.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Hungary (Király 2007), and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) but classed as Least Concern on the national Red Lists of Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
This plant is used in medicine and has cardiac, diaphoretic, digestive, emmenagogue, odontalgic, sternutatory and styptic properties. As its English common name suggests, a sneezing powder can be produced from the dried leaves. The leaves of this plant are also edible and can be eaten raw in salads or cooked. It is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental (Hanelt et al. 2001, Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


The species has a restricted native distribution in the western Mediterranean where it is found in Algeria, Morocco and southern Spain. In Europe it has become naturalised through cultivation in some countries, and is cultivated. Introduced and cultivated elsewhere (USDA 2012).

The species is assessed as Data Deficient at the European level as there is insufficient information about its distribution and population trends in southern Spain, the only known native population in Europe. Research and monitoring of the species population trends, distribution, threats and harvesting is required. It appears to be threatened in parts of its non-European native range in northern Africa, however declines in populations are yet to be documented, and it is widely introduced and cultivated.

range:
The species has a restricted native distribution in the western Mediterranean where it is found in Algeria, Morocco and southern Spain. In Europe it has become naturalised in Ukraine and France, is adventive in Poland and has been cultivated in several countries including Austria and Germany. Introduced and cultivated elsewhere, e.g., in India, Nepal and Pakistan (USDA 2012). In Spain, the species has an apparently restricted natural distribution in southeastern Spain in the Sierra de Alcaraz near Alabacete (Anthos 2010), although it has been introduced elsewhere in Spain (e.g., in Catalonia and in Aragon; J.M. Montserrat pers. comm. 2014).

population:
No information is available on the species population in Spain.

habitat:
The species is a perennial herb adapted to the climate of North Africa and Spain. Found in forests and open areas up to 3,100 m in Spain (IUCN 2005); typical habitats include grassland, banks, pastures, disturbed soils around farm buildings etc., lawns, rocky glades, rocky pastures, uncultivated land, mountain meadows, river banks, dry river beds, waste ground, stony places, woodland clearings, low mountains pastures, woodland, road edges, steep hills and Mediterranean forest. A procumbent herb with numerous stems and somewhat downy branches. A perennial geophyte deciduous plant, it grows in a range of soils from light sandy, gritty sandy to gritty medium loamy soils and prefers well drained acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) substrates. The species prefers open and sunny habitats but can be found in mid-shaded habitats and flowers from April to June. Grows in a humid and sub-humid to sub-arid Mediterranean bioclimate with an annual rainfall ranging from 350 mm to 800 mm. The flowers of Anacyclus pyrethrum are hermaphrodite and they are pollinated by insects, birds, animals, water and wind. The propagation can be done by seed, by division of roots and by cuttings.

threats:
This is a species that is under pressure from harvesting given its high price in parts of its range. The roots are the only parts of the plant that is marketed and it is thus uprooted before its seeds set. The species used to grow in a large mountainous area of Morocco but now it can found only in the region of Timahdit. However, threats to the species in Europe (Spain) are not known. In addition, its habitat has been impacted by overgrazing in some areas.

conservationAction:
There are plans to implement the FairWild standard for this species (Global Environment Facility 2012), although activities seem to be focused on Moroccan populations. It has not been assessed on the Spanish Red List, however it has been assessed as a 'Taxon de interés especial (IE)' in Castile-La Mancha (Anthos 2010). Research and monitoring of the species population trends, distribution, threats and harvesting is required.

useAndTrade:
The powder of the root is well known as sternutatory, diaphoretic, and used for many ailments (IUCN 2005). A wide range of potential medical applications have been proposed or investigated. It is widely recognized in Ayurvedic system of Indian medicine as tonic and rejuvenator and the root extract is considered to be an aphrodisiac and aphrodisiac (Sharma et al. 2008). The tonic is used in the treatment of paralysis and epilepsy. The root stimulates the salivary glands and irritates tissues therefore increasing blood flow to the area. The root contains an oil used externally to treat toothache, facial neuralgia and chronic catarrh. A gargle is used to soothe sore throats and dilutions of the essential oil is used in mouthwashes and to treat toothaches (Collins Dictionary 2013, Plants for a Future 2012). The roots are commonly known as pellitory root. Widely cultivated (IUCN 2005) and available in the ornamental plant trade, although the origin of material is not known.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population and although it is declining and threatened in parts of its range, it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.

range:
Antennaria dioica is native to Europe, temperate Asia and the USA. It has also been cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
In the Netherlands, the number of populations of Antennaria dioica has been declining over the past 20 years and there are only six populations left (FONA Conservation 2012). In the United Kingdom, it was once found throughout but is now mostly a coastal and upland species common in the Hebredes, but rarer elsewhere (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Antennaria dioica is a mat-forming, stoloniferous, perennial herb found on dry mountain grassland, dry semi-natural grassland, chalk limestone grassland, heathland, dry pastures, coastal cliff tops, sand dunes and machair. It is also characteristic of upland habitats, screes and crags. It flowers from May to July (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). It is mostly characteristic of dry parts of nutrient-poor heathlands and species-rich grasslands with a pH range between 3.5 and 5 (van den Berg et al. 2005).

threats:
Most losses are due to the ploughing of its habitats and intensification of grassland management (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Since the mid eighteenth century European heathlands have been declining due to changes in land use and management for forestry and farming resulting in the rapid decline of biodiversity of dry heathlands. In the Netherlands, plant species diversity in heathlands has declined over 50% in the last 50 years due to environmental stresses leading to the decline of species such as Antennaria dioica which is now seriously threatened. The increased atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and sulphur containing compounds, eutrophication and acidification of soil have also contributed to its decline from increasing ammonium concentrations and lower pH.

conservationAction:
Unless conservation measures are taken to preserve nutrient poor, species rich heathlands and grasslands this species will be confined to upland grasslands as the only viable habitat. These habitat types are becoming increasingly fragmented in the United Kingdom and have been addressed under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (Critchley et al. 2003). It is listed on the following national red lists: Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Critically Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000), Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Vulnerable in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Near Threatened in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010) and Hungary (Király 2007), Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Cat's-foot has been little used in herbal medicine though it was once used in mixtures for the treatment of bronchitis, bilious conditions and chest complaints as it is rich in mucilage and for its astringent, cholagogue, discutient, diuretic and emollient properties. It is applied in the treatment of liver and gall bladder complaints, hepatitis and diarrhoea. Externally it can be gargled for treating tonsillitis (Plants for a Future 2012).


range:
Arctium lappa is native to temperate and tropical Asia and Europe. It has become naturalised in Australasia and North America and is also cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is common all over Europe and populations are presumed to be stable. It may be increasing as it is becoming naturalised over a greater part of its range.

habitat:
A tall monocarpic perennial or biennial herb found in open woodland, hedgerows, grasslands, stream and river banks, roadsides, waste ground, field borders and disturbed places. It is often found in lowlands and produces purple flowers from July to September (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) and Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The roots and leaves are the main parts used as traditional herbal medicinal product. It is applied to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract, for temporary loss of appetite, and treatment of seborrhoeic skin conditions. Herbal preparations are derived from the comminuted herbal substance, powdered herbal substance, liquid extract, soft extract and tincture. The comminuted herbal substance can be administered as herbal tea for oral use. The leaves, usually collected from one year old plants, can be used fresh or dried and contain essential oils. The mature fruit is collected in autumn and dried, purified and dried again in the sun, the root is collected in the autumn of the first year or in the spring of the second year and are used dried, total or cut (European Medicines Agency 2010a,b). Clinical studies claim that lignan arctiin from burdock may have a protective effect on phIP-induced carcinogenesis, particularly in the mammary gland, liver and pancreas. Burdock is also valued widely in traditional medicine for diabetes (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The root is edible, raw or cooked and the pith of the flowering stem can be eaten raw in salads, boiled or made into confections and for flavouring soft drinks (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
There are two known subspecies: Arnica montana ssp. montana and Arnica montana ssp. atlantica A.Bolòs described in 1948.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Arnica montana is widespread in Europe and is found at hundreds of localities. The populations are stable in some countries and declining in other parts of its range. The reasons for this decline are partly due to collection of the plant for medicinal purposes and partly due to habitat loss. This plant is found mainly in acidic and nutrient poor grasslands and shrublands, a habitat that changes among others due to abandonment of grazing activities or fertilisation to use the land for agriculture. The species is currently classed as Least Concern as it is too abundant to be at risk of extinction in the near future, however the population trends should be monitored.

range:
Arnica montana is endemic to Europe where it is found from Norway to the Balkans and from Spain to Ukraine. In France, the species is reported from more than 1,000 localities and is found in the Alps, Pyrenees, eastern and Mediterranean area and is only absent in the west and northwest. In Italy, it occurs in the Alps and northern Apennines. It is common in the Czech Republic in mountains and is scattered in all of Slovenia with small local populations. It occurs in most of Denmark's lowlands in the mainland and in the west. In Norway and Sweden there are hundreds of localities. In Switzerland, the species can be found over more than 50% of the country. In Ukraine, it grows in the Carpathian Mountains. Single isolated populations were founds in the 19th and first half of the 20th century in the lowland part of Ukraine (Lvivska and Zytomirska regions) but are now likely to be extinct. In Bulgaria, the only evidence for the species presence is a single herbarium sheet from the Rila mountains without further specifications of the locality. Its presence is therefore considered doubtful.

population:
The populations are stable and big in some countries such as Switzerland and the Ukrainian Carpathian mountains but seem to be slowly or strongly decreasing in other countries. In Slovenia and the Czech Republic, for example, there is a slow decrease due to changes to its natural habitat and collection of the plant. There are strong population declines, e.g. in Lithuania where the size of subpopulations is usually small and the species is sporadically distributed, or in Scandinavia due to shifting agricultural methods. In Luxembourg, it used to be locally quite common in grazed grasslands and heaths and was formerly known from 14 localities whereas now only four populations remain. The current populations show no establishment of seedlings.

habitat:
Arnica montana is a perennial plant that flowers from June to July and prefers acid and poor soils. It is mainly found in grassland and shrubland and alpine mountain environments. It also grows in dry pine forests, meadows, grazed moors on siliceous soils, marginal parts of spruce forests, open forest edges, mowing pastures, road and path sides, margins of peatlands. It can be found in coastal heath and benefits from occasional burning of heathlands. The species occurs in the following habitat types of the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009):   4030 European dry heaths 6230 Species-rich Nardus grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe) 4060 Alpine and boreal heaths 9430 Subalpine and montane Pinus uncinata forests 7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs

threats:
The picking of the flowers for medicinal purposes is one of the main threats to this species although it is illegal in some countries (e.g. France). Another threat is coming from agriculture. Here the application of fertilisers to grassland in order to increase the ph, such as limestone dust, decrease the suitability of the habitat for Arnica montana that naturally prefers nutrient-poor soils. The abandonment of grasslands leads to a change in vegetation such as mosses and tall plants that can outcompete Arnica montana . A change of grazing from cattle to sheep impacts the species although it is generally well adapted to grazing as it has flat leaves on the ground. Reforestation also reduces the habitat available to Arnica montana . In some areas skiing is affecting the species as it causes soil compaction.

conservationAction:
Arnica montana is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive and on Annex D of the Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein. There are protection measures in place for some European countries and it features in some national red lists:  In Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia it is classed as Vulnerable on the national red lists. Czech Republic: protected by national Law and included in national parks and protected landscape areas. France: protected in several regions (Aquitaine, Centre, Bourgogne) and more than five departements, included in several protected areas. Germany: Classed as Vulnerable (level 3) on the German Red List (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). Hungary: classed as Extinct in the Wild on the national red list Italy: not on the national red list but some populations are in regional parks and prevents regional collection by law. Lithuania: classed as Vulnerable, protected according to national and regional law. Luxembourg: classed as Critically Endangered on the national red list. Slovenia: classed as Vulnerable on the 2002 red list, protected by law which it prevents from being collected. Several localities are in protected areas such as Natura 2000 sites, national parks, regional parks. Sweden: classed as Near Threatened on the Swedish red list 2010. Switzerland: classed as Least Concern on Swiss Red List (Moser et al. 2002) but regionally found in protected areas. Collections are accepted but there are rules about the amount. Ukraine: included in the 1996 Red Data Book of Ukraine, but not included in the 2009 edition of this book. It is protected in the Carpathian biosphere reserve, in the Tapichirkiskij, Urochychcze Zatinky, Teresjanka, Chorkyj Dil, Stebnyk protected areas, and in the nature monument Verchnje Ozerychere.  Future recommended actions include to manage the mowing of meadows, provide land owners with financial support to graze, and control the change of agricultural practices. In general, in face of the threats the species is facing it should be monitored. In Luxembourg, site management to encourage seedling establishment is needed.

useAndTrade:
Arnica montana is a medicinal plant that is used to treat bruises and sprains externally but also internally for the treatment of heart complaints and as a booster for the immune system. It is used internally in homeopathic medicine but can be toxic in quite low doses. The parts of the plant that are used are mainly the flowers, but also the roots, the leaves or the whole plant is known to be harvested (Plants For A Future 2010). It can also be used to make spices.

redListAssessors:
Falniowski, A., Bazos, I., Hodálová, I., Lansdown, R. & Petrova, A.


range:
Artemisia absinthium is native to temperate and tropical Asia, North Africa and throughout Europe except the far north. It is widely naturalised elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is common throughout Europe and is a persistent species with stable populations.

habitat:
A medium to tall, strongly aromatic, tufted, perennial herb found on dry uncultivated land, roadsides, waste ground, quarries, gravel pits and coastal habitats. It flowers from July to August. It is a persistent species in urban and maritime areas (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, European Medicines Agency 2009).

threats:
There are no significant threats to this species.

conservationAction:
As it is a relatively common species with no known threats as a result there are currently no conservation actions. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000) and Near Threatened in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), but is classed as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Wormwood is a very bitter plant with a long history of use as a medicinal herb and for flavouring purposes. It contains absinthe oil which can cause allergic dermatitis (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Absinthii herba is used in herbal preparations from comminuted herbal substance, expressed juice from the fresh herb and tincture in solid or liquid dosage forms or as herbal tea for oral use for temporary loss of appetite, mild dyspeptic/gastrointestinal disorders. The parts used include the basal leaves or slightly leafy, flowering tops, or a mixture of these dried, whole or cut organs. Absinthii herba is used medically with a very long tradition, but it is also used as an ingredient in the liquor absinthe (European Medicines Agency 2009a,b; Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Artemisia alba has a wide distribution in Europe and is not regarded to be highly valued for medicinal or other uses compared with other species of Artemisia. The species Artemisia herba-alba is of medicinal importance and not to be confused with this species. It is widespread in Italy and Bulgaria and is more fragmented in Spain and France. Given its broad distribution and the fact that there are no known significant threats to the species or population decline, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Artemisia alba is native to southern Europe and north Africa (Greuter 2006-2009). It is widespread in Italy (Maggio et al. 2012). In Spain the recorded localities appear to be fragmented over the north, central and southern parts (Anthos 2010). In France its distribution is also fragmented over the north and central parts (INPN 2012). In Bulgaria, where it is found up to 1,500 metres asl, it has a wide distribution in the north and is fragmented in the south (Assyov and Petrova 2006). It is found from many localities in Albania (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). It appears to occur only occasionally in Austria and the Czech Republic, and its origin in Slovakia is uncertain (Greuter 2006-2009).

habitat:
This is an aromatic perennial shrub which flowers from September to December. It is found on dry, limy and eroded areas in xerophytic oak belt, grey steppe or desert; it occupies graveley or calcareous soils, often in montane areas (Perfumi et al. 1999, Lipman et al. 2007).

threats:
In the Carpathian Basin, regional threats include habitat destruction (e.g., from stone mines) and abandonment of former agricultural practices (e.g., extensive grazing) (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). These threats may also be affecting the species elsewhere in its distribution.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions in place for this species. It is not threatened in Hungary (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). In Bulgaria, gathering for trade is prohibited under special protection and use Ordinance no. RD-71/2007 (Evstatieva et al. 2007). It is found in four Natura 2000 sites in Italy and one in France (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
This species is not believed to be of important medicinal value, but the essential oil can be obtained from inflorescences or flowering tops to enhance spasmolytic activity (Coassini Lokar et al. 1987, Perfumi et al. 1999). The aerial parts have been found to contain Santonin, the roots contain a sesquiterpene-coumarin ether and the aerial parts of A. alba collected in Calabria (Italy) showed the absence of sesquiterpenoids and the presence of several nerolidol derivatives. The essential oil contains Camphor and isopinocamphone (Maggio et al. 2012). It is not to be confused with Artemisia herba-alba .


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low. Local conservation attention is recommended for the areas where the species is declining.

range:
Artemisia campestris is distributed across Africa, Asia, Europe and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
This species is widespread in Europe and relatively common. However, local declines have been noted.

habitat:
Artemisia campestris is a lowland species that is found in short open grassland, heath, sand dunes and sandy soils in coastal areas, along forest rides and tracks and abandoned arable fields. It can also survive in urban areas and has been found at roadsides (Klotz et al. 2002, Preston et al. 2002).

threats:
Within the United Kingdom many sites of A. campestris have been lost to agriculture, forestry or building development. The species is vulnerable to grazing by rabbits (Preston et al. 2002). Threats from other areas of its distribution are not known.

conservationAction:
It can be found in ex situ collections, for example in the UK. The species has been listed as Vulnerable in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) but as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010). The taxon Artemisia campestris ssp. bottnica is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (for Europe) (IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is used in medicine to stimulate blood flow in the uterus and pelvic area, to treat stomach problems, or to relieve rheuma, eczema and sores. The roots have been used in perfumes as they are aromatic (Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

Artemisia granatensis listed as Endangered because of a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 50% between the years 1994 and 2003, based on direct observation and the levels of exploitation. Its distribution is severely fragmented and there is a continuing decline in the number of subpopulations and in the number of mature individuals, mainly due to collection, predation by herbivores and the low capacity of adaptation to adverse climatic conditions of the species.

range:
This species is endemic to the mountains of Sierra Nevada, southern Spain (Hernández Bermejo et al . 2004). It can be found in two locations: one in the province of Granada, comprising 10 subpopulations; and one in the province of Almeria. A wider distribution was reported in the past, being currently described as severely fragmented. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 15 km².

population:
Total population size is 452 individuals (Hernández Bermejo et al. 2004). The population size is thought to be higher, although less than 2,000 individuals. Comparing previous census (1994), a decrease in the number of mature adults of more than 50% can be observed up to the year 2003, as well as the disappearance of some subpopulations.

habitat:
This herb is found in grasslands on steep slopes of high Mediterranean mountains. It occurs in dry, rocky sites, screes, ledges and crevices and rock fissures. It is commonly associated to other endemic species. Frequent accompanying species are Festuca clementei, Erigeron frigidus, Hormathophylla purpurea, Arenaria tetraquetra, Sempervivum minutum and Papaver lapeyrousianum.

Flowers are unattractive to insects. The achenes have great capacity for germination, but lose viability over time (Hernández Bermejo et al. 2004).

threats:
The lack of popular awareness appears as the main factor threatening this species, which has been often collected for medicinal purposes (Hernández Bermejo et al. 2004). Predation by herbivores has been also reported as a threat. The species presents low genetic variability between populations, which has been thought to be due to low capacity of adaptation to adverse climatic conditions.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) A2ad; B1ab(iv,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).

It occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, where a recovery programme is established. In vitro cultivation has been developed. Plant material is stored in several germplasm banks.

Illegal collection should be efficiently controlled through awareness campaigns. Cultivation and propagation have to be enhanced in order to satisfy the needs of population reinforcement plans and traditional uses. Variability in germplasm banks should be increased (Hernández Bermejo et al. 2004).

useAndTrade:
This species is harvested for medicinal purposes.

redListAssessors:
Hernández-Bermejo, J.E., Contreras, P., Clemente, M. & Prados, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Artemesia santonicum is a halophyte found in saline habitats;in eastern Europe. It can be common in the appropriate habitats, and has been described as a dominant or co-dominant species in saline soils, but is rare overall in parts of its range due to its specific habitat requirements. This species is quite widespread, though is undergoing some local declines. It is not considered to be of particularly important medicinal use within Europe.

Given this species' widespread distribution and the lack of known significant threats, it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
Artemisia santonicum is native to Eastern Europe and Asia minor (Greuter 2006-2009). It is widespread in the north and central part of Bulgaria where it is found at elevations up to 500 metres asl (Assyov and Petrova 2006).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown but it has been described as a frequent co-dominant species in the Carpathian Basin (Werger and van Staalduinen 2012) and dominant in saline soils in Czech Republic, northwest Romania and Slovakia (Elias et al. 2013). It is one of the most common saline grassland species in Romania and central Eurasia (Badarau and Malos 2011). It is locally abundant in Hungary, but rare overall in Slovakia and the Czech Republic because of its special soil requirements (it is a plant of saline dry grasslands) (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is known to be decreasing and is considered Endangered in Slovakia (Feráková et al. 2001, Eliáš et al. 2013), where it reaches the absolute north-western limit of its distribution. This species presents some taxonomical uncertainties, particularly in relation to related minor species from West Asia, Crimea, Caucasus (G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Salt Steppe Wormwood is a frequent co-dominant, short-lived, suffrutescent perennial forb species characteristic of shortgrass Artemisis alkali steppe of the Carpathian Basin; it grows on saline soils which are periodically moist for a short time (Werger and van Staalduinen 2012). It is also found in clearings of alkali steppe oak woodlands as a salt tolerant species (Török et al. 2011), and is characteristic of salt steppe, salt marshes and saline lagoons as defined under the EUNIS habitats (European Environment Agency 2010). It is described as becoming more frequent during dry years (Balazs 2012).

threats:
This species is threatened by succession and re-cultivation of alkali steppes in parts of its range (Ferakova and Hodálová pers. comm. 2013). Its frequency may be affected by water regimes on salt rich vegetation and grazing levels (Balazs 2012).

conservationAction:
Salt Steppe Wormwood is listed as Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is a Protected species in the Slovakian Red Data Book (Čeřovský et al. 1999), and is Endangered [criteria A2ac;Bab(ii,iii,iv,v)] in Slovakia according to the two most recent Red Lists (Feráková et al. 2001, Eliáš et al. in prep.). The alkali steppe oak woodland this species inhabits is considered to be a rare habitat type in the Carpathian Basin, of high conservation value and traditionally managed by low intensity cattle grazing. Its grassland steppe habitat is also traditionally managed by low intensity cattle grazing (Török et al. 2011). This species occurs in five Natura 2000 sites in Slovakia, three in Romania, and many sites in Hungary, as well as one biogenetic reserve in Austria (European Environment Agency 2010). It is important that adequate conservation measures be implemented to halt population declines where the species is threatened.

useAndTrade:
The aerial parts, mainly the flower buds are used as a medicinal plant in Turkish folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Lipman 2009, Korkmaz and Gürdal 2002). The essential oil has antibacterial and antifungal properties (Kordali et al. 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Artemisia umbelliformis is a naturally rare Alpine plant which has undergone declines as a result of indiscriminate picking for its use in the production of the liquor 'Genepi' (Bicchi et al. 1984, Binet et al. 2011). Its collection is now prohibited in Switzerland and Italy, but continues in France on a regulated level. It is widely cultivated within these regions for liquor production (except in southern France where it is still collected), which has relieved collection pressure on wild populations and thereby is preventing further declines. Its status in other countries within its range is more uncertain; there is a lack of information on the population and distribution in the Carpathian and Balkan mountains.


Given its broad distribution and the protection measures currently in place across parts of its range (precisely in the regions where collection has been most well-documented), A. umbelliformis is provisionally listed as Least Concern. However, if its population is small and collection pressure is high across its range, and given its increased rarity, it may warrant listing in a higher category of threat.

range:
Artemisia umbelliformis is native to montane regions of central and southern Europe, where it is found at elevations over 1,600 metres (Greuter 2006-2009). In Spain it has a small disjunct distribution restricted to various localities in the Pyrenees, one locality in the Cantabrian Mountains and one in the Sierra Nevada (Anthos 2010, Sanz et al. 2007). In France it is restricted to the Pyrenees and the Alps (INPN 2012). There is a lack of information on the population and distribution in the Carpathian and Balkan mountains, and no information to confirm its presence in Slovakia or Poland. It does not occur in Bulgaria or Romania (Assyov and Petrova 2006, Badarau and Malos 2011).

population:
The total number of individuals in the wild is not known, but this species has been described as a rare plant (Bicchi et al. 1982). It is extremely rare in Germany, where it is restricted to the south in the Alps (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In Spain, Sanz et al. (2007) observed 142 individuals in nineteen populations.

habitat:
Artemisia umbelliformis is herbaceous aromatic perennial plant symbolic of the flora of the Alps, found in montane grasslands, rocks, screes or moraines (Binet et al . 2011). Plants in the wild have a life cycle of 10 years, whereas those in cultivation only live for 3-5 years; flowers are produced in the second year and diminish after 3-4 years (Binet et al. 2011).

threats:
Indiscriminate picking and collection of this already rare plant (amongst other species of Artemisia , including A. rupestris and A. genipi ) at artisanal levels as well as small-to-large industries has increased its rarity (Bicchi et al. 1984, Binet et al . 2011).

conservationAction:
This species is considered to be Rare in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and is classified as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002). It is found in six Natura 2000 sites in Italy and three biogenetic reserves in Austria and France (European Environment Agency 2010). Harvesting is forbidden in Switzerland and Italy. In France, the plants are collected in a regulated manner according to the regions. The Hautes-Alpes region aims to reduce or even stop the collecting of wild flowers of Alpine Artemisia species destined for liquor production, thereby creating an urgent need for development in crop production systems. A. umbelliformis is the only Alpine Artemisia species that has been successfully cultivated in some Alpine areas of France and on a larger scale in the western Alps of Italy; this cultivation offers protection of endangered habitats and preservation of natural plant resources within the Alps. For successful culture, specific conditions are required: the plant cannot grow at elevations below 1,600 metres and requires drained soils, south facing exposition and propagation by seed production (Binet et al. 2011). In Italy it is included in the list of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) cited in the Royal Decree n° 772 of 1932 where the quantity allowed to be harvested is 1 kg (aerial parts) (Baričevič et al. 2004).

useAndTrade:
Studies have been carried out on the essential oil obtained from Alpine Wormwood plants in the Italian Alps. It is considered to be an important alpine plant used to make flavoured beverages and the highly prized Alpine liqueur known as 'Genepi' which is of considerable commercial importance. Due to its rarity and high cost it is cultivated in the Alps in Italy, France and Switzerland for its essential oil (Rubiolo et al . 2009, Bicchi et al. 1984). The highly scented, dried flowering parts were originally used in traditional medicine to prepare herbal infusions against coughs (Binet et al. 2011). The extract is rich in essential oil, tannins and flavanoids and it is organically cultivated for use in cosmetic applications for its anti-oxidative, radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties (Centerchem Inc. 2011).


range:
Artemisia vulgaris is native to North Africa, temperate Asia and Europe, except the extreme north (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Common throughout all of Europe with stable populations.

habitat:
A medium to tall tufted, aromatic perennial herb found in hedgerows, riverbanks, roadsides and waste places growing on a variety of fertile soil types. It occurs in urban areas where its seeds are easily dispersed through human activity and flowers from May to September (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
As it is a common species. There are currently no conservation actions. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The whole plant extracts are used in phytotherapy for epilepsy and in combination for psychoneuroses, depression, irritability, insomnia and anxiety states (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Mugwort has a long history of use in herbal medicine for complaints of the digestive system, menstrual pain and the treatment of worms. It is slightly toxic and prolonged dosage can damage the nervous system. An infusion of the leaves and flowering tops is used in the treatment of nervous and spasmodic affections, sterility, functional bleeding of the uterus, dysmenorrhoea, asthma and diseases of the brain. The leaves have an antibacterial action against many bacteria. The stem and roots are tonic and antispasmodic and known as one of the best stomachics (Plants for a Future 2012). Its essential oil is effective as a repellent and fumigant against insect pests (Wang et al. 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Aster amellus has a wide distribution in Europe. However, the overall population is fragmented, and it is rare and is declining throughout western Europe due to the loss of calcareous grasslands. This species is found in different habitats in the southeastern part of its range, where it may be less affected by habitat loss; however, there is a need for further information on the population status in eastern Europe. Within the EU 27, this species is present in 15 of the 27 EU countries.

Although there are no specific population estimates, it is declining or listed as threatened over half its EU 27 range: it is considered rare and declining in Poland, strongly declining in France, Near Threatened in Germany, Vulnerable in the Czech Republic, Endangered in Austria, and Critically Endangered in Luxembourg and northern Italy. Although it is classified as Least Concern in Switzerland, it is found predominantly in the northern states with fragmented smaller populations in the south and is declining in many areas. It is therefore suspected to have declined by at least 20% across the EU 27 in the past 30-60 years, and is listed Near Threatened approaching criterion A.


It is not likely that immigration from populations outside the EU 27 could restore EU 27 populations, as distribution of the species is dispersal limited and especially considering the genetic and geographic separation of the two cytotopes, so the EU 27 category remains unchanged. Across Europe, Aster amellus is assessed as Least Concern as it occupies a wider range of habitats and there are few documented declines across its southeastern and eastern range.

More specific information on the current population size, trend and the overall rate of decline is needed, especially from the Balkans and far eastern Europe, to verify whether the species needs to be included in a higher threat category.

range:
Aster amellus is native to Central and Eastern Europe, Western Asia and Russia (Greuter 2006-2009). Though the species has a mostly continuous range in continental Europe, there is a large gap where A. amellus is missing from the Great Hungarian Plain, where predominating sandy and partly salinized soils that the species does not tolerate are present in several montane regions; further distribution gaps are located in several montane regions where the subtrate consists largely of acidic granite and gneissose rocks (Münzbergová et al. 2011). The species' distribution is dispersal limited both between and within localities (Münzbergová et al. 2011). In Bulgaria it is found throughout the country at elevations up to 1000 metres asl (Assyov and Petrova 2006). It is said to have become naturalised in the UK and Spain, however there are no records on Anthos (2010) or the Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora (2012) to confirm its presence there. There is only one record from Norway on the south coast (Artsdatabanken 2010). It has been introduced into Estonia through large scale cultivation. Its presence in Lithuania is uncertain.

population:
The total population size is unknown. Aster amellus occurs in populations of different sizes ranging from few to tens of thousands of individuals (Münzbergová et al. 2011). One study of the European population surveyed 4720 individuals from 229 subpopulations (Castro et al. 2012), while a similar survey in the Czech Republic surveyed 2175 individuals from 87 subpopulations (Mandakova and Munzbergova 2006); neither were comprehensive population counts, instead sampling an equal number of individuals per subpopulation. The number of flowering individuals in a population can vary among years depending on weather conditions, and densisites of the stands depend on environmental conditions, ranging from sparse stands in open forest to densities of up to 7.5 flowering individuals per 1 m² (Münzbergová et al. 2011). This plant is rare in Poland and the Czech Republic (Raabova et al. 2007). It is a widely cultivated and commercialized species in many areas of the world; there are many garden cultivars and hybrids available on the market. The cultivated type generally does not escape to the wild and does not interact with natural populations (Z. Münzbergová pers. comm. 2013, Münzbergová et al. 2011). This species is polyploid (having more than two sets of chromosomes) and exists primarily as two different cytotypes (individuals of a species that have different chromosomal factors) in Europe, diploid and hexaploid, though some minority cytotypes also exist (Mandakova and Munzbergova 2006, Castro et al. 2012). These cannot be distinguished morphologically, but seem to be reproductively isolated and have largely separated gene pools. Although populations of both cytotypes occur in close proximity, most populations present only one cytotype, either diploid or hexaploid. Only one mixed population of diploids and hexaploids has been found (in Austria close to the border with Hungary), but no signs of cytotype hybridization were detected. This is unusual since there seem to be to be no significant ecological differences between diploid and hexaploid cytotypes. The diploid–hexaploid contact zone is large and complex: diploid populations were found throughout central and eastern Europe, while hexaploid populations were only found in central and eastern Europe; indeed, no hexaploid populations were found west of the Czech Republic (Castro et al. 2012). Polyploidy is viewed as an important mechanism of sympatric speciation, and these different cytotypes could possibly be distinguished as separate species. If this is the case, it will have a significant impact on the number of existing populations, population size and distribution of the individual species.

habitat:
The European Michaelmas Daisy is a short to medium hairy herbaceous perennial found in calcareous grasslands, clearings, slopes, waysides, open forests, scrub and woodland margins, open woodland meadows and rocky montane places ( "st"> "st"> "st"> "st"> "st">Münzbergová et al . 2011). In the north part of its range it occurs in hilly landscapes or at the margin of river valleys on calcareous rocks. At the southern extent it is increasingly confined to montane habitats where mean summer precipitation is above 120 mm. The southern distribution limit in Eastern Europe is caused primarily by climate. In France and Switzerland it is found in grasslands, clearings, forest edges, slopes, waysides and open pine and oak forests. In central Europe, it mainly occurs at forest edges at the border of dry grasslands and sunny forests and prefers base rich, calcareous soils and substrates such as gravel, calcareous sand, clay, loess and silts. This plant requires semi-dry habitats (with very fluctuating moisture content) with low soil fertility and medium humus content "st"> "st"> "st"> "st"> "st">(Münzbergová et al . 2011). It is able to grow in badly aerated soils but is intolerant of saline soils. The growth rate in the wild is very slow and the plants can survive for decades. Its generation length likely measures "st">several decades ( "st"> "st">Z. Münzbergová "st"> "st">pers. comm. 2013). This daisy is pollinated by a variety of generalist insect pollinators. It reproduces both sexually and vegetatively, and is intolerant of competition with other plants, especially in areas of high productivity or nutrient rich soils, as well as intensive grazing or mowing (Münzbergová et al . 2011).

threats:
The typical dry calcareous grasslands that Aster amellus inhabits have declined over the last decades, causing this species to become threatened in many parts of Europe (Raabova et al . 2007, "st"> "st"> "st"> "st"> "st">Münzbergová et al . 2011). The quality of the habitat is vulnerable to changes in hydrology and management such as grazing.

conservationAction:
This species has been listed on many national red lists. It is classified as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), although it is declining and threatened in many areas in Switzerland (Landolt et al. 2010). It is listed as threatened in Germany, where it is declining, and is protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is Vulnerable in both the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Belarus (Ermakova 2005), and Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It is considered to be Critically Endangered in the Marche region in northern Italy, although it is not included in the National Red List of Italy (Conti et al. 1997). It is Endangered in Austria (Fischer et al. 2008). This species was listed as Near Threatened in Hungary in 1989 but is now considered Least Concern, though it is declining in some regions (Király 2007, G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is Least Concern in Slovakia (Institute of Botany of SAS 2011).

In France this species is protected but is currently strongly declining all over the country (CBNB-Delegation Centre, 2000). In Poland it is rare and declining, though it is found in sixteen Natura 2000 sites, where it is under strict legal protection (Zarzycki et al. 2002, Baranska et al. 2010). It is found in an additional nineteen Natura 2000 sites in Slovakia, sixteen in Hungary and one in France (European Environment Agency 2010). More information on the causes of declines throughout its range is required, as is data on the population status in the Balkans and far eastern Europe. Measures to protect its habitat are highly recommended.

useAndTrade:
Local people in Azerbaijan   use this species and other closely related Aster species (namely A. alpinus L. and A. tataricus L.) as medical plants (Mir-Babayev and Houghton 2002). The plant is edible and was used by local people in the past in Switzerland but not utilised nowadays (Landolt et al . 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Chamaemelum nobile is native to the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Spain and Portugal, but occurs throughout central Europe as a vagrant and through cultivation. Some wild native populations are declining as a result of changes in land use management, reduction in grazing, and possibly exploitation (particularly in the United Kingdom, where it is listed as Vulnerable but is considered a species of conservation priority, which may help to prevent further declines), and the area of occupancy and habitat quality have also declined, but as yet do not meet the criteria for threat of extinction. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Chamaemelum nobile is only native to western Europe (Spain, Portugal, France, the United Kingdom and Ireland) but is present throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwest Asia. The plant is cultivated mainly in England, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Egypt and Argentina (Greuter 2006-2009, Pardo de Santayan and Morales 2010, European Medicines Agency 2011, Institute of Botany SAS 2011), and also in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). It remains widespread throughout the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, Portugal and in France is mostly found in the northwest central parts (INPN 2012).

population:
The population in the UK has declined significantly. In Spain it is a widespread species although it has declined; it is more common in the northern half of Spain (Pardo de Santayan and Morales 2010). The population has been introduced into central Europe perhaps as an escapee of extensive cultivation.

habitat:
A perennial herb found in moderately acidic, seasonally wet grassland, especially on sandy commons and pastures where mowing, trampling or grazing reduces competition, and also in coastal grassland and on cliffs, where exposure and trampling maintain a short sward (Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
In the United Kingdom, Chamaemelum nobile has declined significantly due to drainage of winter wet grasslands, the clearance of heaths, reduction in grazing on common land and loss of pasture to arable fields (Plantlife 2010). Plants are collected in the wild, especially in Spain, although there is limited information on the impact of collection. In Portugal it is collected in some areas.

conservationAction:
Roman Chamomile is listed as Vulnerable in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and is a species “of principal importance for the purpose of conserving biodiversity” covered under section 41 (England) of the NERC Act 2006; it is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species (JNCC 2007, Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012). It is also found in one Natura 2000 site and a Biogenetic reserve, both in France (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
The use of Chamaemelum nobile has a long tradition in Europe. The dried flower-heads of the cultivated double-flowered variety, which contain the essential oil, are widely used. The herbal substance is used as herbal tea for oral use and for infusion preparation for oromucosal use. The liquid extract or tincture is used for herbal preparation for oral use. As a result of breeding, some of the tubular florets present in the wild plant have become ligulated, and this "double" or "semi-double" flower head forms the commercial drug in the cultivar. The drug is listed and described in several pharmacopoeias and stated to possess carminative, anti-emetic, antispasmodic, and sedative properties. It has been used for dyspepsia, nausea and vomiting, anorexia, vomiting in pregnancy, dysmenorrhoea, and specifically for flatulent dyspepsia associated with mental stress. It is listed by the Council of Europe as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). Chamomile is most commonly used as an ingredient of herbal teas. In Austria the herbal substance is only used in multicomponent herbal teas; in Germany the herbal substance is only available in combination products. No other European member country is registered or authorized for products (Based on Article 16d(1), Article 16f and Article 16h of Directive 2001/83/EC as amended (traditional use) European Medicines Agency 2011). Chamomile is also used to aromatize many traditional liqueurs and is widely and regularly used in Spain, where it is possible to purchase it in herbal shops, although wild gathering is preferred and considered to be one of the central activities of summer; it is collected to send to relatives who have moved to cities. Other Chamomile species used in Spain, such as Matricaria recutita , Matricaria aurea and Santolina chamaecyparissus, are often preferred over C. nobile , though these species are also in decline (Pardo de Santayan and Morales 2010). In Portugal this plant is used as a decoction to treat fever, based on a survey in the Natural Park of Serra de Sao Mamede. It is regarded culturally as a first-class chamomile, thereby accounting for the fact that it is used beyond the boundaries of its ecological distribution (Camejo-Rodrigues et al . 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Distributed within Europe in Spain, France and Andorra, Chiliadenus glutinosus remains abundant despite some declines and is not considered to be threatened at present. The population is thought to be declining in northern Spain, where the demand for this plant appears to be increasing; however, it is quite abundant and despite intense collection, its natural populations are not endangered (de Santayana et al. 2005).

Crop policies in Spain are necessary to avoid excessive picking leading to significant declines in the future (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012). There is little or no information on its use in France, where it has a very small distribution. If the population continues to decrease in Spain through exploitation, this species could become threatened in a relatively short period of time.

range:
Chiliadenus glutinosus is native to Spain and the Balearic Islands, France, Andorra and Morocco (Greuter 2006-2009). In Spain there are 707 records over an estimated extent of occurrence of 280,000 km² (Anthos 2010). In France it has a small distribution and is found in four states in the south and one state on the northwest Atlantic Coast (INPN 2012).

population:
The majority of the population is found in Spain; given its small distribution in France, populations are likely to be small. The population in Spain is thought to be declining as the plant is not cultivated for its use; however, it is quite abundant and despite intense collection, its natural populations are not endangered (de Santayana et al. 2005).

habitat:
Chiliadenus glutinosus is a perennial plant found growing in calcareous rocks, cracks of sunny limestone cliffs and crags below 1,300 metres, though it can be found in the Pyrenees at 1800 metres (de Santayana et al . 2005).

threats:
Some wild populations of this species in Spain are facing conservation issues and population declines due to collection from the wild; it is necessary to update the collection regulations as soon as possible (Baričevič et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
This species' conservation status has not been evaluated in Spain or France. It is not a protected species (Baričevič et al. 2004). The demand for this plant is said to be increasing and therefore crop policies are necessary to avoid excessive picking, particularly by drug companies in Castilla y León, Spain (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012).

useAndTrade:
In Spain this plant is commonly grown in gardens for preparing herbal teas and infusions, which is highly popular in rural areas throughout its distribution. It is estimated that 750 kg are harvested from the wild annually in fresh weight in the Castilla y León region in Spain (Herrero and Martin-Lobera 2012). It is highly used in Aragón and all sources of the drug come from wild plants, none from cultivation, although it is easy to cultivate. The flowering parts can be used fresh or dried (Munoz Centeno 2003). It is an important, very popular and widely distributed plant in Spain and is considered a delicacy for use as a digestif, anticatarrhal agent, sedative, diuretic, antidiarrhoeic and analgesic. It contains phenolic acids derived from caffeic acid, flavonoids and essential oils. Its stomachic, antispasmodic and carminative activities have been used to help digestive disorders and it has also been prescribed for colds, as an antidepressive, as a vulnerary and for whitening the teeth. This plant is collected in July or August when the plant is flowering, as the flowering parts are easily gathered by breaking the stems leaving the base undamaged. It is sold in local markets, souvenir shops and bars, is marketed by several companies and available to buy on the World Wide Web. In Spain, it is used in nearly all the regions where it grows, the main areas in western Spain being Andalucia, Aragon, Baleares, Cataluna, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, La Rioja, Madrid and Paıs Valenciano, Paıs Vasco and Cantabria. Although its area of distribution includes Morocco and France, no mention of its use was found for these countries (de Santayana et al . 2005).


taxonomicNotes:
Cichorium intybus L. is a wild relative of cultivated chicory, C . intybus and C. endivia L. (endive and curly endive). The subspecies C . intybus ssp. spicatum I. Ricci is native to Europe (Greuter 2006–2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Cichorium intybus is widely distributed in central, northern, southeastern and southwestern Europe. As this species is widespread and there is a lack of major threats throughout its native range, it is regionally assessed as Least Concern.

range:
C . intybus is native to northern, central, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia, northern Africa and the Indian Subcontinent. The species is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries: Slovakia: distributed throughout the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992). France: widespread, occurs in all departments in the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). UK and Ireland: widespread throughout England and Wales; however the distribution is patchy within Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland (Preston et al . 2002). Netherlands: predominantly found along the large rivers and in the south part of the country (Mennema et al. 1985).

population:
This species is widespread within its European range, with a stable population trend.

habitat:
C. intybus is a self-incompatible, perennial species (Kiers 2000) occurring in disturbed dry habitats such as roadsides, dry slopes, pastures and open stony ground as well as on the banks of rivers. It is found most often on calcareous or nitrogenous soils (Kiers 2000) but is able to grow in a range of soil types. In the Netherlands it occurs in grasslands on humid and moderately rich basic soils (Tamis et al. 2003) and in the UK it is a lowland species of roadsides, field margins and rough grassland (Preston et al . 2002). In general it can be found between sea level and 1,500 m but has been found at up to 3,050 m in Turkey (Kiers 2000).

threats:
In agricultural areas this species is known to be threatened by the use of herbicides, however it is able to grow in a large number of habitats so this poses little threat at present.

conservationAction:
This species is well represented in ex situ collections throughout Europe. EURISCO reports 520 germplasm accessions of C. intybus held in European genebanks, 130 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 95 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
Wild populations of C . intybus may contain genes important for the improvement of cultivated chicory and endive. This species is also collected from the wild and utilized by local communities for food in some areas.

redListAssessors:
Draper, D., Eliáš, P., Tavares, M., Magos Brehm, J., Smekalova, T., Bulińska, Z., Collett, L., Strajeru, S., Korpelainen, H., andLabokas, J.


taxonomicNotes:
In the Euro+Med Plantbase (Greuter 2006-2009) and in GRIN Taxonomy (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012), this species is treated as a synonym of Centaurea benedicta (L.) L. However, both species, Cnicus benedictus and Centaurea benedicta are accepted species in The Plant List (2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Cnicus benedictus is widespread throughout Europe, though it has suffered a widespread decline due to over-collecting and also loss of traditional extensive dry agricultural landscapes. Evidence of declines and local population losses is present in several European countries. Historically it has been used as a medicinal and aromatic plant and is traditionally known for its anticancer and other medicinal properties. It has been protected in some countries and is in large-scale cultivation in others, but the impact of these measures in unknown and the scale of the population decline has not been quantified.


Given that the species may well be threatened and considering the lack of current quantitative data and/or estimation of the extent of recent populations declines, this species is listed as Data Deficient. More information on the current population size, trend and the overall rate of decline is needed to review whether it would qualify for threatened under Criterion A.

range:
Cnicus benedictus is native to the Iberian Peninsula, France, the Apennine Peninsula, the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Caucasus, Iran, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Algeria (Hortipedia 2013, Greuter 2006-2009, USDA GRIN 2012). It has become naturalised in North America, and according to Steenkamp and Gouws (2006) it is also found in South Africa. In Europe it has naturalised in Ukraine and Croatia and is adventive in Russia, Belgium, Check Republic and Germany (USDA GRIN 2012). It is present in Germany but there is no information on its distribution (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In France it is only found in a few states in the southeast (INPN 2012). In Bulgaria it only occurs in the south (Assyov and Petrova 2006). Its distribution in Italy is not continuous and it is found in Sardinia but not Sicily (Schede di botanica 2013). Its distribution in Portugal is fragmented (Botanical Garden UTAD 2013). It is not known to occur in the United Kingdom or Switzerland and occurs in large scale cultivation in Romania, Slovakia and Estonia (Greuter 2006-2009).

population:
The total population size is unknown. The species is suffering a global decline, due to over-collecting and also loss of traditional extensive dry agricultural landscapes (E. Vela pers. comm. 2013). In Italy, Pignatti (1982) indicated that it had not been observed recently and was probably at risk of extinction. In southeastern France, nearly half of the localities are old and no longer found (SILENE 2006-2013). In Spain, the species appears to be relatively widespread in the arid highlands, but there is no indication of whether or not it is declining (Anthos 2010). In Bulgaria, it has declined through over-collection, while there is no data from Greece; the extra-regional Turkish subpopulation may have a better conservation status and immigration could possibly reinforce the Eastern European subpopulation in the future, but the North African subpopulation is very relictual, if it has not yet indeed disappeared, and thus immigration from North Africa is unlikely (E. Vela pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Holy Thistle is a herb found on arable land (Botanical Garden UTAD 2013).

threats:
This species is declining across its range due to over-collecting and also loss of traditional extensive dry agricultural landscapes.

conservationAction:
This species has not been assessed on any national red list. It may be Vulnerable in France as it has a restricted distribution but is found in one Natura 2000 site (European Environment Agency 2010). In Bulgaria it is under special governmental control of protection and use as a medicinal plant, and gathering for trade is prohibited under Ordinance no. RD-71/2007 (Estatieva et al. 2007, Nedelcheva et al. 2010). In Italy it is also protected under the Royal Decree 772 of 1932, restricting the quantity allowed to be harvested to 2 kg of aerial parts (Baričevič et al. 2004). The species is in large scale cultivation, particularly in Romania, Slovakia and Estonia. It is considered to be threatened in Serbia (Lipman 2009).

useAndTrade:
The powdered herb or extract is stomachic, bitter, anti-heamorrhagic, expectorant and antiseptic. It is used internally for anorexia, dyspepsia and catarrh and externally for wounds and ulcers. Cnicin is anti-inflammatory and has some antibiotic activity; the essential oil and polyacetylenes are bacteriostatic. The lignins are similar to Burdock in having anti-tumour activity (Willamson 2003). The aerial part in the pre-flowering stage of the plant is an effective larval insecticide (Strang and Kleeberg 2004). Cnicus benedictus L. herba is used in combination with Verbascum thapsus flos which contains sesquiterpene lactones, lignanes and sterols used as an appetite stimulant, tonic, antimicrobial and diuretic (EMA 2008, Nedelcheva et al. 2010). The leaves are used in ethno therapy in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Redzic 2010) and commonly in traditional medicine in Italy and Bulgaria (Leporatti and Ivancheva 2003). In Serbia it is sold on the market with only partially known cultivation technology (Baričevič et al . 2004). In the Czech Republic traditional cultivars and accessions have been collected (Lipman 2009).


taxonomicNotes:
In the Euro+Med Plantbase (Greuter 2006-2009) and Global Compositae Checklist (Flann 2013), Centaurea cyanus L. is treated as a synonym of Cyanus segetum Hill with a much wider distribution than that indicated by GRIN taxonomy (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). The genus Centarurea has been split into a number of distinct genera, of which Cyanus is one. Because ' Cyanus cyanus' is not an allowed combination, the homotypic nomen novum Cyanus segetum Hill replaces Centaurea cyanus L. In 2012, The Plant List listed both species ( Centaurea cyanus and Cyanus segetum ) as separate species. As a result, in 2013 the European assessment that was published on the IUCN Red List referred to Centaurea cyanus . Since C. cyanus is now treated as a synonym of C. segetum , this Red List assessment now refers to C. segetum .

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The native distribution of the species ;has been obscured by widespread introductions and colonizations from introduced populations, complicating the assessment of its native populations. Although there is some evidence of population declines and the species is threatened by changes in agricultural practices, it is has a wide distribution and is capable of colonizing other habitat types. This species is therefore assessed as Least Concern in both the EU 27 and regional Europe.

range:
The species is native to Europe and temperate Asia. It has naturalised in South Africa, Asia, North and South America and New Zealand (USDA ARS GRIN 2012); it is considered to be an invasive weed in the United States (Centre for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health 2010). Its original distribution is uncertain; it may have originated in the eastern Mediterranean (Boršić et al. 2011), but it dispersed throughout Europe as a weed species associated with cereal crops in ancient times (Wilson 2007, Hensel 2008, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Penet et al. 2012, USDA ARS GRIN 2012). The species has now naturalised across Europe as an archaeophyte species, and is therefore considered native across Europe for the purpose of this assessment. It is widespread throughout the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Switzerland, Germany and Italy (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, INPN 2012, Anthos 2010, Infoflora 2012, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Schede di botanica 2013).

population:
This species was quite abundant throughout Europe but has experienced declines in much of its range over the past several decades (Wilson 2007, Penet et al. 2012). Previously a common weed in fields and arable lands, anecdotal evidence suggests it is undergoing rapid declines in the UK; these 'natural' declines have likely been obscured, however, by simultaneous introduction of the species into new sites as a result of its widespread use in ornamental and amenity plantings and colonisation from gardens (Wilson 2007). A 2005 audit identified just over 100 sites (only 29% of the total number of sites recorded) that are thought to be 'natural' (Wilson 2007). Although local experts suggest that very few populations in the UK are large or recorded regularly, implementation of arable extensification measures has led to natural expansion of the populations in Britain. As a common garden plant and also a mainstay of "wildflower" seed mixes, it can be difficult for experts to tell whether populations are truly wild or have escaped from gardens (Wilson 2007). The subpopulations in France, Germany, Norway, Bulgaria, Italy and Switzerland appear to be common and widespread. The subpopulations in Sweden, although introduced, are declining slowly (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Cyanus segetum is an annual herb which grows wild on arable land with unmixed crops grown by low intensity agriculture methods. It is also found along field margins and is frequent in waste places, on roadsides and on rubbish tips as a casual arising from gardens and wildflower seed mixtures. It is an iconic image of rural meadows, with a pretty, bright blue flowers growing in light sandy soils (European Environment Agency 2010, Wilson 2007, Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
In the UK, this species was common until the late-19th and early-20th century, when improvement in methods of seed cleaning and the reduction in the area of land under arable cultivation during a period of agricultural depression led to a notable decline; this was accelerated by the loss of certain crops such as Rye and Flax, in which it was a frequent seed contaminant, and the use of herbicides. Since the 1980s it has increased through wildflower seed (Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012). It may, however, be able to survive for several decades in the seedbank. Modern agricultural practices, such as increased use of fertilisers, the development of highly competitive crop varieties, and the destruction of field-edges and crop rotation, are ongoing threats (Online Atlas of British & Irish Flora 2012). In a study in Bavaria, changes in methods of conventional farming to integrated cultivation systems caused this species (as well as other rare arable weeds) to decline, apparently due to minimum tillage practices applied to prevent soil erosion; however, frequencies and densities remained constant within fields under organic management, suggesting that organic cultivation systems could prevent further declines in arable weed species such as this species (Albrecht and Mattheis 1998).

conservationAction:
This charismatic plant is listed as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), and Slovakia (Institute of Botany SAS 2011); Near Threatened in Switzerland (although it is mostly Endangered or Vulnerable in each region; Moser et al. 2002) and the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000); and Vulnerable in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). In the United Kingdom it has been downlisted from Endangered to Least Concern due to recent introductions, though a decline in naturally-occurring populations may be obscured by introduced populations; it is listed as a species “of principal importance for the purpose of conserving biodiversity” covered under section 41 (England and Wales) of the NERC Act 2006 and is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species (Cheffings and Farrell 2005, Wilson 2007, Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012, Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2007). It is not threatened in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013), and is not included under the Bern Convention.

Ideal management of arable land can help wild populations to recover. Organic farming without the use of chemicals encourages the growth of weed species (Rydberg and Milberg 2000). It is found in four Natura 2000 sites in Germany, one in Ireland and one Biogenetic Reserve in the Netherlands (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
The species is not frequently used in medicine today, its flowers, seeds and leaves have a variety of uses. The flower heads are used in European phytotherapy for the treatment of minor ocular inflammations. Cornflower contains flavanoids, sesquiterpene lactones including cnicin which is slightly antibiotic and antifungal, acetylenes and coumarins. It is used in French herbal medicine as a remedy or anti-inflammatory of the eyes, where the strained infusion is used as eyewash and the petals applied to a poultice, but its efficacy is not proven. The petals can be taken as a bitter tonic and stimulant to improve digestion and possibly liver function as well as improving resistance to infection. The seeds have been used as a mild laxative for children. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat rheumatism (Chevallier1996, Williamson 2003, Garbacki et al. 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Cynara cardunculus is cultivated throughout Europe, which has led to many different varieties and subspecies; globe artichoke and leafy cardoon are two crops included within the species C. cardunculus. The genetic structure and origin of the Cynara complex requires further extensive research.

The wild population, native to the Mediterranean from Atlantic Spain and Portugal through to Greece and possibly to Cyprus, has a fragmented distribution. At the moment, the wild populations of this species can be classified as Least Concern in both regional Europe and the EU 27 as they are widespread and there is no evidence of substantial declines. However, extensive cultivation has caused hybridisation of wild and cultivated types; increasing cultivation will likely result in continued declines in the wild population.

This species is collected for medicinal purposes and food from the wild, particularly in Italy; collection of only the flower heads may be sustainable, whereas collection of the roots may cause population declines. More information on threats and the number of wild individuals through genetic analysis is required.

range:
Cynara cardunculus is native to the Mediterranean, including the Iberian Peninsula, central Mediterranean Europe, the Balkan Peninsula and north Africa. It occurs as an alien in Andorra, the United Kingdom, East Aegean Islands and Turkey, is adventive in Ireland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany and Switzerland, and is in large scale cultivation in central and eastern Europe. It has also naturalised in the Americas and the southern parts of Australia, where it is considered to be a weed, and is widely cultivated in California, South America (mainly Peru and Argentina) and China. It is a regulated invasive weed in the western part of the United States (Greuter 2006-2009, Centre for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health 2010, USDA 2010, Gatto et al . 2013).

This species is found throughout Spain but in fewer than 100 recorded localities on the mainland (Anthos 2010). In Portugal and Italy it is found predominantly in the south (Schede di botanica 2013, Jardim Botânico da UTAD 2013). In France it is known from several states, including Corisca (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2012). It is reported from Croatia (Greuter 2006-2009), but its presence there is uncertain (Flora Croatica Database 2004). Wild Cardoon is native to the Mediterranean region from Cyprus and the Black Sea to Atlantic Spain, Portugal and the Canary Islands where three forms have been identified with variation in head morphology: the Sicilian, Tunisian and Catalan types. Western wild Cardoon C. cardunculus L. subspecies flavescens is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula.

population:
Though Cardoon is cultivated widely, the status of the wild population is thought to be declining. The history of domestication of artichoke and leafy cardoon is not yet fully understood, but evidence supports the hypothesis that wild Cardoon is the wild progenitor of both these crops. Selection for large, non-spiny edible flower buds resulted in the artichoke and selection for large, non-spiny, stalked tender leaves resulted in leafy cardoon; the leafy cultivated variety is known as Cynara cardunculus var. altilis. The synonym Cynara scolymus (artichoke or globe artichoke) is a cultivar as a result of domestication of C. cardunculus . Wild and cultivated cardoons and artichokes are very similar genetically, and are fully interfertile, and are thus considered to be a single species C. cardunculus L. (Sonnante et al . 2007). There are many varieties and subspecies as a result of hybridisation through domestication. A study by Gatto et al. (2013) has shown that there were two distinct domestication events and that the western wild Cardoon originated from cultivated cardoon escaped from cultivation. The wild perennial cardoon (var. sylvestris ) is the ancestor of the globe artichoke and leafy or cultivated cardoon (var. atilis ). Wild Cardoon populations in Italy have been found from the Apulia and Basilicata regions, whereas other populations from Calabria, Sicily, Sardinia and Latium in Italy have arised through mixing with cultivars. Populations from Greece and Malta have been mixed with Tunisian populations, suggesting immigration of propagules from outside Europe. Two wild populations of artichoke have been found in Sicily and one in Malta. In Spain and Portugal, wild Cardoon can be easily distinguished and many of the Spanish populations have arisen through naturalisation of the cultivated forms. There may be a continued loss of genetic diversity through crossing with cultivated varieties (Gatto et al. 2013).

habitat:
Cardoon is a perennial herb which can grow up to 1.5 metres tall. It prefers disturbed areas such as grassland, coastal scrubs and fields and is well adapted to the hot dry climate of the Mediterranean (Fernandez and Curt 2005, Centre for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health 2010, Gatto et al. 2013).

threats:
There may be a continued loss of genetic diversity within wild Cardoon populations through crossing with cultivated varieties (Gatto et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions in place. This species has not been assessed on any national red lists. It occurs in eight Natura 2000 sites in Italy, one in Portugal, and a Biogenetic Reserve in Malta (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
Globe artichoke crop is grown for its large immature inflorescences and leaf stalks which are consumed as vegetables. The roots contain inulin, which enhances the microbial flora of the digestive system (Gatto et al . 2013). The extract isolated from Cynara "highlight selected">cardunculus L. has marked beneficial activities (antimutagenic and therapeutic effect enhancing) and its potential biomedical application in the combination therapy of cancer and some neurodegenerative diseases may be suggested. It exhibits considerable antioxidant activity and is of particular interest as a suitable candidate for an effective chemopreventive agent (European Medicines Agency 2011). The aerial parts of the plant are known to have the greatest amounts of tannins, flavanoids and caffeic acid for pharmacological effects (Mucaji et al. 1997). It is a non-food energy crop produced for biomass on land set-aside. Research on Cynara as an energy crop has been carried out in Spain and other European countries with the support of the EU Commission (Fernandez and Curt 2005). It is also used as a fibre crop for pulp and paper production. The plant has been used in regional food dishes (soups and salads) but mostly as an enzymatic source for milk coagulation in cheese making (Gominho et al. 2001). Wild Cardoon has smaller flower heads and is traditionally gathered from the wild for food in certain areas of southern Italy (Gatto et al. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Helichrysum arenarium is an important and valuable plant for its medicinal properties. Although widespread across Europe, it is widely collected and in many places is considered a rare and threatened plant; it is, however, protected in parts of its range, where collection from the wild is strictly forbidden and regulated by law. Commercially, its source as a raw material for medicinal value is limited and it is a target species for ex situ germplasm conservation (Baričevič et al. 2004).


Populations are declining due to habitat loss and degradation resulting from a multitude of factors, as well as high collection pressure, and as the entire plant is used this collection may have a significant impact. This plant is not in extensive cultivation and therefore it can be inferred that the population will continue to decline until further legislation to regulate or prohibit its collection from the wild, cultivation technology and site protection are established.


This species is classified as Near Threatened approaching criterion A2cd on both the European and EU 27 levels, as collection pressure is high and populations are declining as a result of various threats, and the species is considered threatened or near threatened in many countries. The overall population decline has not been quantified and cannot be said to reach 30%, but is suspected to be at least 20%. It is not known whether populations from outside its European range could rescue declining European populations, as their status is unknown; the category therefore remains unchanged. More specific information on the current population size, trend and the overall rate of decline is needed, especially from countries in eastern Europe, to verify whether the species needs to be included in a higher threat category.

range:
Helichrysum arenarium is native to temperate regions of Europe and Asia (Greuter 2006-2009, Baričevič et al. 2004). It is widespread across much of its European range, but has a small distribution in France and Bulgaria. In Ukraine it is said to have significant resources but limited distribution (Minarchenko 2011). Though the species is recorded from Slovenia (Greuter 2006-2009), other sources do not list it as present (Martinčič 2007). It is reported as collected in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Kathe et al. 2003), but other sources do not report its presence there (Greuter 2006-2009); the origin of these populations is thus uncertain.

population:
Although it is widespread, the overall wild population of Helichrysum arenarium is declining. In Serbia the population contains over 250 mature individuals (Baričevič et al. 2004). The subpopulation in Croatia was recorded in several localities along the river Drava (northern Croatia) by Schlosser and Vukotinović (1869), but has not been found since then (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). It is known from only 6-20 localities and is clearly declining in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012). A significant decline is reported in Slovakia (V. Ferakova and I. Hodálová pers. comm. 2013), and it is clearly declining in Hungary (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is said to be declining across Central Europe (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). In the 1990s, populations increased in parts of northern Europe due to an increase in abandoned sandy arable fields, which provided suitable habitat, but today the species has become more rare (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Helichrysum arenarium is a rhizome perennial herb of the sunflower family, found in sunny places on dry sandy soils, abandoned fields, along waysides and in dry forests and thickets. This species has the ability to invade disturbed areas and is found on dunes, abandoned fields, soils deficient in minerals and nutrients and that are easily drained (Sawilska 2008, Sawilska et al. 2009). It is spontaneous in Lithuania, growing on dry, poor sandy soils (Radušienė and Judžentienė 2008). It is found in calcareous sand grassland and listed under "st">Habitats Directive Annex I habitat type codes: 6120 Xeric sand calcareous grassland and 6260 Pannonic sand steppe (European Environment Agency 2010).

threats:
Habitat loss is a significant threat, resulting from lack of grazing, abandonment of traditional agricultural practices, development, soil eutrophication from fertilizer (manure) and air pollution, displacement by non-native species, mining, and destruction of sites (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, G. Király pers. comm. 2013). Collection of wild plants has also threatened the wild population, which is not large enough to satisfy the market demand (Baričevič et al . 2004). This plant is not in extensive cultivation and therefore it can be inferred that the population will continue to decline until further legislation to regulate or prohibit its collection from the wild, cultivation technology and site protection are established.

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Critically Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000) and in France (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012), Endangered due to a combination of rarity and decline in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012), Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) and Hungary (Király 2007), Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), and Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is Endangered (3: gefährdet) in Germany where it is protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). This species is under partial protection in Poland (Sawilska et al. 2009). It was considered an important threatened plant in former Yugoslavia (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is also endangered and rare in Austria (V. Ferakova and I. Hodálová pers. comm. 2013). It is not included on the Slovakian Red List, but should be as the number of sites it is found in is decreasing and significant decline is reported; it may be considered Vulnerable in Slovakia (V. Ferakova and I. Hodálová pers. comm. 2013). It is rare and considered to be Endangered in Bulgaria and is legally banned from collection, and is protected in Hungary. It is also protected throughout France under Articles 2 and 3 of the list of nationally protected plant species [Liste des espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire français métropolitain], where all destruction, collection, transport, gifting or sale of wild specimens is subject to authorization by the Ministry for the Protection of Nature (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013).

H. arenarium is recognised as a species with limited distribution suitable for ex situ collections and requiring preservation of genes in a seed bank (Angelova et al. 1994). In Lithuania, gathering from the wild has threatened the populations of this species and does not satisfy the market demand, so there is a need for its conservation and cultivation ex situ ; it is rather easily introduced and accepted for conservation in field collections, which hold ten accessions and show a wide range of variation of yield-related characters such as mass of inflorescens, number and colour of flowers and plant height (Baričevič et al. 2004). The high phenotypic variation of H. arenarium may allow selection of the most valuable accessions. The total estimated area over which it is cultivated in Latvia is 2 ha (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Estonia, it is listed under the Law of Natural Objects under Protection (passed in 1994, supplemented in 1998), which establishes the terms for the protection of both plant communities and plant species (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Bulgaria, gathering for trade is prohibited under special protection and use Ordinance no. RD-71/2007 (Evstatieva et al. 2007). It is found in 49 Natura 2000 sites in Germany, two in Romania and one in Belgium (European Environment Agency 2010). It is likely to be threatened in France where it is found in only a few states.

useAndTrade:
The plant is a source of valuable herbal material. At the beginning of the blooming period, the inflorescence contains a wide spectrum of flavanoids and has been reported to contain Asarone in its essential oil; however, this is considered to be toxic so the concentration in herbal medicinal products should be reduced to a minimum (European Medicines Agency 2003). In Poland, its inflorescence is collected at the beginning of the blooming period for medicinal preparations used for treatment of digestive system diseases. It is also used as a decorative and erosion-preventing plant. Previous attempts of cultivation in plantations have failed in Poland, as it can only tolerate a certain range of habitat conditions (Sawilska 2008, Sawilska et al. 2009). The chemical composition of essential oils has been investigated on wild populations of H. arenarium from the Caucasus region in Eastern Lithuania and Hungary, and vary in essential oil constituents (Radušienė and Judžentienė 2008). Helichrysum arenarium is one of the most commonly used plants in Lithuanian pharmaceutics (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is an A list priority for medicinal and aromatic cultivation and trade, collected from natural sites in Estonia, Lithuania and Sweden. In Montenegro, collecting and processing of wild plants is a long tradition. In Serbia, cultivation technology is unknown but the plant is sold on the Serbian market (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Herzegovina, where the entire dried plant and fresh herb for essential oil production is used, an estimated 35 tonnes of dried and 90 tonnes of fresh plants are collected (data from 2001; Kathe et al. 2003). In Ukraine the resource is described as limited in distribution but there is a large harvest of 10.1-50 tonnes per year of wild and harvested plants (Minarchenko 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species appears to be a common plant along the Mediterranean coast. This aromatic plant is used for medicinal purposes throughout the region and its collection is regulated; however, as enforcement levels are unknown, the population may be declining, though not likely significantly enough to be threatened with extinction at present.

There is a need for survey and assessment of conservation status of wild populations at national levels. It is cultivated only in the Czech Republic and Croatia on a small scale; further information on the current demand and market is required to justify a need for further cultivation. As this species does not currently meet any of the criteria for threat of extinction, it is classified as Least Concern across Europe and in the EU 27.

range:
Helichrysum italicum is native to the Mediterranean and north Africa. It is in large scale cultivation in the Czech Republic (Greuter 2006-2009). Its precise distribution is known only for Italy, Spain and France. In Portugal, it appears along all the coast and in some non-littoral dry places (Franco 1984, Flora-on 2013). It has a small distribution in France where it only occurs in a few states. In Spain, where the area of occupancy (AOO) is 2,400 km² (1,600 km² on mainland and 800 km² on Palma de Mallorca), there are only 72 recorded localities (Anthos 2010). It is found throughout Italy (Schede di botanica 2013). In Croatia, it is widely distributed along the coast and on the islands (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). There is no record of it occurring in the United Kingdom (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
The total number of individuals in the wild has not been estimated. It appears to be a common dominant plant along the Mediterranean coast.

habitat:
Helichrysum italicum is a small perennial herb or aromatic shrub found on coastal sandy habitats, sand dunes and rocky vegetation on coastal cliffs throughout the Mediterranean coast (Poli et al. 2003). It also grows on Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean grasslands and garrigues, with open grasslands being its primary habitat along the Croatian coast (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). It is a primary or subprimary chamaephytic garrigue ( "st">a low-growing perennial plant whose dormant overwintering buds are borne at or just above the surface of the ground, found in the low, soft-leaved vegetation of the Mediterranean coast) that develops on the early soil of coastal cliffs (Biondi 2007).

threats:
The invasion of Acacia species on sand dunes along the coast of Portugal has a negative effect on this species through increased competition (Marchante et al. 2003). As it is a species of open, semi-natural habitats, loss of these habitats as a result of progressive vegetative succession represents a major threat; in addition, seed viability is very low, thus the emergence of seedling is rare (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). Soil erosion on cliffs and sand dunes could cause declines. Collection from the wild is also an ongoing threat, as this species is highly prized for its essential oil.

conservationAction:
This was a target species for the Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Working Group of the South East European Development Network on Plant Genetic Resources. In Montenegro, it is a non-protected species free for gathering and trade (Lipman 2009). It is found in one biogenetic reserve and five Natura 2000 sites in Italy and one in Spain (European Environment Agency 2010). It is also found in several protected areas as well as Natura 2000 sites along the coast and on the islands in Croatia. Its distribution in Spain and France is small, and the populations in those countries should be monitored and, if necessary, protected. It can be considered Least Concern in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). There is a need for survey and assessment of conservation status of wild populations at national levels, as well as harvest management to ensure it is sustainable.

useAndTrade:
This plant is eaten by European wild rabbits, and is prized by humans for its essential oil. The plant constituents and their use vary with origin of country, but the essential oil is mainly derived from plants in Corsica, Italy, France and Bosnia (Shutes 2013). The essential oil is available to buy from various companies on the world wide web, and is prized for its aromatherapy and used as a pain reliever to reduce chronic inflammation. The aerial parts or dried flower heads are known to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity (Sala et al. 2010). In Bosnia and Herzegovina it is one of the top ten most frequently collected medicinal and aromatic plants, with a market price of 12.60 KM per kg dried material; it is collected from the wild and is cultivated over a small area (Kathe et al. 2003). It is the most collected plant in Croatia for distillation and production of essential oil, and in the last few years demand has increased. In 2009, requests for collection totalled 740,105 kg, but this quantity was not permitted for collection; between 2005-2009, a total of 818,517 kg of above-ground parts were collected (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). Development of cultivation technology is necessary as essential oil producers in Croatia claim that the quality of essential oil collected from wild plants is poor, but all material is sold on the national market (Kathe et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Within Europe, Helichrysum stoechas is found in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy, Greece, Albania and the European part of Turkey. It remains abundant on the Iberian Peninsula and can be considered Least Concern in Greece, but there is little population information available for other countries.

This plant is used for medicinal purposes, though there is no information available to determine if it is collected in the wild or what the population status may be. Given its relatively wide distribution, abundance and stable population status where population information is available, and the lack of known threats, it is tentatively classified as Least Concern. The species should be reassessed if further information becomes available.

range:
Helichrysum stoechas is native to the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy, Greece, Albania, Turkey and North Africa (Greuter 2006-2009, Uriarte-Pueyo et al. 2011). It has a large distribution in France and is widespread in Spain and Portugal (INPN 2012, Anthos 2010). In Italy it is only found along the northwest coast and in Sicily (Schede di botanica 2013). It does not occur outside its native range.

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. It appears to be abundant on the Iberian Peninsula (Anthos 2010). No specific information is available on the distribution or population in Greece or Albania.

habitat:
The Eternal Flower is a perennial herb found on coastal sand dunes and hot dry sunny places in the Mediterranean (Menendez 2005).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation actions for this species. It has not been assessed at the national level in any country, though it can be considered Least Concern in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013).

useAndTrade:
This is a medicinal and aromatic plant used for its aerial parts, which contain flavanoids and triterpenes. It is used as an expectorant, liver protectant and detoxicant and has antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects (Williamson 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The native European distribution of Inula helenium is primarily in the Mediterranean, Central Europe and the Balkan region; it has also naturalised throughout most of Europe. Within its native range it has declined due to collection from the wild, however protection measures are in force to limit the quantities harvested from the wild and there is no indication of severe or widespread declines. It is protected in some European countries, and has been introduced into cultivation. Given its broad native distribution and its relatively stable populations, it can be classified as Least Concern.

Further information on population data from the Balkan region is required to provide sufficient evidence that raw material from the wild is limited, as it is regarded as a valuable plant for its medicinal properties.

range:
Inula helenium is widely distributed in Europe, East Asia and North America (Konishi et al. 2002, Greuter 2006-2009). Within Europe, it is native in the south and east, and has been introduced to many countries in central and northern Europe (though it may be an archeophyte in some countries where it is recorded as introduced). It is an archaeophyte species in the UK and Ireland (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012), having been introduced prior to 1500 (and therefore considered native for the purpose of this assessment). It is known from two localities in Albania (Bovilla in Tirana District and Vllahinë Baldacii in Vlor district) (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

population:
The total population size is unknown but the population appears to be declining in parts of its range. In the UK, it is persistent but may be in gradual decline (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It appears to have been more common in northern Europe several decades ago than it is today (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). In Croatia it is widespread but not very common (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). In Romania it is very common in Transylvania but rare in most parts of the country (Badarau and Malos 2011).

habitat:
Inula helenium is a perennial herb found in a variety of habitats, including damp meadows and shaded areas of central Europe (Bourrel et al. 1993); it can also be found in secondary habitats (G. Király pers. comm. 2013). In the United Kingdom it has naturalised from garden escapes and is found on road sides and woodland margins (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
Collection of plants from the wild, particularly in eastern Europe, has caused regional declines.

conservationAction:
This species is preserved within protective territories and collection from the wild is banned in many places across its range. In Italy it is included in the list of medicinal and aromatic plants cited in the Royal Decree n° 772 of 1932, which states the maximum quantity allowed to be harvested upon authorization is 2 kg (roots). It has been collected and conserved in ex situ collections (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Bulgaria it is threatened and gathering for trade is prohibited under special protection and use Ordinance no. RD-71/2007 (Evstatieva et al. 2007, Kathe et al. 2003). It is listed as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In Hungary it is listed as Near Threatened (Kiraly 2007), but is a protected species where it grows in the wild in Atlantic Evergreen Forests (Lipman et al. 2004). In Croatia, it was legally protected under the Nature Protection Act (Official Gazette 70/05, 139/08, 57/11) and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09). As a protected wild plant, it could have been collected for personal needs without authorisation, but its commercial collecting was regulated by the Ordinance on the Collecting of Protected Wild Plants for the Purpose of Processing, Trading and Other Types of Traffic (Official Gazette 154/08). However, it is currently no longer protected according to the new Nature Protection Act (Official Gazette 80/13) so there is a need for its exploitation to be regulated (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). It is found in twelve protected areas in Italy, two in Hungary and one in France and Bulgaria (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
The dried roots have been traditionally used for medicinal purposes as a diaphoresis and diuretic expectorant agent in Europe, and as a fragrance agent for home medicines in Japan and a preservative in China. In North America the infusion and decoction of the root was used to treat tuberculosis and lung disorders. The sesquiterpene has strong antibacterial activities (Konishi et al. 2002). The methanolic extract has antioxidative properties (Lim et al. 2007). The roots are collected in the autumn from two to three year old plants which contain essential oil (Stojakowska et al . 2004). It has a very good adaptability to cultivation, as demonstrated in Sadovo. It can be successfully grown in gardens for medicinal or ornamental value. The medicinal plant drug can be produced in both natural and agrarian systems (collected and/or cultivated species). It is sold on the Serbian market (Baričevič et al. 2004). This plant has been protected in Croatia and between 2005 and 2012 there have been 21 requests for its collection for approximately 2,000 kg of mostly underground parts; permissions were obtained for collection of 400 kg and according to reports at least 300 kg were collected (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
Lactuca virosa L. is a secondary wild relative of lettuce, L. sativa L. (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). An endemic subspecies is recognized in Spain: L. virosa ssp. livida (Boiss. & Reut.) Ladero & A. Velasco.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Lactuca virosa is assessed as Data Deficient as there is currently insufficient information available to evaluate this species. Information about its precise native range, population size and trend is needed, as well as its in situ conservation status and potential threats.

range:
L. virosa is native to central, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to north Africa; it has become naturalized outside its native range in both of these regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Knowledge of the national distribution of this species in Europe is as follows: Portugal: north and central. Italy: widespread. France: widespread, but not recorded in the departments of Pas-de-Calais, Maine-et-Loire, Hauts-de-Seine, Eure-et-Loir, Cher, Haute-Saône and Territoire de Belfort in the northern half of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). United Kingdom: widespread across the southern half of England, particularly to the east, with a patchier distribution to the north and in Scotland (Preston et al . 2002). Its distribution in Wales is particularly limited and it is only recorded in two localities in Northern Ireland (Preston et al . 2002). Germany: common but its origin is uncertain (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). Croatia and Serbia: presence uncertain and if present, its origin is uncertain. Slovakia: found only as casual alien in Ivánka pri Nitre (Dostál and Červenka 1992).

population:
This species is generally considered to be rare in central Europe (Lebeda et al. 2004); however, it is reported to be common in Italy, Sicily and Sardinia (D. Donnini pers. comm. 2010).

habitat:
L. virosa is an annual to biennial herbaceous species which grows in ruderal habitats such as roadsides, embankments and grassy borders throughout most of its range. In Portugal, it grows in dry, sandy and rocky places. In the north of its range it can also be found on limestone, as well as on sand dunes (Feráková 1977, Lebeda et al. 2004). In Great Britain, it occurs in lowland habitats (coastal cliffs, inland rocky outcrops and sand dunes), but it prefers rank calcareous grassland, woodland margins, road banks, quarries, tracks and rough ground (Preston et al . 2002). It grows in lowland and sub-montane areas, with plants occasionally found at higher altitudes (e.g., 1,560 m in Switzerland) (Feráková 1977).

conservationAction:
L. virosa is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). The natural range of this species is receding and it is considered to be threatened in both Germany and Austria (Lebeda et al. 2004). EURISCO reports 237 germplasm accessions of L. virosa held in European genebanks, 224 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 104 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Research is needed to determine the native range of this species; particularly in central Europe.

useAndTrade:
L. virosa is a secondary wild relative of and potential gene donor to lettuce, L. sativa . This species is also used for medicinal purposes (Lebeda et al . 2004) and is sometimes collected for salads.

redListAssessors:
Eliáš, P., Asdal, Å., Holubec, V., Korpelainen, H., Labokas, J., Magos Brehm, J., and Vögel, R.


taxonomicNotes:
In the Euro+Med Plantbase (Greuter 2006-2009), this species is treated as a synonym of Leontopodium nivale ssp. alpinum (Cass.) Greuter. However, Leontopodium alpinum is an accepted species in The Plant List (2012) and in GRIN Taxonomy (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is an important and widely known species which is now established in cultivation. Edelweiss flowers are highly prized and were collected from the wild in the past, but collection is now regulated or banned in many European countries. This plant is threatened in several European countries and populations declined due to collection in the past; however, it has a large distribution and without information on the extent of population declines, it does not qualify for a threatened category in Europe or the EU 27. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Edelweiss is native to the mountains of Europe. Its distribution ranges from the Pyrenees to the Alps and eastwards over the peninsula of the Balkans to the central Balkans in Bulgaria, where it is found between 1,500-3,400 m asl. It is widely cultivated. It is a casual neophyte in the Czech Republic (Danihelka et al. 2012). The southern limit of its distribution is in Albania, disjunct from its occurrence in the Alps (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). The genus is restricted to Eurasia (Erhardt 1993).

population:
Edelweiss populations have declined as a result of past collection in the wild. This species is rare in many countries.

habitat:
A herbaceous perennial, a symbol of the Alps and national flower of Switzerland, Edelweiss is one of the world's most famous wild flowers. It colonizes meadows in alpine and highland steppe areas, as high as 3,400 metres elevation. It flowers from the end of July to mid-August, during optimal weather conditions (Erhardt 1993). The species is not confined to the highest region of the Alps but also occurs in the alpine zone, and is typical of plant communities on exposed ridges (Hörandl et al. 2011).

threats:
In the past, Edelweiss populations have declined as a result of collection in the wild. As with a number of alpine plants, climate change may be a long-term threat, capable of causing population declines in Europe's mountain habitats as it gradually transforms cold mountain habitats and their plant communities (Gottfried et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Edelweiss is listed as Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), where it is rare and has been propagated by seed for ex situ conservation (Kozuharova 2009). It is Endangered in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and is listed as a species under special protection in Appendix 1 of the Regulation for the Protection of Animal and Plant Species that Occur in Nature. It is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland, although it is a protected species and is listed as threatened in some regions (Moser et al . 2002). This species has been protected since 1896 in what is now Slovenian territory (Skoberne 2004). It is protected in Montenegro under Official Gazette SRCG, No. 36/82 (Lipman 2009). It is Vulnerable and protected in Slovakia (Institute of Botany SAS 2011). It is rare in Romania (Oprea et al . 2007), but has been propagated there using in vitro techniques (Zapratan 1996). It is Critically Endangered in the Ukrainian Carpathians (Kricsfalusy and Budnikov 2007). According to the Flora Croatica Database in Croatia two subspecies occur: Leontopodium alpinum Cass. ssp. alpinum and Leontopodium alpinum Cass. ssp. krasense Derganc. The latter is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Book of Vascular Flora of Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). In Croatia it is under strict legal protection and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09; I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013). It is found in five Biogenetic reserves and fifty Natura 2000 sites in Italy and one in Romania (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
The flower is highly prized by tourists and botanists, which has claimed the lives of many attempting to collect it in the high peaks of the Alps (Erhardt 1993). Edelweiss has been cultivated successfully for flower and herb production in South Finland (Lipman 2009) and attempts at cultivation in Switzerland have been successful (the average fresh inflorescence yield was 1.3 kg/m² in the second year of cultivation). Edelweiss is a protected species in Switzerland, but the plant is being selectively bred in order to produce a commercial crop. The cultivar grows vigorously and abundantly and is now a source of raw material for cosmetic and food extraction. The flower has soothing properties and the powder, infusion or tincture have been used to treat rheumatic pain and in traditional use for diarrhoea and dysentery and as an astringent and tonic for coughs and most commonly as an antioxidant as the extracts contain tannins and flavonoids. In Austria, Edelweiss is also a brand of beer named after the flower (Dweck 2004, Alpaflor 2009). The root extract is antimicrobial and is used for the treatment of abdominal disorders (Dobner et al. 2003).


range:
Matricaria chamomilla is native to North Africa, temperate and tropical Asia and Europe. It has become naturalised in Poland, the Baltic countries, Ireland, North and South America and Australasia, giving it an almost global distribution (Greuter 2006-2009; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
A common species throughout its range with stable populations and also cultivated widely.

habitat:
An aromatic annual herb found on cultivated land, arable fields, waste and disturbed ground, saline steppes growing on sandy or loamy soils. It flowers from July to August (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It has been listed as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).

useAndTrade:
It is commonly used in herbal teas for its sweet, fruity aroma, relaxing and spasmolytic properties and in cosmetics for its soothing and anti-inflammatory affects on the skin. The fresh or dried flower heads are used as infusions, liquid extracts, essential oils and volatile oils. It has many pharmacological actions which include antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anti-ulcer, antiviral, and sedative effects. Chamomile is used for sleep enhancement, diarrhoea, treatment of colic, wound healing, mucositis, and eczema (Thorne Research Inc 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


White Butterbur Petasites albus has a wide distribution throughout Europe in montane and submontane habitats. Though little information is available on the status of its populations, it is considered common and is listed as Least Concern in several countries. No major threats have been documented, and it is present in several protected areas. Further information is needed on threats to this species, but given current knowledge it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
White Butterbur ( Petasites albus ) is native to montane parts of Europe, the Caucasus and North Africa (Greuter 2006-2009, Defra 2009). It has naturalised in Belgium and the United Kingdom and is considered to be an invasive species (CABI 2012). In France its distribution is limited to regions surrounding the Alps (INPN 2012). In Norway it is found predominantly along the western coast with fragmented localities in the north (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Bulgaria it is only found in the southwest (Assyov and Petrova 2006). In Europe most populations are found at altitudes higher than 200 metres asl. In Central Germany it is found at altitudes between 370 and 470 m in the Harz Mountains (Scheidel and Bruelheide 2004).

population:
The population size is unknown. In Romania, White Butterbur is common in boreal forests (Badarau and Malos 2011). It is also common in Switzerland, Germany and the Czech Republic. In Sweden it is a very stable species, as long as the forest habitat remains intact and soils are well-drained (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
This is a dioecious rhizomatous perennial herb found on nutrient rich forest slopes and along forest margins in montane vegetation dominated by tall herbs; it is also found as a pioneer species on disturbed soils of montane road edges and river banks. Most populations have a large range due to clonal fragmentation of the rhizomes, which can grow to 40 cm; in summer leaves are continuously produced and senesce throughout the growing season (Scheidel and Bruelheide 2004). It can also be found established in woods and waste places, on waysides and shady riversides, occasionally forming large stands (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012), and in lowland and montane areas on wet rocks and subalpine areas (Tela Botanica 2013).

threats:
Major threats to this species are currently unknown. Herbivory by molluscs and insects damages leaves, and other herbivores such the larvae of Lepidoptera can cause biomass loss and damage to rhizomes (Scheidel and Bruelheide 2004).

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It is listed as Near Threatened in Hungary, where it is a protected species (Baričevič et al. 2004, Király 2007). In Norway it is classified as Near Threatened A2c;A3c;B1b(ii,iii,v)+B2b(ii,iii,v) (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is protected in the Midi-Pyrenees (Tela Botanica 2013). It is found in Natura 2000 sites in Germany (4), Italy (4), Poland (4), Hungary (4) and Romania (1) and two biogenetic reserves in Switzerland (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
White Butterbur is used as a medicinal and aromatic plant in Hungary (Baričevič et al. 2004). There is a lack of information on specific uses in traditional medicine.


range:
Petasites hybridus is native to temperate Asia and Europe. In Europe, it has become naturalised in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. It is also naturalised in the USA and is cultivated widely (Greuter 2006-2009; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

habitat:
A hairy, patch-forming, dioecious, rhizomatous, perennial herb often forming extensive colonies with mature leaves reaching up to 1 metre across. It is found in damp habitats, river and stream banks, roadsides, wet meadows, marshes, floodplains, damp open woodland growing on damp, fertile alluvial soils. It flowers from March to May (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in the national red lists of Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The leaves were once used for wrapping butter hence its common name Butterbur. It has been used since the Middle Ages. Butterbur contains the active terpene petasin which is 14 times more effective than papavarine. Ingestion of the rhizomes and its extracts are used to relieve migrain attacks. It is not toxic however does contain antihepatic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Rhaponticum scariosum is a rare plant restricted to the Alps in France, Switzerland, Italy and Slovenia. It is not considered to be of medicinal value and the there are no known significant threats. Further information on the number of individuals is required to determine its rarity. Given its known distribution (with an EOO far larger than 20,000 km²) and the lack of documented threats, it is classified as Least Concern in both Europe and the EU 27.

range:
Rhaponticum scariosum is endemic to the Alps in France, Switzerland, Italy and Slovenia (Greuter 2006-2009). It's EOO has not be precisely calculated, but is far larger than 20,000 km².

population:
This plant was described as abundant in the Ubaye Valley, France (Novaretti and Lemordant 1990), but has elsewhere been described as rare since the 1990s (Fornaciari and Consonni 1990).

habitat:
This is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant found in the Alps from 750-2,000 metres elevation, growing on stony slopes and subalpine and alpine meadows (Fornaciari and Consonni 1990).

threats:
There is no information on any current threats. It may be impacted by trampling by tourist activities in the Alps, but there is no information specific to this species.

conservationAction:
Several species of Rhaponticum are considered to be threatened (Hidalgo et al. 2006), but there is no information to suggest that this is the case with R. scariosum .

useAndTrade:
Rhaponticum scariosum was used in former times as substitute for Rheum palmatum for medicinal purposes, but it is not utilized any longer (Fritz and Saukel 2011). It is not considered to be of medicinal importance.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Endemic to a small region in Spain, La Manzanilla de Gredos Santolina oblongifolia occurs on only a few high altitude mountain ranges. This plant is widely collected for its medicinal properties and has suffered population declines (Palacios et al. 2010). It is considered to be sensitive to habitat alterations (Pardo de Santayana and Morales 2010), and wildfires and grazing are likely threats within its range. However, despite these threats it appears to remain abundant and has not suffered over-exploitation (Quave et al. 2012). Although it is considered Vulnerable in Extremadura, it is more widely distributed in Castilla and León, where its collection is regulated by law, though indiscriminate collection of this plant may still continue.


This species is close to qualifying for Vulnerable under criterion B, with an extent of occurrence estimated at 20,837 km² and continuing declines in population size due to collection from the wild (B1b(v)). However, it is not severely fragmented and is found at more then 10 threat-defined locations, and is not known to undergo extreme fluctuations. It is therefore listed as Near Threatened. More detailed information is required on the intensity of collection and the number of individuals in the wild, and populations should be monitored to ensure they remain stable. If collection pressure is sustainable, the species may be Least Concern. However, if additional field studies show that collection pressure is causing substantial declines, it may qualify for a higher category of threat.

range:
There are five species of Santolina, of which four, including Santolina oblongifolia, are endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and their distribution is restricted to the Iberio-Maghrebian area, Spain (Oltra et al. 1995, Pala-Paul et al . 2011). S. oblongifolia can be found in the rocky mountains of Ávila, Salamanca and Cáceres provinces and the Sierra de Guararrama (Anthos 2010, Pardo de Santayana and Morales 2010). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 20,837 km² (J.C. Morena Saiz pers. comm. 2013) and its known area of occupancy (AOO) is likely to be less than 2,600 km², though detailed occurrence data to estimate AOO is unavailable. Based on climatic predicted scenarios, the EOO is projected to increase in the near future (to 23,744 km² in 2020; J.C. Morena Saiz pers. comm. 2013), but as the population is currently declining it may not achieve this increase.

population:
This plant is widely collected for its medicinal properties, leading to population declines (Palacios et al. 2010). However, despite these declines it apparently remains abundant and has not suffered over-exploitation (Quave et al. 2012). Anecdotal information from hikers and wildlife enthusiasts indicate this species may be abundant in the Sierra de Gredos. Subpopulations are isolated by distances up to 96 km but genetic interchange and hybridization do occur (Vargas and Garcia 2008, Rivero-Guerra 2009).

habitat:
La Manzanilla de Gredos is a small evergreen shrub growing to 10-60 cm tall, found in rocky, sandy soils in disturbed broom scrubs from 800 to 2,300 metres elevation. It can be found in highly nitrophilic habitats such as roadsides, fallow land and large areas of moorland and shrub steppe. It is usually associated with Artemisia species such as A. herba-alba and A. campestris and is also frequently observed along relicts of wood fringes with Spanish Juniper ( Juniperus thurifera ), found in the barren and xeromorfic zones in the centre of the Peninsula and in the river Ebro depression (Vargas and Garcia 2008, Oltra et al . 1995). It also occupies sunny quarries at altitudes from 1,700 metres up, where it occurs with other species of Santolina such as Santolina rosmarinifolia (Chamomile).

threats:
Manzanilla de Gredos is widely collected for its medicinal properties, which has led to some declines in wild populations; wildfires and grazing are additional threats, while minor threats include competition with other plants, natural regeneration and pest infestations (Palacios et al. 2010). This species is considered to be sensitive to habitat alterations (Pardo de Santayana and Morales 2010).

conservationAction:
Though not included on any recent Spanish national red list, Santolina oblongifolia is listed as Vulnerable in the Regional Catalogue of Threatened Species of Extremadura (Palacios et al. 2010). In Castilla y León, where it is much more abundant, collection is regulated under the Catalog of the Protected Flora of Castilla y León (Anthos 2010; Palacios et al. 2010). Control of indiscriminate collection and trade of this plant for use in popular medicine is an important conservation requirement, as is the case with other medicinal plants collected directly from nature; control of grazing and wildfires is also recommended to ensure the species' protection (Palacios et al. 2010). It is unknown if this species is cultivated for its medicinal value.

useAndTrade:
The species is highly valued by humans for its sweet, mild flavour and is used as a digestive tonic, as a sedative, and for treating menstrual disorders and rheumatism (Pardo de Santayana and Morales 2010, López Sáez 2002, Silvan et al. 1996). The extract of flower tops and the essential oil contain coumarin which have anti-inflammatory properties (Silvan et al. 1996). This plant is also known to contain triterpenes and nerolidol derivatives (Teresa et al. 1985). Santolina species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species.

redListAssessors:
Peraza Zurita, M.D. and Moreno Saiz, J.C.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is widespread and common across Europe and the EU 27. It is not facing any significant threats, and is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Milk Thistle ( Silybum marianum ) is distributed throughout Europe. It is native to southern Europe and north Africa, and has naturalised in Australia, South America, North America and East Asia (Greuter 2006-2009). It is widespread throughout Spain, Portugal, France, UK, Italy and Bulgaria. It is known from one locality in Albania (Gjinpishë (Nemërçka Mt) Përmeti District) (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013). In Sweden and Norway, it is not resident, but rather is present as a result of seed imports (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

population:
Milk Thistle is a widespread and common species.

habitat:
This is an annual or biennial spiny herbaceous plant found spontaneously growing in many areas of the Mediterranean basin. The plant has been successfully cultivated due to its drought resistance (Carruba and La Torre 2003). It is found throughout Europe on rough pasture, on grassy banks, in hedgerows, waste ground and coastal habitats (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In regions where it has naturalised it is considered a weed of crops, pastures, roadsides and disturbed areas.

threats:
There are no significant threats to this species. In Croatia it has declined and is threatened by collection in the wild (Baričevič et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Milk Thistle has declined as a result of overcollection and is listed as Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), where it is legally protected and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09) (I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013). It is assessed as Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In North America and Australia it is under strict weed pest management control, and is also invasive in South America (Directorate of Culture and Cultural and Natural Heritage 2009). It is found in several Natura 2000 sites, and is likely to be found in protected areas, given its widespread distribution.

useAndTrade:
Silymarin derived from this plant has been used for centuries as a natural remedy for diseases of the liver and biliary tract, and is also an antioxidant (Flora et al . 1998). Milk Thistle is used in veterinary homeopathy as a tincture prepared by ethanolic extraction and dilution of the dried seeds, according to homeopathic pharmacopoeias, and is intended for use in all food-producing animals. It is also used in human homeopathy as a tincture in lower concentrations in phyto-therapy for oral treatment of toxic liver damage, and for supportive therapy in chronic inflammatory liver diseases and liver cirrhosis. The fruit is used as herbal tea (European Medicines Agency 1999). The extracts of the seeds, known as silibinin, contain the highest amount of silymarin but the whole plant is used medicinally (Karkanis et al . 2011). Herbal tinctures and powders are commonly available for purchase on the World Wide Web. This species is in large scale cultivation in Poland and Slovakia (Greuter 2006-2009), and in Austria where the production of more than 1900 ha covers a high proportion of the demand from the pharmaceutical industry in Europe. Two thirds of the products are exported for further extraction of the dried, pressed oil-free drug and the remainder is used as animal medicine, as a foodstuff for solving liver problems (Lipman 2009). The species is also bred in Romania (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Croatia, where it is protected species, six requests were made from 2005-2012 for collection of different parts of this plant; permits were granted for collection of 60 kg above-ground parts and 20 kg of its fruits and seeds, and reports show that at least 15 kg of above-ground parts were collected (I. Borsic pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution and no major threats.The overall European population trend is unknown, however, the extinction risk for this species is very low.

range:
Solidago virgaurea is native to North Africa, temperate and tropical Asia and Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Populations thought to be decreasing in some countries (it is scarce in England) however it is found all over Europe. Trends for Europe as a whole are unknown.

habitat:
A perennial herb found in dry places on calcareous or acid soils occurring in lowland habitats such as woods, heaths, hedgebanks, coastal cliff tops and montane or upland habitats such as cliff ledges, rocks, by waterfalls in tall herb communities in gullies and montane grass heath (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It is used as a traditional herbal medicinal product to increase the amount of urine - as adjuvant in treatment of minor urinary complaints. The dried flowering or aerial parts are used in herbal preparations from the comminuted herbal substance, liquid or dry extract and tincture in solid or liquid dosage forms or herbal tea for oral use. The herbal substance is only available in combination products. European goldenrod contains miscellaneous flavonoids, triterpene saponins and small amounts of essential oil (European Medicines Agency 2008a,b). The saponins are antifungal and act specifically against the Candida fungus which is the cause of vaginal and oral thrush. It also contains rutin which is used to treat capillary fragility and phenolic glycosides which are anti-inflammatory. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant. It is used in the treatment of kidney and bladder disorders, rheumatism and arthritis (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species has a restricted native wild range in Croatia along the eastern Adriatic coastal mountains and islands (M. Grdiša pers. comm. 2014), but has locally naturalised across southern Europe and Russia. It has been widely cultivated and used in the production of insecticides. The status of the native wild population is abundant in Croatia. As it is in widespread cultivation the threat to the wild population is inferred to be insignificant,and the species is considered Least Concern at present, however further data on possible native range contractions is needed, and the species should be reassessed if this becomes available.

range:
The native range of the species is considered restricted to the eastern Adriatic coastal mountains and islands in Croatia (Grdiša et al. 2013). Domestication and cultivation of the species elsewhere along the along the Dalmatian coast and in neighboring countries began around 1854 (Grdiša et al. 2013). In Croatia, it is found in southern parts of the Istria Peninsula, the Kvarner Islands (Krk, Cres, Lošinj), the Velebit and Biokovo mountains, and along the Dalmatian coastal region and its islands (Brač, Hvar, Biševo, Vis, Korčula, Lastovo, Mljet) (Ambrožič-Dolinšek et al. 2007, Grdiša et al. 2009, 2013). The species has naturalised in Cyprus and locally in other parts of eastern, central, southwestern and southeastern Europe and in European Russia (Greuter 2006-2009, Ambrožič-Dolinšek et al. 2007, Grdiša et al. 2009, 2013), and has been cultivated widely globally.

population:
Abundant wild populations of the species can be found in Croatia (Ambrožič-Dolinšek et al. 2007, Grdiša et al. 2009, 2013).

habitat:
The species is a perennial herb found on rocky ground and Mediterranean dry grasslands (Grdiša et al. 2009).

threats:
The species is impacted by collection in the wild in some localities, however not considered a major threat as most production from cultivated sources.

conservationAction:
The species has been assessed as Endangered in Albania (Vangjeli et al. 1995), and as Vulnerable in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Šilić 1996).

useAndTrade:
The flower buds contain six monoterpene esters, being known as “pyrethrins” which are considered to be the safest insecticides for use around foodstuffs, for storage in the dark, indoor sprays, for use on organic farms. Pyrethrin is mainly concentrated in the system of secretory channels inside achene wall and in oil glands on the surface of the seed inside the tightly packed flower head, but they can also be found in the other plant parts but lower concentrations (Ambrožič-Dolinšek et al. 2007). The dried and grounded flowers have been traditionally used in Croatian agriculture as a remedy against fleas and lice and burned to repel flying insects such as mosquitoes. It is not commonly used for medicinal purposes, but use in homeopathy (Unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. com. 25.11.2013). According to the Article 16(3) (c) of European Union Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 on Organic Production and Labeling of Organic Products, use of pyrethrin extracts as a plant protection products is permitted in organic farming as they are considered to be biodegradable and is cultivated and is also used widely in agriculture, horticulture, store products and household goods (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, Plants for a Future 2012, Grdiša et al. 2009). It has been cultivated since the 19th Century within its native range, and since the start of the 20th Century it was cultivated on more than 2,000 ha of coastal regions of the Adriatic in Dalmatia and the islands. Production spread to Japan, Kenya, and India. Current production areas of pyrethrum include East Africa (Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania), Tasmania, China, and Papua New Guinea (Ambrožič-Dolinšek et al. 2007, Grdiša et al. 2009, 2013). Use in homeopathy and in phytomedicinal products has been reported, but applications are not known (Unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. com. 25.11.2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium is an important medicinal and aromatic plant, and is common in the wild and cultivated for its use. It has naturalised over most of Europe; although its native distribution is much smaller than its naturalised distribution, it is still relatively large; furthermore, there are no significant threats to this species and the population is believed to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern in both Europe and the EU 27.

range:
Feverfew ( Tanacetum parthenium ) is native to parts of Europe, the eastern countries of the Adriatic Sea and the Middle East, and has naturalised throughout Europe and north Africa. It is known to be invasive in some countries outside its native range such as North and South America (Greuter 2006-2009).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. The population is inferred to be stable; however, there may be local declines as a result of exploitation.

habitat:
Feverfew is an aromatic perennial herb commonly cultivated as an ornamental plant, which has become naturalised in gardens, walls, waysides, tips and waste ground (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is widespread and fairly abundant throughout its naturalised range in Western Europe.

threats:
This plant is collected in the wild, though this is more common in certain areas (e.g., Spain) than others.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The herb has a long history of use in traditional and folk medicine, especially among Greek and early European herbalists, and has multiple pharmacologic properties such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, cardiotonic, and antispasmodic. The essential oil is used in traditional herbal medicine (Article 16d(1) of Directive 2001/83/EC) in the form of a powdered substance or herbal preparation in solid dosage forms for oral use for prophylaxis of migraine headaches after serious conditions have been excluded by a medical doctor (European Medicines Agency 2010). It is also used for treatment of fevers, rheumatoid arthritis, stomach aches, toothaches, insect bites, infertility, and menstruation problems. The plant is widely cultivated throughout large regions of the world and its importance as a medicinal plant is growing substantially, with increasing and stronger reports in support of its multiple therapeutic uses (Pareek et al. 2011). Parthenolide is present in the leaves and flower heads, but not in the stems. In Spain it is more widely available and is used as a substitute for other Chamomile species (Akerreta et al. 2007). Microcolonal propagation and biotechnological conservation methods have been developed for this species (Baričevič et al. 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of this species is complex and not yet fully resolved. In the Global Compositae Checklist (Flann 2013) and Euro+Med Plantbase (Greuter 2006-2009), this species is treated as a synonym of Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund, but it is an accepted species on The Plant List (2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The Common Dandelion Taraxacum officinale is a very widespread species with no habitat limitations and no significant threats. It is widely utilised as an edible and medicinal plant. In some countries it is invasive, and is controlled as a persistent weed in many areas. This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Native to Eurasia, the Common Dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale ) has a wide distribution throughout Europe. It has become introduced as a common weed and is now naturalised in many parts of the world, including North America, South America, and Australia (RBG Kew 2012).

population:
This is a common species throughout its distribution.

habitat:
The Common Dandelion is generally regarded as a weed. It is found in a variety of habitats but is most commonly found on disturbed places such as lawns, paths, on waste ground, pastures and road verges. It also grows in natural or semi-natural habitats such as fens, sand dunes and chalk grasslands (RBG Kew 2012).

threats:
There are no significant threats to this species. It is widely controlled as a weed.

conservationAction:
The Common Dandelion is listed as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). It is not threatened in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). In Montenegro it is listed as a protected plant under the Official Gazette SRCG, No. 36/82 (Baričevič et al. 2004).

useAndTrade:
Although generally regarded as a weed, dandelions have many uses, both culinary and medicinal. The young leaves and inflorescences of cultivated and wild plants are eaten in salads and stir-fries, and used to make herbal tea. Dandelion inflorescences, leaves and roots are processed into different food products, including wine and a coffee substitute. The extracts are used to flavour beverages. Medicinally it is administered as an herbal preparation using the dried leaves, liquid extract or expressed juice from fresh leaves, collected before flowering. Dandelion herb consists of the fresh or dried above-ground parts of Taraxacum officinale according to German Commission E. It is used to treat rheumatism and renal problems. The roots are used as a diuretic (European Medicines Agency 2009). In Croatia permission was granted in 1991 for this species to be collected in the wild. In Italy it is cited in the Royal Decree no. 772 of 1932 allowing 5 kg of roots to be harvested, and in Friuli-Venezia Giulia its harvest is regulated to a maximum of 1 kg per person per day of fresh aerial parts. In Latvia and Poland the plant is regularly collected only from the wild. In Spain it is also collected from the wild but without any associated conservation problems. There is sufficient amount of raw material for commercial use of this medicinal and aromatic plant. In Serbia the approximate amounts collected in 1999 was 4802 kg with permission and 852 kg without permission (Baričevič et al. 2004). Countries which have licensed products containing Dandelion include Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands, Sweden and the UK (European Medicines Agency 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Tussilago farfara is native to North Africa, temperate and tropical Asia and Europe. It has become naturalised in Iceland, Australasia and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Very common species with a large population often regarded as a weed.

habitat:
A creeping, rhizomatous, perennial herb found in damp habitats particularly on calcareous clay soils, embankments, hedgebanks, arable fields, sand dunes, shingle, hillside flushes, soil heaps, rough grassland, river banks, woodland margins and roadsides. It flowers from February to April. It is a pioneer species of disturbed habitats but can also be a problematic arable weed (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

threats:
A common species with no known threats. It is vulnerable to grazing, mowing and trampling, however this does not currently seem to be affecting species numbers.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Traditionally used as a herbal medicine, however it has been discovered to be toxic and carcinogenic as chemical studies on the dried, young flowers contain senkirkine, a hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloid resulting in liver concerns (Hirono et al . 1976, European Medicines Agency 2011). The leaves have been used medicinally for chest complaints in the form of a herbal tea or decoction (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Armoracia macrocarpa (Waldst. & Kit.) Baumg. is a wild relative of horseradish, A. rusticana P. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Armoracia macrocarpa is recorded in several countries as rare or very rare and is nationally threatened or Near Threatened throughout its range. There has been a decrease in the number of known localities and its distribution is severely fragmented. It is naturally vulnerable due to habitat specialization and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat—a trend which is expected to continue. However, further research is needed to determine the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), and size and trend of the global population in order to evaluate this species against the Red List criteria. It is therefore currently assessed as Data Deficient.


It is reported to occur within three Natura 2000 sites; population monitoring and management at these sites is an urgent priority, as is collection and ex situ storage of germplasm from all subpopulations.

range:
A. macrocarpa is native to the central Danube basin (Tutin et al . 1964). According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), it is native to Croatia, Former Czechoslovakia, Former Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia. It is a Pannonian endemic. In Slovakia, this species is restricted to the Východoslovenská nížina Lowland in the southeast of the country. The number of localities was recorded as c. 20 by Michalková and Marhold (2002); however, only two localities are now known (Balla pers. comm. 2010). In Hungary it occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Mátra margins), Great Hungarian Plain (Danube region, Danube-Tisza köze region and Tiszántúl region) and South Transdanubia (Somogy and Szekszárd). It has a fragmented distribution, especially in northeastern parts of the country (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). In Serbia it has a scattered distribution in Vojvodina and in the north of the country. It is extinct from a few localities in the surroundings of Belgrade (former Makiš wetland) and Požarevac. In addition, the species has not been rediscovered since the second half of the last century in Fruška Gora and Deliblatska sands. Additional field investigations are needed as its distribution in Serbia is not well known. In Romania it is only found at one locality in the southwest.

population:
In Slovakia it is very rare, while in Hungary and Romania it is described as rare. In Serbia it is very rare and endangered and has gone extinct from the majority of the known localities; however, there has been no estimation of the population size in the past several decades. The population is probably decreasing but there is insufficient knowledge of the entire population to substantiate this.

habitat:
In Hungary it grows in reeds ( Scirpo-Phragmitetum austro-orientale ), wet meadows ( Phalaridetum arundinaceae ) and salt meadows ( Agrosti (o) - Alopecuretum pratensis ) and favours alkaline soils, salt tolerant, wet or water covered adherent loam-, clay-, salt soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). In Romania it grows in wet pastures and in seasonally flooded pastures in the wet period. The maximum altitude in Romania is 100 m asl. There is no detailed information on the specific habitat of this species in Serbia except that it grows in wet meadows.

threats:
A. macrocarpa is a naturally rare species due to its specialized habitat preference, which makes it more vulnerable to threats. Drainage of wet meadows to grow crops could be playing a major role in the decline of the population. In addition, the transformation of salt marshes into fish ponds across the Pannonian plain could have a negative impact. In Slovakia it is threatened by a decrease in suitable habitat due to abandonment of livestock grazing on pastures leading to secondary succession, while in Romania, wet pastures are naturally flooded by the River Danube which can be polluted, affecting the species' habitat.

conservationAction:
The genus Armoracia is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex and A. macrocarpa is listed in Annex I of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats (Bern Convention). Its national threat and conservation status has been recorded as follows:  Slovakia: Endangered (EN) (Michalková and Marhold 2002).   Hungary:  Near threatened (NT) (Király 2007)  . It is protected according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant and animal species and the Government decree on the Natura 2000 sites for the restoration of natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of protected species. Croatia: Near Threatened (NT) (Nikolić and Topić 2005). Romania: Endangered (EN) (Dihoru and Negrean 2009). It is conserved ex situ in botanical gardens.   Serbia (Stevanović pers. comm. 2010) : It is very rare and extinct from the majority of known localities. It has been estimated as Endangered (EN) (Stevanović 2000) but it is now thought that it could be Critically Endangered (CR) because it has not been found since the second half of the last century at localities cited in literature. New field investigations are needed for re-evaluation. It occurs in the following Natura 2000 sites (European Environment Agency 2010):  Kesznyéten (Hungary). Munţii Maramureşului and Porţile de Fier (Romania). Kalimok - Brashlen (Bulgaria). EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of A. macrocarpa held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage is a priority for this species.

useAndTrade:
A. macrocarpa is a wild relative of and potential gene donor to horseradish, A. rusticana .

redListAssessors:
Eliáš, P., Vörösváry, G., Stevanović, V., and Strajeru, S.


taxonomicNotes:
Brassica oleracea L. is a wild relative of a number of crops in the brassica group; including broccoli, B . oleracea L. var. italica Plenck, Brussels sprout, B . oleracea L. var. gemmifera (DC.) Zenker, cabbage, B . oleracea var. capitata L., cauliflower, B . oleracea var. botrytis L., kale, B . oleracea var. viridis L., swede, B . napus L. var. napobrassica (L.) Rchb., turnip, B . rapa L. ssp. rapa , and oilseed rape, B . napus L. var. napus . Two subspecies are native to Europe: B. oleracea ssp. bourgeaui (Webb) Gladis & K. Hammer and B. oleracea L. ssp. oleracea (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). B. oleracea ssp. bourgeaui is recognized at specific level as B. bourgeaui (Webb) O. Kuntze in some taxonomic treatments.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Brassica oleracea is assessed as Data Deficient as there is currently insufficient information available to evaluate this species. Information about its precise range and current population size and trend is needed in order to make an informed decision.

range:
B. oleracea is native to northern, middle and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) where it occurs along the coasts of the United Kingdom, Schleswig-Holstein in Germany, the west and north coasts of France and the north coast of Spain. B. oleracea ssp. oleracea grows on the coasts of northern Spain, western and northern France, the British Isles and Helgoland; however, many occurrences have been regarded by various authors as introductions (Snogerup et al. 1990). B. oleracea ssp. bourgeaui is endemic to the Canary Islands, where Izquierdo et al . (2004) record it as occurring on Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera and Tenerife. However, Snogerup et al . (1990) noted that the taxon (which they refer to as B . bourgeaui ) probably only exists as a single small population on La Palma. In Germany, this species is only found at one locality, while in France, it occurs in 12 departments in the north, northeast and northwest and 30 departments in the southern half of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It has a patchy distribution throughout England, Wales and parts of Scotland, and has only be recorded in 10 localities in Northern Ireland (Preston et al . 2002). However, according to same authors, it is only native in a few localities in the west and on the south coast (mainly Cornwall and Wales), five localities in the northeast and eight localities in Scotland—the rest of the occurrences are considered to be alien.

population:
Snogerup et al . (1990) recorded subpopulation sizes of B. oleracea ssp. oleracea ranging from 1–10 to &gt;1000 plants. In Germany, the taxon is only known from one locality and this subpopulation is decreasing. B. oleracea ssp. bourgeaui probably only occurs as a single small population on La Palma (Snogerup et al . 1990).

habitat:
B. oleracea ssp. oleracea usually grows on limestone and chalk cliffs (as well as sometimes below cliffs among shrubs), in scree, and sometimes on steep, grassy slopes (Snogerup et al . 1990). The same authors note that In Helgoland, it grows in open, rocky places. It is also known to occur in maritime grassland, inland quarries, waste places and on roadsides (Preston et al . 2002). B. oleracea ssp. bourgeaui grows on cliffs and rocks in shady places of the barrancos (Snogerup et al . 1990).

threats:
In Germany, intensive sheep grazing has caused a severe decline in the subpopulation of B. oleracea ssp. oleracea . Snogerup et al . (1990) note that some localities are threatened by quarrying and introgression from cultivated forms.

conservationAction:
The genus Brassica is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. In Germany, the locality in which this species occurs is protected under national law. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the regional Red List for north of country (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). In France, it is protected in the regions of Basse-Normandie and Poitou-Charentes in the west of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). EURISCO reports 8,007 germplasm accessions of B. oleracea held in European genebanks, 252 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 163 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
A wild relative of and potential gene donor to a number of crops in the brassica group; including broccoli, Brussels sprout, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, swede, turnip and oilseed rape .

redListAssessors:
Strajeru, S., Holubec, V., Vörösváry, G., Uzundzhalieva, K., Donnini, D., and Bulińska, Z.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. It is known as a common cosmopolitan weed with an almost global distribution and is not considered to be threatened in Europe.

range:
Capsella bursa-pastoris is native to North Africa and Macaronesia, temperate Asia and Europe. Its naturalised range extends throughout Africa, India, Australasia, North America (including Greenland and Hawaii), the Caribbean and South America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Shepherd's-purse is a common or abundant species with a large population and often considered a weed. It has a very long lived seed bank (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is frequent throughout the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands but less frequent in the north (Castroviejo et al. 1993).

habitat:
An annual plant capable of germinating throughout the year, sometimes overwintering, highly successful growing as a weed on disturbed and nutrient rich habitats, cultivated land amongst broad leaved crops, bare places, waysides, embankments, waste ground, gardens (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1993).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed.The subspecies thracica is considered to be Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is listed as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The internal use of the above ground parts of Capsella bursa-pastoris for the symptomatic treatment of mild hypermenorrhea or uterine bleeding are approved by Commission E. Topical application for nosebleeds is also approved. This plant contains glucosinolates, flavanoids and caffeic acid derivatives (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, the French Pharmacopoeia and the Complete German Commission E describe the herbal substance Capsella herba as the fresh or dried aerial or above ground parts. The herbs and their decoctums and tinctures contain many essential elements in high concentrations. It can be used in combination with other herbs in teas for symptoms in cardiovascular conditions and in health products to help regulate menstruation. An infusion of Capsella is cooling, diuretic and astringent and therefore beneficial in all kinds of blood and bladder problems. It is used in European traditional medicine for preventing or arresting haemorrhage, more specifically to treat dysmenorrhoea as a comminuted herbal substance from the liquid extract or as a herbal tea and herbal preparations in liquid dosage forms for oral use. It is also useful for monitoring pollution levels in urban areas (European Medicines Agency 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is found along the coasts of northern Europe and is classified as Least Concern at European level as it is not considered threatened in Denmark, Norway, and the United Kingdom which host a considerable amount of the European populations.

range:
The species is found mainly along the coasts of northern Europe. It has only been reported once from Spain, a century ago (Castroviejo et al. 1993). It is not clear whether the species is endemic to Europe.

population:
There is no information on population trend or size available.

habitat:
The biennial or perennial herb grows in moist, open, coastal and montane habitat, in stony and sandy substrate. It can be found in waste ground and prefers saline soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Info Flora 1994-2012, Castroviejo et al. 1993).

conservationAction:
Cochlearia officinalis is listed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and as Rare on the national Red List of Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006). It is considered Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is possibly threatened in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012).

useAndTrade:
The leaves of this species are edible but not commonly used. They have a high content of Vitamin C and it was eaten by sailors in the past to prevent scurvy. Further applications included loss of appetite, liver and gall bladder complaints, urinary tract infections and rheumatism. It's cultivation started to decrease in the 19th century. Nowadays it is still used in homeopathy to treat eye infections and stomach problems (Hanelt et al. 2001, Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
Lepidium cartilagineum (J.C. Mayer) Thell. is a wild relative of brassica crops and garden cress, L. sativum L. Three subspecies are native to Europe: L. cartilagineum (J.C.Mayer) Thell. ssp. cartilagineum , L. cartilagineum ssp. crassifolium (Waldst. & Kit.) Thell. and L. cartilagineum ssp. pumilum (Boiss. & Balansa) Hedge.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Lepidium cartilagineum is regionally assessed as Data Deficient as there is currently insufficient information available to evaluate this species. Information about its precise distribution, population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its in situ conservation status.

range:
L. cartilagineum is native to central and eastern Europe, as well as to the Russian Federation, Turkey and the Middle East (Marhold 2011). Although it is recorded by Marhold (2011) as native to Germany, according to R. Vögel (pers. comm. 2010), the taxon does not occur there. In Hungary, it occurs on the Great Hungarian Plain (Little Alföld region, Danube-Tisza köze region, Danube region, Tiszántúl region: rare) (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.

population:
Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.

habitat:
This species grows in saline areas (Tutin et al . 1964). In Hungary, it grows in Solontsak meadows ( Puccinellion peisonis ) and Artemisia salt steppes in calcareous, salt-enriched soils, loose, wet salt, and sandy soils (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).

threats:
Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.

conservationAction:
The genus Lepidium is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. In Hungary this species is not protected (Király 2007) . EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of L. cartilagineum held in European genebanks; however, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage is a priority for this species.

useAndTrade:
A wild relative of and potential gene donor to brassica crops and garden cress, L. sativum .


range:
Nasturtium officinale is native to Europe, the Middle East, Caucasus, Kazakhstan and the Himalayas. It has been introduced to much of Africa, parts of the Middle East, China, Japan, the Indian Sub-continent, South-east Asia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, North America, Mexico and South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.

population:
Nasturtium officinale is classed as Extinct or probably Extinct in Estonia, Endangered in Austria and in Sweden, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.

habitat:
Nasturtium officinale will grow in a very wide variety of habitats, from the margins of rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals, to flushes, seasonally inundated hollows in pasture, cattle drinking areas and even highly enriched farm outflows.

conservationAction:
Nasturtium officinale is classed as Extinct or probably Extinct in Estonia, Endangered in Austria and in Sweden (B2ab(iii)), otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
The commercially grown watercress is usually R. × sterilis , but it is possible that Nasturtium officinale may be locally grown or harvested.


range:
Sisymbrium officinale is native to northern Africa, temperate Asia, the Indian subcontinent and Europe, except the far north. Its naturalised range extends throughout Africa, North America (and Hawaii), Australasia, the Caribbean and South America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
A common species throughout Europe and a widespread weed in many parts of the world (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

habitat:
An annual or biennial, often an overwintering annual found in disturbed habitats, waste places, roadsides, hedgerows and is frequent on arable and cultivated land and rare in natural habitats such as river banks. It prefers dry, neutral and basic soils and flowers from May to September (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 1993).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The shoots and leaves are edible and used in salads or as a potherb. The seeds can also be eaten raw or cooked. A strong infusion of the whole fresh plant has been used in the treatment of throat complaints as the dried plant is almost inactive (Plants for a Future 2012, Dogan et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is assigned to a threatened category in some parts of its range in Europe. However, the extent of occurrence (EOO) greatly exceeds the value for a threatened category under criterion B. Although the distribution is patchy, it occurs over a range of habitats and altitudes and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds the values needed for a threatened category under this criterion. Although populations may be small in some countries, the population over the whole range is inferred to be larger than the values needed for a threatened category under criteria C and D.


However, the species has undoubtedly suffered from declines. Specific data are lacking, but if habitat declines and population declines are correlated inferences can be made from habitat data. The Baltic coastal meadows are a habitat for this species and there are some numerical data relating to declines as result of lack of management here. In Estonia, of the managed coastal meadows only 9,500 ha remained in use by 1981 and by 2000 the area of managed coastal meadows had decreased to 5,100 ha (Rannap et al. 2004). This 46% decline over 20 years equates to an average of 28% over ten years. This habitat is suspected to be a reasonable reflection of some of the more severe declines that may have occurred. From this it is inferred that overall declines, even at most, have not exceeded the 30% over ten years threshold which would trigger the consideration of criterion A. Other habitats may be under less pressure, for example on river banks in northern Finland, and it is also found within protected areas where declines are suspected to be minimised. It is assessed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU27. However, surveys and monitoring are recommended to detect and enumerate declines.

range:
This species is recorded from Europe and temperate Asia to Siberia, Mongolia and China (USDA 2012). It is found in much of Europe except parts of the northwest and southwest (Anderberg 1998, RBG Edinburgh 1998, Dietl and Jorquera 2012).

population:
Little information is available in relation to the population status of this species. This species has a widespread but uneven distribution, with higher sub-population densities in some areas than others. It is thought possibly extinct in the Netherlands (Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt 2013). In southern Sweden the species has declined and disappeared from many locations (Anderberg 1998) and it has also declined in Poland. It is noted to be still relatively frequent, on fairly stable sand dunes, in eastern Finnmark, Norway ( Ødegaard et al. 2014).

habitat:
This species occurs in montane areas in alpine meadows in acidic and nutrient poor soils, for example in Austria and Germany (Deitl and Jorquera 2012). It occurs in moor grasslands and forest edges in Poland (Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt 2013) and woods and meadows in the east of France (Tela Botanica 2012). It is found in Baltic coastal meadow habitats in Denmark, Sweden, Estonia and Finland (Estonian Environmental Board 2011). In Finland it is also noted to occur on sandy and gravelly river banks, rocky embankments, dry commons and roadsides and there is noted to be a variant in northern Karelia that thrives on alkali serpentine substrate (Lehmuskallio 2014). It grows on fairly stable sand dunes in northern Norway ( Ødegaard et al. 2014). "" lang="en"> "" lang="en"> "" lang="en"> "" lang="en"> "" lang="en"> "" lang="en">This species is known to grow, in the south of its range, in grassy clearings in Greece (Lafranchis and Sfikar 2009). The flower is fragrant, particularly at night and is believed to be pollinated by moths (Erhardt 1991).

threats:
Populations of this species are known to be impacted by changes in meadow management. For example, it has been affected by replacement of meadows with forest, due to successional processes following lack of management, such as reduced grazing or mowing regimes. It has also suffered from replacement of meadows with arable areas due to the intensification of agriculture (Jermaczek-Sitak 2009). Wet meadows, a habitat for this species, belong to some of the most threatened communities in Central Europe (Myśliwy and Bosiacka 2012). They are affected by abandonment, eutrophication, drainage and habitat fragmentation (Tájek 2012). Improvement measures in Baltic coastal meadows, a habitat for this species, damaged the natural water regime and balance and they dried up or became overgrown with reed. A decline in grazing also caused these meadows to become overgrown with high vegetation and scrub (Rannap et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
It considered to be Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Endangered in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Vulnerable in Sweden and Poland, near Threatened in Hungary and rare in Denmark (Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt 2013, Tamm 2012). This species is considered a protected plant in the Klodzka valley, Poland (Kryszak et al. 2012) and it is forbidden to destroy any wild specimens present on the national territory in France (Tela Botanica 2012). It is also protected in Finland south from the province of Oulu and the variant growing on serpentine in Kaavi is Critically Endangered (Lehmuskallio 2014). In Norway the species status has been reduced from Near Threatened (2006) to Least Concern (2010; Artsdatabanken 2010). The species occurs in Natura 2000 sites in Germany, France, Italy, Hungary, Romania and Poland (EUNIS 2010). It is grown in many botanic gardens (BCGI 2013) and seeds are stored, for example, at The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in the United kingdom (ENSCO 2014). In Estonia restoration efforts have been made for this species and 2,400 seedlings, grown in greenhouses, were transplanted to a site which is under going monitoring to evaluate its success (Tamm 2012).

useAndTrade:
This is a very popular garden plant with many cultivars and hybrids. The leaves and stems can be boiled and eaten. It has long been used medicinally in China for a variety of purposes, often in combinations with other species. Its uses include treatments for constipation, urinary problems, fever, blood pressure, bacterial infections and as a contraceptive (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


In the EU27 area, records for this species, as a native, were only found from Bulgaria and Romania near the Black Sea coast. In Bulgaria the extent of occurrence (EOO) is reported to be less than 1,000 km2 and the area of occupancy (AOO) less than 10 km2. Sub-populations are said to be small at several sites, but sub-populations in the area of Varnensko Lake and south of Zelenka Cape are more numerous (more than 500 individuals). From this it is inferred that the population even in the EU27 exceeds the value needed for a threatened category under criterion D. It is considered Endangered in Bulgaria under criterion B, with a continuing decline in AOO, area, extent and quality of habitat and number of locations or sub-populations cited. It is considered to be vulnerable in Romania. When records for both countries are mapped the estimated EOO is 37,000 km2 which exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. However, it is suspected that the AOO is less than 2,000 km2. The number of locations exceeds ten and, as a perennial herb, it is not thought to be subject to extreme fluctuations.

Sub-populations occur mainly in a narrow coastal area along the Black Sea, but they are suspected not to be severely fragmented, particularly as this species is noted to be able to colonize railway lines which may provide connectivity between areas.


This species is also recorded from several protected areas where, if correctly managed, threats should be minimized. However populations may still decline as this could be considered an edge of range satellite population ;and subject to demographic stochasticity (Hanski 1982). On this basis it is assessed as Near Threatened within the EU27 as it is suspected to satisfy the criterion B2 but only one of the sub-criteria (b). In Europe (outside the EU27) it is noted to occur in communities around the Sea of Azov, the lower Don, lower Volga and Trans-Volga areas. This further increases the EOO and population numbers, and possibly connectivity to further populations to the east. However, it is inferred to be subject to similar declines and may have a similarly small AOO. It is suspected that the total AOO may not exceed, or may be close to, 2,000 km2. It is assessed as Near Threatened. However, further surveys are needed to confirm the current AOO and monitoring is necessary to detect and enumerate declines.

range:
The species is native to the European part of the Black Sea and extends eastwards into temperate Asia as far east as China and Siberia (USDA 2012, Marhold 2011). The Flora of Russia (Komarov 1970) records it as present in the Black Sea, Lower Don (Sea of Azov) and Lower Volga areas. It is recorded as native in Bulgaria and Romania in the Black Sea coastal areas. It has been unintentionally introduced into other areas, for example, it was first recorded along railways in Latvia in 1961 (NOBANIS 2009).

population:
In Bulgaria sub-populations are reported to be generally small with data from 11–13 localities. Sub-populations near Varnensko lake and south of Zelenka Cape are more numerous with more than 500 individuals. The sub-populations at Atanasovsko Lake and Poda locality near Burgas number about 100 plants (Petrova 2014). No information is available for population numbers in the Ukraine, Romania or Russian Federation.

habitat:
This is a perennial herb with stems prostrate at the base and growing up to 40-100 cm in height. It is found in arable areas, grassland and steppe on alkaline, sandy and saline soils, in dry and mesophytic conditions. On the Black Sea coast it grows on damp clay and sandy, often salty soils and sometimes amongst coastal rocks. It also grows in man-made habitats, such as on the gravel between rail tracks at some railway stations (Petrova 2014). It flowers from July to October and it is noted to be pollinated by insects, particularly bees (Kozuharova and Gogala 2010).

threats:
Threats to this species in Bulgaria include developments in infrastructure, tourist developments and hydrological changes. Flowers are also picked for sale in the Varna town area (Petrova 2014). Tourist development is also a threat to its sandy coastal habitat in the Crimean peninsula (Drescher et al. 2007). In the Ukraine up to 88% of the steppe has been converted to agricultural use (Goriup 1998), which may have caused a loss of habitat, although this species is known to occur in arable areas and grasslands.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in three Natura 2000 sites in Bulgaria (Pomerie, Besaparski Vazvishenia and Aheloy-Ravda-Nesebar; EUNIS 2010). Most of its localities in Bulgaria are in protected areas, such as the Kaliakra Strict Nature Reserve, Atanasovsko Ezero Strict Nature Reserve, Pomoriiski Solnitsi and Poda Protected Sites (Petrova 2014). It is also listed as a species of the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve in Romania, in which country it is considered to be Vulnerable (Doroftei et al. 2011). It is a protected species in Bulgaria and considered to be Endangered (B1ab(ii,iii,iv)+2ab(iv)). Conservation measures recommended include enforcement of regulations for protected areas and prevention of wild collecting and also raising awareness of the threatened status of this species with flower traders and developers (Petrova 2014). Surveys and monitoring are needed, particularly in areas under threat. Seed has been collected and stored, for example in Cordoba, Spain (ENSCO 2014) and it is reported to be grown in eleven botanic gardens (BGCI 2013). It is reported to have a very good adaptability to cultivation (Baričevič 2002).

useAndTrade:
This plant contains chemical compounds such as saponins, alkaloids, phenol carboxylic acids and flavonoids (Rahman 2002, Healing Herbs 2007). Powder derived from the the roots is used for wound healing. Formulations from the stems, flowers and fruits are reported to have a bactericidal effect (Healing Herbs 2007). It is also utilized as a cut flower.


range:
Saponaria officinalis is native to temperate Asia, central and southeastern Europe and a large part of the Iberian Peninsula though becoming rarer in the southeast parts. It has become naturalised in Macaronesia, Australasia, northern Europe, North America and parts of South America. It is also cultivated widely for ornamental purposes (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1990).

population:
It is generally common throughout its native range becoming rarer in the north (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

habitat:
A hairless perennial found in hedgebanks, open woodland, streambanks and on the edges of water courses, roadsides and waste places. It grows in moist sandy soils often close to habitation and is widely cultivated in gardens . It flowers from June to September (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is classified as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It is most commonly used for washing clothes and shampoo as the leaves produce a lather when rubbed in water. Soapwort has long been used in the European countryside as a soap substitute often in combination with powdered or extract of chamomile for shampoos. It is cultivated widely for ornamental purposes. This species contains the active compound Githagenin which is a potential hazard to livestock. Soapwort is described to have a purifying effect by inducing sweats. A decoction of the roots in combination with other herbs is used widely as a poultice to remove discoloration around black or bruised eyes. It has expectorant properties to stimulate the cough reflex and increase the production of a more fluid mucus within the respiratory passages. A decoction of the whole plant can be applied externally to treat itchy skin. The plant has proved of use in the treatment of jaundice and other visceral obstructions, but is rarely used internally in modern herbalism due to its irritant effect on the digestive system. The root is harvested in the spring and can be dried for later use (Castroviejo et al. 1990, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread and almost global distribution, persistent populations and no major threats.

range:
Stellaria media is native to northern Africa, temperate and tropical Asia and Europe. It has become naturalised throughout Africa, Australasia, North and South America giving it an almost global distribution (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
This is an extremely widespread and common species throughout its native and naturalised range.

habitat:
Stellaria media is an annual or short lived perennial herb found on a wide range of disturbed habitats and close to habitation such as cultivated land, farmyards, roadverges, bare and waste ground, rubbish tips, manure heaps, sewage works, walls and beaches, coastal strands and rocks especially on shingle or ground which has been nutrient enriched. It is known as a persistent weed as it has become resistant to many herbicides, and is fast growing, self-pollinating and flowers throughout the year for long periods, up to 3 generations per year (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al. 1990).

useAndTrade:
It is used in the form of a cream as phytotherapeutic remedy for relief from itching and scratching especially of dry skin associated with a change of climate from wet to dry but tinctures may have a more lasting relief (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Externally, chickweed relieves itching and inflammation and is generally soothing and moisturising. This common plant has yet to be thoroughly scientifically studied. An infusion of the fresh or dried herb can be added to the bath water and its emollient property helps to reduce inflammation and encourage tissue repair. A decoction is also used externally for rheumatic pains, wounds and ulcers whilst the expressed juice of the plant has been used as an eyewash (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Beta vulgaris L. contains two subspecies: B . vulgaris ssp. vulgaris and B . vulgaris ssp. maritima (L.) Arcang; however, B . vulgaris ssp. vulgaris is only cultivated or naturalized; therefore, this assessment only relates to the wild form, B . vulgaris ssp. maritima , which is the ancestor of cultivated leaf beet ( B . vulgari s ssp. vulgaris Leaf Beet Group, also known as Swiss chard), as well as garden and fodder beet (Frese 2004). A third subspecies is also recognized in some taxonomic treatments: B . vulgaris ssp. adanensis (Pamukç. ex Aellen) Ford-Lloyd & J. T. Williams (syn. B . adanensis Aellen). In Spain and Portugal (including Maderia), B. vulgaris ssp. maritima is recognized at species level as B. maritima L.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This assessment only refers to the subspecies, Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima; Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris is a cultivated variety that has also naturalised in the wild.

Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima is regionally assessed as Least Concern. The taxon is distributed in parts of northern, middle, southeastern and southwestern Europe where it mainly occurs in coastal areas but also has the ability to thrive in disturbed sites further inland. Some subpopulations are threatened by development for tourism, construction works, recreation and herbicide use but these threats are not currently causing a significant decline in the overall European subpopulation.

The taxon is however nationally threatened and in decline in some countries; therefore, national level monitoring is recommended.

range:
B. vulgaris ssp. maritima is native to northern, middle, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to western Asia, the Caucasus, northern Africa and Macaronesia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Europe, this taxon is known from 1,300 localities (Frese 2005). Knowledge of the national distribution of B. vulgaris ssp. maritima in Europe is available for the following countries: France: occurs in most coastal departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Germany: it occurs along the coast and on islands in the North Sea (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). The area of occupancy (AOO) is approximately 1 km² (Frese 2005). Ireland: widespread around the entire coast (Preston et al . 2002). Italy: along the coastline. Netherlands: occurs in coastal regions (Mennema et al . 1985). Norway: present along the coastline in the southeast; the extent of occurrence is 26,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 132 km². Portugal: Algarve, scattered along the coastline. Spain: around the coast. Sweden: southwestern coast. United Kingdom: widespread along the coast of England, Wales and Northern Ireland; however, in Scotland it is patchily distributed around the coast and absent from the northeastern coastline (Preston et al . 2002).

population:
Knowledge of the population size and trend of B. vulgaris ssp. maritima in Europe is available for the following countries: Portugal: data collected from 29 subpopulations showed a very large variation between subpopulations in effective population size (Ne) and the area populated by flowering and vegetative plants, with a minimum Ne of 8 and maximum of 1,000, and minimum area populated of 0.001 km² and maximum of 10 km² (Frese et al .1990; Frese 2004). Germany: the population size is estimated to be 100 individuals (Frese 2005). The subpopulations have been reported to be fluctuating; for example, at Burgtiefe, the subpopulation size was recorded as 35 in 1997, 100 in 1999 and 17 in 2001, while at Burger Binnensee the subpopulation size was recorded as 20, 40 and more than 70 in the same years (Frese 2005). Norway: scattered subpopulations comprising only a few plants. Some subpopulations are expanding whilst others are destroyed after a hard winter (Å. Asdal pers. comm. 2010). Netherlands: before 1950, the taxon occurred in 25 hour-squares and after 1950 in 45 hour-squares (Mennema et al . 1985). Tamis et al . (2003) report that the taxon is present in 31–100 km².

habitat:
B . vulgaris ssp. maritima is mainly distributed along the coast—plants are most prevalent on beaches in a narrow band between the high tide zone and the start of the denser coastal vegetation. The taxon also occurs on cliffs and in disturbed inland sites, including at high altitudes and in depressions (Frese 2004). It is an outbreeding, wind-pollinated monoecious hermaphrodite (Frese 2005). Specific habitat types in Europe include: Spain and Portugal: sandy, saline enclaves, and loamy ruderal areas. Slovenia (Adriatic Sea coast): saline pans. Cyprus: rock fissures and sea walls, salt marshes, occasionally as a weed of cultivated or fallow fields inland, from sea level to 500 ft (Meikle 1985). Germany: eutrophic, salty grassland, cliffs. United Kingdom: according to Preston et al . (2002) this is a lowland subspecies which occurs on coastal rocks and cliffs, salt marsh drift-lines, sea walls and on sand and shingle beaches. It can also be found on coastal waste ground and very occassionally on rubbish tips and roadsides further inland (Preston et al . 2002). Netherlands: Tamis et al . (2003) report that the taxon can be found in pioneer vegetation on brackish humid soils.

threats:
It is threatened by the development of coastal areas for tourism (Frese 2005), the use of herbicides, construction of buildings and roads, traffic and recreational activities. Cold winters have an adverse effect on the taxon—it will benefit from an increase in temperature.

conservationAction:
The genus Beta is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Knowledge of the threat and/or conservation status of B. vulgaris ssp. maritima in Europe is as follows: Norway: Near Threatened (NT) (approaching B1a+2a) (Kålås et al. 2006). Denmark: Least Concern (LC) (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010). Germany: Red List category 4; not protected (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). EURISCO reports 596 germplasm accessions of B. vulgaris ssp. maritima held in European genebanks, 114 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these accessions, 86 originate from within Europe: Belgium (two), Croatia (one), Cyprus (five), France (15), Germany (four), Greece (nice), Ireland (12), Italy (20), Netherlands (one), Portugal (two), Slovenia (one), Spain (three), Sweden (one), United Kingdom (10) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
B . vulgaris ssp. maritima is a primary wild relative of and potential gene donor to a number of crops in the beet group; including sugarbeet, beetroot, chard, spinach beet and mangels. The taxon is adapted to high sea salt concentrations (Frese 2004); therefore, it is a potential donor of salt tolerant genes. It is also a source of disease resistance genes and is sometimes collected from the wild as a leaf vegetable (Frese 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, presumed stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Herniaria glabra is native to northern Africa, temperate Asia and throughout Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, except the far north. It has become naturalised in Japan, Canada and the USA and is also cultivated widely (USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1990).

population:
In the United Kingdom, it is locally rare but still widespread throughout central Europe (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
An annual or short lived perennial found on dry bare habitats, excavations, seasonally wet or disturbed habitats and grassland, forestry rides, golf courses, car parks, disused gravel pits growing in compact coarse, gravelly, sandy or clay soils, often on chalk or limestone fragments flowering from May to October. It is found mainly on lowland dry acid grassland which typically occurs on nutrient-poor, generally free-draining soils with pH ranging from 4 to 5.5 overlying acid rocks or superficial deposits such as sands and gravels and is extremely drought tolerant (UK BAP, 2008, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1990).

threats:
The decline of lowland dry acid grassland, one of its main habitats, could potentially cause decrease in population numbers.

conservationAction:
Lowland dry, acid grassland is being protected under the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan for priority habitats. As a habitat of Herniaria glabra, conservation of the species is indirectly occurring (Maddock 2008). It is classified as Near Threatened in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It contains saponins such as triterepene and the whole plant when in flower is astringent, diuretic and expectorant. It appears to have an antispasmodic effect upon the bladder and is used in the treatment of dropsy, catarrh of the bladder, cystitis and kidney stones and also for treating hernias. It can be used externally as a poultice to speed the healing of ulcers (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Ilex aquifolium is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable population trend, and the fact that it currently faces no major threats.

range:
The global geographic range of Ilex aquifolium extends from the United Kingdom to Mediterranean Europe and north Africa, eastwards into western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). It has been introduced into New Zealand, Australia and North America where it is considered to be an invasive species (Trees for Life 2013). Though native in most of Europe, it has been introduced in Hungary and its origin in Romania is uncertain (Valdes 2012). It is cultivated in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). The forests dominated by Ilex aquifolium are found in north and west Spain, southern France, Corsica and Sardinia (European Environment Agency 2010). Recently, new occurrences have been reported which represent a geographical shift in the distribution of this holly species towards the north in Norway and northeast in Germany and Denmark (Walther et al. 2005).

population:
This is a common and widespread species throughout most of its range, except in Sweden where only one indigenous individual remains. In Denmark it is scattered, mostly in the southwest, while in Norway it only grows out on the more oceanic parts of Vestland. The species is missing in other Nordic countries (Gärdenfors 2010).

habitat:
A hardy deciduous or evergreen shrub up to ten metres tall with spiny leaves, Ilex aquifolium produces red berries in autumn. It is found in beech and oak woodland as a dominant understorey shrub. It is also found in scrub, hedgerow, rocky places, gardens and urban areas. It is a pioneer species but is considered to be invasive in the USA (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, JNCC 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
The susceptibility of Holly to browsing can limit its regeneration (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Regeneration of holly is sensitive to drought during both the seedling and the adult stage (Walther et al. 2005). In Croatia it has declined due to collection from the wild (Nikolic and Topic 2007).

conservationAction:
This species is listed on the following national red lists as Least Concern: Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is listed as Critically Endangered in Sweden due to its extremely small population size, but it is also found as an escapee through cultivation (Gärdenfors 2010). It is listed as Vulnerable under criterion A1d in Croatia (Nikolic and Topic 2007). It occurs in seventy-six Natura 2000 sites in Spain and three in France (European Environment Agency 2010), as well as some Natura 2000 sites in Portugal.

The habitat 9380 "Forests of Ilex aquifolium" is listed under Annex I of the Habitats Directive.

useAndTrade:
The leaves and berries of holly species are commonly used as Christmas decorations, and the berries provide a food source for birds in winter. The berries are toxic to humans and can cause mild stomach upset if ingested, purging of the bowels and vomiting (RHS 2011). Holly contains ilicin, ilexanthin, caffeic acid and theobromine in the leaves used to treat asthma. The plant is used little for medicinal purposes but the leaves are diuretic, fever-reducing and laxative and have been used to treat fevers, jaundice and rheumatism (Chevallier 1996).


taxonomicNotes:
There are several recognised subspecies, for example Paeonia mascula (L.) Mill. subsp. mascula , P. mascula subsp. bodurii N. Özhatay, P. mascula subsp. hellenica Tzanoud, P. mascula subsp. icarica Tzanoud, P.mascula subsp. russoi (Biv.) Cullen & Heywood (Aghababian 2011). Paeonia mascula var. corsica (Sieber ex Tausch) Gürke is considered valid as Paeonia corsica Sieber ex Tausch (The Plant List 2013). The distribution proposed by Passalacqua and Bernardo (2013) suggests that records of P. mascula from northern Italy refer to the P. officinalis group.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide distribution within Europe and the estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this peony greatly exceeds the values needed or a threatened category under criterion B. It occurs in a variety of habitats over range of altitudes and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. The population over this wide range is suspected not to be small.


There are undoubtedly continuing declines in area, extent and quality of habitat and also of population. However, it is thought not to be of sufficient magnitude to trigger a threatened category, as much mountain habitat, for example, in Greece, remains largely unchanged. It is assessed as Least Concern. However, surveys and monitoring are recommended to detect and enumerate any local declines and to provide an overall view of the population status of this species.

population:
Even in Bulgaria where this species is rare and Endangered it is thought to occur in 11 localities with subpopulations ranging from a few individuals to rarely more than 50 plants. From this it is suspected that over the whole range of this species the population is not very small. However, with ongoing threats and the known threatened status in several countries, population is inferred to be declining.

habitat:
This perennial, generally from 50 to 100 cm in height, grows in shrubland and meadows in hills, in open places in oak, pine, beech and hornbeam woods, amongst bracken and on stony limestone slopes. It has short rhizomes and large pink or red flowers with many yellow anthers which are insect pollinated. Reproduction by seed has a low recruitment rate (Petrova 2014, Plants for a Future 2014).

threats:
In some parts of the range, for example in Bulgaria, the limited distribution, small populations and poor recruitment are a threat to this peony. Its habitat is threatened by afforestation, with plantations or abandonment of pastures and their overgrowth with trees and shrubs, for example in the Gonda Voda locality in Dobrostan, Bulgaria. In some places the flowers may be picked or the transplantation of whole wild plants into gardens may occur (Petrova 2014).

conservationAction:
This species occurs is recorded from 18 Natura 2000 sites (Eunis 2014) and is also recorded from protected areas such as Gennargentu and Orosei Gulf National Park in Sardinia, Italy and Lura National Park in Albania (Ruci et al. 2001). In Bulgaria this species is considered Endangered B2ab(v) and is a protected species by the Biodiversity Act; studies on the population status, biology and ecology of the species and factors responsible for the limited recruitment are needed, as is protection and management of habitat in some of its localities (Petrova 2014). It is considered to be Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and Paeonia mascula ssp. triternata is considered to be Vulnerable in the Carpathian Mountain region (Zoological Society of London 2014). In France and in Spain it is listed as Vulnerable D2 (Lozano 2000, UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012. It is conserved ex situ in 48 botanic gardens worldwide (BGCI 2013) and seed is stored in the Millennium seedbank, in the UK (ENSCO 2014).

useAndTrade:
It has some medicinal use, for example, the root is considered have antispasmodic properties. A tea made from the petals of various peony species has been used a s a cough remedy and in the treatment of haemorrhoids and varicose veins (Plants for a Future 2014). This peony widely cultivated and traded as an ornamental plant.


taxonomicNotes:
There are several recognised subspecies: Paeonia officinalis L. subsp. officinalis, P. officinalis subsp. banatica (Rochel) Soó, P. officinalis subsp. huthii Soldano, P. officinalis subsp. italica N. G. Passal. & Bernardo and P. officinalis subsp. microcarpa (Boiss. & Reut.) Nyman (Aghababian 2011).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although the species has been assessed as Vulnerable in national Red Lists in some parts of its range, and a subspecies, and is known to be Endangered in some parts of its range, the species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) that exceeds the values needed for a threatened category and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. Population data indicate that the population is large. Also the declines, due to changes in land management, are suspected not to have been sufficient to trigger a threatened category. It is assessed as Least Concern. However, in some parts of the range conservation measures and monitoring are necessary.

range:
This peony is native to Europe in Spain, northern Portugal and southern France, Italy, Switzerland, western Romania and the Balkan peninsular and possibly northern Greece (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 1998, Lupo Osti 2006, Aghababian 2011, USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2014). It is widely cultivated elsewhere.

population:
The population of this species is inferred to be large as the population of the subspecies banatica in Hungary alone totals 100,000 to 160,000 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, it is suspected in view of land use changes within its range that it is subject to some overall declines.

habitat:
This is a robust perennial plant growing from 30 to 70 cm in height in open woods, woodland edges, shrubland and meadows in hills and mountains often on limestone (Polunin 1969, Hong 2010). It is long lived perennial with a life span of several decades (Andrieu et al. 2007).

threats:
The species has been shown to benefit from a mosaic of vegetation and is particularly prolific along woodland edges. Land use changes have affected the habitat of this species, such as, conversion for agriculture, use of pesticides and forestry plantations. Also changes in land management, with abandonment of traditional pastoral-woodland-cultivation practices have affected the habitat of this species. It has lead to dense colonisation by shrubs of grassland and previously more open shrubland, and also the canopy closure of formerly coppiced woodlands. This has been shown to cause a reduction in the flowering frequency of this species. It is a particular problem as this plant appears to have poor dispersal ability, which would enable it to escape forest and dense shrub spread (Andrieu et al. 2007). Burning and trampling also adversely affect this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and it is also collected from the wild (Lupo Osti 2006).

conservationAction:
The species is recorded from 35 Natura 2000 sites, for example, the nature park of Montesinho in Portugal (EUNIS 2014) and in other protected areas such as Valle d'Aosta in Gran Paradiso National Park, Italy. It is grown ex situ in 87 botanic gardens worldwide and seed is stored in Pavia, Italy (BCGI 2013, ENSCO 2014). It has some formal protection, for example in France it is listed in appendix 2 of a 1982 decree on protected species in France. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Switzerland and France and Near Threatened in Croatia (Moser et al. 2002, Nikolić and Topić 2005, Association Tela Botanica 2014). The subspecies P . o. banatica is listed as Endangered in Hungary (Király 2007) and in Serbia it is classified as Critically Endangered (CR) B1+2bc; C2ab; D; E (Boža and Stojšić in: Stevanović 1999) and has been assessed separately.

useAndTrade:
This is a very popular ornamental plant and is widely grown for its large red flowers. Peony root has a long history of medicinal use and was believed to be effective as a treatment for epilepsy, although it is little used today. The root is antispasmodic, diuretic, sedative and tonic. A tea made from the dried crushed petals of various peony species has been used as a cough remedy and as a treatment for haemorrhoids (PFAF 2014). In Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine it is used as a constituent of treatments for liver disorders and it is also used homeopathically for a variety of problems (Ahmad et al. 2012). The root also contains a glucoside with an oil suitable for the threatment of skin conditions (Lupo Osti 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The estimated extent of occurrence for this species greatly exceeds the value needed for a threatened category under criterion B. It occurs in open forest, and less often grassland habitats, over a range of altitudes and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. There is little population information. It occurs in a number of sites in Romania and Bulgaria and Lupo Osti (2006) notes that it is widespread in Greece, from which it is inferred that the population is not small. It is suspected that there have been declines in area, extent and quality of habitat and also of population as a result of habitat changes and collection from the wild, but it is not certain that this would have been sufficient to result in a loss of more than 30-50% of the population, over the longer of ten years or three generations, over its range. It is assessed as Least Concern.


A survey is already underway to monitor population size and dynamics and habitat changes and management strategies at one site in Bulgaria (Borisova and Simonson 2006) and further surveys are recommended to establish the current population status of this species more widely. Further numerical information in relation to declines is needed.

range:
This species is considered native to Turkey and Europe. In Europe, records are from Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece including Crete and some other islands, Italy (Mt. San Donata di Ninea and Orfento valley (Lupo Osti 2006), and southern Italy (populations in Basilicata and Calabria; Passalacqua and Bernardo 2013), Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, southern and eastern Romania and southern and eastern Serbia (Aghababian 2011, GRIN 2011). It is not listed as native to Crete, Croatia or Montenegro by Hong (2010, 2011). Recorded from Thrace, european Turkey (Dane and Olgun 1997).

population:
This peony is considered to be widespread and not uncommon in Bulgaria and also as widespread in Greece (Lupo Osti 2006). From this it is inferred that the population over its range is not likely to be small. However, there is very little population data and the trend is unknown.

habitat:
This peony is found mainly in forest and less frequently in grasslands. It forms a character species of the Moesian Paeonia peregrina-white oak woods vegetation type of the limestone plateaux of the Romanian Dobrogea, of the Bulgarian Dobrudja and associated plateaux, of the Sredna Gora of central Bulgaria (EUNIS 2014). It is a perennial plant with large glossy red flowers with yellow stamens.

threats:
The specific threats to this species are not well documented. It is suspected that they may be similar to Paeonia mascula , which occurs in many countries in common with this species, where its habitat is threatened by afforestation, for example with plantations or abandonment of pastures and their overgrowth with trees and shrubs. Studies have shown that P. peregrina thrives best in sunny conditions at woodland edges, where it produces more flowering stems and more seeds than in open areas or more densely shaded woodland. This type of habitat is under threat in Bulgaria and other parts of the northern Mediterranean region, because of the decline in traditional woodland management which allows colonisation of open areas with shrubs and trees (Borisova and Simonson 2014). In some places the flowers may be picked or the transplantation of whole wild plants into gardens may occur (Petrova 2014). It is also threatened by collection of the roots for medicinal purposes in Bulgaria (Borisova and Simonson 2014).

conservationAction:
This peony is listed as present in 25 Natura 2000 sites, such as the designated National Park area of Piano di Marco in Italy (EUNIS 2014). It is grown ex situ in 77 botanic gardens worldwide (BGCI 2013). It is assessed as Critically Endangered in Moldova (Andreev 2004) and included in the National Red List for Romania. It is widely distributed and not protected or considered threatened in Bulgaria (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 2011, Metodiev 2006-7). A long-term applied research and monitoring programme is underway at one site in Bulgaria which aims to monitor the population size and dynamics, and habitat changes and management strategies, in relation to this species (Borisova and Simonson 2006).

useAndTrade:
This peony is cultivated in gardens and widely available in trade from cultivated sources. It is believed that root extracts have medicinal properties. In Bulgaria it has similar uses to other Paeonia species that are used in Chinese medicine. It is thought to be analgesic, anti-inflammatory and sedative and a recent study found that it has some anti-microbial and anti-fungal properties (Ivanova et al. 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major known threats.

range:
Sambucus ebulus is native to northern Africa, Macaronesia, temperate Asia and Europe. It is also cultivated widely as a medicinal plant (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It has scattered localities throughout its distribution occurring infrequently and becoming rare in Scotland, Portugal and the Balearic Isles (Castroviejo et al. 2007). The distribution within the United Kingdom has changed very little since 1962 (Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012). A local awareness survey of its scarcity in Roussenski Lom National Park in northern Bulgaria stated that a local expert had noticed diminishing populations in the park itself. However, the rate is not thought to be alarming (de Boer 2010).

habitat:
A tall hairless perennial rhizomatous herb found in hedgerows, roadsides, waste ground, river margins thriving on calcareous soils forming dense thickets. It flowers from June to August (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
Sambucus ebulus is present in the Central Balkan, Rila and Rila Monastery National Parks in Bulgaria. There are no specific conservation measures required for this species. It is listed as Endangered on the national red list of the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000), but classed as Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The stems and unripe or uncooked berries of this plant are toxic as it contains poisonous alkaloids and cyanogenic glycosides. The flowers and ripe fruit are edible but all parts of the plant are toxic if consumed in excess (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The fresh inner bark of the stalk and berries are diuretic. It has been prescribed in traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory reactions such as haemorrhoids, bites and sore throat. It has anti-inflammatory,  anti-nociceptive, anti-cancer, anti-angiogenic and anti-oxidative activities and contains components such as Ebulin, tannins and flavanoids and is anti-bacterial against Helicobacter pylori . The leaves are used predominantly for the treatment of colds, wounds, oedema, eczema, urticaria, inflammation and rheumatoid arthritis. A blue dye and ink can be obtained from the fruit and the root juice is used to dye hair. The leaves supposedly repel mice and moles (Shokrzadeh and Saravi 2010). Between 1990 and 1999, 270 tonnes of fruit was collected in Bulgaria alone. It is one of the 17 most harvested medicinal and aromatic plant species from the wild in Bulgaria. The average market price is US$2/kg. It accounts for 5% of the local market, 25% of the national market and 70% of the international market (Kathe et al . 2003). In Croatia, an annual quota has been established. Only 1,000 kg of berries are allowed to be harvested. It accounts for 25% of the local market, 50% of the national market and 25% of the international market (Kathe et al . 2003).


range:
Sambucus nigra is predominantly found throughout Europe but extends its range to Tunisia in North Africa, the Caucasus, western Asia (Iran, Iraq, Turkey) and into India (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Sambucus nigra is widespread and common in most of Europe. The populations are assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Sambucus nigra is a deciduous shrub or small tree of up to 5 m height (and up to 10 m in cultivation). It is found in a wide range of habitats including woodland, grassland, hedgerows, scrub, river banks but also roadsides, railway banks and waste grounds (Preston et al. 2002, Castroviejo et al. 2007).

threats:
This species is widely used for food and medicine but it is not assumed that this will lead to significant declines. There are indications that harvest rates might increase in the future (e.g. in Bosnia- Herzegovina, Kathe et al . 2003).

conservationAction:
This species is subject to ex situ conservation. Seeds are stored in Kew's Millennium Seed Bank and in The Danish Forest and Nature Agency who conserve plant genetic resources including that of Sambucus nigra . It is considered as Least Concern on various national red lists, for example, Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). The taxon Sambucus nigra ssp. palmensis is listed as priority taxon on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name Sambucus palmensis . It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

useAndTrade:
The flowers and berries of Sambucus nigra are harvested from the wild in many European countries and are best known for its use in cordials, wines, teas, and jams. The shrub is also used as an ornamental plant. The hard wood has been fashioned into combs, spindles, and pegs; the hollow stems have been made into flutes and blowguns. Leaves and berries are used as a dye and food colouring. The flowers have been used in folk medicine to treat colds with fever and chills and respiratory infections. Different parts of the plants have been applied to treat conjunctivitis, constipation, diarrhoea and skin irritations (World Health Organization 2002, Stevens 2001, Plants for a Future 2012). Sambucus nigra is one of the 18 most important and frequently collected (in areas immediately bordering Kozara National Park) medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) species in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is estimated that 44 t of flowers are collected annually based on statistics from 2001. It is also one of the most important MAP species exported from Bulgaria. In Croatia there is an annual limit of collection; 1,500 kg of the flowers and 1,000 kg of the fruit can be harvested yearly. It is estimated that it represents 25% of the local market, 50% of the national market and 25% of the international market in percentage estimates in Croatia and represents 5% of the national market and 95% of the international market in Bosnia (Kathe et al . 2003).


range:
Viburnum opulus is native throughout temperate Asia, North America and Europe. It is scattered in the mountains of Spain. It is also cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

habitat:
A deciduous shrub found in woodlands, humid forests, scrub, hedgerows, fens, stream banks and damp places growing on wet neutral or calcareous soils producing white flowers and red berries from June to July. It is also commonly planted in gardens and parks (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

useAndTrade:
This plant contains polysaccharides with immunostimulatory properties which enhance phagocytosis and elicits release of lyosomal enzymes from macrophages (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The berries have antibacterial and antioxidative properties (Sagdic et al . 2006). Viburnum opulus is a powerful antispasmodic and is used in the treatment of asthma, cramps and other conditions such as colic or painful menstruation and also as a sedative to remedy nervousness. The fresh bark contains scopoletin and is used to make a homeopathic remedy which is an antispasmodic, astringent and sedative and a tea can be used for treating spasms and cramps. The fruit can be eaten raw or cooked or used as a cranberry substitute however if ingested in large quantities its toxicity can can cause vomiting and diarrhoea. The leaves and fruits are antiscorbutic, emetic and laxative (Plants for a Future 2012). The specimens cultivated for ornamental purposes have sterile flowers (Castroviejo et al . 2007). Despite being of commercial interest the sources of Viburnum opulus as a raw material are limited in Lithuania; however all material in use is collected from wild sources (Raduöienė 2004).


range:
Valeriana officinalis is native to temperate Asia and Europe, absent from the north Iberian Peninsula, but has become widely naturalised outside this range (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al . 2007).

population:
This plant is common throughout Europe although rarer in the south and absent from the Mediterranean (Castroviejo et al. 2007). It has become scarce in areas of Britain where it suffered a widespread decline since the 1950s (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Valeriana officinalis is a perennial herb found in pastures, meadows, ditches, scrub, open woodland and along margins of watercourses often growing on dry calcareous soils flowering from June to August (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 2007).

threats:
The declines can be attributed to the loss of suitable habitat such as marshland sites and competition from weeds.

conservationAction:
Its habitat (hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities) most common in the Scottish highlands have been given SAC status. As a result Valeriana officinalis is receiving some indirect conservation (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2012). It is listed as Near Threatened in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The roots of Valeriana officinalis and other Valerian species have a long history of use in traditional medicine for restlessness and sleeping disorders. The World Health Organization (1999) summarised the uses supported by clinical data as a mild sedative, and sleep promoting agent, often used as a milder option over stronger sedatives, in the treatment of states of nervousness and overexcitement and anxiety induced sleep disturbances. It can be used to alleviate mild short term insomnia as the roots/rhizomes contain the active ingredient iridoid valepotriates, volatile oils, sesquiterpenes, pyridine alkaloids and chlorogenic acid. Valerian root is used for treating muscle and bronchial spasms and nervous conditions. It is often used in fixed combinations with hops ( Humulus lupulus ) as a herbal preparation from liquid and dry extracts and also lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis ) and passion flower ( Passiflora incarnata) for treating nervousness and unrest. The essential oil acts as a depressant to the central nervous system and is prescribed as a remedy for hysteria, hypochondiasis, nervous unrest and also as an anticonvulsant in epilepsy. The major sedative components are monoterpene valepotriotes, used widely in Europe (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, European Medicines Agency 2011). An essential oil from the leaves and root is used as a flavouring in ice cream, baked goods and condiments and the leaves can also be used as a condiment. The plant is used in moderation as a herbal tea. The roots of two year old plants are harvested in the autumn once the leaves have died down and are used fresh or dried, the fresh root being roughly three times as effective as dried roots (Plants for a Future 2012). In Poland, in particular in the Lublin region, Common Valerian belongs to the leading group of cultivated medicinal plants. There has been a long-term tradition in growing this plant but the quality and amount of raw herbal material is dependent on weed control and management and there has been difficulty in finding an effective herbicide for weed control without destroying the Valerian (Kwiatkowski 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The Strawberry Tree Arbutus unedo has a relatively widespread distribution across southern Europe. It has undergone some localized declines and is now rare and highly threatened in Cyprus and Bulgaria, but the overall population is believed to be stable. The species appears to be sensitive to drought and extremely low temperatures, and is valued for its medicinal properties. It is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
The Strawberry Tree ( Arbutus unedo ) has a Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution and is native to the coastal regions of the Mediterranean, extending from southern Europe to western Asia and northern Africa (Valdés et al. 2009), and up into the United Kingdom and Ireland (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
The European population of Strawberry Tree is believed to be stable, though it has undergone localized and often quite severe declines. The native subpopulation in Ireland was much more abundant several centuries ago, but by the 16th century had become very rare, likely because of its use for charcoal; the population has been stable over the past century (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The population in Bulgaria occurs at the northern climatic limit of its distribution area and is therefore represented by very few individuals (less than 50) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Peev and Vladimirov 2011). In Cyprus very few individuals remain, located only on the west coast (Meikle 1985). In other areas (e.g. southern England) it has spread as an escaped cultivar, where it can be invasive (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
This plant is a small evergreen tree or shrub found on heathy scrub, open woodland, rocky slopes and lake shores growing in limestone, slate and sandstone shallow soils. It reproduces by seed (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The fruit take 12 months to ripen, therefore the tree has mature fruit and flowers at the same time and flowers in Autumn. It is found in the holm oak forests of the lower mountains and flat areas of the Mediterranean where there is a mild climate with dry summers. Its fruit is an important food source for animals during winter (Benhouhou 2005).

threats:
In Ireland it has declined for its use for charcoal (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In Bulgaria, potential negative factors are forest fires and extremely low temperatures (Peev and Vladimirov 2011).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Critically Endangered [C2a(i);D] in Bulgaria, due to its extremely small and declining population; it is, however, protected under the National Biodiversity Act and remaining sites are within the Natura 2000 network (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Peev and Vladimirov 2011). It is also Critically Endangered B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v);C2a(i)] in Cyprus, due to its restricted and declining distribution and population (Tsintides et al. 2007). It can be considered Least Concern in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). In Bulgaria, recommended conservation actions include searching for new individuals, monitoring known trees and marking them with a sign of protection, and raising local awareness among foresters and the public about the conservation value of the species ( Peev and Vladimirov 2011). No specific conservation measures are required for the non-threatened parts of its distribution.

useAndTrade:
Strawberry Tree fruits are rich in sugar and vitamin C and are eaten and sold locally, usually cooked to make jams, sorbets and alcoholic drinks. The leaves and bark have been used for tanning and are also valued for their medicinal properties. The seeds contain essential oil with siccative properties. A decoction of the tannin rich leaves is used as a diuretic to treat urinary infections and diarrhea; the leaves are antiseptic and highly astringent. The macerated roots are used as a drink and are depurative and decongestant. The flowers have sudorific properties and the fruits have a narcotic effect for diarrhea. It is most effective for treating hypertension, diarrhea, colic and renal problems. Pharmacopeias are not relevant for this species. Strawberry Tree is part of a European programme for improvement and should be subject to market authorisation. It is also used for reforestation strengthening dunes and soil protection, as it is fire-resistant and tolerant to high pollution levels in urban areas (Benhouhou 2005). It is grown as an ornamental and is best propagated through seed (Hammami et al. 2005). Its fruit is an important food source for animals during winter (Benhouhou 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low. However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and local conservation actions are required.

range:
This plant is native to temperate Asia, Europe and Canada, the USA and Guatemala on the American continent. In Europe, it is found nearly everywhere from Iceland to Greece and from Spain to Russia. In the east European plain, it occurs from the Kola Peninsula to Ukraine. In Ukraine, it approaches the southern limit of its range and it grows in the zone of deciduous and mixed forests in Polesian lowland. Throughout its range Arctostaphylos uva-ursi is mainly found in mountain areas.

population:
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi is quite widespread and locally common throughout its range: Bulgaria: It is locally found in the mountains at around 40 localities. The population is declining fast due to collection. Croatia: The populations are declining. Czech Republic: It occurs in the north, west and central part of the country at 10 - 20 localities and is not abundant. Many populations count only 10-20 individuals and are very threatened. France: It is common in the Alps, the Pyrenees and Corbières, rare in the Jura and very rare in Auvergne. Germany: The populations are declining and the species is threatened in many federal estates and even extinct in some. Greece: It is found in mountains in the north, centre and northeast at about ten locations throughout four different areas. It is locally abundant and there is no information on the population trend. Ireland: It is found in the west of the country. Italy: There are almost 2,000 localities in all of the country except for the southernmost regions and the islands. Stable populations with more than 10,000 individuals, the populations are not fragmented. Lithuania: The distribution in Lithuania is uneven: it is rare in the centre and west, more common in the east and southeast. The species occurs in small patches and is neither common nor very rare and restricted. Serbia: This plant is estimated to be vulnerable (V. Stevanovic pers. comm. 2010). Slovakia: It occurs scattered in mountain regions in the northwest, north and northeast of the country. Vegetative reproduction is predominant and fruit set is usually lower than 5%. Spain: It is quite widespread in most regions in the eastern half of the Iberian Peninsula and a morphologically variable species. Sweden: It occurs in the south at ten localities. Switzerland: It can be found almost everywhere in the Jura and in the Alps and the populations are well connected within these regions, with a flat area between these two mountainous systems where the species is just occasionally present. It is a frequent species and several hundreds of individuals can be found in each location, covering an area up to a few hundred km². The total population is estimated to be over 100,000 individuals and the general population trend is stable. Russia: There are a few records from the Leningrad region. Ukraine: The populations are very small in area (0.02-0.03 ha) and are not propagated by seeds. The population trend is unknown. UK: It occurs in the north, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.

habitat:
This small shrub flowers from March to July and is found in coniferous forests and mixed forests dominated by conifers such as Pinus spp., in Cytiso ruthenico-Pinion and Erico-Pinion communities, and in alpine and subalpine Juniperae communities. It also grows in tall forb, shrub or grassland communities below or above the forest line (subalpine) such as Rhododendro ferruginei-Vaccinietum communities and in heathlands. The species has also been reported from limestone, rocks, slopes, river banks, or even in sandy dunes, continental dunes and coastal areas (e.g. Lithuania).

threats:
Eutrophication from nearby agricultural areas or the abandonment of grazing leads to overgrowing of its habitat with shrubs which causes competition and has been reported as a threat. Furthermore reforestation, especially with Robinia pseudoacacia , modifies the species habitat. Collection of the plant is still a threat in some places. Locally, tourism development in the mountains (tracks, skiing) could be considered a threat.

conservationAction:
This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, bark and fruits are subject to this regulation. Bulgaria: Vulnerable A1abd; B2ab(ii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It can be found in three national parks, and two nature parks. Croatia: Vulnerable A3cd (Nikolić and Topić 2005) Czech Republic: Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000). Some populations in protected areas. Denmark: Least Concern (NERI 2007) France: Protected in Poitou- Charentes Germany: Listed as Endangered (level 2) (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) Greece: It is protected by the Greek Law 67/1991. Some locations are in Natura 2000 sites. Italy: Harvesting is limited in some regions Lithuania: It is not protected. It can be found in protected areas, but the species is not the target. No action needed. Norway: Least Concern (Artsdatabanken 2010) Russia: Least Concern (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) Sweden: Protected but not included in the national red list. Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser et al. 2002) but legally protected in three regions. Ukraine: Protected in Poliskij and Rivnenskij reserves and in many zakazniks. UK: Least Concern (Cheffings 2005)

useAndTrade:
The fruit is edible and the leaves are used in tea. It has been used as medicinal plant especially for the treatment of urinary infections as it has antiseptic and antibacterial properties. The leaves contain hydroquinones which can have toxic effects (Plants For A Future 2010, World Health Organisation 2002). It is sometimes cultivated as ornamental and to produce honey.

redListAssessors:
Siu Ting, K., Bazos, I., Dostalova, A., Gygax, A., Melnyk, V., Petrova, A. & Rasomavicius, V.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although this species has declined and is threatened with habitat loss it is still considered to be classified as Least Concern and is unlikely to decline fast enough in the near future to be threatened with extinction.

range:
Calluna vulgaris is native to North Africa and Macaronesia, temperate Asia (Turkey and Russian Federation) and Europe. It has been introduced and naturalised in Australasia and North America and is also cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
This species is abundant throughout the highlands but declining with habitat loss.

habitat:
A carpeting subshrub with pale purple flowers growing in acid soils often forming extensive colonies on lowland heaths, upland moorland and nutrient poor grasslands, open woodland, wet peat bogs, banks, roadsides and sand dunes (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1993).

threats:
Threats include habitat loss or decline in heathland for forestry, agriculture, mineral workings, scrub encroachment and heavy grazing (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). During the past few decades there has been a widespread conversion of European heathland to grassland due to changes in land use and increased atmospheric nitrogen deposition and increased nutrient availability (Johansson 2000).

conservationAction:
Calluna vulgaris dominated heaths and moorlands are habitats of international conservation importance. Many areas of heathland and upland moors in the United Kingdom are designated Special Areas of Conservation (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2012). Reduced grazing seems to have little impact on conserving this species and therefore restoration is the most effective form of conservation, trampling and disturbance generally tend to promote its establishment (Mitchell et al. 2008). This species forms part of two habitat types protected on Annex 1 of the Habitats Directive: 2310 "Dry sand heaths with Calluna and Genista" and 2320 "Dry sand heaths with Calluna and Empetrum nigrum". It is listed as Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Heather extracts have long been used and valued as a homeopathic medicine to treat bladder ailments and they are also a component of Swedish traditional medicine to treat inflammatory diseases. It has been found to be a potent cyclooxygenase inhibitor. An infusion of the flowering shoots is the best form used to treat coughs, colds, bladder and kidney disorders and cystitis (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). A homeopathic remedy is made from the fresh branches, used in the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis and insomnia. The branches have many domestic uses including thatching, stuffing mattresses, insulation, making rope and brooms and for use as fuel (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Chimaphila umbellata is morphologically variable across its extensive range, and six subspecies have been described; of these, only the nominate subspecies, C. umbellata subsp. umbellata is present in Eurasia. The species is considered a complex and further taxonomic study is required. This species has many synonyms, only two of the more common are listed.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)


This species has a broad distribution across the European region from western Europe to the Urals in the east, and from southern Scandinavia to central and southern Europe and Krym in Ukraine. The species appears to have undergone declines in Area of Occupancy, Extent of Occurrence and in populations across large parts of its range within Europe, including extirpation from France and Switzerland (despite a reintroduction attempt; M. Jutzi pers. comm. 2014), although numerical information was not found for all countries. In Finland its status changed from Least Concern to Near Threatened category between 2000 and 2010 and 70% of the forests here are thought to be threatened. In Sweden it is assessed as Endangered with criteria A2ac. In Germany it is also reported to have suffered very strong declines, and in the Czech Republic at least 90% of the populations recorded have become extinct and those that are extant are declining (Grulich 2012). It is considered Endangered in at least six countries.


Despite this it is suspected that the total population and area of occupancy (AOO) in the European region are not very small. For example, although considered Endangered in the entire Carpathians it is reported from at least 17 localities and more than 200 shoots were recorded at one site in Finland (Salmia 2011), and in Sweden the number of mature individuals is estimated to be 15,000 (Artdatabanken 2010). The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) exceeds the values required for a threatened category under Criterion B and the AOO is also suspected to exceed these values over its range in both the European region and the EU27 member states region.The suspected long lifespan of this species (Lundell 2014) infers that the generation length is also long and that three generations extends over a considerable number of years; for the purposes of this assessment an assumed minimum generation length of fifty years is used, however, further ecological research is required to confirm this value. Over this time there has been considerable loss of habitat quality and extent throughout the European range of this species. Global Forest Change Landsat analysis illustrates considerable losses of forest cover, within the range of this species between 2000 and 2012 alone (Hansen et al. 2013). There have also been changes in forest management, such as declines in active management practices and moves towards densely-planted plantation forests. It has a known sensitivity to disturbance, shading, and competition and the threats to its habitat quality are ongoing. A similar species has been shown to have seed dispersal distances that are very small, making re-colonisation of fragmented forest areas less likely. There are a range of documented declines within Europe and some degree of threat within the majority of European countries within its range.


Extrapolating from the known population declines in some areas and the suspected habitat losses it is inferred there has been an overall population reduction sufficient to meet the values needed for a threatened category under criterion A. This inferred population decline is thought to be in the range of 30 to 60% in the last 75-100 years, a period over which significant large-scale changes in forestry practice and extent have occurred in Europe. However, it is difficult to be certain of precise values. It is possible that population declines are at the upper end of this range but the species does occur within some protected areas, where threats are inferred to be minimized and declines lessened, and in addition data from some countries, especially in Eastern parts of the European region, are lacking and further research into the population status is required. It is assessed on these inferences as Vulnerable (A2ac). Surveys and monitoring are needed to confirm the current range, population and habitat status of the species and to detect and enumerate any further declines, and the species should be reassessed when these data become available.

range:
The species distribution is circumpolar, extending from Scandinavia, central and eastern Europe eastwards in a narrowing belt to Japan, and throughout much of North America (GRIN 2014). In Europe the species is recorded from France (where it was only found in woods in the Forêt de Fontainebleau and in the Vosges near Bitche (Tela Botanica 2013) and is now considered extinct (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012)), eastwards to the Russian Federation and northwards to the Scandinavian countries. It extends southwards, mainly locally in the mountains, to Slovenia, Ukraine (Krym) and the southern Urals (Tutin et al. 1972). A reduction in range has been noted in several countries including the Scandinavian countries (e.g., Sweden; Ericson and Ingelög 1997), and it is considered extinct in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002, Info Flora 2014, M. Jutzi pers. comm. 2014).

population:
This species is considered to be Endangered in many countries within its range, for example, Slovakia, Hungary and Ukraine, which infers that it is not a common species here (Feráková et al. 2001, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). The population at one locality in the Machnatý vrch Nature Reserve in Slovakia is, however, noted to be abundant (Adamcik et al. 2006). In Germany it is reported to have suffered very strong declines and has been found growing at only a few sites, but even there tends to be highly at risk (Ahlmer 2010). It is considered Critically Threatened in the Czech Republic with the reason given that at least 90% of the populations recorded have become extinct and those that are extant are declining (Grulich 2012). In Denmark it is Near Threatened. The species is considered extirpated from France (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012) and Switzerland (Moser 1999, Moser et al. 2002, NERI 2007, M. Jutzi pers. comm. 2014). In Sweden the number of mature individuals is estimated to be 15,000 (10,000 to 30,000) but with a rate of decline amounting to 50(30-60)% in the last 80 years (Artdatabanken 2010); the level of decline has been documented to have been much greater in Uppland on the eastern coast of Sweden, estimated (as fraction of localities) by c.80% over the last approximately 100 years (Maad et al. 2009), and this decline is probably an underestimate (O. Eriksson pers. comm. 2014). Based on the examination of local, still existing, populations of the species in Sweden (Lundell 2014) many, perhaps most, populations are 'remnant' populations that are no longer reproducing due to environmental conditions (i.e., dense shade). This means that the estimate of decline based on surveys such as Maad et al. (2009) underestimates the true decline. The population has declined sharply in Norway and is absent from many former areas, and remaining populations are often small (Artsdatabanken 2010).

habitat:
This woody, evergreen, perennial herb or low shrub is found in coniferous woods often on sandy or clay soils and it is occasionally found in deciduous woods. The species reproduces both by seed and clonally by creeping subterranean rhizomes. Recruitment studies (Johansson and Eriksson 2013), suggesting that the species is 'microsite limited', i.e. there are a lack of suitable sites for it to establish into. Ongoing studies (V. Johansson submitted manuscript) suggest that the species, in contrast to most other species in the tribe Pyroleae, is fully autotrophic as an adult (the others are mixotrophic, i.e. partly utilize fungi as carbon source), suggesting that the species may be unusually sensitive to shade and to competition from other ground-layer plants ( Vaccinium spp., grasses, Picea abies (Salmia 2011)). A study (Johansson et al. 2014 cited in Lundell 2014) of a similar species ( Pyrola chlorantha ) found that 82.5 % of the seeds were dispersed within one meter from the source, and 95.7 % were dispersed within five meters. The seeds are very small and have very little endosperm and culture is very difficult (Moser 1999), and may require bare soil into which it germinates (Ericson et al. 1997). It has been recorded from the Myrtillo-Pinetum, Pyrolo-Pinetum, Pulsatillo-Pinetea sylvestris, Vaccinio-Piceetea and Erico-Pinion phytosociological associations (Moser 1999, Dubravec 1996). It is thought to be a long lived species (Kachel 2006), inferring that the generation length is also long. No studies have been conducted on adult genet life span of the species, and hence the generation length of the species is uncertain, but relating to studies of similar species one may suggest that a reproductive adult may have a lifespan in the magnitude of centuries if environmental conditions are suitable (O. Eriksson pers. comm. 2014). Established genets may persist for a long time even if sexual reproduction has ceased (due to unsuitable environmental conditions (e.g., shade). It is likely that many clonal plants build up 'remnant populations', where established genets persist although there is no recruitment at all of new individuals (Eriksson 1996, 2011, O. Eriksson pers. comm. 2014). For the purpose of this assessment a nominal generation length of 50 years is assigned, however further ecological research is required.

threats:
A major problem for this species is not just that 'primary' forest cover has declined greatly in extent, but also that forest management regimes have changed, leading to less favourable site conditions. Most forests (in Sweden and probably also in at least the western parts of the species range) have for long been very much influenced by humans – and there are essentially no 'primary' forests remaining. However, previously (i.e. until the early-mid 20th century) forests were kept semi-open by selective cutting, grazing, and other management practices. These semi-open forests have been common almost since humans invented agriculture and started keeping livestock, and possibly resemble the forest structure influenced by the megafauna during most of the Pleistocene. During the last 50-100 years, forestry management has both changed and declined (with management ceasing in many woodlands and forests), creating even-aged and much more shady forests, and, due to eutrophication, the ground-layer has become more productive. These are the primary changes impacting species such as C. umbellata . For example, the Finnish Environment Institute (2008) consider 70% of forests there to be threatened, with threats noted from forestry activities and clearing for agriculture. Esker forests and heathlands in Finland are reported to be in a deteriorating state, this is probably as a result of changes in forest management practices. This species changed categories from Least Concern to Near Threatened in Finland between 2000 and 2010 (Kalliovirta et al. 2010), and the species is considered Endangered in Norway on the basis of decline in area of occupancy (Kålås et al. 2010). At one former site in Switzerland, dense shading from spruce reforestation is believed to be the cause of extinction (Moser 1999, Moser et al. 2002). It may also be out-competed in some areas, it is noted to be weak competitor against species such as Vaccinium spp. and Picea abies, which are found in similar habitats. In the Carpathian forests, where this species is considered Endangered, threats include intensive logging (especially with clearcut forest management), reforestation with spruce monocultures, development of large ski resorts and tourist centres and motorways (Perzanowski and Jerzy 2001). This species has been found to have a very low resistance to trampling, burning, disturbance and loss of forest cover (Matthews 1994). In parts of middle Europe, widespread pollution by nitrogen emissions from industry have been cited as a cause of decline (M. Scheuerer pers. comm. 2014). The scale of collection from the wild and impacts on wild populations is not known.

conservationAction:
The species is protected in several parts of its European range; e.g., Poland, and there are harvest controls in Lithuania (Nature Research Centre 2012). It also occurs in protected areas such as the Biosphere Reserve“Smolensk Lakeland” (Russian Federation) and many Natura 2000 sites (EUNIS 2014). It is assessed as threatened in many countries, for example, as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Endangered in Slovakia (Adamcik et al. 2006, Grulich 2012). It changed categories from Least Concern to Near Threatened in Finland between 2000 and 2010 (Kalliovirta et al. 2010) and it is Near Threatened in Denmark (Salina 2011). It is considered Endangered and is under some protective legislation in Hungary, Germany, Sweden (EN A2ac), Norway (EN B2a(i)b(i,ii,iii,iv,v)), and Ukraine (Király 2007, Kricsfalusy and Budnikov 2007, Salina 2011). The species is not apparently found in Polish Red Lists, however has been assessed as endangered at the regional scale in Pomorze Gdańskie, northern Poland (Nagengast and Rymon Lipińska 2005). Other currently known conservation assessments are: Estonia (LC), Austria (Threatened with extinction), Hungary (EN), Carpathians (EN), France (RE), Slovakia (EN), and the Russian Federation (Yaroslavl region) ('Rare') (IAS PAs Russia 2014).

In Switzerland (RE) the species was last recorded in the wild in the 1980s and a reintroduction attempt was unsuccessful (M. Jutzi pers. comm. 2014). The species is noted to be conserved ex situ i n 22 botanic gardens (BCGI 2013) but it is not known whether it is conserved in any seed bank in Europe but there is one accession noted in the National Plant Germplasm System for America (USDA 2014).

useAndTrade:
This plant contains hydroquinones which have a pronounced disinfectant effect within the urinary tract and it is used treat urinary problems such as cystitis and urethritis. It is also used for more serious conditions such as kidney stones and gonorrhoea. A decoction can be used in the treatment of skin diseases. Used externally, the fresh leaves are rubefacient, and internally it has been prescribed for the treatment of a wide range of cardiac, urinary and kidney diseases, chronic rheumatism and scrofula. The plant contains compounds such as arbutin, sitosterol and ursolic acid and also contains glycosides and an essential oil that are used as an astringent and tonic. widely promoted in the Russian Federation and elsewhere for a range of medicinal uses, including in herbal and homeopathic preparations. In America it is brewed into a tea or used as a flavouring in root beer and an extract of the leaves is used to flavour candy and soft drinks. It was used by native North American Indians to cause sweating and treat fevers, including typhus. In Mexico it is used in an alcoholic drink (Plants for a Future 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Bell Heather (Erica cinerea) is mostly restricted to moors and heathland, but the species is also found in gorse, coastal dunes and occasionally in woodland. It is endemic to western Europe, where it is abundant in the UK, France and northern Spain. This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread and abundant in parts of its range and the risk of the species going extinct in Europe is quite low. However, the area of dry heathland and moors is declining throughout Europe due to overgrazing, inadequate management and peat extraction, and Bell Heather populations have also declined in parts of its range.


More detailed information on population declines and threats is needed, particularly in Portugal and Italy, where its distribution is limited. The species is found in several protected areas, but subpopulations that do not occur in protected areas would benefit from habitat protection to prevent further declines. Habitat management of European dry heaths through grazing is required to ensure its survival. This habitat is listed under Natura 2000.

range:
Bell Heather ( Erica cinerea ) occurs in western Europe and the Faroe Islands; it has mistakenly been reported in Algeria (Valdés 2009). There are 1,288 records of occurrence in northern Spain (Anthos 2010), and Portugal. It is widespread in the UK and France (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, INPN 2012). In Italy its distribution is restricted to the northwest (Schede di botanica 2013). Its distribution in Norway is restricted to the south (Artsdatabanken 2010); in Germany it remains in only one area. Its precise distribution in Belgium and the Netherlands is unknown.

population:
The number of individuals is unknown, but it remains abundant in the United Kingdom, France, Spain and Portugal. In the United Kingdom this species is widespread and common, though it has declined in southern England from loss of heathland habitat, and encroachment of rank grass and scrub following reduction in sheep and rabbit grazing (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Declines have also been documented in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010).

habitat:
Bell Heather is a small shrub found on moors and well-drained heaths, growing on acidic peaty soils and as an undershrub in pine or oak woodland, and also frequently disturbed sites (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Vera 1997). Nearly all European dry heath is semi-natural, having developed through a long history of grazing and burning, and most are managed extensively for grazing livestock (Hampton 2008). It is also found on coastal dunes and gorse heaths (European Environment Agency 2010).

threats:
The area of dry heathland and moors is declining throughout Europe due to overgrazing, inadequate management and peat extraction. Loss of heathland and chalkland heath is a threat to wildflowers in southeast England, as is encroachment of rank grass and scrub following reduction in sheep and rabbit grazing; peat extraction also causes a decline in the area and quality of the habitat (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Coastal heath is also in sharp decline in Norway, and heather is lost with urban settlements, industrial development, and the afforestation of uplands ( Artsdatabanken 2010).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Least Concern in the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), Near Threatened in the Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000) and Norway (nearly meeting IUCN criteria A2c+3c; Artsdatabanken 2010), Vulnerable in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al . 2006), and Critically Endangered in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). Given its large distribution in France, Spain and Portugal, it is unlikely to be threatened in those countries. Bell Heather is found in two Natura 2000 sites in Germany, six in France, two in Italy and three in Spain and Portugal. In the United Kingdom, a large part of its distribution occurs in National Parks (European Environment Agency 2010). Habitat management of European dry heaths through grazing is required to ensure its survival. This habitat is listed under Natura 2000.

useAndTrade:
An extract of the flowers of Erica cinerea is used for skin conditioning as a tonic (European Commission 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Rhododendron ferrugineum is an abundant species in montane areas of the Alps and Pyrenees. This species is classified as Least Concern in view of its relatively wide distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Rhododendron ferrugineum is endemic to the Mediterranean and west-central Europe at elevations between 1,600-2,200 metres, predominantly in the Alps and the Pyrenees (Valdés 2009, Gibbs et al. 2011). Its presence and distribution in Croatia, Albania, Serbia and Slovenia requires confirmation.

population:
There are dense subpopulations in the European Alps with almost 100% cover. The oldest individual in the French Alps is at least 300 years old, based on mean annual shoot growth. It is a dominant species in montane areas and one of the most abundant shrubs in northeastern Spain. There are concerns of a decrease in genetic variation in Italy, as some subpopulations have a lower genetic diversity through clones (Escaravage et al. 1998, Filella and Peñuelas 1999).

habitat:
This is an Alpine perennial shrub found throughout montane areas in acidic soils associated with pine. In the past decades the northern Alps have been subject to a decrease in disturbance from pasture which has caused Rhododendron ferrugineum to flourish. It can reproduce sexually by selfing and out crossed seeds or vegetatively through layering, which usually occurs downslope at 50 or 60 years of age. Heavy snow cover allows branches to root in the ground. It also produces many flowers and seeds (Castroviejo et al. 1993, Escaravage et al . 1998).

threats:
Grazing and pasture could cause a decline in this species, though in recent decades this pressure has been reduced in the northern Alps, favouring this species. As with all high alpine plant species, climate change could be a threat in the future.

conservationAction:
Rhododendron ferrugineum is listed as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002), and also on the Red List of Rhododendrons (Gibbs et al. 2011). In situ and ex situ conservation strategies have been suggested to preserve the genetic diversity in the North Apennines (Bruni et al. 2012). It is found in forty-two Natura 2000 sites in Italy (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
The flowers, leaves and galls of Rhododendron ferrugineum are antirheumatic, diaphoretic and diuretic; it is used in the treatment of certain forms of arthritis and rheumatism, as well as in treating a variety of complaints involving flatulence, but can cause diarrhoea and vomiting so should only be used with expert supervision (Plants for a Future 2012). A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant. The leaves and flowers contain flavanoids (Chosson et al. 1998). However, the leaves and the galls are poisonous, and the pollen of many (if not all) species of Rhododendron is also likely to be toxic when eaten in large quantities (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Hairy Alpenrose (Rhododendron hirsutum) is an abundant species in montane areas of the Alps. This species is classified as Least Concern in view of its relatively broad distribution, stable populations and no major threats. It has declined in Croatia where it was collected from the wild for medicinal value, but it is now a protected species.

range:
Hairy Alpenrose ( Rhododendron hirsutum ) is endemic to Alpine and sub-Alpine habitats in the Alps (Valdés 2009). It is found in the Central Alps in France, Switzerland, Germany and Austria, the Dolomites in Italy, and the mountains of Slovenia and Croatia at elevations up to 2,500 metres (Info Flora 2012, INPN 2012, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Schede di botanica 2013).

population:
This is an abundant and dominant species throughout its range, except in Croatia where it is rare, having declined due to frequent collection from the wild for its medicinal use (Vrbek and Buzjak 2001, Kathe et al. 2003).

habitat:
Hairy Alpenrose is a perennial shrub, dominant (80-100%) in dwarf shrub heath and herb rich grassland above the tree line and on stony steep slopes; it is associated with dominant Beech stands, Juniperus , Erica herbacea and Calamagrostis varia (Read and Haselwandter 1981, Dirnböck et al. 2003, Poldini et al. 2004, Surina and Rakaj 2007). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 4070 "Bushes with Pinus mugo and Rhododendron hirsutum ( Mugo-Rhododendretum hirsuti )".

threats:
There is no evidence of any significant threats to the species, though an increase in grazing and pasture could potentially cause declines. In Croatia the population has declined as it was frequently collected from the wild for its medicinal use (Kathe et al. 2003).

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002), also on the Red List of Rhododendrons (Gibbs et al. 2011). It is Near Threatened in Croatia where it is a protected species (Nikolić and Topić 2005, Baričevič et al. 2004). It is found in twenty one Natura 2000 sites in Italy (European Environment Agency 2010). There are no conservation measures needed for this species. The habitat 4070 "Bushes with Pinus mugo and Rhododendron hirsutum ( Mugo-Rhododendretum hirsuti )" is a priority habitat type on Annex I of the Habitats Directive.

useAndTrade:
In Croatia this species is used as a medicinal and aromatic plant for the treatment of inflammation, pain, skin ailments, common cold and gastro-intestinal disorders (Kathe et al. 2003, Popescu and Kopp 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Wild Rosemary (Rhododendron tomentosum) is a shrub with a broad distribution across the northern hemisphere. A widespread and abundant species, it is dominant in subalpine areas throughout Europe. It is classified as Least Concern in both Europe and the EU 27, as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species’ populations to decline significantly in the near future.

range:
Wild Rosemary ( Rhododendron tomentosum ) occurs throughout northern Europe, Asia and North America (Canada) (Valdés 2009, Dampc and Luczkiewicz 2013). Its precise distribution within Europe is only readily available for Germany and Norway, where it widespread (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Artsdatabanken 2010). It is very common and distributed throughout Finland and Sweden, except for alpine areas (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

population:
This is a widespread, abundant and dominant species, especially in arctic and subarctic vegetation types. In Denmark, as of 2008 the population consisted of only 40 individuals (Dampc and Luczkiewicz 2013). It has declined in the Czech Republic compared to its past distribution (Grulich 2012).

habitat:
Wild Rosemary is a long-lived fragrant small woody evergreen shrub, found in peaty soils in upland areas, raised bogs, heaths and wet boreal pine forests, often associated with Betula tree species (Dampc and Luczkiewicz 2013).

threats:
Wild Rosemary is threatened in some parts of central Europe due to excessive collection, drainage of wetlands, peat extraction and agricultural land use change (Dampc and Luczkiewicz 2013).

conservationAction:
This plant is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark due to its extremely small population (NERI 2007), Vulnerable in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012), and Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is also listed as Least Concern on the Red List of Rhododendrons (Gibbs et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
In Canada this species is known as Northern Labrador Tea and is one of the medicinal plants most commonly used by the Inuit (Black et al. 2011). It has been used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of various ailments, such as rheumatism, cough, cold and insect bites, as well as a repellent. The essential oil obtained from the shoots is analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal and insecticidal. The plant contains toxic sesquiterpenoid compounds, therefore internal use of extractions or decoctions is becoming rare and is more commonly used as insect repellant (Dampc and Luczkiewicz 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
Vaccinium myrtillus is a secondary wild relative of lingonberry (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution. The existing threats are unlikely to cause the species’ populations to severely decline in the near future.

range:
Vaccinium myrtillus is native to temperate Asia, Europe and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
A common and widespread species but declining in some areas.

habitat:
A hairless deciduous shrub forming large colonies from creeping rhizomes found on well drained heathland, moorland, peat bogs and open woods (as understorey mostly birch, oak or pine) growing in dry acidic soils. It flowers from April to June. It is often common throughout subalpine montane areas and dominant on upland moors forming extensive colonies and rarely regenerates from seed (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al 1993, World Health Organization 2009).

threats:
The loss of lowland heathland has lead to the decline of this species. The pathogen Phytophthora kernoviae was reported causing a significant threat to heathland bilberry in the United Kingdom (Beales et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Reduced grazing by sheep can help this species to persist. In the United Kingdom upland acid heathland and moorland are protected by the UK Biodiversity Action Plan and are designated SAC (Special Area of Conservation) sites and national Parks. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Bilberry contains antioxidant flavanoids and anthocyanosides and is used in Europe to strengthen capillaries and improve blood flow by helping maintain the strength and flexibility of vascular tissue. Its extracts are used to treat venous and capillary fragility and varicose veins following marked increases in newly formed capillaries and collagen fibrils. As potent antioxidants, anthocyanosides help prevent cell damage and strengthen capillaries by improving blood flow thereby helping maintain the flexibility and strength of cells to help prevent and treat varicose veins and spider veins. In Europe, bilberry is used prior to surgery to prevent excessive bleeding. Bilberry increases blood flow to the heart and other organs as well as to the legs. It also helps to thin the blood, reduce the risk of stroke and inhibit clot formation. Ingesting bilberries also appears to have some clinical value in preventing recurrent episodes of urinary tract infection amongst elderly patients (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Fructus Myrtilli consists of the dried ripe fruits of Vaccinium myrtillus . It can be administered by ingestion of fresh bilberry juice and fruit, crude drug, extracts, tablets, capsules which have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. A tea made from the dried leaves is strongly astringent, diuretic, tonic and an antiseptic for the urinary tract. Other medicinal uses supported by clinical data include the oral use for the symptomatic treatment of dysmenorrhoea associated with premenstrual syndrome, circulatory disorders in patients with capillary leakage or peripheral vascular insufficiency and ophthalmic disorders. Its oral use in pharmacopoeias for the treatment of acute diarrhoea, local irritation or inflammation of the mucous membranes and a decoction of the leaves or bark is applied locally in the treatment of ulcers and in ulceration of the mouth and throat. The fruit is eaten raw, cooked or dried (World Health Organization 2009, Plants for a Future 2012). Vaccinium myrtillus is a secondary wild relative of lingonberry (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species greatly exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. It is reported to be a common species in the core range with no significant threats. It is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) and population also exceed the values for a threatened category, and it is assessed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU27.

range:
This species is considered native to parts of Europe, northern Africa (Algeria, Libya, Morocco), Trans-Caucasus, Iran, Turkey and Azerbaijan. In Europe the species is found from Spain, Portugal and the Azores, to central Europe, extending as far north as the United Kingdom, and eastwards to Greece (USDA 2012, GBIF 2013) and Turkey (Thrace; Bakis et al. 2014). There is much debate as to its native status in some areas, for example northern France and parts of Germany and even the UK (Decocq et al. 2004, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, Foster 2014), although Preston et al. (2002) consider it native to at least some sites in SE Britain. The argument is in favour of its native status in one area of Germany and the UK. In France it is uncertain where the line of demarcation between native and naturalized occurs. It is naturalized elsewhere, for example, Romania.

population:
This species is noted to be a characteristic shrub of sub-Mediterranean France and is reported to be a common woody plant (Grove and Rackham 2001, Debussche and Lepart 1992). This infers a large population, which is supported by its occurrence in at least eleven countries and several thousand records (GBIF 2013).

habitat:
This evergreen shrub or small tree (to 5 m) with small shiny dark green leathery leaves is found in rocky habitats, dry hillsides, mixed deciduous woodland and maquis often on calcareous soils. A European habitat type H5110 (Stable xerothermophilous formations with Buxus sempervirens on rock slopes), is noted to be dominated by this species (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2007). It is noted as a colonizer of abandoned farmland in Mediterranean France (Debussche and Lepart 1992). It is unpalatable to grazing animals but provides a habitat for a variety of wildlife, particularly birds, which are known to disperse the seeds.

threats:
This species is not considered to be at risk in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010), in the UK the population, although restricted to a small area, is noted to be stable with no obvious major future threats (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2007). In Mediterranean France it is reported to be common and may colonize abandoned agricultural areas, which suggests that it is not significantly threatened. In Italy it is noted to be threatened by human impacts, such as clearance to increase livestock grazing areas, and increasing aridity (Di Domenico et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
This shrub is recorded from many botanic gardens (BCGI 2013) and is a priority species for the UK tree seed bank project and there are noted to be 63 accessions in United States National Plant Germplasm System (USDA 2010). It is found in more than 30 Natura 2000 sites such as Vallée de la Meuse à Huy et vallon de la Solières, Belgium and Val di Farma, Italy. The conservation status of the habitat type known as 'stable xerothermophilous formations with Buxus sempervirens on rock slopes' (Berberidion p.p.) is noted to be favourable in France, Germany, Portugal, Greece and alpine Spain although inadequate in continental Italy and Atlantic Belgium (Eunis 2010) suggesting that some edge of range areas may require habitat protection or management. In France it has some formal protection, for example in Lorraine it is prohibited to cut remove or sell wild plant parts (Tela Botanica 2013).

useAndTrade:
This shrub is commonly used as an ornamental, often in the form of box-hedging and in topiary. The slow growth leads to the development of a dense grained hard wood which has been used, for example, in furniture making, musical instruments, engraving blocks, chess pieces and tool handles. All parts of the plant are thought to be toxic. It has been used medicinally in the past as a sedative and to treat syphilis, rheumatism, epilepsy and malaria, although it is is very rarely used in modern herbalism (Plants for a Future 2012). More recently substances have been isolated from this species with a wide range of biological activities including acetylcholinesterase activity, which may make it potentially useful in the development of treatments for Alzheimer's disease (Foster 2014). The leaves together with sawdust, boiled in lye, have been used as an auburn hair dye. In the Netherlands branches are tied above doors and hearths at Easter (Hortipedia 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although this species has declined it remains locally abundant in northern Europe and is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution and no major threats. It is not of economic importance or used for medicinal purposes.

range:
Astragalus glycyphyllos is native throughout Europe except the extreme north, Ireland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands. It is also native to temperate Asia where it occurs in western and middle Asia, the Caucasus and Siberia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Talavera et al. 1999).

population:
A generally local and abundant species that has been declining due to loss of suitable habitat, especially in the United Kingdom where populations are becoming increasingly isolated. It is generally rarer in southern Europe and the Caucasus (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Plants for a Future 2012).

habitat:
A medium to tall straggling perennial herb with pale green or yellowish flowers which is found in rough grassy habitats, open woodland and scrub, roadsides, railway banks, embankments, cliffs, chalk pits and montane areas. It grows in all soil types but thrives on calcareous soils with minimal grazing. It is cultivated in gardens and flowers from June to August (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Talavera et al. 1999).

threats:
This species has declined due to the loss of rough grassland and tidying up of roadside banks and verges, stone walls and changes in land use management (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
Astragalus glycyphyllos has been listed as Critically Endangered in the national red list of Finland (Rassi et al. 2010), but is considered as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In Bulgaria this plant is described as scarcely spread, with single populations with small areas and limited resources of no economic importance. It occurs in national parks (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004).

useAndTrade:
The leaves can be used as a substitute for tea (Rahman 2002) and the root as a liquorice substitute. It has no medicinal properties of importance (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is now considered native to Mediterranean north Africa, the Middle East and Turkey in Asia, however considered and archaeophyte introduction to the northern Mediterranean coasts. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species exceeds the values needed for a threatened category.

The species is an important component of lowland Mediterranean Maquis and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. The population is inferred to be large and although declines have been noted it is suspected that they are, at present, insufficient to trigger a threatened category.

range:
This species is now considered native to Mediterranean north Africa, the Middle East and Turkey in Asia. It is found in Europe in the countries bordering the Mediterranean and on Mediterranean islands such as the Balearics, Aegean Islands and Cyprus (ILDIS 2010, GRIN 2014). The original distribution of this species is not clear as it has undergone extensive cultivation since ancient times. It is believed to have been spread by the Greeks to Greece and Italy and then by the Arabs along the coast of northern Africa into the south and east of Spain, from where it migrated to the southeast of France. Its range is limited by low winter temperatures. It has been introduced elsewhere, such as in the United States (Batlle and Tous 1997).

population:
This tree is considered to be one of the most characteristic and dominant trees of the Mediterranean evergreen Maquis, in the lowlands (0-500 m) (Batlle and Tous 1997). It is inferred that the population is large but in some areas declines have been noted (Cyprus Center of Environmental Research and Education 2013).

habitat:
This sclerophyllous evergreen small tree is found in Mediterranean forest and shrublands. It is one of the most characteristic and dominant trees in the lower zone (0-500 m) of the Mediterranean evergreen Maquis and occupies places not disturbed by cultivation (Batlle and Tous 1997).

threats:
This species may be threatened by loss of habitat, for example by expansion of tourist areas around the Mediterranean and directly by the local use of the tree for wood and charcoal.

conservationAction:
This tree is found in at least 16 Natura 2000 sites, for example, Giara di Siddi in Italy, and is cultivated in 115 botanic gardens worldwide (BCGI 2013, EUNIS 2014). The seed is stored ex situ in seed banks, such as in Cordoba, Spain (ENSCO 2014). In some areas where there have been declines portective legislation has been initiated, for example, in Cyprus in recent years, it has been included in the Forest Legislation and a permit from the Forestry Department is required in order to cut it down (Cyprus Center of Environmental Research and Education 2013).

useAndTrade:
The wood of this small tree has been used for fuel and charcoal production and as it is hard and shiny is used for wood turning and products such as walking sticks. The bark is a source of tannin. The pods are used for animal fodder, the production of a beverage base, gums, resin, alcohol, as a thickening agent, sweetener, flavouring and a substitute for chocolate. They are rich in sugar and nutrients, although fibrous, and have been used as a food in times of need. The species has also been used medicinally and pulp from the seed pod, depending on preparation, can be used as a laxative or to treat diarrhoea and also to soothe coughs. A flour produced from the seed pods is used in baking and also as a base for face packs in the cosmetic industry and in pill manufacture. The tree is also grown ornamentally and as a source of shade (Batlle and Tous 1997, ILDIS 2010, Plants for a Future 2014, USDA 2014). In ancient times the seed was used as a measure of weight and the “carat” which is used as a means for measuring is thought to originate from the weight of the carob seed (200 milligrams) (Cyprus Center of Environmental Research and Education 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is a widespread species in Europe and the estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. It occurs in a variety of habitats, including disturbed areas, and it is inferred that the area of occupancy also exceeds these values. It is not thought to have any significant threats or declines and it is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species has an uncertain native native range. González-Andrés (2004) proposed that the species was native to western Asia, and first introduced to Europe and later the rest of the world. In Europe it is found from Spain and France, the United Kingdom (introduced through cultivation by 1568 but not recorded from the wild until 1640; Preston et al. 2002) and southern Scandinavia, through many central European countries to the Balkan area, Greece, Ukraine, Turkey and Russia in Europe. It is naturalized and cultivated elsewhere and considered an invasive weed in some parts of the United States of America (ILDIS 2010, GRIN 2014).

population:
This perennial herb has a large geographic range, it grows in a range of habitats, including disturbed roadsides. The population is inferred to be large and relatively stable.

habitat:
This is a fast growing perennial herb which can grow to over a metre in height. It is found in woods, scrub, damp fields, ditches, stream and roadsides (Polunin 1969, Plants for a Future 2014).

threats:
This species occurs in a variety of habitats, including disturbed areas such as roadsides, over a large geographical range. It is inferred that there are no significant threats at present and none thought likely in the near future.

conservationAction:
This species is noted from two Natura 2000 sites, Balta Mică a Brăilei and Dealurile Târnavelor - Valea Nirajului in Romania (EUNIS 2014). It is suspected to occur in other protected areas across its wide range. It is conserved ex situ in botanic gardens and seed banks (BGCI 2013, ENSCO 2014).

useAndTrade:
This is a fast growing plant that can be used as a green manure, providing organic matter and also fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The leaves are used as a curdling agent and it is used cosmetically in hand and foot bathes. Medicinally it has been used in the treatment of plague, infectious diseases and fevers, and in the promotion of lactation in humans and animals. It contains an alkaloid, which lowers blood sugars and the plant was used as a herbal treatment of diabetes, later studies of its chemical properties led to the development of Metformin, a modern treatment for diabetes (Bailey and Day 2004). It has also been used for the treatment of pancreatitis and digestive disorders. The leaves and flowering tops are considered to be diuretic. It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant and the flowers are considered useful for honey production (ILDIS 2010, Plants for a Future 2014, GRIN 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of the species exceeds the values for a threatened category. It occurs in a variety of habitats within its range and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. Numerical population data is generally lacking but the overall population is suspected to be large. There are areas where the population is subject to declines, for example in Bulgaria where it is considered to be Endangered.

However, it is suspected that the overall population has not declined sufficiently to trigger a threatened category for population decline. It is assessed as Least Concern. However, monitoring to detect and enumerate declines may be needed in some areas.

range:
A widespread species, it is considered native to north Africa, many parts of the Middle East and eastwards to Russia, Mongolia, China and south to Pakistan and India. In Europe it occurs mainly in the southeast (Polunin 1969, ILDIS 2010, GRIN 2014), from southern France (origin uncertain) through Italy to the Balkans, Ukraine and European parts of Russia. Although it is difficult to accurately determine the native range as it has been widely cultivated.

population:
The geographic range of this species is large and the population is also inferred to be large. This suggests that the population is likely to be relatively stable, however over-collection from the wild and intensification of agriculture may cause local declines. For example in Bulgaria it is considered Endangered with a category C2a(i) which gives the number of individuals in each subpopulation as less than 250 and a continuing decline, and B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii) which suggests few locations or fragmentation and continuing declines in habitat as well as population (Evstatieva 2011). It is also considered to be rare in Romania (Ciocarlan 2009). Few herbarium specimens were found which may represent rarity or undercollection.

habitat:
This robust perennial herb grows to about 1.5 m in height and has underground rhizomes. It grows in open areas in woods, in scrubland, damp ditches and streamsides and sandy places near the sea. It is often cultivated and sometimes naturalized. The rhizomes are deep and the plant regenerates from small pieces and Grieve (2013) notes that it can be difficult to remove from areas and that it can also successfully out-compete other smaller plants.

threats:
This species is reported to be threatened in at least one European country as a result of over-collection from the wild (WWF 2002). In Bulgaria it is rated Endangered with a category C2a(i) which gives the number of individuals in each subpopulation as less than 250 and a continuing decline, and B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii) which suggests few locations or fragmentation and continuing declines in habitat as well as population (Evstatieva 2011). Its medicinal use, intensification of agriculture and proximity of urban areas are listed as threatening processes.

conservationAction:
Seeds of this species are conserved ex situ , for example in the Millennium Seedbank, Kew (Crawforth and Tredwell 2012). It is also grown in over 90 botanic gardens worldwide (BCGI 2014). It occurs within protected areas such as protected territories specified for medicinal plants in Bulgaria (Baričevič et al. 2002) and Natura 2000 site Pineta Granducale dell'Uccellina in Italy (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is used to make throat lozenges and cough mixtures and has been used to treat mouth ulcers, stomach inflammation, indigestion and menstrual cramps. It is also used to flavour medicinal products and more widely as a flavouring and ingredient in confectionery. The glycyrrhizin contained in the rhizomes is sweeter than sugar. The rhizomes can be chewed or made into tea. In modern Chinese herbalism it is used to combat the effects of food poisoning. Excessive use can lead to side effects involving the heart and blood pressure. The species has also been used in shoe polish, soap and as a fibre in fibreboard. The used rhizomes have been utilized as a mushroom compost and a fire extinguisher agent (TRAFFIC 2011, Crawforth and Tredwell 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
The species Medicago sativa L. belongs to the section Medicago , and is a primary wild relative of the cultivated crop alfalfa, M. sativa L. ssp. sativa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). There are five subspecies M. sativa native to Europe: M. sativa ssp. caerulea (Ledeb.) Schmalh., M. sativa ssp. falcata (L.) Arcang., M. sativa ssp. glomerata (Balb.) Tutin, M. sativa ssp. microcarpa Urb., and M. sativa ssp. varia (Martyn) Arcang.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Due to the widespread nature of this species, and no known threats, it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
M. sativa is rare in the wild, except in Caucasus, the Iberian Peninsula, and Turkey, but is widely naturalised via escapes from cultivation and is now cultivated throughout the world (Al-Atawneh et al . 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources 2010). In France it is widespread, occurs in all departments except Aisne where it has not been recorded (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010). In the UK Medicago sativa ssp. falcata is confined to East Anglia in England, however it also has a sparse and patchy distribution throughout the rest of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland but these occurrences are recorded as alien (Preston et al . 2002). In Ireland Medicago sativa ssp. falcate occurs in only two localities in the west of the country and both of these occurrences are recorded as alien (Preston et al . 2002). In Denmark: both M. sativa ssp. falcata and M. sativa ssp. sativa occur within this country however only M. sativa ssp. falcata is native (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).

population:
The exact population size of wild Medicago sativa is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are stable. However, in the UK according to Preston et al . (2002), Medicago sativa ssp. falcata has declined in coastal areas due to habitat loss. It is also unable to cope with animal grazing and it can hybridise with M. sativa ssp . sativa - these factors also play a role in its decline (Preston et al . 2002).

habitat:
M. sativa is rare in the wild, but specimens are generally found in open habitats, such as roadsides and field borders. However, these are frequently plants which have escaped from agriculture. It requires a soil pH of at least 6.0, and can be found growing up to elevations of 2,400 m (FAO 2010). When growing in coastal areas, M. sativa occurs on sandy and sandy-loam soil types, whereas in mountainous regions it tends to grow on clay and heavier clay-loam soil types. Generally Medicago species grow best on alkaline soils which are well drained (Bennett et al . 1998). M. sativa grows on moderately fertile calcareous soils, commonly in open habitats. It is found in dry semi-desert to agricultural land, and less frequently in scrub and woodland (Al-Atawneh et al . 2009). M. sativa is a perennial herb which flowers between May and July. It grows on many different soil types, but favours well-drained loamy soil and does not tolerate waterlogging or acid soils. It can tolerate an average annual rainfall of 1030 mm, temperatures between 4.3ºC and 28.5ºC, and soil pH between 4.3 and 8.7 (Duke 1981). In the UK Medicago sativa ssp. falcata is a lowland species with a preference for calcareous soils and sands; it grows on grassy heaths, sea-walls, roadsides and tracks (Preston et al . 2002).

threats:
There are no know specific threats to the wild forms of the species, apart from the unknown consequences of withspread hybridisation with the crop. Research by Al-Atawneh et al . (2009) suggests that M. sativa is not threatened.

conservationAction:
M. sativa , as well as the majority of Mediterranean species of Medicago , has germplasm stored in numerous genebanks, notably the Australian Medicago Genetic Resources Centre (AMGRC) in Adelaide, Australia, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in the USA, and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Prosperi et al. 2001). M. sativa ssp. falcata is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). EURISCO reports 4,084 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 250 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 194 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
In its none wild form, M. sativa (alfalfa) is primarily grown as animal feed, either as high quality fodder or for direct grazing. It is often dehydrated to form pellets, which are then used as a nitrogen supplement for dairy animals and non-ruminants. However, it has a number of beneficial uses in soil which could potentially be improved using wild types, such as nitrogen fixation, soil stabilisation and soil enhancement. It can also aid in lowering water tables, reducing the salinity of drylands and reducing nitrate leaching, as well as providing a disease or weed break in the process of crop rotation (Prosperi et al . 2001). Furthermore, wild types of M. sativa could be potential gene donors to cultivated alfalfa, M. sativa ssp. sativa .


taxonomicNotes:
Melilotus is not a large genus, with only 14 species found in Europe (Euro+Med Plantbase, 2010). M officinalis is a common species occationally used as a forage.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Melilotus officinalis is  a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is found  in several habitats which are not threatened within Europe, populations appear to be stable; therefore, it is regionally assessed  in Europe as Least Concern.

range:
Native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, Indian subcontinent, Siberia and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Portugal it is moderately common found primarily in the centre and north, while in Spain it is widespread, except for southwest. In France it is recorded in all departments with the exception of Mayenne to the northwest (Association Tela Botanica 2010).

population:
The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are thought to be stable.

habitat:
Throughout Europe it is found in disturbed cultivated ground, often on clay and saline soils, while in northern Europe it is less frequent or occurs as an alien. In Portugal it is a ruderal species found near roads on sandy soils which are frequently wet.

threats:
There appears to be no major threats. It is found in a number of habitats that are not threatened.

conservationAction:
In Portugal it is preserved in ex situ collections, not in protected areas. EURISCO reports 118 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 64 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 47 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
Cultivated for fodder and forage; wild populations may harbour important genetic diversity for crop improvement. Also used as a flavouring for food, as a soil improver and is an important bee plant (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). This plant has medicinal characteristics.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is an extremely widespread species in Europe and the estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) is much larger than that needed for threatened category. It occurs in a variety of habitats over a range of altitudes and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds these values. The population is inferred to be large and although it has suffered declines or is considered threatened in parts of its northern distribution in Europe as a result of loss of habitat, these are not considered sufficient to trigger a threat category, and it is considered Least Concern.

range:
This species is native to north Africa, europe, the Middle East to western and southern Asia (including India, Pakistan and China). It is also native to most countries of Europe (Polunin 1969, ILDIS 2010, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2014), but less common in northern europe; absent from Ireland, northern parts of Britain, and northern areas of Scandinavia.

population:
The population of this species over its wide range is inferred to be large. However, intensification of agriculture and loss of rough grassland areas suggests that its population trend is declining.

habitat:
This species grows in dry grassy places, rough meadows and roadsides and prefers calcareous soils. It can also be found in open forests, shrubland, coastal areas and on dry stony ground. It grows to 60 cm in height and is spreading or more often erect spiny stemmed perennial. It flowers in summer and is bee pollinated (Polunin 1969, Plants for a Future 2014).

threats:
The grassland habitat of this plant has suffered declines as a result of intensification of agriculture with the addition of fertilizers to improve grasslands, ploughing for arable production and in some places lack of grazing leading to scrub/woodland succession. Natural grasslands are reported to be in constant decline in many parts of Europe (Török et al . 2011).

conservationAction:
This species is conserved ex situ, for example seeds are stored in the Millennium Seedbank, Kew (ENSCO 2014) and it is reported to be grown in 57 botanic gardens worldwide (BCGI 2014). It occurs within conservation areas within its range, for example, it is recorded from 51 Natura 2000 sites such as Hano in Sweden, Salveytal in Germany and Orle in Poland (EUNIS 2014). It is considered to be Near Threatened in Denmark and Poland, Vulnerable in Norway (with subspecies O. spinos subsp. spinosa considered Endangered; Kålås et al. 2010) and rare in Sweden (unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann pers. comm. 25.11.2013).

useAndTrade:
This plant is traditionally used in herbal medicine. It is made into a herbal tea which is used as a diuretic in the treatment of urinary problems (European Medicine Agency 2013). It is also reportedly used for skin disorders, rheumatism and as an aperient and a cough mixture is made from the woody parts of the stems (Plants for a Future 2014). Local communities in southeastern parts of Anatolia, Turkey, employ the ashes of this species to heal skin infections and investigations suggest it may have some antifungal properties (Altuner et al. 2010). Recent studies on mice suggest it may have analgesic qualities (Yilmaz et al. 2006). The flowers can be used as a decoration for salads and are edible. The shoots can be cooked and eaten and the roots chewed for their liquorice-like flavour (Plants for a Future 2014).


taxonomicNotes:
Pisum sativum L. is two subspecies , sativum and elatius (Bieb.) Aschers. & Graebn, subsp. sativum is split into var. sativum and arvense (L.) Poiret and subsp. elatius is split into var. elatius , var. brevipedunculatum Davis & Meikle and var. pumilio Meikle (syn. P. humile Boiss. & Noë). Of these vars. sativum , arvense and elatius are cultivated to varying extent, the garden pea is subsp. sativum var. sativum is the garden pea and all other varieties contribute to its gene pool (Maxted and Ambrose 2001).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This wild vareieties of Pisum sativum are widespread in Europe and throughout the range they are currently relatively stable therefore as a whole the species is considered in a regional assessment to be Least Concern.

range:
P . sativum is native in parts of east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as in western Asia, the Caucasus, and northern and northeast tropical Africa. The taxon is cultivated worldwide and widely naturalized. (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) In Portugal, sativum ssp. sativum is known to occur in Alto Alentejo (south of the country) (Castroviejo et al . 1999–2000) whereas, P . sativum ssp. elatius is widely distributed (Magos Brehm 2004). In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments although largely absent in central and northwestern departments (Association Tela Botanica 2010). It does not occur on inventory lists in the Netherlands, however it is cultivated widely in the country.

population:
The exact population size of the wild varieties is unknown, but as a whole they are considered relatively common throughout their range (Maxted and Ambrose 2001).

habitat:
Wild Pisum sativum is found primarily in disturbed land on the edges of cultivation (Maxted and Ambrose 2001). In Portugal and Spain, . sativum tends to occur in pastures, shrublands, track borders and cultivated fields; it is sometimes cultivated or escaped from cultivation (Talavera et al . 1999–2000). P . sativus ssp. elatius occurs as a non ruderal taxon in open areas.

threats:
The wild varieties tends to grow on the edges of cultivation and as such are currently threatened by changes in land management, more extensive use of herbicides, increase in fires and climate change.

conservationAction:
The genus Pisum is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the garden pea gene pool. Overall P. sativum is well represented in ex situ germplasm collections, with accessions being primarily held by N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey); ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks (Maxted and Ambrose 2001). It would be beneficial to review that all varieties are represented by accessions from throughout their geographic range. EURISCO reports 20,201 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 536 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 85 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Although it occurs in protected areas, there is no active management, but it is likely to be passively conserved in many existing protected areas throughout its range. As its conservation in these sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population loss over time from factors such as climate change. In Slovakia, P. sativum ssp. arvense is classified as Endangered (Eliáš et al. 2007). P. sativum ssp. elatius is classified as Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).

useAndTrade:
The five varieties of P . sativum that occur in Europe are primary wild relatives of and potential gene donors to the garden pea. The species contains a number of cultivated taxa the two varieties of P . sativum ssp. sativum and ssp. elatius which is cultivated as fodder pea.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is endemic to Europe and has a relatively wide distribution in mountain areas in southwestern and western Europe. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this alpine clover exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. As it is a common species in grassland and rocky habitats over a range of altitudes, it is inferred that the area of occupancy and population also exceed these values. Although some of its habitat may have suffered from declines, in this common species these declines are not suspected to have led to population declines sufficient to trigger a threatened rating, and the species is therefore considered Least Concern.

range:
This species is endemic to Europe, where it is known from mountain areas; the Apennines, Alps, the Massif Centrale in central France (the Auvergne and Cévennes), Pyrenees, Cordillera Cantábrica and Macizo Galaico-Leonés in Spain (Menendez Valderry 2009, Association Tela Botanica 2014). Recorded from Spain, Andorra, France, Italy, Austria and Switzerland (Polunin 1969, ILDIS 2010).

population:
This species is noted to be a common component of mountain grasslands within its range, particularly at higher altitudes (FAO 2004), and it is inferred that the population is large. The number of traditionally managed alpine pastures is suspected to be declining (Dianese 2010) which is inferred to be leading to some declines in this species' population.

habitat:
This alpine clover is found in rocky meadows and grassland in mountains, in the alpine and sub-alpine zone (sometimes below the tree line) and is common between 1,700 and 2,500 m. It is a perennial and has a large taproot. It has short stems which form dense tufts and fragrant pinkish red flowers. It is found on acid soils and is typical of poor alpine grassland and pastures containing Nardus stricta (Polunin 1969, FAO 2004).

threats:
The natural high altitude grassland habitat of this species has few major threats, however, pastures may be affected by management practices, for example, species composition may be altered by over-grazing or under-grazing. In the Italian Alps, for example, summer pastures are still managed in traditional ways, which maintains important grassland habitats for many species, although the number of pastures has declined over the past few decades (Dianese 2010). Also tourist developments in some areas may have local impacts as may collection for medicinal use. Future climate change may affect plant community composition at high altitude but the impacts on this species are not certain.

conservationAction:
This species is known to occur in a Natura 2000 site in Foresta di Legnoli, Italy. It is found within other conservation areas such as Écrins national park in the French Alps (EOL 2012). It is recorded from 27 Botanic Gardens and seed is conserved ex situ in several institutions, for example the Millennium seedbank, Kew (BGCI 2013, ENSCO 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is an important component and nitrogen fixer in acid alpine grasslands. It is grazed by livestock and is nutrient rich and easily digested (FAO 2004). It is an important component of the high-elevation grazing ecosystem in the Alps and French Pyrenees (Lauga et al. 2009). The root is sweet and edible, similar to liquorice, and is considered to have medicinal use for stomach ulcers, oral and throat infections. It is believed to have anti-inflammatory and immunostimulant properties (Menendez Valderry 2009). Widely cultivated and found in trade,


taxonomicNotes:
Trifolium pratense L. belongs to section Trifolium and is a secondary wild relative of the cultivated crop crimson clover ( T. incarnatum L.), as well as a primary wild relative of cultivated T. pratense (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It has eight subspecies that are native to Europe: T. pratense ssp. baeticum (Boiss.) C. Vicioso, T. pratense ssp. expansum (Waldst. & Kit.) Hausskn., T. pratense ssp. kotulae (Pawl.) Soják, T. pratense ssp. maritimum (Zabel) Rothm., T. pratense ssp. nivale (W.D.J. Koch) Arcang., T. pratense L. ssp. pratense , T. pratense ssp. sativum (Schreb.) Schübl. & G.Martens, and T. pratense ssp. semipurpureum (Strobl) Pignatti. There are a further four varieties of T. pratense that are native to Europe: T. pratense var. americanum Harz, T. pratense var. frigidum Gaudin, var. T. pratense maritimum Zabel, and T. pratense var. pratense .

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Trifolium pratense is a very common species, with a widespread distribution and with no known threats, therefore it is regionally classified in Europe as Least Concern.

range:
The range of T. pratense includes northern Africa, much of Asia and all of Europe (except for the extreme north and parts of the extreme south) (Lamont et al . 2001). In France, it is widespread, occurs in all departments throughout the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston et al . 2002) and in Ireland it is widespread across the whole of the country (Preston et al . 2002).

population:
The exact population size is unknown, but the species is very common throughout southern Europe. It is found in a variety of habitats and populations are stable. In the UK, according to Preston et al . (2002), this species has shown no change in its distribution since the earlier Atlas (Perring and Walters 1962).

habitat:
T. pratense is widely cultivated in Europe and around the world. In the wild it grows in a variety of habitats, including glades, grassy plots, meadows, roadsides, and areas near water (Zohary and Heller 1984), but is restricted to humid areas at high altitudes when it is found in warm, dry regions (Lamont et al . 2001). It grows best on well drained loam soils, although it will grow on wetter soils. It will tolerate annual precipitation of between 310 mm and 1,910 mm, annual mean temperatures between 4.9ºC and 20.3ºC, and soil pH from 4.5 to 8.2 (Duke 1981). It is a perennial legume, and its flowering time is between May and September (Zohary and Heller 1984). In the UK this species is known to occur from sea level up to 850 m in the Scottish Highlands (Preston et al . 2002). It is found in a wide range of grassland habitats and waste areas although absent from the most acidic soils (Preston et al . 2002).

threats:
There appears to be be no major threats. This species is very common and found in many different habitats so it is not currently threatened.

conservationAction:
T. pratense is specifically listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the forage legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation attention. Ex situ seed samples are available in numerous gene banks with the largest collections being held by the Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry, Russia (2,913 accessions), the European Central Crop Database (2,140 accessions), the National Plant Germplasm System in Washington, USA (1,106 accessions), ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth, UK) gene banks (Lamont et al. 2001). EURISCO reports 4,413 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 1,232 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 1,067 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). In situ the species is likely to be passively conserved in many existing protected areas in throughout its range but as its conservation in these sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population loss over time from factors such as climate change. Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).

useAndTrade:
A study by Nestel et al. (1999) found that isoflavones which are produced in the leaves of T. pratense can reduce cardiovascular risks associated with the menopause. Wild types of T. pratense are also potential gene donors to cultivated forms. This is a large plant and so natural wild populations are grazed by wild and domesticated animal species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Silver Birch is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
The range of the Silver Birch extends from Europe to the Far East and into northwest Africa (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2012). It is native to northern Africa (Morocco), temperate Asia and Europe (except Iceland, Iberian Peninsula and Greece) but is cultivated widely and has become naturalised outside this range (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Silver Birch is most abundant in northern Europe where it follows the distribution of mixed forests where fairly large pure stands can be found. Its distribution is more patchy in southern and western parts of Europe where it is usually found at higher altitudes. In Spain, France and Italy the populations have become more fragmented and further studies on the genetic variation of these southern populations is required. In general this species produces a large amount of seed and is able to recolonise rapidly (Vakkari 2009).

habitat:
A fast growing deciduous broadleaved tree growing up to 30 metres tall found in mixed woodland, heathland, moorland and mountain sides on well drained, dry, sandy or acidic soils. Silver birch is an opportunistic species and produces a huge number of seeds which are wind dispersed and is able to rapidly colonise open ground, burned ground and can become a threat to heathland. It is planted in gardens and is also found on roadsides and in parks. It hybridises with Betula pubescens and Betula aurata. The species is monoecious, male and female catkins are found in the same tree . Silver birch is characterized by hairless leaves and young shoots and by very thick bark at the base of old trunks (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Vakkari 2009).

threats:
There are no major threats however plantations of birch are threatened by shoot fungi as causal agents of crown dieback but naturally regenerated birch are resistant to fungal disease (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2012, Forestry Commission 2012).

conservationAction:
Seeds are stored in the Millennium Seed Bank (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2012). It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Silver Birch is commonly planted as a garden or ornamental tree and in northern Europe and Scandinavia it is grown for lumber and pulp. It is one of the most commercially important tree species in northern Europe. Its wood is used for making plywood and carpentry as well as fuel and pulp which is often mixed with conifer pulp to produce high quality paper. It is also used in reforestation and as fodder for cattle. This tree is a valuable resource for conservation, habitat and landscape purposes and contributes to the diversity in temperate and boreal forests (Vakkari 2009). It has limited medicinal use but the bark is diuretic and laxative. An oil obtained from the inner bark is an astringent used in the treatment of various skin afflictions, especially eczema and psoriasis. The bark is usually obtained from trees that have been felled for timber and can be distilled at any time of the year. The bitter and astringent inner bark is used in treating intermittent fevers. The vernal sap is diuretic and the buds are balsamic. The whole or fragmented leaves can be used as a herbal substance and herbal preparation from dry extracts for oral use. The traditional herbal medicinal product is used to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract (Plants for a Future 2012, European Medicine Agency 2007). The inner bark can be cooked or dried and ground into a meal but is generally only used during famine when other forms of starch are not available or are in short supply. Sap can be eaten raw or cooked, has a sweet flavour and can be fermented into a beer. Young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. A tea is made from the leaves and the essential oil in the inner bark (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Given its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats it has been classified as Least Concern as it remains common throughout Europe.

range:
Downy Birch tree can be found from Greenland, to Europe and the Russian Far East (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2012). It is native to temperate Asia, northern America and Europe and is also naturalised elsewhere (USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network, 2012). This species extends further north into the Arctic than any other native European tree species. Specimens of the subarctic populations are usually small and very contorted, and are often distinguished as "arctic" downy birch, Betula pubescens ssp. tortuosa . This subspecies is notable as being the only tree native to Iceland and Greenland (Maddock 2008).

population:
Common throughout Europe especially in upland areas (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Ohlemuller et al . 2006).

habitat:
Downy Birch is a small deciduous broadleaved tree growing up to 20 metres tall with hairy leaves found in mixed woodlands, uplands and highlands, floodplains, as successional habitat on fens, mires and bogs, along streams and hill-side flushes, in peaty hollows, roadsides and field boundaries. This tree grows in a variety of soil types but prefers wet, acidic, peaty soils. It is a generally short lived tree of wet woodland usually with alder, birch and willows as the predominant tree species. These woodlands occur on a range of soil types including nutrient-rich mineral and acid, nutrient-poor organic ones. It is able to rapidly colonise open unshaded areas, which have been burned such as open heathland and cut out peat bogs. It is also planted widely in parks and urban areas (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Maddock 2008).

threats:
There are currently no major threats reported to affect this species. In the future, it may be negatively affected through the loss of climatically suitable areas and low climatic suitability of locations outside its current range which is likely to extend further north (Ohlemuller et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
No conservation action as such but some areas of wet woodland, Betula pubescens habitat, are protected under Annex 1 of the EC Habitats Directive. However, birch bog woodland occurs widely in scattered stands across the United Kingdom (Maddock 2008). It is listed as Critically Endangered in the national red list of Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Vulnerable in Hungary (Király 2007), Near Threatened in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), but Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Downy Birch is not cultivated as extensively as Silver Birch. The wood is pulped and used for making paper but does not have much commercial value in Britain, it is grown more as a timber tree in Scandinavia. The wood is a pale, smooth and light hardwood used mostly for furniture and plywood (Forestry Commission 2012). A herbal substance is derived from the whole or fragmented dried leaves and the powdered herbal substance or dry extract used in herbal preparations. The traditional herbal medicinal product is used to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract (European Medicines Agency 2007). A decoction of the inner bark is used to preserve cordage, it contains up to 16% tannin. The inner bark also provides an oil that is used medicinally and for preparation of a refreshing tea (Plants for a Future 2012). Other uses of the bark include making drinking vessels, canoe skins, roofing tiles etc. It is waterproof, durable, tough and resinous. Removal of the outer bark does not kill the tree (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Sweet Chestnut Castanea sativa is a common and widespread species throughout its native range. It is classified as Least Concern in both Europe and the EU 27, as existing threats are unlikely to cause its decline in the near future.

range:
Sweet Chestnut ( Castanea sativa ) is native to the area stretching from the Balkan Peninsula to northern Iran, and has naturalised throughout western and central Europe (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013). It was probably introduced to the United Kingdom in Roman times (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012) and may have spread throughout western and central Europe around the same time. Its introduced status in the western Mediterranean is more suggested (by its rarity and high food interest) than demonstrated; contrarily, palynological and charcoal studies have strongly suggested the natural presence of the species during the late-glacial period through mainland Italy, southern France, northern Spain, and the Moroccan Atlas (Pignatti 1982, Krebs et al. 2004, E. Vela pers. comm. 2013). It could therefore be considered native throughout much of Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species and is also planted and cultivated.

habitat:
Sweet Chestnut is a hardy deciduous tree that grows up to 35 metres tall. In autumn the female flowers develop into spiny protective husks called capules to deter being eaten by squirrels and other animals, before being shed (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013). It is found in hedgerows, woodland, parks and in montane areas in moderate density or as single trees (Castroviejo et al. 1990). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9260 " Castanea sativa woods".

threats:
Late spring and early autumn frosts can affect flowering (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013). Increased intensity of grazing, logging for wood, and cutting of branches for fruits can negatively affect growth (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 2011). The roots are prone to disease by several species of Phytophthora and fungal infection by Chryphonectria parasitica (chestnut blight) affects grafted trees (Fernández-López and Alla 2003).

conservationAction:
Sweet Chestnut is listed as End angered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Peev and Vladimirov 2011), and is Least Concern in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) a nd the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It occurs in several national parks and Natura 2000 sites throughout its range. The habitat 9260 " Castanea sativa woods" is listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive.

useAndTrade:
This species is widely cultivated for its edible nuts. In Croatia, more than 144,000 kg of fruits were collected between 2005-2011 (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). In Corsica, chestnuts are used to brew beer as they are similar to wheat (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013). In Greece it is used for reforestation on degraded lands for production of wood, nuts and food for all wildlife (Radoglou et al. 2003). Sweet Chestnut leaves and bark contain tannins, which have an astringent action useful in the treatment of bleeding, diarrhoea, etc.; they are also anti-inflammatory, expectorant and tonic (Plants for a Future 2012). An infusion has been used in the treatment of fevers and ague, but is more often used for its efficacy treating convulsive coughs and in other irritable respiratory conditions. The leaves can also be used in the treatment of rheumatism, to ease lower back pains and to relieve stiff muscles and joints, and a decoction is a useful gargle for treating sore throats. The plant is also used in Bach flower remedies (Plants for a Future 2012).


