# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)  The species is widespread in the European region and there are no identified threats to its population. There are no indications at present time of regional population declines from harvesting and habitat modification although these may pose future threats. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lobotes surinamensis is found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Indo-West Pacific Oceans. In the European region this species is found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Portugal to Gibraltar, including the Macaronesian Islands, and throughout the Mediterranean Sea.

population:
There are no data available on the population trend of this species, although it is thought to be common throughout its European range, and assumed to be stable.

habitat:
A sluggish offshore fish that often floats on its side near the surface in the company of floating objects. It occasionally drifts over reefs. Adults of this species inhabit bays, muddy estuaries and lower reaches of large rivers and juveniles may occur in floating Sargassum and mimic a floating leaf. It feeds on benthic crustaceans and small fish. The maximum length is 110 cm (TL) male/unsexed (Robins and Ray 1986); the common length is 80.0 cm TL male/unsexed (Bouhlel 1988); and the maximum published weight is 19.2 kg (IGFA 2001).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for the species, but its distribution may overlap with marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
The species is a popular gamefish in the Eastern Central Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is known from scattered records throughout the Mediterranean and the northern part of the eastern Atlantic. It is rare but is not thought to be threatened at present, and is only occasionally found as a marketed fish. Therefore this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This is primarily an Indo-Pacific species, with scattered records from the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (including Sea of Marmara), where it is rare. In the European region, this species is known in the eastern Atlantic from Bergen, Norway south to the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. There are scattered records of the species throughout much of the Mediterranean, including in the western basin (Fischer et al. 1987) and Greek waters (Kaspiris and Ondrias 1984). It is also present in the Aegean and Mediterranean coastal Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002).

population:
The species is apparently naturally rare in the European region. It has a wide range in the Mediterranean but is only rarely encountered. The adults have been reported only from around the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands in the eastern Atlantic.

habitat:
The species is oceanic, mesopelagic and sometimes epipelagic near the coasts. It is apparently solitary. Reproduction occurs at the end of spring and during summer. It feeds on plankton (Fischer et al. 1987). The species feeds on soft-bodied plankton, including jellyfish, ctenophores and salps, and has an extremely long gut, five to 11 times longer than its standard length (Collette in press). Juveniles go through a dramatic metamorphosis in the shape and sizes of the head and fins leading to the names hystricinella, astrodermella and luvarella for three stages of juveniles (Tyler et al. 1989).

threats:
The species is rarely found in markets (Fischer et al. 1987). There are no known major threats.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in its European range. It is thought to occur in protected areas.

useAndTrade:
This species is rarely present in markets. It is sold fresh or frozen, but can be removed from sale because it is frequently parasitized (Fischer et al. 1987).

redListReviewers:
Allen, D.J., Kemp, J.R., Pollard, D. & Ralph, G.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread throughout the European region. Although it is fished commercially and recreationally, there is no indication of population declines. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region the species is known from the western English Channel south to the Straits of Gibraltar, including the Canaries and Madeira, and throughout much of the Mediterranean; not found in north-central parts, the northern Adriatic, and the northern Aegean. Outside the European region, the species' range extends down the coast of Africa to Senegal, including Cape Verde.

population:
European landings for this species reported to FAO (2014) increased from 1985 to a peak in 2003/4 and have remained stable, though fluctuating, since. If used as a proxy for population size, it is assumed the population is stable. No independent fisheries data are currently available.

habitat:
It is a pelagic, coastal species (Daget and Smith 1986) inhabiting inshore and brackish waters over sand and mixed sand and rocky substrata. Dicentrarchus punctatus occasionally found in rivers (Tortonese 1986). The species regularly visits estuaries to hunt, but mainly juveniles occur in these brackish-fresh waters. The maximum recorded total length (TL) is 70 cm. The diet consists of crustaceans (predominantly shrimps), squid, cuttlefish and fish (Tortonese 1986).

threats:
It is considered an excellent foodfish and is commercially harvested throughout its range, and it is also a popular game fish. The species is likely impacted by coastal development, pollution and destructive fishing practices due to its coastal, estuarine nature. However, these threats would be localized and none have been quantified.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the species but it occurs within marine protected areas, with records from Natura 2000 sites in Spain (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
It is considered an excellent foodfish and is commercially harvested throughout its range by bottom trawls, beach seines, trammel nets and on hook-and-line. The species is also a popular game fish in the eastern Atlantic. It is often used in pond culture and is marketed fresh or frozen.


taxonomicNotes:
This assessment includes M. b. barbatus and M. b. ponticus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is found throughout large parts of European waters, from southern Scandinavia to Gibraltar, Macaronesia, and throughout the Mediterranean. It is heavily fished throughout its European range and this has resulted in the reduced size of individuals landed. However, catches seem to be increasing (although data on effort are not available), it occurs down to depths of over 300 metres, and is very widely distributed throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. The fish is considered Least Concern at present, however there are few quantitative data to determine the level to which the fishery is diminishing the overall population, and this species should be the focus of ongoing monitoring in the European region.

range:
In the European region, the species is distributed from the United Kingdom and occasionally Scandinavia (southern Norway) to Gibraltar in the eastern Atlantic, and throughout the entire Mediterranean and Black seas. It is also present around the Macaronesian archipelago (the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands). Outside the European region, the fish is found along the west African coast, probably south to Senegal. It is found at depths from 10 - 328 m.

population:
Although the species experiences high fishing pressure in the Mediterranean, no decreasing trends in abundance were identified in data from a standardized international Mediterranean bottom-trawl survey from 1994 to 1999 (Tserpes et al. 2002). European landings reported to FAO have steadily increased from the 1980s through to 2007, with minor decreases through to the present with a maximum reported landing of 12,454 tonnes in 2007.

habitat:
A demersal species that is typically found on sandy or muddy substrates to depths of 300 m (and down to 328 m; Mytilineou et al. 2005). It feeds on benthic and sub-benthic invertebrates. The spawning season is spring and in summer. This species is sympatric with M. surmuletus, however there is partial differentiation in habitat use between these two species, with M. barbatus being more abundant in waters between 51 and 200 metres on muddy bottoms, and between 51 and 100 metres on rough bottoms. Mullus barbatus has a clear preference for muddy bottoms, which is especially marked in young individuals (Lombarte et al. 2000). The chemoreceptor system of M. barbatus is well developed, a morphological feature which offers benefits to a species which inhabits waters with a reduced visual field (Lombarte and Aguirre 1997). The species reaches a maximum size of 30 cm (TL), but is more commonly seen from 10 to 22 cm.

threats:
The recent resource reviews by FAO indicate that, in the Mediterranean Sea, all stocks of the species are considered over-exploited. Recommendations have been made to reduce fishing mortality, and to reduce the percentage of small individuals in the catch (Garcia 2011). In the Mediterranean, catches mostly consist of animals less than 15 cm TL which have not yet completed their second year of life (Tserpes et al. 2002). High fishing pressure has been implicated as a cause for the dominance of young individuals in catches (Caddy 1993, Farrugio et al. 1993). The dominance of young individuals implies an extreme vulnerability to recruitment fluctuations in Mullus stocks, which are heavily fished (Farrugio et al. 1993). Protection of spawning and nursery areas seems to be crucial for the conservation of M. barbatus (Tserpes et al. 2002).  There is evidence of endocrine disruption in the species during its reproductive season in highly-polluted sites in the northwestern Mediterranean (Martin-Skilton et al. 2006). Due to high concentrations of Mercury found in this species, consumption of large quantities in parts of its range has been cited as a public health concern (Storelli et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
There are stock assessments that are performed on the species in the Mediterranean. The species-specific catch statistics have not been collected for this species in the CECAF region/northwestern Africa. The species is thought to occur in protected areas. As there are few quantitative data to determine the level to which the fishery is diminishing the overall population, this species should be the focus of ongoing population, harvest, trade and habitat monitoring in the European region.

useAndTrade:
The species is a commercially important target species in the eastern Atlantic, with global catches increasing from 6,938 tonnes in 2003 to 15,671 tonnes by 2012 (FAO 2012). The fish is highly esteemed and is considered an important target species in the eastern Atlantic. They are captured primarily by trawling, but also by trammel nets, hook-and-line, and traps and spears (Golani in press). In the Mediterranean, this highly-desirable species is the main target of many demersal fisheries and is considered heavily fished (Tserpes et al. 2002). The species has been utilized in a number of studies to evaluate the biological effects of chemical pollutants in marine organisms in the Mediterranean, and was chosen as a pilot species for the MED POL II Pilot Program (Mathieu et al. 1991, Lionetto et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Mullus surmuletus is distributed from Norway and the English Chanel to Dakar, Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands, and is found in the entire Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 300 metres over sandy and muddy substrates. This species was considered a valuable bycatch species prior to the 1990s, afterwhich it became a major target for small scale and semi-industrial fisheries. It is one of the most valued demersal fishes in the Mediterranean Sea. It is heavily exploited in the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic. In the Mediterranean most stocks are considered overfished with recommendations to reduce fishing effort by 40 to 60%. Spawning Stock biomass (SSB) has declined continuously since 2000 to the lowest levels in the time series in 2011. In the northeast Atlantic the population of M. surmuletus appears to be increasing due to warming temperatures. This increase in abundance has led to the development of fisheries which target this species, however these fisheries have developed without reference points, and there are frequent species-level misidentifications in catch statistics. Although it is possible that these declines could approach the thresholds needed to enter a threatened category, population trends could not be quantified across the region. Therefore, it is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Mullus surmuletus is distributed from Norway and the English Chanel to Dakar, Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands, and is found in the entire Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 300 metres (D. Golani in press, Vasil'eva 2011).

population:
Population Structure Otolith analysis suggests that the population of striped mullet in Northwest European waters can be divided in three geographical zones: The Bay of Biscay, a mixing zone composed of the Celtic Sea and the Western English Chanel, and finally a northern zone composed of the Eastern English Channel and the North Sea (Benzinou et al. 2013). Within the Mediterranean Basin, there is a genetic division between the eastern and western populations, separated by the siculo-Tunisian Strait (Galarza et al. 2009). There is geographic morphological variation between northern and southern M. surmuletus which may confound efforts to correctly identify this species in the North Sea bottom trawl surveys. Additional confusion may arise from the use of the same common name, "Red Mullet", for both species (Uiblein 2007). Regional Population Information Mediterranean Global landings reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show landings of M. surmuletus have continuously increased from 1950 (1000 tonnes) to a peak in 2007 (18,331 tonnes), gradually decreasing to 14,096 tonnes in 2011. The largest landings are reported from Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and France.  The most recent review of scientific advice for 2014 of the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) provides the following insight: In most regions for which information was available, SSB estimates are not available. The majority of stocks are considered overfished. In the Balaeric Islands this species is overfished. SSB has declined continuously since 2000 to the lowest value of the timeseries in 2009 and remaining low to 2011. Stocks in the Liguirian and north Tyrrhenian Sea are also overfished, with juveniles representing the majority of the catch. This species is among the most valuable demersal resources off the coast of Egypt, and is also overfished in this area. Throughout the Mediterranean basin recommendations are to reduce fishing mortality (F) by 40 to 60% (STECF 2014). Catch-per-unit-effort has steadily decreased from 1968 to 2008 in the Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean. Landings and CPUE remained relatively constant from the 1990s to 2008 (Quetglas et al. 2013). Recent stock assessments indicate that stocks of M. surmuletus are considered overfished, and in some cases over-exploited, in the following Mediterranean sub-regions: GSA06, GSA07, GSA09, GSA05, GSA25 (GFCM 2011). Although M. surmuletus undergoes high fishing pressure in the Mediterranean, there have been no decreasing trends in abundance were identified in data from a standardized international Mediterranean bottom-trawl survey from 1994 to 1999 (Tserpes et al. 2002). International Bottom Trawl Survey (ITBS) data show fluctuating trends from 1992 to 2012. Northeast Atlantic In a meeting addressing taxonomic problems for International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) bottom trawl surveys in the North Sea, several identifications of M. barbatus may have been based on identifications of M. surmuletus. In conclusion, there is need to improve onboard identification using keys and training of participating scientists. This species is thought to be an indicator of climate-related temperature increase in the northern Atlantic. Recent records from 50°N along the Norwegian coast, recorded just south Bergen, in Hardanger Fjord and off coastal Islands in the area. In the Eastern part of the North sea, some small-scale fisheries have been started due to the increased abundance. Also found in Kattegat area. It is still rare further north. The same trends have been reported from Scotland and the Shetland Islands. Temperature increases in the 1930s resulted in similar range expansions (Uiblein 2007). In the Northeast Atlantic there are no reference points/management/limited info/no assessments/no Total Allowable Catch (STECF 2014).

habitat:
Habitat This species is sympatric with M. barbatus, however there is partial differentiation in habitat use between these two species (Lombarte et al. 2000). Off the island of Majorca, the highest concentration of species is found between 30 and 70 metres depth, replaced in deeper water by M. barbatus (Reñoneset al. 1995), a difference in bathymetrical distribution which has also been recorded along the Catalonian coast (Sfinchez et al. 1983) and in Israel (Golani and Galil 1991). It is found over sandy and muddy substrates (Gharbi and Ktari 1981). Life History Mullus surmuletus reaches a maximum size of 40 cm, however it is more commonly seen at 10 to 22 cm SL. Off the Island of Majorca, in the Northwestern Mediterranean, 50% of males and females mature at 15 and 16.8 cm, corresponding to an age of 1. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 32.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 15.5 cm to 17.8 cm TL and for males ranges from 11.9 cm to 16.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).All individuals are immature under 13 cm, and are mature after reaching 26 cm. Otolith age reading indicated that the population exploited in the trawl fishery off this island consisted of six age classes, including a very high proportion of individuals between 0 and 4 years old. Females grow relatively slowly, and attain greater asymptotic sizes, than males. The months of maximum reproductive activity are from March to May (Reñones et al. 1995). Migrations to shallow waters (from 10 to 40 meters in depth) by mature adults occur in the spring and summer, followed by a concentration of juveniles close to the coast in summer and autumn. Juveniles recruit in shallow waters and move to deeper waters as they grow (Gharbi and Ktari 1981). Off the Canary Islands, total length ranged from 12 to 33 cm, mainly between 15 and 21 cm. Males ranged from 14 to 26 cm and females from 14 to 33 cm. Females dominated the larger size-classes (>18 cm). The overall ratio of males to females was 1:2.3. The reproductive period extended from February to May, spawning peaking in March and April. The total length at 50% maturity was 16.6 cm for the whole population. The length-mass relationship for all individuals can be described by the parameters a = 0.0074 and b = 3.1826. Fish aged 0–8 years were present in the samples. The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth equation obtained for all individuals were: L∞ = 35.71 cm and k = 0.22·year−1. Significant differences were found in the growth parameters between males and females. The rates of total mortality Z, natural mortality M and fishing mortality F were 1.25, 0.55 and 0.70·year−1 respectively. The estimated total length at first capture was 15.74 cm (Pajuelo et al. 1997). In the eastern Mediterranean, in Egyptian waters, M. surmuletus has a longevity of 5 years, however over 70% of fishes captured were under 2 years old (Mehanna 2009). In the Northeast Atlantic, in the eastern English Channel, females grew significantly faster and reached a larger size at age than males. Length at 50% maturity was 16.9 and 16.2 cm, respectively, for males and females, corresponding to an estimated age of 1 year for both sexes. The spawning period was from May to July (Mahé et al. 2013).

threats:
Mullus surmuletus is a commercial species throughout its range. It is a major target for small scale and semi-industrial fisheries, and is heavily exploited in the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic (Vogiatzi et al. 2012). Despite being taken as bycatch in the reason prior to the 1990s, and being directly targeted in the region since the 1990s, Mullus surmuletus is a non-quota species in the Northeast Atlantic (Benzinou et al. 2013). In the Mediterranean, 2 of the 3 managed stocks are considered to be over-exploited, and recommendations have been made to not increase fishing mortality, to reduce fishing mortality, and to reduce the percentage small individuals in the catch. In the Mediterranean, catches mostly consist of animals less than 15 cm TL which have not yet completed their second year of life (Tserpes et al. 2002). High fishing pressure has been implicated as a cause for the dominance of young individuals in catches (Caddy 1993, Farrugio et al. 1993). The dominance of young individuals implies an extreme vulnerability to recruitment fluctuations in Mullus stocks, which are heavily fished (Farrugio et al. 1993). Protection of spawning and nursery areas seems to be crucial for the conservation of M. surmuletus (Tserpes et al. 2002). Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and as such Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species. As such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes. There are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40 to 56% of the catch taken in waters < 150 m) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are overexploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013). Invasive species: Upeneus moluccensis (eastern Aegean to Libya) and Upeneus pori (eastern Levant) are Lessepsian invaders in the Mediterranean. In the eastern Levant, U. moluccensis is commercially important, while U. pori is caught in large numbers but due to its small size, is not commercially important (Golani ).

conservationAction:
Mullus surmuletus is a well-researched and managed species in the Mediterranean. Stock assessments are performed regularly by sub-region in the Mediterranean basin. It is well researched in the Northeast Atlantic as well, although relative to the Mediterranean it has received less research attention. It is found in Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). There is a need for more research and monitoring of population trends in this species. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Mullus surmuletus was considered a valuable bycatch species prior to the 1990s, afterwhich it became a major target for small scale and semi-industrial fisheries. It is heavily exploited in the Mediterranean and North East Atlantic (Vogiatzi et al. 2012). The Bay of Biscay and Eastern English Channel are the two main areas where this species is caught in the Northeast Atlantic (Benzinou et al. 2012). The increase of catches in the Northeast Atlantic is primarily due to French trawlers, and supplemented by the Netherlands and United Kingdom Fleets (Mahé et al. 2005).In the Mediterranean, this highly-desirable species is the main target of many demersal fisheries and is considered heavily fished (Tserpes et al. 2002). Mullus surmuletus is caught primarily by trammel nets and by trawl (Golani in press). Mullus surmuletus is on of the main target species of the trawling fishery along the continental shelf off the Island of Majorca, in the North-western Mediterranean (Reñones et al. 1995).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cubiceps capensis is widely distributed. It appears to be rare, however this is likely an artifact of collecting (Bill Smith-Vaniz pers. comm. 2014) and there is no species-specific population information available. It is taken as by-catch in some fisheries, and is esteemed for food.  Although it is not often encountered, it is distributed circumglobally and is, therefore, listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cubiceps capensis is circumglobal in tropical and temperate seas from 40oN to 35oS (Haedrich 2002, Haedrich in press). In the South Pacific, C. capensis is a temperate water species (Ahlstrom et al. 1976). In the eastern Atlantic this species occurs off South Africa (Butler 1979). There are a few records from the Mediterranean Sea (Heemstra 1995).  It is generally a pelagic-oceanic species (Reide 2004) but has been found as deep as 140 m (Parin and Piotrovsky 2004).

population:
Cubiceps capensis is rarely seen (Haedrich 2002). This species is known to be rare (Ahlstrom et al. 1979). There are 52 occurrence records and 14 museum records (lots typically contain single specimens, although some have up to 4)  for C. capensis (Accessed through Fishnet2 Portal 2012 November).  There are limited data on the population structure and dynamics of this fish.  Although it is circumglobal in all tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans, it is rarely seen (Haedrich 2002).

habitat:
Cubiceps capensis can reach 100 cm in length and  (Haedrich 2002). Cubiceps capensis is thought to be pelagic, mesopelagic, and epibenthic deep-water fish of warm and temperate seas. Often this fish is known to frequent submarine canyons by day, but are thought to come towards the surface at night (Haedrich 1990). Juveniles tend to occur in uppers surface waters while adults occur in deep water (Haedrich 2002). The largest individual on record measures 101 cm total length (TL) (Scott and Scott 1988).Larvae occur in the plankton. Juveniles and mature fish often associate with loose but usually very large schools, frequently associating with a pelagic medusa or floating object like boxes or barrels (Haedrich 2002). Cubiceps capensis feeds primarily on salps, jelly fish, crustaceans, and small fishes (Haedrich 2002, Gorelova et al. 1994). The spawning period, fecundity and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood. 

threats:
Cubiceps capensis is taken as by-catch in a number of fisheries, including the European purse seine tuna fishery (Amande et al. 2008). There is no directed fishery for C. capensis in Area 31, but specimens are caught occasionally by sports fishermen and are highly esteemed for food in some places (Haedrich 2002). However, there are only minor fisheries that actively fish for this species, and separate catch rate statistics for this species are not available. There are no other known threats towards this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for Cubiceps capensis. Its range intersects with a number of marine protected areas but, because of its depth preference, it is unknown if C. capensis is actually afforded any protection by these designated areas.  Research into the population size and trends, ecology and early life history, as well as the possible threats is needed for this species. Cubiceps capensis was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no fishery for Nomeidae species in the western central Atlantic (Haedrich 2002). Cubiceps capensis is used in minor commercial fishing and is an excellent food fish (Haedrich 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Cubiceps gracilis is widely distributed in tropical and temperate seas. It has a relatively diverse diet. Although it is sometimes taken as coincidental bycatch, there are no indications that the population is being depleted or decreasing. There are no species-specific threats. It is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Cubiceps gracilis is a northern, peripheral species. It is widespread in warm and temperate waters north of 30oN in the western Atlantic, and 12oN (Canary Current) in the eastern North Atlantic. It has recently been reported from the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean Sea (Filiz 2007, Golani et al. 2006).  Cubiceps gracilis is found to depths 75 meters (Butler 1979, Haedrich in press).

population:
Cubiceps gracilis is abundant in museum collections (52 lots), and lots typically contain one to two individuals, although several lots contain up to 5 individuals (Accessed through FishNet2 Portal 2013 February). IBTS trawl survey in the Gulf of Cadiz: it appears in 3 surveys, with 10 individuals ranging in length from 3 to 11 cm total length (TL) were captured. The survey was undertaken from 1993 through 2013 (Battaglia et al. 2013).

habitat:
Cubiceps gracilis is an oceanic, epipelagic species which is found in warm and temperate waters. The maximum recorded size of this species is 107 cm total length (TL) , but it is common up to 18 cm (Bauchot 1987).  It likely feeds mainly on salps (Gorelova 1994). Cubiceps gracilis is an important prey item for many commercial species and top predators, including bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and common dolphin (Battaglia et al. 2013, Spitz et al. 2010). Cubiceps gracilis reaches first maturity of 7.5 cm (Haedrich 1967). The spawning, fecundity and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
Cubiceps gracilis is sometimes taken as by-catch (Haedrich 1990), but it does not appear that it is adversely affecting the population at current levels.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. gracilis. There are numerous marine protected areas within its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Cubiceps gracilis was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized. It is sometimes taken coincidentally as bycatch.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is known only from the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Nomeus gronovii is known from the Azores only. It has a circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters in all oceans (Haedrich 2002). In the western Atlantic it is known from Newfoundland (Canada) south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along South America to southern Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic it has been recorded from Morocco to Senegal and Sao Tome Island. In the Indo-Pacific it is known from along East Africa, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the Hawaiian Islands. In the eastern Pacific it is known from southern California (USA) to Peru. This is a typically surface-dwelling species found offshore to 1,000 m depth (May and Maxwell 1986, Mundy 2005).

population:
There are 345 occurrence records and 402 museum records for this species (Froese and Pauly 2011, Accessed through Fishnet2 portal, www.fishnet2.net, 3 October 2012).

habitat:
This species is oceanic and juveniles are associated with Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis) (Kells and Carpenter 2011, Jenkins 1983). Juveniles are found in the surface of Sargassum weed. The maximum length for Nomeus gronovii is 40 cm (Haedrich 2002).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures.

redListContributors:
Dooley, J., Collette, B.B., Aiken, K.A., Marechal, J., Pina Amargos, F., Kishore, R. & Singh-Renton, S.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores only. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores only (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is circumglobally distributed throughout all subtropical to temperate oceans.  The depth range is zero to 1,281 m.

habitat:
This is an epi- to mesopelagic, open-ocean dwelling species. Juveniles are known to live among jellyfish tentacles. Little is known on its life history.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Pholis gunnellus is widely distributed in the Northern Atlantic Ocean. It appears to be common in European and adjacent waters. There have been no confirmed population declines in P. gunnellus, and there are no known major threats. Therefore, P. gunnellus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pholis gunnellus is found along both coasts of the Northern Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, it is found from Labrador, Canada to Delaware Bay, USA (Robins and Ray 1986). In the northeastern Atlantic, P. gunnellus is known from the Kanin Peninsula southward to La Rochelle (including White Sea, North Sea and Baltic). It is also known from Iceland, but not eastern Greenland, Spitzbergen or Novaya Zemlya (Makushok 1986). Pholis gunnellus is associated with depths of up to 100 m.

population:
Pholis gunnellus is considered common on either side of the Atlantic. Genetic data suggest that lineages on either side of the Atlantic are on separate evolutionary trajectories (Hickerson and Cunningham 2006). Pholis gunnellus is common in European and adjacent regional waters (H. Heessen pers. comm 2014). In the western Atlantic, there has been little change in the relative abundance of P. gunnellus from 1970 to 1990; it is still considered a common species in the Gulf of Maine (Steneck et al. 2004). In the western Atlantic, individuals ranging in age from 0-3 years old were most common; however, some as old as 6 years were found (Cheetham and Fives 1990).

habitat:
Habitat Pholis gunnellus can be found to depths of 100 m or more in the winter (Makushok 1986); however, it is typically found at depths of 0 to 30 m shallow water, where it can be found along the seashore and in tide pools. It is sometimes found out of water under rocks or seaweeds (Martin and Bridges 1999). It breathes air when out of water (Martin and Bridges 1999). The maximum recorded length of this species is 25 cm standard length (SL) (Makushok 1986). Ecology Pholis gunnellus feeds on small crustaceans, polychaetes, mollusks and fish eggs (Flintegard 1987), as well as worms (Dippers 1987). The Rock Gunnel is an important food source for a variety of seabirds, piscivorous fishes, and mammals (Shorty and Gannon 2013).   Reproduction Spawning occurs from November-January. Females lay 80-200 eggs in a large ball under a stone or in an empty bivalve shell (Muus and Nielsen 1999), which is closely guarded until they hatch (Flintegard 1987). It establishes specific spawning areas under rocks and males defend the eggs against predation (Bombail et al. 2001).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to P. gunnellus. It typically inhabits rocky and coarse substrates, and is fairly small, so there are no direct fisheries and it is rarely caught as bycatch.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for P. gunnellus. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
Due to its relative ease of capture, P. gunnellus is often used as a bioindicator. It is of no interest to commercial fishing industries, but it is found within the commercial aquarium trade.


taxonomicNotes:
The degree of genetic separation between Polyprion americanus populations in the Atlantic, and those occurring in the southern Pacific (Australia and New Zealand) is similar to the degree of separation seen between P. americanus and congener P. oxygenios. Given ongoing developments in genetic sequencing, further examination may re-define Polyprion systematics.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Polyprion americanus (Wreckfish) is widely distributed, but populations are relatively disjunct; populations in the North Atlantic appear to be isolated from those in the southern hemisphere. The majority of global landings (79%) are declared from the Food and Agriculture Organization's Northeast Atlantic fishing zone. Within the Northeast Atlantic, landings are declared from the following ICES regions, in order of decreasing landings in 2012: VIII (Bay of Biscay), X (Azores), VII (Irish Sea, West of Ireland, Porcupine Bank, Eastern and Western English Channel, Bristol Channel, Celtic Sea North and South, and Southwest of Ireland - East and West), IX (Portuguese waters), and VI (Rockall, Northwest Coast of Scotland, and the West of Scotland). Within the assessment zone, this species does not appear to be managed in any of the areas where it is landed, and it does not undergo stock assessment. There are no universal signs of population decline in the northeast Atlantic. Declines in landings and/or CPUE have been documented in some regions (particularly from off Portugal, some gear types in the Azores, Madeira), but stable in others (other types of gears in the Azores, Bay of Biscay). Data from the western Atlantic indicate that this species is long-lived (80+ years) and late-maturing (10+ years); the generation length is likely at least 45 years. It has recently been established that P. americanus forms spawning aggregations, which increases its intrinsic vulnerability to overexploitation; however, little data are available as to the location of spawning aggregations in the northeastern Atlantic and only two spawning aggregations have been reported from off the coast of Brazil. Polyprion americanus may be reproducing in the northeastern Atlantic, but further research on the reproduction and life history is recommended. There have been documented commercial extinctions of Wreckfish in Bermuda, suggesting that island stocks may be particularly vulnerable. In the Northeast Atlantic, a recent fishing moratorium at Condor Seamount, Azores Archipelago will provide an opportunity to study the responses of exploited species, including P. americanus (which was among the most important commercial species taken from the region), to reduced fishing mortality. It seems extremely likely, given the continued and recent increases in exploitation, that the population of Wreckfish will continue to decline in the near future, and that freshly discovered stocks will decline rapidly, if fishing is not controlled. Therefore, this species is assessed as Near Threatened Conservation Dependent, as the intrinsically vulnerable population in the northeastern Atlantic is likely to experience substantial declines in population if conservation measures are not enacted. 

range:
Polyprion americanus has a widespread but discontinuous range with an anti-tropical distribution (Ball et al. 2000). It is known primarily from the Atlantic Ocean, but also ranges into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. In the southern hemisphere, it is known from South America (Uruguay, Argentina and Brazil) to New Zealand, including the St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands in the western Indian Ocean (Peres 2000). In the western Atlantic, it is found in Newfoundland, Canada and the Gulf of Maine to Florida, USA. In the eastern Atlantic, it ranges from Norway to South Africa including the Mediterranean (Ball et al. 2000), Canary Islands, Madeira, Cape Verde, and Tristan da Cunh (Sedberry et al. 1996, Wirtz et al. 2013). This species is associated with depths of between 40 and 600 m (Robins and Ray 1986).

population:
Population Structure Evidence from mtDNA indicates that the sub-population in the north Atlantic is probably isolated from that in the southern hemisphere (Sedberry et al. 1996). There may also be a sub-population within the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (Sedberry et al. 1999). Subsequent genetic work using micro-satellites has revealed three genetically-distinct P. americanus stocks: The North Atlantic and Mediterranean, Brazil, and the South Pacific (Australia and New Zealand) (Ball et al. 2000). The degree of genetic separation between P. americanus populations in the Atlantic, and those occurring in the southern Pacific (Australia and New Zealand) is similar to the degree of separation seen between P. americanus and congener P. oxygenios. Given ongoing developments in genetic sequencing, further examination may re-define Polyprion systematics. Temperature profiles and current patterns are believed to prevent significant gene flow between these three sub-populations (Wakefield et al. 2013). FAO landing statistics summary Landings are declared from the following FAO regions, in order of decreasing landings declared in 2011: Northeast Atlantic (79% of total), eastern central Atlantic, Western Central Atlantic, Mediterranean/Black Sea, Northwest Atlantic, Southeast Atlantic, Indian Ocean. The overall trend in landings is one of increase with fluctuations throughout the time series, with a peak of 2,296 tonnes declared in 2008. Portugal and Spain have reported significant (i.e., 50 metric tons per year) catches of wreckfish in recent decades; France and the UK have reported lesser amounts. (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998; ICES Historical catch Statistics 1950-2010).  Landings declared to ICES Wreckfish are declared from the following ICES subareas, in order of decreasing landings in 2012: VIII (Bay of Biscay), X (Azores), VII (Irish Sea, West of Ireland, Porcupine Bank, Eastern and Western English Channel, Bristol Channel, Celtic Sea North and South, and Southwest of Ireland - East and West), IX (Portuguese waters), and VI (Rockall, Northwest Coast of Scotland and North Ireland, (the Northwest Coast of Scotland and North Ireland also known as the West of Scotland). Over all ICES areas, landings have increased steadily from 39 mt in 1980 to a peak of 1,217 in 2007, followed by a decline to about 482 mt in 2012 (ICES 2013). However, as effort has likely a ICES subarea VIII (Bay of Biscay) Wreckfish is landed as a deep-water by-catch species in trawl fisheries targeting hake, megrim, anglerfish and Nephops. It is taken as by-catch along with Molva spp., Phycis phycis, Physcis blennoides, Pagellus bogaraveo, Conger conger, Helicolenus dactylopterus, and Beryx spp. ICES Subarea X (Azores)  Wreckfish is among the 8 commercially most important species landed in handline and longline fisheries (representing 8 to 10% of total catch), and is one of the main targets of relatively large vessels (12 to 31 meters length) that operate predominantly on offshore seamounts between 3 and 200 nautical miles away from the islands. Fishing depths in this region are up to 700 meters. The mean CPUE using handlines has increased from 1999 to 2009, while the CPUE in long-line fisheries has declined. Informal evidence indicates that the abundance of P. americanus is far lower now as compared to in 1962, when the Condor Seamount was first discovered and named. The abundance of P. americanus in the region is known to fluctuate from year to year, as reflected in good and bad years in catches. In 2007, 2008 and 2009 catches were the highest observed since 1980. An important component of the Azores population is thought to recruit from the western Atlantic coast. There is a regular annual recruitment of juvenile/pre-adults (50 to 90 cm length) of P. americanus from outside areas, which triggers regular, intense harvesting. Similar patterns have been observed at Madeira island. There is a fishing moratorium at Condor Seamount from 2010 to 2014 (Menezes et al. 2013). Unreported catches for this species were <20% of official statistics (Pham et al. 2013). Outside the Azorean EEZ, there are trawl fisheries targeting this species. The CPUE for Wreckfish in the Azores longline survey fluctuated greatly with no overall trend between 1995 and 2011. Mean length showed no trend between 1995 and 2011. No data other than landings are available to assess stocks of this species (ICES 2013). ICES subareas VI and VII Annual landings of Wreckfish from the Azores climbed slowly from around 50 to 100 metric tonnes (mt) in the 1970s and 1980s to a peak of 425 mt in 1994. In 1995, the catch dropped rapidly to 246 mt and was down to 139 mt by 1998. As the Wreckfish is an incidental catch for a mixed-species demersal fishery (which has continued to produce increased landings), it seems the decline is a reflection of decreasing Wreckfish stocks. The decline from 1994 to 1998 was 67% (data from Sedberry et al. 1999, ICES Marine Data Centre 2001). In Madeira, the Wreckfish fishery developed slowly with landings rising from 5 metric tonnes in 1988 to a peak 55 mt in 1994. Landings then dropped 51% to around 27 mt in 1996. This was at least partly due to a drop in the number of fishing trips (by around 45%) but as the catch per trip also dropped (by around 15%) there may have been an actual drop in Wreckfish stocks. For this fishing zone, the reduction in Wreckfish stocks is assumed to be 15%.  Annual landings data are also available for Northeast Portuguese waters (FAO Area 27). As Area 27 includes the Azores, ICES landings data from the Azores was subtracted from Area 27 landings data to give figures for Northeast Portuguese waters (except the Azores). Annual landings rose from 58 mt in 1986 to 283 mt in 1989, peaked at 406 and 373 mt in 1994 and 1995, respectively, and declined steadily to 165 mt in 1998 (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998; ICES Marine Data Centre 2001). The decline between 1994 and 1998 was 59%. The western Atlantic subpopulation has shown similar declines in CPUE and total landings. It is not possible to estimate population size at present. A minimum figure could be derived by estimating numbers of fish from 1998 landings data for all countries for which is this data are available, but this would likely represent a vast underestimate; a reasonable maximum figure is not possible to estimate as good data on Wreckfish stocks is not available for many localities within the known range. It also seems likely, as the species inhabits deep water, that there are also stocks yet to be discovered. It may be possible to make a crude approximation by working out the area of potential habitat based on bathymetry and the known range of the animal and multiplying this by population estimates from the better studied fishing grounds. Data from the US fishery (1985—97), Brazilian fishery (1989 to 98 with some missing years), and Portuguese and Spanish fisheries (1984—1998) show no fluctuations above or approaching order of magnitude that cannot be explained by known fishing effort (data from FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998; Sedberry et al. 1999; Peres 2000). Large annual fluctuations would be unusual for an animal as long-lived and slow to reach sexual maturity as the Wreckfish.  It seems extremely likely, given the continued and recent increases in exploitation, that the population of Wreckfish will continue to decline in the near future, and that freshly discovered stocks will decline rapidly, if fishing is not controlled.

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology In Brazil, wreckfish are found on irregular substrate, late juveniles are found from 60 to 250 m depth while adults are deeper at 150 to 500 m (Peres 2000). On the Charleston Bump off South Carolina, most wreckfish are taken over areas of extensive high relief but some are also taken over flat hard bottom (Sedberry et al. 1999). Wreckfish are also found in association with deep-water Lophelia coral reefs (Sulak et al. 2003). The extremes of depth range reported for demersal fish are 42 to 1,000 m (Sedberry et al. 1994). Large individuals are generally caught at depths exceeding 350 meters. Wreckfish inhabit demersal habitats where temperature ranges from 6.0 to 16.3 ºC (data from four localities, Sedberry et al. 1999). Longline investigations were carried out over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at depths of 400 to 1,300 meters revealed that P. americanus was characteristic of the depth interval ranging from 400 to 900 meters (ICES 1998). The maximum recorded length of a Wreckfish is 210 cm (Robins and Ray 1986). More precise estimates of the extent of occurrence (EOO) could be estimated by calculating the area of potential habitat using the information in Sedberry et al. (1999). The area of occupancy (AOO) would probably be the spawning grounds as this species aggregates to spawn (Peres 2000). However, there seems to be no more information than this available by which to estimate the area of spawning grounds. The EOO and AOO are assumed to be stable as wreckfish inhabit deep rocky reefs, where are not thought to fluctuate in size or quality, or to be in decline (e.g., in Brazil: M. Peres pers. comm. 2001). Diet Juveniles are pelagic to a length of around 50 to 60 cm and associate with floating seaweeds and wreckage (Sedberry et al. 1999). In the Mediterranean, pelagic juveniles occur from June-August (Deudero and Morales-Nin 2000). Pelagic juveniles feed on teleost fishes, particularly Trachurus species and as well as other items (Deudero and Morales-Nin 2000). Adults feed on squids and mesopelagic fishes (Weaver and Sedberry 2001). Life History and Reproduction Polyprion americanus may form spawning aggregations. Spawning aggregations form in specific sites off the coast of Brazil (Peres 2000); however, as of 2003, no further sites have been identified (IUCN Redlist). Polyprion americanus males are first mature at 74.9 cm (9 years) and are all mature by 80 cm (10.9 years). Females are first mature at 77.9 cm (10.4 years) and all are mature by 90 cm TL (15.2 years). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 131 cm TL and the length at maturity is 90 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).The reproductive season of P. americanus off the coast of Brazil was determined to be April-September. Wreckfish aggregate to spawn in deep waters (>300 meters) off southern Brazil, especially north of Rio Grande, although it is possible that some fish spawn in pairs or small groups along the entire continental slope. The relatively large testes of male P. americanus are another indication that this species is an aggregate spawner (Peres and Klippel 2003). Generation time was calculated from age population structure data obtained from research cruises off Southern Brazil (Peres 2000) and other data about the fishery (Peres and Haimovici 1998, Peres 2000). This generation time is calculated from an exploited fishery; however, this is consistent with stocks in the USA which were monitored shortly after exploitation began and where most fish harvested have been between 8 and 12 years old (Sedberry et al. 1999).  The maximum observed age of wreckfish (through otoliths) from a study in Brazil was 81 years for males and 64 years for females Peres (2000). However, the oldest fish of more than 500 sampled from the US fishing grounds (Blake Plateau off South Carolina) was just 39 years (Vaughan et al. 2001). In the US fishery, most fish >100 cm total length (TL) were female (Sedberry et al. 1994). Different fisheries may consistently land fishes of differing size ranges (Sedberry et al. 1999).

threats:
Intrinsic vulnerability Wreckfish is a long-lived (80+ years), late maturing (10+ years) species which is found in deepwater in restricted hard-bottom localities. It is vulnerable to sequential depletion. Fisheries The majority of declared landings (79%) originate in the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone. Wreckfish are declared from the following ICES subareas, in order of decreasing landings in 2012: VIII (Bay of Biscay), X (Azores), VII (Irish Sea, West of Ireland, Porcupine Bank, Eastern and Western English Channel, Bristol Channel, Celtic Sea North and South, and Southwest of Ireland - East and West), IX (Portuguese waters), and VI (Rockall, Northwest Coast of Scotland and North Ireland, (the Northwest Coast of Scotland and North Ireland also known as the West of Scotland) (ICES landings database). There is increasing interest in this species on both coasts of the Atlantic due to the quality of its flesh, large size, and and high market price; While it is managed in the Western Atlantic (USA and Brazil), there do not appear to be any species-specific regulations in the Eastern Atlantic. The US fishery for wreckfish only started commercially following the chance discovery of stocks large enough to support commercial fishing off South Carolina in 1987. The numbers of fishing boats involved rose rapidly and there was concern by both biologists and fishermen that the fishery might not be sustainable (Sedberry et al. 1999). In general, large fish species that are slow to grow and mature are often poorly equipped to withstand intensive fishing. Although there was no obvious decrease in the length-frequency distributions of Wreckfish caught off the US from 1989 to 1997 that would indicate stock declines, this may partly be due to the life-history of the animal. Juveniles are pelagic up to a large size (60 cm) before they descend and become demersal so it may be a number of years before fishing pressure would be reflected in decreasing fish sizes and by then it might be too late to initiate a management plan (Sedberry et al. 1999). Current management in the USA assumes that the Wreckfish stocks on the US fishing ground will not be affected by fishing elsewhere, but as the source of the pelagic juveniles is not known, this may not be true (Sedberry et al. 1999). European fish hooks are frequently found in fish caught from US waters. This would seem to indicate the migration of large Wreckfish across great distances (Sedberry et al. 1999). Finally, thousands of pelagic juveniles are being caught by pelagic tuna drift-net fisheries in the northern Atlantic (Sedberry et al. 1999) which may affect fisheries of adults in the future.  The case of Bermuda, where catches dropped rapidly after only being sustained for two years seems to show that high levels of fishing pressure (through use of bottom longlines in the case of Bermuda) can cause commercial extinctions of wreckfish, at least in island habitats (Sedberry et al. 1999).  The following data on Wreckfish fisheries exist in the literature. Declines in landings and CPUE are assumed to reflect declines in Wreckfish stocks unless it is known that fishing effort has decreased or other factors are involved.  1) The Wreckfish fishery has existed in Brazil since 1973. The number of vessels involved increased from 10 in the 1970s to more than 35 in 1997 and there were technological advances in the gears used. The only estimated annual landings data available are 2,772 t (1989), 2,150 mt (1990), 1,674 t (1991), 2,291 t (1994) and 1,080 t (1995). CPUE declined 90% (0.72 to 0.073 kg/day/hook) off Southern Brazil from 1989/91 to 1997/98 (Peres 2000). This fishery targets spawning aggregations thus increasing the susceptibility of the animal to overfishing.  2) Following a maximum Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 2 million pounds annually, imposed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council in 1990/91, the estimated catch from the USA showed a relatively steady decline from 1,270,557 pounds (38,205 fish) in 1992 to 157,299 pounds (4,958 fish) in 2000 (Sedberry et al. 1999, Vaughan 2001). This is a drop of 87%. This is believed to be due to a decrease in fishing effort (G. Sedberry pers. comm. 2001) as the number of boats targeting wreckfish has declined (from 46 in 1992 to 3 in 2000, a drop of 93%) while the catch per hour has not (Hardy 2001) and the mean lengths of caught fish have not declined (Vaughan 2001). Fishing for wreckfish off the USA requires considerable skill and only the most dedicated fishers have remained. Wreckfish stocks seem large enough to maintain the current fishery (Sedberry et al. 1999).  3) A small wreckfish fishery off Bermuda developed rapidly from 1979 (25 fish) to 1981 (369 fish) and 1982 (311) fish. Catches declined sharply from 1982 (311 fish weighed roughly 4.7 mt) to 1983 (1.2 mt) and remained below 1.5 mt over the 13 years. In 1996 and 1997, just 6 and 9 fish were caught. The decline in landings from 1981 to 1996 (roughly 5.1 mt to 0.2 t) is a drop of 96% (Sedberry et al. 1999). Rapid declines were associated with the introduction of longlines into what had been a vertical line fishery.  4) Annual landings of wreckfish from the Azores (off Portugal) climbed slowly from around 50 to 100 mt in the 1970s and 1980s to a peak of 425 mt 1994. In 1995 the catch dropped rapidly to 246 mt and was down to 139 mt by 1998. As the Wreckfish is an incidental catch for a mixed-species demersal fishery which has continued to produce increased landings, it seems the decline is a reflection of decreasing Wreckfish stocks. The decline from 1994 to 1998 was 67% (data from Sedberry et al. 1999, ICES Marine Data Centre 2001).  5) In Madeira (off Portugal) the Wreckfish fishery developed slowly with landings rising from 5 metric tonnes in 1988 to a peak 55 mt in 1994. Landings then dropped 51% to around 27 mt in 1996. This was at least partly due to a drop in the number of fishing trips (by around 45%) but as the catch per trip also dropped (by around 15%) there may have been an actual drop in Wreckfish stocks. For this location the reduction in wreckfish stocks is assumed to be 15%.  6) Annual landings data are also available for Northeast Portuguese waters (FAO Area 27). As Area 27 includes the Azores, ICES landings data, which lists the Azores landings separately was subtracted from Area 27 landings data to give figures for Northeast Portuguese waters (except the Azores). Annual landings here rose from 58 mt in 1986 to 283 mt in 1989, peaked at 406 and 373 mt in 1994 and 1995, respectively, and declined steadily to 165 mt in 1998 (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998; ICES Marine Data Centre, 2001). The decline between 1994 and 1998 was 59%. Polyprion americanus are also landed at Corner Rise Seamount, a system of 21 peaks which has been exploited by deep-water commercial fishing since the 1970s. 7) In Europe, only Portugal and Spain have reported significant (i.e., 50 metric tons per year) catches of wreckfish in recent decades. Annual landings for Spain in FAO Area 27 remained below 50 mt from 1984 to 1995, rising to 115 mt in 1996 and 265 and 250 mt in 1997 and 1998 respectively (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998). No further information on this fishery could be located, including whether these levels of exploitation are sustainable.  8) Angola's annual landings of wreckfish stayed below 15 metric tons from 1984-1993. Landings rose sharply thereafter, from 66 mt in 1994 to 235 mt in 1995 and 1,002 and 1,326 mt in 1995 and 1997 respectively (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998). No further information on this fishery could be located, including whether these levels of exploitation are sustainable. See note on systematics above regarding the taxonomic status of Polyprion americanus in southern Africa. Landings in South Africa include Polyprion oxegenios (some from South Atlantic seamounts and islands) and a species referred to as Polyprion americanus (P. Heemstra pers. comm.).  9) In New Zealand, catch data for Polyprion americanus and Polyprion oxygeneios (hapuku) are lumped together. Wreckfish have been caught in relatively small quantities by the early Maori, and then by European settlers from the mid 19th century. The first decades of the commercial fishery for both species of Polyprion are undocumented, but it was well developed with a combined catch of over 1,500 mt by the 1930s (Paul 2000). Management of both Polyprion species (together) is by Quota Management System, introduced in 1986, involving Total Allowable Catches (2,179-2,181 mt annually, 1996-2000). Landings of wreckfish alone for the 1990s are estimated to be in the region of 200-400 mt. (L. Paul pers. comm. 2001). Only a few fishers specifically target the two species although many fishers have small quotas to cover Wreckfish caught incidentally in many fisheries targeting other species (L. Paul pers. comm. 2001). Stocks are probably overfished, but there has been very little fisheries research carried out to verify the nature of this (C. Roberts pers. comm. 2000).  10) Both Wreckfish (known in Australia as Bass grouper) and Hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) are taken in the blue eye (Hyperoglyphe antartica) fishery off south east Australia. Records of commercial catches since the mid-1980s indicate that catches of Hapuku and Bass grouper in this fishery, which are recorded together, are low, between 10 and 40 t a year, Hapuku being by far the major species. There is no indication as to whether numbers of Wreckfish are stable or in decline although some research has recently been initiated which should provide some answers in the future (Pascale Baelde pers. comm. April 2001).  Caribbean:  Following a maximum Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 2 million pounds annually, imposed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council in 1990/91, the estimated catch from the USA showed a relatively steady decline from 1,270,557 pounds (38,205 fish) in 1992 to 157,299 pounds (4,958 fish) in 2000 (Sedberry et al. 1999, Vaughan 2001). This is a drop of 87%. This is believed to be due to a decrease in fishing effort (Sedberry pers. comm. 2001) as the number of boats targeting wreckfish has declined (from 46 in 1992 to 3 in 2000, a drop of 93%) while the catch per hour has not (Hardy 2001) and the mean lengths of caught fish have not declined (Vaughan 2001). Fishing for wreckfish off the USA requires considerable skill and only the most dedicated fishers have remained. Wreckfish stocks seem large enough to maintain the current fishery (Sedberry et al. 1999).  In summary, fisheries specifically targeting Wreckfish have only developed since the 1970s, apparently because of the technological advances in fishing needed to target a large animal living in deep waters. Where fisheries have suddenly targeted wreckfish specifically (Brazil, Bermuda, Portugal), the fishery has reached a peak and then gone into decline within a few years.

conservationAction:
In the northeastern Atlantic, a recent fishing moratorium at Condor Seamount, Azores Archipelago will provide an opportunity to study the responses of exploited species, including P. americanus (which was among the most important commercial species taken from the region), to reduced fishing mortality (Menezes and Giacomello 2013).  In the USA, the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council put fishing regulations into place in 1990 and 1991. These cover the area between 3-200 miles off the coasts of North and South Carolina, and East Florida (the area bounded by 30 and 33º N latitude). Commercial fishers must have a Wreckfish permit and Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) shares to fish. There is no recreational fishery in the USA. The Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of Wreckfish by ITQ holders is 2 million pounds (907 metric tonnes) per year. There is a spawning season closure from Jan 15 to April 15. In addition, longlines may not be used (Sedberry et al. 1999).  There is a TAC limit for the commercial fishery in New Zealand of 2,181 metric tons for Polyprion americanus and Polyprion oxygeneios (hapuku) together. There are also some complex bag limits for the much smaller recreational fishery.  An individual transferable quota (ITQ) was establish in 1992 in the South Atlantic for wreckfish (Gauvin et al. 1994).  The Brazilian sub-population of P. americanus was assessed as Critically Endangered using the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria. Global Assessment of P. americanus was Data Deficient using IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria. Polyprion americanus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Polyprion americanus is an important commercial species in many parts of its range and is harvested mainly for human consumption. It is also a component of the recreational fishery in New Zealand and Australia (Wild Fisheries Research Program 2008/2009). There is increasing interest in this species on both coasts of the Atlantic due to the quality of its flesh, large size, and and high market price. This species has an exceptionally high growth rate during the pelagic phase of its life cycle (Machias et al. 2003).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Heessen, H. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


taxonomicNotes:
On-going genetic studies indicate that this species belongs to another genus, as of yet undetermined (L.A. Rocha pers. comm. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC   Genetic studies indicate that this species may belong to another genera. Until these studies are published, we provisionally accept this species as Abudefduf  luridus. It is found in the northeastern and central Atlantic. It is reportedly common throughout most of its range and can be locally abundant in some places. There are no known threats to this species, and it is found in marine protected areas in parts of its distribution. It is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Abudefduf luridus is found in the eastern central Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the Azores south to Senegal (Allen 1991). In the northeastern Atlantic, Abudefduf luridus is known only from the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands. It is found at depths ranging from 0 ton 25 meters (Allen 1991).

population:
Abudefduf luridus is reported as common throughout its range (Allen 1991). This species was frequently observed in the Cape Verde Archipelago; it occurred with 46.4% frequency at the Northwest Bank. In João Valente Bank, this species occurred with  91.1% frequency (Monteiro et al. 2008). In the Canary islands, it was among the 5 most abundant species (Hajagos and van Tassel 2001).

habitat:
Abudefduf luridus is reef-associated and non-migratory species found at depths of 0 to 25 meters. It inhabits rocky inshore areas, often near sand. Juveniles of this species are found in tide pools (Allen 1991). Its diet consists mainly of algae with associated minute invertebrates (Quignard and Pras 1986). Abudefduf luridus is oviparous, with distinct pairing during breeding. Its eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate (Breder and Rosen 1966). Males protect the eggs which are deposited in nests. It spawns in late summer (Quignard and Pras 1986). Other ecological aspects of this species, such as fecundity, stages of maturation and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

threats:
This species is a minor component of the aquarium trade, but there have been no documented declines in abundance because of the harvesting for the aquarium trade.

conservationAction:
There are not any specific conservation measures in place for this species, but there are numerous marine protected areas in parts of its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
This species is a minor component of the aquarium trade. There are no data to suggest that the harvest for aquarium trade is adversely effecting the population of A. luridus in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea.


taxonomicNotes:
C. chromis split into C. limbata [ get reference from Luiz]

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)   Chromis chromis is widespread northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters and is one of the most common fish in the Mediterranean. There are no documented threats, and the small-scale, artisinal fisheries that harvest it do not seem to be adversely affecting the population. It is therefore assessed 	as Least Concern.

range:
Chromis chromis is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from Portugal to Western Sahara, including the Mediterranean and Black seas (Loris and Rucabado 1990, Dulčić and Kraljevic 1995). The highest concentration of C. chromis individuals in the northeastern Atlantic region is centralized around the Canary Islands, the Azores and Madeira Islands versus the continents (Loris and Rucabado 1990). It is found at depths ranging from 2 to 40 meters.

population:
Chromis chromis is an abundant species in the Mediterranean. It is uncommon in the Black Sea and Sea of Marmara, but very common in the 	Aegean. Within the Mediterranean, the population structure of C. chromis was investigated using mitochondrial and nuclear markers, revealing a genetic break at the Peloponnese, Greece, with directional and eastbound gene flow between western and eastern groups (Domingues et al. 2005). This species was found to be more abundant in marine protected areas than it was outside of these areas (Bell 1983).

habitat:
This species forms small shoals in mid water above or near rocky reefs or above seagrass meadows (Posidonia) (Quignard and Pras 1986). It feeds on small planktonic or benthic animals. Spawning occurs mainly in the summer with distinct pairing during breeding. Eggs, characterized by adhesive filaments, are nested on rocky or sandy bottoms. Males guard the eggs (Quignard and Pras 1986). There is virtually no other information regarding the ecology and biology of this species.

threats:
There are no known threats to this species. The small-scale, subsistance fishing has not yielded any measurable population declines as of yet.

conservationAction:
This species is present in a number of marine protected areas in parts of its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). This species was found to be more abundant in marine protected areas than it was outside of these areas (Bell 1983). Research is needed into the population size and trends, as well as ecology and early life history of this species. Chromis chromis was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chromis chromis is a minor component of subsistence fisheries. In coastal fishery of Dalmatia (especially on islands in the eastern middle Adriatic) damselfish form a small but significant component of the coastal beach seine and gill net catch that is used as delicious food and as bait for lobsters (Dulčić and Kraljević 1995).


taxonomicNotes:
The Azores Chromis (Chromis limbata) was long considered the same species as the Mediterranean Damselfish (Chromis chromis) (Wirtz 1994).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and very common through its European range. Further research should be conducted on the population trend and threats to the species

range:
Chromis limbata is a subtropical species. In European waters, it is restricted to the Macaronesian islands of Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries. In the Eastern Atlantic this species has also been reported from west Africa between Senegal and Pointe-Noire, Congo. This species was recently recorded from Santa Catarina possibly from ballast water (Domingues et al. 2006, L.A. Rocha pers. comm. 2010). The species is more abundant within a depth range from five to 50 m, but its presence extends until 140 m of depth (Brito et al. 2002).

population:
In European waters of the Eastern Central Atlantic, this species is very common in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (Franquet and Brito 1995, Santos et al. 1997, Brito et al. 2002, Ribeiro et al. 2005, Araújo et al. 2008). Although populations are subject to small scale fisheries, information on its population trend is unknown.

habitat:
The Azores Chromis is a reef-associated benthopelagic species, with adults inhabiting rocky reefs and sand-weed areas (Allen 1991) from the subtidal to around 140 m deep (Brito et al 2002), although it is more abundant within a depth range from five to 50 m. It is present in the bottom floor or it forms pelagic schools, feeding on small benthic or planktonic invertebrates.  It is oviparous, presenting distinct pairing during breeding, reproducing on the summer, males acquiring a conspicuous blue tonality during the reproductive period. Eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate whilst males aerate the eggs and protect the breed after eclosion (Breder and Rosen 1966, Brito et al. 2002, Araújo et al. 2008). It reaches a maximum size of 12 cm (TL).

threats:
Although the species is subject to artisanal fishery in the area, other threats to the species are unknown.

conservationAction:
Chromis limbata is found in marine protected areas (MPAs) in parts of its range. In Madeira, where the species is commercially valued, it benefits from the non-licensing of gillnets. This progressive process was implemented by the Regional Fisheries Directorate of Madeira in the 1980s to protect coastal species and still continues today. Further research should be conducted on the population size and trend and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Chromis limbata is subject to local exploitation in areas where other species are overexploited in the Canaries with fish traps, hook-and-line and nets (Franquet and Brito 2002).  In Madeira, a small-scale artisanal fishery targets this species (mostly in the east of the southern coast of the island, where this species is highly valuated) using bait and a hand net (peneiro) (Nunes 1953). In the landings from commercial fisheries in Madeira, C. chromis in average represents less than one tonne per year. Most of the catches in Madeira are referred to C. limbata, but as C. chromis is also present in the area, the annual landings and economic value refer to both species combined. The species is highly valued, reaching about eight euros per kg.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is sometimes listed as Pomatomas saltator (Spain).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Pomatomus saltatrix is circum-global in tropical and subtropical waters (including the Mediterranean Sea) except the Eastern Pacific and most of  the Western Central Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic, P. saltatrix is found from Portugal to S. Africa at depths of zero to 200 meters.Data using the cytochrome B marker reveal complete genetic isolation between Eastern and Western Atlantic populations of P. salatrix. Within the Mediterranean, there is partial genetic isolation between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean populations. Anectotal information and fisheries landings statistics indicate that populations in the western Mediterranean may be increasing due to warming surface and bottom temperatures. It is likely that this increase in abundance is due to established populations, not to immigration from other parts of the range. In contrast, populations in the eastern Mediterranean appear to be declining. Pomatomus saltatrix preys on a variety of species, Menhaden being one of the most important. Menhaden is very susceptible to overfishing and decreases in these populations which would in turn, have an impact on P. saltatrix populations as they rely on Menhaden as an important source of food.   Over-fishing has been recorded in Tunisia, where sexually immature individuals dominate the catch. Over-fishing has been recorded in Turkey, where landings have declined by 85% from 1982 to 2010. There has been a 44% decrease in the mean length of fish caught in Turkey from 1959 to 2004. Additionally, the maximum observed age in Turkey is 6 years (longevity in Eastern Atlantic recorded as 14 years). In the Black Sea, P. saltatrix, once commonly observed, is now rare, and stocks are depleted. In the Northeast Atlantic, Landings from the NEA fishing zone FAO 27, which are declared by Spain and Portugal, peak in 1998, at 1,914 tonnes. Landings decline by 98% from 1998 to 2011 to 39 tonnes. The trend in declines in landings is reflected in trends seen in fisheries-independent survey data from the IBTS in the Gulf of Cadiz. Although this is a regional assessment, it is worth noting that there have been large declines in landings from the nearest geographic region, the Eastern Central Atlantic, where this species is taken as by-catch in over-exploited small pelagic fisheries. Bag and minimum size limits as well as closed sessions have been shown to be effective in re-building stocks of this species in the Western Atlantic, in South Africa, and in Australia. Due to the likely intrinsic recovery ability of this species - it matures at relatively early ages, and has responded positively to management efforts -  this species does not meet the criteria for a Threatened Category. However, it is assessed as Near Threatened at the Regional Level in the European Assessment Zone.

range:
Pomatomus saltatrix is circumglobal in tropical and subtropical waters except the eastern Pacific and most of  the western central Pacific (Fricke 1999). In the Indian Ocean, it occurs along the coast of East Africa, Madagascar, southern Oman, southwest India, the Malay Peninsula, and Western Australia (Randall 1995). In the southwest Pacific, it occurs around Australia except the Northern Territory, and New Zealand (Randall 1995). It is absent from eastern Pacific and northwest Pacific. The species barely enters the western central Pacific region. Records from the Northern Territory (Australia) and from Indonesia appear to be erroneous (Collette 1999). Records from Taiwan (Shen 1993) and Hawaii (Hureau 1991) need verification. In the western Atlantic, Pomatomus saltatrix has been recorded from Canada and Bermuda. In the Caribbean, it occurs from North Carolina to Yucatan, including northern Cuba.  It is also found from Colombia south to Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986). It is absent from the Bahamas, West Indies (except the north coast of Cuba), and Caribbean Coast of Central America (Collette 2002, Goodbred and Graves 1996).  In the eastern Atlantic, P. saltatrix occurs from Portugal to South Africa, including the Mediterranean and Black seas, Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. Pomatomus saltatrix is expanding its range northwards in response to recent (late 20th century) warming of the deep and upper layers of western Mediterranean (Sabatés et al. 2012). In the western Mediterranean Basin, the southern Catalan coast had been proposed as the northern boundary edge of the species distribution (Sabatés and Martin 1993). Pomatomus saltatrix is associated with depths of between 0 and 200 m (B. Collette pers. comm. 2012)Miralles et al. (2014) found three main units of bluefish populations; American (west Atlantic Ocean waters); Spanish (east Atlantic Ocean-western Mediterranean regions), and Turkish (eastern Mediterranean, Marmara and Black seas). This is important because, as some recent studies on Bluefin tuna (Carlsson et al. 2004, Riccioni et al. 2010) and albacore (Montes et al. 2012) found, the Mediterranean Sea is not homogeneous – there is a division of these pelagic fishes into eastern and western genetic components, which may impact on conservation management of the species.

population:
European Assessment: Summary of population information Anecdotal information and fisheries landings statistics indicate that populations in the western Mediterranean may be increasing due to warming surface and bottom temperatures. It is likely that this increase in abundance is due to established populations, not to immigration from other parts of the range. In contrast, populations in the eastern Mediterranean appear to be declining. Over-fishing has been recorded in Tunisia, where sexually immature individuals dominate the catch. Over-fishing has been recorded in Turkey, where landings have declined by 85% from 1982 to 2010. There has been a 44% decrease in the mean length of fish caught in Turkey from 1959 to 2004. Additionally, the maximum observed age in Turkey is 6 (longevity in Eastern Atlantic recorded as 12). In the Black Sea, P. saltatrix, once commonly observed, are now rare, and stocks are depleted. In the Northeast Atlantic, Landings from the NEA fishing zone FAO 27, which are declared by Spain and Portugal, peak in 1998 at 1,914 tonnes. Landings decline by 98% from 1998 to 39 tonnes. The trend in declines in landings is reflected in trends seen in fisheries-independent survey data from the IBTS in the Gulf of Cadiz. Although this is a regional assessment, it is worth noting that there have been large declines in landings from the nearest geographic region, the Eastern Central Atlantic, where this species is taken as by-catch in over-exploited small pelagic fisheries. Bag and minimum size limits as well as closed sessions have been shown to be effective in re-building stocks of this species in the Western Atlantic and in South Africa. As a result of this regulation, as well as with regulation of hooks for anglers and an increase in minimal size for commercial fisheries, the current in-shore fishing pressure is considered at sustainable levels in Australia (Ayvazian et al. 2002) Population Structure Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicated that bluefish from United States, Portugal and South Africa are most closely related (Goodbred and Graves 1996). Cytochrome B sequence data reveal a complete genetic isolation between the two sides of the North Atlantic Ocean, with regional population structuring between eastern and western Mediterranean (Pardiñas 2010). Patterns of morphological differentiation suggest the existence of three distinct groups in the Mediterranean and Black Seas: One population composed of the eastern Black Sea, one composed of the western Black Sea, Marmara Sea, and Aegean Sea, and one composed of Northeastern Mediterranean samples (Turan et al. 2006).  FAO landing statistics summary Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions, in order of decreasing landings in 2011: ECA, Mediterranean and Black Sea, SW Atlantic, NW Atlantic, Western Central Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic, Southeast Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Pacific, SW Pacific. The overall trend in landings is one of continuous increase to a peak of 60,000 tonnes in 1984; following this peak, landings decrease continuously until 2000, reaching the lowest values since the early 1960s, near 15,000 tonnes. Following this period of near continuous decline, landings increase to a second peak of 44,010 tonnes in 2003. Landings then decline again, to 15,000 tonnes. The overall trend in recent landings 2001 through 2010 is driven by landings in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. From 2001 to 2011, landings from this region decline approximately 65%, from to 15,907 tonnes to 4,410 tonnes. Mediterranean Pomatomus saltatrix is considered a by-catch species in the Northwestern part of its range in the Mediterranean, along the Catalan Coast. In this area, it is typically taken with other schooling pelagic species such as anchovy and sardine (Engraulis encrasicolus and Sardina pilchardus). The seasonal pattern of bluefish landings is the same as that of anchovy, with landings peaking in the summer and minimum in winter (Martín et al. 2008). Landings of P. saltatrix in the western Mediterranean have greatly increased from <50 tonnes prior to 1996 to a peak of 200 tonnes in 2010, possibly reflecting the increased abundance and northward expansion of this species in the western Mediterranean in response to warming sea temperatures in the region (Sabatés et al. 2012), as well as providing evidence that Pomatomus saltatrix has established spawning populations in the Mediterranean (Sabatés and Martin 1993). The largest Bluefish fishery in the Mediterranean is located in Turkey. In 1982, 32,184 tonnes were landed and in 2010 4,744 tonnes were landed (Cengiz et al. 2013): this is an 85% decrease. The primary gear used is purse seine, which exerts heavy fishing pressure on young, migrating individuals ranging in size from 11 to 23 cm standard length (SL),with a mean of 16 cm; in 1959, the mean length was 28.5 cm. There has been a 44% decrease in the mean length of fish caught in Turkey from 1959 to 2004 (Akyol and Ceyhan 2007). The maximum observed age was 6. Minimum catch size is 14 cm (Cengiz et al. 2013). Pomatomus saltatrix, which used to enter the Black Sea seasonally, now rarely penetrate into the waters North and West of the Black Sea. Stocks in this region can be considered depleted (Lleonart 2008). Off the coast of Tunisia this species is exploited by artisanal gears and trawlers all year around, and by purse seine nets from May to August. It has been over-fished in this region, and the stock has been characterized by individuals having a mean total length of 17.88 cm, a size which is much lower than the size at first maturity (23.5 cm)(Dhieb et al. 2007).  Atlantic IBTS data from 1997 to 2013 (fall) and 1993 to 2013 (spring) from the Gulf of Cadiz (see IBTS report working group for survey) lands this species irregularly. However, it is worth noting that a declining trend in biomass (g/haul) and (number/haul) is seen in the Fall surveys (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm.). Landings from the NEA fishing zone, which are declared by Spain and Portugal, peak in 1998, at 1,914 tonnes. Landings decline by 98% from 1998 to 39 tonnes. Landing statistics exclusively from the Gulf of Cadiz from 2001 to 2009 show fluctuations with a slight overall declining trend throughout the time series. Data from IDAPES shows that this species is primarily landed in the summertime in Andalucia. Andalucian information about marketing and fisheries products.    FAO capture data - Eastern Central Atlantic The overall trend in global landings declared to have originated in the ECA fishing zone is one of fluctuating decline; aggregate landings were highest in the 1970s in the ECA, and have been declining ever since. Recent trends are being driven by landings reported from Senegal and Mauritania. Disregarding landing peaks (see excel file), the overall the trend in reported landings over the last 10 years can be expressed as the line y = -259.71x + 3852.3, which represents a decline of roughly 74% in landings reported from the fishing area (see attached excel file for all figures and tables) Landings declared as originating from particular west African nations in the region show a similar trend. We infer, due to known dietary preferences and behavioral characteristics of this species, that juveniles of this species, which are known to move into estuaries and coastal zones, are being taken in fisheries targeting small pelagics in the region, which are known to have undergone significant declines in recent years. The most recent report of the Small Pelagics Working group - CECAF North, determined that the sardine Sardina pilchardus, the round sardine Sardinella aurita, the Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus, are all considered over-exploited in the region. These are likely prey items of  P. saltatrix. Other small pelagics which may be prey items of P. saltatrix, such as the Scomber colias and Engraulis encrasicolus, are fully exploited in the north. The results of the small pelagics working group - CECAF south found that the stock of Sardinella aurita Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo and Benin was found to be over-exploited. Five other stocks including flat Sardinella (Sardinella maderensis) – Western stock, Sardinella (Sardinella spp.) – Northern stock, and the Northern and Southern stocks of Bonga (Ethmalosa fimbriata) – were considered fully exploited (results of: CECAF - Scientific Sub-Committee - 6th Session (RAF-710-6).It has been hypothesized that the success of the spring cohort controls the abundance of adult P. saltatrix (Shepard and Nieland 2010). Average fishing mortality peaked at 0.46 in 1987 and has since steadily declined to 0.15 in 2004. Stock abundance declined steadily between 1983 and 1993  from 175.6 million fish in 1982 to 58.4 million in 1993 and remained stable for the following five years. Since 1998, abundance has slowly increased and reached 105.4 million in 2003 but declined to 92.3 million in 2004. Biomass peaked in 1982 at 229,000 mt, declined to 64,700 mt in 1997 and have increased to 104,100 mt in 2004. The bluefish assessment was reviewed by a Stock Assessment Review Committee in June 2005 and it was concluded that the assessment results were uncertain and should be used with caution (NEFSC 2005).  Fishing mortality in 2009 was 0.10, below the biological reference point (FMSY) of 0.19. Fishing mortality steadily declined from 0.31 in 1987 to 0.12 in 2002 and has remained steady since 2000 with an average F=0.14. Recent mean biomass estimates peaked in 1982 at 425.0 thousand MT, then declined to 103.8 thousand MT by 1996 before increasing to the 2009 level of 156.0 thousand MT. Recruitment estimated in the ASAP model has remained relatively constant since 2000 at around 22.5 million age-0 bluefish, with the exception of a relatively large 2006 cohort estimated as 35.2 million fish. The 2009 recruitment estimate was well below average at 8.0 million fish (Shepard and Nieland 2010).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Pomatomus saltatrix is typically found at temperatures ranging from 14 to 30°C and at depths ranging from 0 to 200 meters (B. Collette pers. comm.). It Occurs in oceanic and coastal waters (Claro 1994), most commonly along surf beaches and rock headlands in clean, high energy waters; sometimes adults individuals are found in estuaries and brackish water environments (Grant 1982). Juveniles generally move from the open sea to coastal areas and estuaries (Kendall and Walford 1979). The maximum length of this species is measured at 130 cm total length (TL) (Randall 1995) and is known to have lived for 14 years (Rodger and Zharen 2012). Pomatomus saltatrix is capable of undertaking long along-shore migrations (Hedger et al. 2010), seasonally migrating from north to south (Rodger and Zharen 2012).     In 2009 the length frequency distribution from commercial fisheries was strongly bimodal with one peak at 39 cm and a second around 65 cm. There were few fish below 25 cm. In comparison, the 2006 and 2008 distribution included a third mode around 55 cm. The 2007 distribution was bimodal, similar to 2009 except the first mode peaked around 25 cm (Shepard and Nieland 2010). Diet and Feeding Behavior Pomatomus saltatrix feeds on small pelagic fishes, such as Sardinella aurita, Engraulis encrasicolus, and Sardina pilchardus (anchovy and sardine), as well as squid and larger teleosts (Buckel et al. 1999). It is a powerful, swift fish, with the young hunting in schools and the adults in loose groups. This species is a voracious visual feeder and renowned for its appetite. Schools of actively feeding bluefish have attacked bathers (Cervigon 1993).  Reproduction  Spawning and Early-life Growth The spawning, seasonal migration, and life cycle of P. saltatrix are closely linked to temperature. Spawning occurs in surface waters with temperatures ranging from 20 to 26.8oC (Norcross et al. 1974, Kendall and Walford 1979, Ditty and Shaw 1995, Juanes et al. 1994).  In the Mediterranean, spawning is limited to the warmest months (between July and September) when the highest temperatures are reached (around 25°C) (Sabatés and Martin 2005).  Spring/summer spawned young of the year migrate from estuaries to continental shelf waters of the Mid-Atlantic Bight in early fall while adults are found over the continental shelf throughout summer and fall (Buckel et al. 1998). In the South Atlantic Bight, spawning occurs from March to May and September to November (Collins and Stender 1987, Hare and Cowen 1993).  This species is a fast grower as a juvenile and can grow nearly one-third of its maximum length in their first year (Richards 1976, Wilk 1977). Summer spawned larvae and juveniles grow faster than spring-spawned larvae and juveniles (McBride and Conover 1991), although size differences at annual age diminish greatly after three to four years (Lassiter 1962). A young, spring spawned P. saltatrix reaches ~260 mm fork length and a weight of ~300 g by age 1 (Chiarella and Conover 1990). Survival of P. saltatrix larvae is associated with size and growth rate; those that are larger at age 1 tend to be larger and faster growing throughout the larval stage (Hare and Cowen 1997). There are distinctive spring and summer cohorts and a fall-spawned cohort identified by Collins and Stender (1987) which indicates and possible extension of the P. saltatrix spawning season (Shepard and Nieland 2010).  Generation Length, Maturity and Fecundity Age at first maturity for females is ~1.9 years and 48 cm total length (TL) (Robillard et al. 2008). The mean batch fecundity for Pomatomus saltatrix is 402,247 eggs and ranged from 114,513 to 920,746 eggs, depending on age and weight of the female. Pomatomus saltatrix is a multiple spawner, spawning continuously during the spring migration, and has intermediate fecundity (Fahay et al. 1999). Larvae are 2.0 to 2.4 mm long when they hatch (Fahay et al. 1999). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 34.5 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 17.1 cm TL  and for males is 18.1 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).         Hare, J. A., & Cowen, R. K. (1995). Effect of age, growth rate, and ontogeny on the otolith size-fish size relationship in bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, and the implications for back-calculation of size in fish early life history stages. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 52(9), 1909-1922. (Not able to access but may be useful).

threats:
Mediterranean Sea Despite being landed in large numbers, there has not been a full stock assessment in the Mediterranean for P. saltatrix. In the Eastern Mediterranean this species appears to be heavily fished and sexually immature individuals are regularly landed. It is taken as incidental catch in artisanal and commercial fisheries targeting anchovies, sardines, and other small pelagics. In the Mediterranean, the seasonal pattern of P. saltatrix landings are the same as that of anchovy, with landings peaking in the summer and minimum in winter (Martín et al. 2008).The total catch of P. saltatrix (commercial landings plus recreational catches) peaked in the late 1970s and early 1980s and has declined since. Commercial landings decreased about 22% between 1994 and 1995. During the period from 1982 to 1996, age 1 fishing mortality increased approximately fourfold, recruitment declined from an estimated 75 million fish at age 0 to about 14 million fish, and estimates of the spawning stock biomass have decreased from about 300,000 mt to 100+ mt (Stock Assessment Review Committee, Coastal Pelagic Subcommittee 1996). New biological reference points based on the more recent 2005 Mediterranean stock assessment were recommended as Fmsy = 0.19 and Bmsy = 147,052 mt - Biomass below ½ Bmsy  (i.e. below 73,526 mt) defines an overfished stock under the current management plan (Shepard 2006).  Adjacent Regional Information The number of commercial fishing vessels operating  in the Mauritanian EEZ which target small pelagics has increased from 1994 to 2001. Almost all of these fishing vessels are of foreign origin. The catch-per-unit effort of sardines off the coast of Mauritania, as recorded by commercial fishing vessels originating from the Netherlands, decreased during the period of 1999 to 2002, with the catch of small pelagics per day in 2002 being about 30% of the value recorded in 1998. The FAO sub-committee on Pelagic Fishes has hypothesized that decreases in the number of small pelagics landed off the coast of Mauritania is a reflection of over-exploitation by foreign commercial fishing vessels. During this same period, the area within which these small pelagics have been fished also decreased.  Loss of Preferred PreyMenhaden is a major prey item for P. saltatrix and is vulnerable to over-exploitation. Peak landings of menhaden approached a million metric tons during the 1980s and peak fishing mortality rates (F) possibly exceeding 1.0 / y (Vaughn et al. 2000, Vaughn et al. 2007). During the 1990s, menhaden catches in the Gulf of Mexico declined, raising concerns that the stock may be overfished. Menhaden (and other clupeids) show the sort of schooling behavior that can produce strong density dependence in catchability coefficients and rapid, steep increases in F during stock size declines (Hilborn and Walters 1992). Sharks, tunas and billfishes prey on P. saltatrix and it is also a major prey item for the shortfin mako shark, composing 77.5% of the diet by volume. P. saltatrix also ranked fourth in number and occurrence and third in volume in swordfish diets, especially off the Carolinas (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stillwell and Kohler 1985).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for P. saltatrix. There are numerous marine protected areas throughout its range in the region (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Other than the collection of catch data, this species is not managed in the Eastern Central Atlantic. It likely benefits from management protocols which benefit small pelagics. In Mauritania, efforts to control fishing effort are the principal tool of management, and are applied indirectly through licensing. The Fishing Code (need English Translation of this legislation - Le décret N° 2002-073 définit les règles d’application de la loi N° 2000-25 du 24 janvier portant sur le Code des pêches.). This legislation prohibits trawling within 12 miles (equivalent to 17.76 kilometers, and in some cases as many as 15 miles (22.2 kilometers)) from the coast in Mauritania. Additionally, pelagic trawlers and purse seines are prohibited from utilizing nets with a mesh-size less than 40 mm, and less than 20 mm for purse seines targeting anchovies.  In November, 1994, in Australia, acting on advice from the Recreational Fishing Advisory Committee, Fisheries Western Australia reduced the bag limit of 20 bluefish per person per day to eight in an effort to reduce fishing pressure. As a result of this regulation, as well as with regulation of hooks for anglers and an increase in minimal size for commercial fisheries, the current in-shore fishing pressure is considered at sustainable levels (Ayvazian et al. 2002).Pomatomus saltatrix was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Pomatomus saltatrix is an important recreational, commercial and artisanal species throughout its range, including the southwestern Atlantic in Brazil (Begossi 1996, Haimovici and Krug 1996, Lucena et al. 2002, Lucena and O’Brien 2005), the North Atlantic along the coast of the USA (Buckel and Conover 1997, Buckel et al. 1999, Juanes et al. 2002, Wilson and Degnbol 2002), the Mediterranean Sea in Africa (Dhieb et al. 2006), and the Pacific in Eastern Australia (Kailola et al. 1993, Zeller et al. 1996). See FishstatJ chart for P. saltatrix landings between 1950 and 2010. The commercial fishery for this species operates primarily in the Middle and South Atlantic regions. Gillnets are the principal gear used and account for approximately 40% of landings and other gear used include hook and line, pound nets, seines, and trawls. Commercial landings ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 mt during the 1950s and 1960s, increased during the 1970s and 1980s, peaking at 7,466 mt in 1981, and then declined throughout the 1990s reaching a low of 3,300 mt in 1999 and landings in 2005 were 3,500 mt (Shepard 2006).  Mediterranean Sea Pomatomus saltatrix is primarily a by-catch species in the Mediterranean. Pomatomus saltatrix is an important fisheries resource in Turkey; Catches in the seas adjacent to Turkey are highest in the Black Sea (56% of P. saltatrix catch), moderate in the Marmara Sea (34%), and low in the Aegean (8%) and northeastern Mediterranean (2%) (Turan et al. 2006). In Tunisia, this species is considered highly-valuable (Dhieb et al. 2007). Bluefish have been caught by encircling nets, bottom set nets, pond nets, purse seines and various types of hand-lines in the Bosphorus since late 1950s (Akyol and Ceynan 2007).  Pomatomus saltatrix recreational landings peaked in 1981 and 1985 at over 43,000 mt. Recreational landings have averaged over 19,000 mt since 1982, but have been under 8,000 mt since 1995, and were 6,900 mt in both 2004 and 2005. Total numbers of bluefish caught and released in the recreational fishery has increased steadily since 1981. During 1981 through 1983, fishermen released an average of 18% of the bluefish caught, whereas during 2002 through 2004 63% of P. saltatrix caught were released. The total catch of P. saltatrix (commercial landings plus recreational catches) peaked in the late 1970s and early 1980s and has declined since. Commercial landings decreased about 22% between 1994 and 1995. During 1982-1996, age 1 fishing mortality increased approximately fourfold, recruitment has declined from an estimated 75 million fish at age 0 to about 14 million fish, and estimates of the spawning stock biomass have decreased from about 300,000 mt to 100+ mt (Stock Assessment Review Committee, Coastal Pelagic Subcommittee 1996).Eastern Atlantic Due to drastically reduced catches in South African and Namibian recreational fisheries, anglers have sought alternative destinations in other southern African countries such as Angola, Gabon, Tanzania and Mozambique (currently considered overexploited by FAO in Mozambique). There is evidence that inshore marine fish stocks in these countries are facing increasing fishing pressure (van der Elst et al. 2005). In Angola, P. saltatrix is one of the three target species which form an important recreational fishery in Angola which is utilized primarily by visiting anglers from South Africa (Potts et al. 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Cookeolus japonicus is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira and the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Cookeolus japonicus is circumglobally distributed in tropical and tropically influenced seas. Within Europe, it is known from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014, Santos et al. 1997). The depth range for this species is 40-400 m, usually 165-200 m (Starnes 1995, FAO).

population:
Cookeolus japonicus has 128 records found in museum collections (Accessed through Fishnet 2 Portal, www.fishnet2.net, 1 November 2012).

habitat:
Cookeolus japonicas is an epibenthic, predatory fish that occurs near coral reefs or rock formations, and is occasionally found in more open areas (Starnes 2002). It tends to lurk in or near crevices or beneath ledges of the rock formations or coral reefs with which it is associated (Starnes 1988). It feeds primarily on crustaceans, small cephalopods, polychaetes, and small fishes (Starnes 1988). The early juveniles are pelagic, but as growth occurs, they start settling into more suitable habitats (Starnes 2002). Cookeolus japonicus is medium sized, with maximum total length given as 25 cm to 65 cm (Starnes 2002) or 69 cm (Randall and Cea 2011). Disalvo (2007) gives the standard length as 42 cm. This species is the largest member of the family Priacanthidae. The lifespan of larger specimens of this species is believed to be 9 or more years (Starnes 1988). This species is solitary or can be found in small schools (Starnes 2002). Juveniles occasionally occur in temperate waters as a result of postlarval transport (Starnes 2002).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific measures in place for this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is utilized in aquariums and commerical fisheries (Accessed through Fishbase, www.fishbase.org, 1 November 2012). Cookeolus japonicus is caught occasionally on deep hand lines or other rigs but is probably rare in markets (Starnes 2002).


taxonomicNotes:
This species was previously known as Priacanthus cruentatas and Cookeolus boops.

range:
This species is distributed worldwide in tropical and tropically influenced seas and is much more common in waters surrounding islands than in continental waters (Starnes 2002). In the western Atlantic it is known from North Carolina south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, in the Gulf of Mexico from the Florida Keys north along the Gulf coast to the Texas/Mexico border and from Campeche, Mexico along the northern Yucatan Peninsula to northwestern Cuba, throughout the Caribbean Sea, and along South America to Argentina including Trindade Island (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2012, Simon et al. 2013). Rare records north to New Jersey, USA are likely vagrants. In the Indo-Pacific it is known along East Africa eastward in island habitats through the central Pacific. In the eastern Pacific it is known from island habitats off Baja California (Mexico) to the Galapagos. In the eastern Atlantic it is known from the eastern and mid Atlantic islands of Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Hajagos and van Tassell 2001, Martín-Sosa 2012) to St. Helena. Its depth range is 0-300 m (Reiner 1996, A. Acero pers. comm. 2013), but is usually found between 3-35 m (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).

population:
Heteropriacanthus cruentatus is a common species with 780 records found in museum collections in parts of its range. Lots typically contain 1-2 individuals (Fishnet 2 Portal 2012). Young occasionally occur in temperate waters due to post larval transport and have been recorded to New Jersey, USA. Adults are less common in North American continental waters, Central America to Florida, USA. H. cruentatus is rare off Bermuda but is common in Caribbean islands. This species is not common in continental shelf areas (Starnes 2002). This species used to be common in Colombia and Jamaica but is now infrequent, presumably due to overfishing (Acero pers. comm. 2013, Aiken pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Heteropriacanthus cruentatus is a reef-associated species (Reiner 1996) that is common in lagoon and seaward reefs, primarily around islands. This species is also commonly found in rock rubble (Harter, David, and Ribera 2008). It is a secretive species that hides in holes, crevices, and ledges during the day. This species occupies a depth range of 3 to 300 m (Reiner 1996) but is usually found at 3 to 35 m (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). It has also been found in waters less than 3 m (Acero pers. comm. 2013). H. cruentatus are nocturnal and feed mainly on octopi, pelagic shrimp, stomatopods, crabs, small fish, and polychaetes. At dusk this species may gather in large numbers but during the day they usually occurs singly or in small groups (Myers 1999). H. cruentatus. The maximum length for this species is about 50.8 cm (Fitch and Shultz 1978).

threats:
The fish is easily taken by spear guns, and is found in local fisheries, however the level of threat in the European region is not known.

useAndTrade:
This species is used in minor commercial fisheries and aquariums. Heteropriacanthus arenatus is captured by hook-and-line, by spearing and by traps and is usually marketed fresh (Randall 1978, Starnes 2002).

redListContributors:
Dooley, J., Aiken, K.A., Collette, B.B., Marechal, J., Pina Amargos, F. & Singh-Renton, S.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Priacanthus arenatus is widely distributed and is associated with coral reefs and rocky bottoms. There is a lack of population information from the northeast Atlantic region, but trawl surveys in other regions of its distribution indicate that it is common and sometimes abundant in most of its range. This species is utilized in a minor commercial capacity, and it is fished as a gamefish and collected for the commercial aquarium trade. However, no available data indicate a measurable decrease in abundance because of these uses. There are no other species-specific threats that are known to exist for P. arenatus, and there are numerous marine protected areas that intersect with the distribution of this species. Therefore, P. arenatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Priacanthus arenatus is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, where it is widely distributed along both coasts. In the western Atlantic, P. arenatus is found from Canada (Scott and Scott 1988) to Bermuda and at least North Carolina, USA (Starnes 1988) and southward to northern Argentina (Randall 1978). Priacanthus arenatus is found in the eastern Atlantic from Madeira to northern Angola. It has recently been recorded from the Azores (Afonso et al. 2013). This species is also found in the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000).  Reports of the species from the Indo-Pacific are misidentifications (Starnes 1988). Juveniles have occasionally been taken northward of range to Nova Scotia as a results of post larval drift; however, they do not survive the winter (Starnes 2002). The depth range for this species is 10 m to about 200 m (Starnes 1988) but is probably most common from 15 to 100 m (Hureau 1990).

population:
Priacanthus arenatus is a common species with 573 records found in museum collections in parts of its range. Lots typically contain 1 to 2 individuals; however, some lots contain >10 individuals (Accessed through Fishnet 2 Portal 2012 November). Abundance seems to be correlated with recruitment times (Tapia-Garcia et al. 1995). There is little available species-specific information on the population status of P. arenatus in the northeast Atlantic and adjacent regional waters. However, population information in other regions of its distribution indicate that P. arenatus is common, and in some cases abundant, in those areas. For instance, in the Caribbean, it is common throughout its range (A. Acero, Pina, B. Collette pers. comm. 2013).  It is now uncommon in Jamaica, presumably due to overfishing, especially from spearing (K. Aiken pers. comm. 2013). And in the Gulf of Guinea, this species seems to be a relatively abundant resident (Koranteng 2001).

habitat:
Priacanthus arenatus is a secretive species and is difficult to find for observation or collection. It is a reef-associated species that is commonly found on coral reefs and rocky bottoms (Randall 1978).  It occupies a depth range of 10 to 200 m but is usually found in 15 to 100 m depths (Hureau 1990).  This species forms small aggregations near the bottom, usually of less than 100 individuals (Caldwell and Bullis 1971, Hureau 1990). Pracanthus arenatus prefers outer reef slopes to more sheltered environments and is moderately common near rock outcrops on continental shelf habitats of 30 m or more (Hureau 1990). The maximum length for this species is 50 cm TL (IGFA 2001). Priacanthus arenatus is a nocturnal feeder (Böhlke and Chaplin 1993) that feeds mainly on small fishes, crustaceans and polychaetes (Randall 1978). The size at first maturity for P. arenatus is 13.8 cm total length (TL), and the peak of reproduction occurs in March (the dry season) in the population that occurs in the Gulf of Mexico (Tapia-Garcia et al. 1995). Age at first maturity occurs between one and one and a half years (Tapia-Garcia et al. 1995). Recruitment occurs in the area of reproduction from March to June, the adults and juveniles migrate to the outer shelf. Greatest abundance is observed around 36 m depth and abundance is correlated with the recruitment period (Tapia-Garcia et al. 1995). Juveniles tend to be pelagic in the upper water layers and are abundant in the West Indies during February to April; gravid females have been taken in September (Caldwell 1962, Starnes 2002).

threats:
Priacanthus arenatus are used by minor commercial fisheries, as gamefish and in the commercial aquarium trade. Their flesh is considered excellent quality. Without clear population data, it cannot be determined if the fishing efforts and collection for aquaria are adversely affecting the population of this species.  

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' range of distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range (IUCN and UNEP 2014). Research into all aspects of the population size and trends, ecology, biology and potential threats of this species is suggested.Priacanthus arenatus was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is used in minor commercial fisheries and aquaria. It is also considered a good game fish (Starnes 1988). The flesh is considered excellent quality and is marketed fresh (Cervigon et al. 1992). Low numbers of Priacanthus arenatus are captured in trawls and they are also taken by hook-and-line as well as spearing. This species is usually marketed fresh (Starnes 2002). According to FAO landings reports, over 800 metric tonnes of Wreckfish were harvested in 2012, with Portugal and Spain landing the highest volumes, at over 400 tonnes combined and over 200 tonnes combined, respectively of total landing statistics given (FAO 2011 FishstatJ Accessed 2014 April). There are no clear landing trends for Wreckfish. All but one country declined in reported landings between 2005 and 2011 except for Greece and Spain; however, increased or decreased effort is not indicated.

redListContributors:
Collette, B., Acero, A., Aiken, K.A. & Pina Amargos, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In Europe the species is found from the northeastern Atlantic coast from Norway south into the Mediterranean Sea, and in the western Black Sea. Capture data for the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean/Black seas show no evidence of sustained decline over the period 2005-2011 (FAO 2011a) and large scale aquaculture of the species has been developed since 2004 (Monfort 2010, FAO 2011b), therefore this species is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species is found in the eastern Atlantic coast from Norway to Gibraltar and south to Central Africa (Democratic Republic of the Congo), including the Canary Islands and Sao Tome and Principe. It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, in the western Black Sea, and has expanded into the Red Sea through the Suez Canal. It has also been recorded from Iceland.

population:
The species is rare to not uncommon throughout most of its range in the Mediterranean. Capture fishery data for the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean/Black seas show stable but fluctuating landings (FAO 2011a) between 3,879 t in 2005 to 6,370 t in 2008 and 4,078 t in 2011, although landings in eastern Turkey have declined along with its size distribution. There has been a steady increase in aquaculture production in Mediterranean basin countries (primarily Spain, Italy, Egypt, France, Portugal) from 296 t reported in 2002 to 13,742 t in 2011 (FAO 2011b).

habitat:
The largest fish are found along the coast of West Africa, and the species can grow up to two metres in length and reach >50 kg. Growth is mainly achieved during summer; feeding activity is substantially reduced when sea temperatures drop below 13-15 ºC. Adults congregate inshore to spawn during spring and summer. Juveniles and subadults enter estuaries and coastal lagoons, and recruitment success may be dependent on these habitats (Chao and Trewavas 1990). Both adults and juveniles are migratory, moving along shore or offshore-onshore in response to temperature change (FAO 2012). Adults are found in inshore and in shelf waters, close to bottom as well as in surface and mid-waters. During reproduction migration, adults approach the coast in mid-April. They penetrate estuaries at the end of May in order to spawn (anadromous migration). During the spawning season (June to mid-July), males produce aggregation and courtship grunts (Lagardere and Mariani 2006). A 1.2 m female produces about 800,000 eggs; spawning occurs at 17-22 ºC. Fertilized eggs measure 990 µm in diameter. The species feeds on fishes and swimming crustaceans and mostly occurs over sand, close to rocks, at 1-200 m max, but commonly found at 15-100 m (Louisy 2002).

threats:
Destruction of estuarine habitats is a particular threat because juveniles depend on these areas for nursery grounds. Threats also include pollution of rivers, the transfer of disease from cultivated animals to wild populations and overfishing.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in protected areas in Europe (e.g., in Natura 2000 sites in Spain; EEA 2013). Due to its large size and insufficient information available, a targeted management programme is needed that includes size limitation based on size at maturity. It is also recommended that an inventory or register of large live specimens (> 2 m) held in aquaria within the region be collected to understand the biology of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is a popular food fish and targeted by commercial and recreational fisheries. It is often found in public aquariums in Europe and elsewhere. In commercial fisheries, the species is mainly caught by trawls, long lines, and hand lines.This species is cultivated in land and sea cages, mostly in France and Italy (Cognetti et al. 2006, Aguado-Gimenez et al. 2007) and production from this source is expanding. Aquaculture production of the species increased rapidly in last decade, reaching over 14,000 tons in 2010 (FAO 2012); based on its aquaculture production, it has the potential to become a mass market species (Monfort 2010).FAO (2011) reported that the worldwide landing of the species amounts to 20,310 tonnes in 2011, the landings reported from 2000 to 2009 were between 2,386-9,095 with a steadily increasing trend. Aquaculture of the species is rapidly expanding (Monfort 2010).

redListReviewers:
Allen, D.J., Comeros-Raynal, M. & Nieto, A.

redListContributors:
Bizsel, K., Kara, M., Yokes, B., Quignard, J.P. & Pollard, D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT) In European waters the species is found from the English Channel to the Mediterranean and to the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The species is impacted across its European range by both commercial and recreational fishing and these threats are currently ongoing. The species is also impacted by the loss of important nursery estuarine habitat, as well as disturbance from divers and spear fisherman in some parts of its range. Based on FAO catch statistics available for part of its range in the Mediterranean Sea, the population showed declines of approximately 70% over a period of 25 years (1980-2005), assuming there was no decline in fishing effort over that time period, however more recent fisheries landing data (FAO 2011) show a fluctuating increase in landings from a low of c.25 tonnes in 2001 to a maximum of c.345 tonnes in 2010 (with a decline to c.140 tonnes (incomplete data) for 2011. There are also sporadic but unquantified reports of population reduction (e.g., Artüz 2006) from other parts of its Mediterranean range, and these declines may be representative of the population across the Mediterranean Sea, though it may be stable in northern parts of the Mediterranean Sea. There are no decline or catch statistics available for the eastern Atlantic or Black Sea. The species was assessed as VU for the Mediterranean regional assessment in 2007 based on FAO data on fishery declines for the period 1980-2005. More recent data show a fluctuating increase in reported landings figures. Whilst it is acknowledged that the species can attain moderately large sizes (up to 50-70 cm) and is highly targeted in artisanal, semi-commercial and recreational (sportfish) fisheries, the species has been shown to benefit from in-place conservation actions including no-take zone and marine protected areas (Di Franco et al. 2009, Forcada et al. 2009). The species is considered Near Threatened as although recent FAO data show substantial increase in landings for the Mediterranean region, suggesting that the species has undergone some degree of recovery since it was assessed at the Mediterranean scale in 2007, landing data has to be treated with caution as no fishery effort data are available. Population increases are inferred from the FAO landings data but require confirmation, and are likely to to be conservation dependent, and significant declines might result from any removal of conservation actions or management protection. Ongoing monitoring of population trends is recommended.

range:
The species’ main range within Europe is in the Mediterranean Sea, where it is found in all coastal areas. It is present but uncommon-rare in the eastern Atlantic, where it is found from the English Channel to Mauritania and occasionally southwards to Senegal. It is also present in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, and recorded from the Macaronesian Islands (the Canary Islands). Within the Mediterranean Sea, the species is widely distributed and has been recorded from the Spanish coasts (Sala 1997, Garcia Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, Macpherson et al. 2002, Cruz and Lombarte 2004), the Balearic Islands (Deudero et al. 2004, 2008), the Gulf of Lion (Ruitton et al. 2000), the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2005, Tunesi et al. 2006), the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), the northern Adriatic Sea (Lipej et al. 2003, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the southern Adriatic Sea (Bussotti et al. 2002), the Aegean Sea (Koutrakis and Tsikliros 2003, Ayaz et al. 2006, Karakulak et al. 2006) and Lebanese coasts (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 2005), and some main islands (Sicily and Sardinia).

population:
Population data are not available from across the species’ European range, with most detailed information available for the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean Sea, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch statistics are only reported from Turkey, Tunisia, and Cyprus. These statistics indicate a decrease in landings from a peak of 735 t in 1988, followed by fluctuating declines to 161 t in 2005, with an average of 148 t in the period 2001 to 2005. This indicates an approximate 70% decline in landings over 25 years (1980-2005), which can be used for a proxy for a decline in population size, assuming that there was no reduction in fishing effort during this time. These trends may be representative of the whole of the Mediterranean Sea, though it may be more stable in some parts of the northern Mediterranean Sea. The species used to be relatively common in many areas in the Mediterranean in the 1970s compared to the present (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). However more recent fisheries landing data FAO (2011) show a fluctuating increase in landings from a low of c.25 tonnes in 2001 to a maximum of c.345 tonnes in 2010 (with a decline to c.140 tonnes (incomplete data) for 2011. Other records from the Mediterranean Sea include:Deudero et al. (2008) sampled this species in July, September, October and December 2002 (respectively with mean abundance from 0.1 to 0.5), with length varying from 9 to 13 cm, over Posidonia oceanica beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl.Karakulak et al. (2006) sampled 24 specimens (13.9 to 29.8 cm TL) from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 39 specimens (18.1 to 41.4 cm TL) using various fishing gear (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three estuarine area of the River Mirna, northern Adriatic Sea.Cruz and Lombarte (2004) collected 15 specimens (15 to 49 cm TL) during sampling cruises in the Catalonian Sea and around the Balearic Islands (north-west Mediterranean Sea) between 1995 and 2003.Deudero et al. (2004) collected 13 specimens, with length varying from 28.7 to 44.5 cm TL, from three islands, Mallorca, Formentera and Menorca (north-west Mediterranean) during May, June and July 2000 and 2001. The Mallorca samples were taken with a gill-net, the Formentera samples were collected with an experimental beam-trawl and the Menorca samples with a long-line and gill-net. Sampling depth ranged from 15 to 35 m.Artüz (2006) used angling and harpoon catch data to study the abundance and growth of the species from the northwest coast of the Marmara Sea. The species lives up to 20 years or 50 cm in the area, the population on east side of the Marmara Sea was reduced due to pollution. Fishery landings reduced from over 700 to 140 tonnes between 2001 and 2005 in Turkey and adjacent areas. There are sporadic but unquantified reports of population reduction (e.g., Artüz 2006).

habitat:
This is a demersal species that occurs in shallow coastal waters mainly on rocky and adjacent sandy substrata; it may be found from 5-200 m deep. It is a sedentary species with strong site-fidelity and low levels of mobility (Alós and Cabanellas-Reboredo 2012). Di Franco et al. (2009) found that the species is an important component of Mediterranean rocky-reef fish assemblages. The species is heavily exposed to fisheries during spawning aggregations at the mouth of estuaries. The young often enter estuaries and become more active at night. It is a nocturnal fish but it can sometimes be encountered during the day among seagrass beds, on rocky bottoms close to caves or large crevices in which it can shelter. It lives in small groups. The maximum size for this species is 75 cm (Dieuzeide et al. 1955). Feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and algae (Engin and Seyhan 2009). SCUBA diving observations suggest this to be a very calm fish with remarkable buoyancy control and an ability to move without much apparent effort (Chauvet 1991). The reproductive period for this species is May-July; the spawning season in Balearic waters is from May to August. Size at first maturity was 25.4 cm of total length for males and 29.9 cm for females (Grau et al. 2009). The generation length is estimated at five years based on Mylonas et al. (2004) who used captive shi-drum (Umbrina cirrosa; 4-5 yr female and 2-4 yr male) for a reproductive biology study, and reported that shi-drum are ready to spawn at age 4-5. In the wild, the first age of spawning is probably a year or so earlier (most sciaenids). This species responds well to protection (marine protected areas and no-take zones) (Di Franco et al. 2009) in the Mediterranean Sea.

threats:
This is a commercial species across its European range (including in the eastern Atlantic, the Black Sea, and especially in the Mediterranean Sea). Over-exploitation by fisheries is a major threat to this species. It is fished mainly by spear fishing, trammel nets, and gill nets. The species is heavily exposed to fisheries during spawning aggregations at the mouth of estuaries. In addition to fishing pressure at its spawning grounds, degradation of estuaries from coastal development threatens the nursery grounds of this species. As well as direct fishery exploitation, the species may also have been disturbed by divers and spear fishermen, forcing the animals to be less concentrated and much more dispersed in small coastal caves and below rocks (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). This species is currently being researched for potential use in aquaculture (Chatzifotis et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
The Brown Meagre is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Annex III of the Barcelona Convention. The Bern Convention Appendix III requires Parties to protect listed species, but a certain amount of exploitation is permitted if population levels allow. The Annex III listing on the Barcelona Convention also requires the exploitation of these species to be regulated (Abdul Malak et al. 2011). Marine protected areas (MPAs) potentially enhance the long-term sustainability of coastal fish resources, and have had a positive effect on the Brown Meagre spill-over fishery resource (Di Franco et al. 2009, Forcada et al. 2009). There was a moratorium of spear fishing in Corsica for this species. Since 2004, Montenegro included the species in the prohibited list for juvenile fishes, the limits was 30 cm total length (MAFWM 2004). The species was assessed as VU for the Mediterranean regional assessment in 2007.  More data are needed from the unaccounted populations and areas in the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

useAndTrade:
The species is caught by artisanal and sport fisheries throughout its range; it is an esteemed food fish and a candidate for aquaculture development in Mediterranean Sea. The species is often found in the community tank of public aquariums in Europe (L.N. Chao pers. obs. 2005). Experimental aquaculture in Greece has shown the species can reach 400 g in 12 months, but it suffers from marine cage adaptation problems (Triantaphyllidis 2012). In Turkey, otoliths are ground to a powder and used as remedy for urinary tract infections (Frimodt 1995). The fish is heavily targeted in its north African range where it is over-exploited by artisanal, semi-industrial and recreational fishing, and the fish is highly susceptible to spear fishing as it is slow moving and accessible (Grau et al. 2009).

redListReviewers:
Nieto, A., Comeros-Raynal, M. & Allen, D.J.

redListContributors:
Barriche, M., Bizsel, K., Kara, M., Quignard, J.P. & Yokes, B.


taxonomicNotes:
The morphology of the northwest Indian Ocean population and the one from the Mediterranean and southeast Atlantic are similar, but their ranges of distribution are separated. They probably belong to different taxonomic and conservation units (L. Chao pers. comm. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In European waters, the species is found along the European Atlantic coast from the Bay of Biscay southwards, the Canary Islands, and in the Mediterranean from at least Malta westwards. It is not commercially fished in the most of Europe, although likely taken as bycatch and occasionally in recreational fisheries. Its distribution is larger than the thresholds set out under Criterion B (limited geographic range), and although there are no data available on its population trends, there are currently no indications of decline. It is therefore considered Least Concern. Taxonomic study is required to resolve questions that arise from the separation in distributions between the northwest Indian Ocean population and the one from the Mediterranean and southeast Atlantic, however this work will not impact this European assessment.

range:
This species’ global range includes the eastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to South Africa, and northwards into the western Indian Ocean as far as Natal, South Africa; the western Mediterranean Sea, in the Balearic, Catalonian, Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas and as far east as the Strait of Sicily (Fiorentino et al. 2010); and the northwestern Indian Ocean from Somalia to the Arabian Sea, possibly as far east as Pakistan and India (though its distribution in the Indian Ocean must be re-examined). Its European range includes the eastern Atlantic coast along the European continent and the Canary Islands, and the western Mediterranean Sea, at least from Malta westwards (Fiorentino et al. 2010).

population:
In the eastern Atlantic, this species is mainly distributed south of the European continent and in European waters the species is rare, although detailed population information is not available from the coast of the European continent, the Canary Islands or the western Mediterranean Sea. Cruz and Lombarte (2004) collected 14 specimens, with length varying from 14-54 cm TL during sampling cruises in the Catalonian Sea and around the Balearic Islands (north-west Mediterranean Sea) between 1995 and 2003. FAO (2012) fisheries statistics show that total landings of the species between 1998 to 2010 fluctuated from 850 to 5,500 tonnes with an overall average of around 1,200 t.

habitat:
This is a demersal species, found in mud and sandy substrata of the shelf and upper slope (Chao 1986), in temperatures from 14-15° C (Bianchi et al. 1999). It feeds on small shrimps, worms and other benthic invertebrates (Chao 1986).

threats:
This is not a commercial species in Europe (except in the Canary Islands) and the scale of threat is uncertain, but occasionally caught in sport fisheries.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in Europe. Several conservation actions may be required, particularly researching and monitoring the population, and managing the harvest.

useAndTrade:
Common in local markets in the Canary Islands.

redListReviewers:
Nieto, A., Allen, D.J. & Comeros-Raynal, M.

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Pollard, D., Kara, M., Quignard, J.P. & Goren, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) The species’ range in Europe is from the Bay of Biscay (with occasional records from Britain in the southern North Sea) and throughout Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov, with just a small part of the species range (Atlantic coast of Morocco) outside Europe. It is a minor commercial fish and it taken as bycatch in other fisheries and in recreational fishing. Population declines over the past 15 years (around three generations), using FAO (2013) landing data from European data as a proxy (estimated three generations (2011: 50 t est.; 1996 160 t) are estimated at approximately 80%, however the latest figures (for 2011) are estimated, and the proportion of the decline in fishery captures due to changes in fishing effort is uncertain. Declines in reduction of habitat quality of important estuarine areas (juvenile nursery areas) due to coastal development and degradation are also a serious concern for this species. The species is assessed as Vulnerable on the basis of an inferred population decline of at least 30% within the last three generations based on estimated fishery capture data; the species would qualify for a higher threat category based on the estimated level of decline, however, and the species should be reassessed when more accurate data become available.

range:
The species’ global range is from the Bay of Biscay (with occasional records from Britain in the southern North Sea) to the Atlantic coast of southern Morocco, and throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas, to the Sea of Azov. Its core range includes primarily the Mediterranean Sea, including the Aegean Sea (Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003), the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), and Iberian waters (Cruz and Lombarte 2006) including the Balearic Islands. It is also present in Libya and Morocco, possibly in all north African coasts including Egypt (Bini 1968, Collignon and Aloncle 1973).

population:
FAO (2013) landing figures for Europe show a decline in capture of the species in Europe from 139 t in 1991, 160 t in 1996, 103 t in 2001, to 50 t (estimated) in 2011, an approximate decline of 80% over three generations (1996 to 2011); this estimated decline has been reduced to a conservative 30% decline due to the estimated data for the 2011 catches. Declines have also been observed in the Mediterranean Sea; the species used to be relatively common in many areas of the Mediterranean in the 1970s compared to the present (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). There are records of sharp declines in this species observed around the Aegean Sea and Mediterranean coast of Turkey in the past ten years (C. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).

habitat:
This is a demersal species that can be found over rocky and sandy substrata in coastal waters. Juveniles enter estuaries. The reproduction period for this species begins in May, with a peak in June. Food prey include molluscs and worms. The maximum size is 100 cm and maximum weight is 12 kg (Dieuzeide et al. 1955). It matures at around 35 cm (three years), and is estimated to have a generation length of five years. This species feeds on Clupeids (sardines, anchovies), mackerels, cuttlefish, shellfishes and worms. Records from the Mediterranean Sea include:Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) sampled nine specimens, with length varying from 6.5 to 24.7 cm TL, using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three northern Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (NE Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 44 specimens, with length varying from 33.1 to 47.0 cm TL, using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three estuarine area of the River Mirna, northern Adriatic Sea.Cruz and Lombarte (2004) captured ten specimens (11 cm to 54 cm TL) during sampling cruises in the Catalonian Sea and around the Balearic Islands (northwest Mediterranean Sea) between 1995 and 2003.

threats:
This is a species with minor commercial importance. In the Mediterranean the most important fishery is in Turkey and Italy and in the past, Greece. It is typically caught with fixed nets, seine, fyke-net, and traps. It is also targeted in recreational spearfishing. Estuarine habitats are important for the juvenile stage of the life cycle therefore development and pollution of these areas causing habitat loss and degradation is a major threat. As well as exploitation from fishing, this species may also have been disturbed by divers and spear fishermen (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).

conservationAction:
The species is known from numerous Natura 2000 sites in Italy and Spain as well as from sites in France, Bulgaria and Malta (EEA 2013). Improved fisheries management is recommended and better control of spearfishing activities. Protection of estuarine juvenile nursery habitat is also important. The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Annex III of the Barcelona Convention. The Bern Convention Appendix III listing requires Parties to protect these species, but a certain amount of exploitation is permitted if population levels allow. The Annex III listing on the Barcelona Convention also requires the exploitation of these species to be regulated (Abdul Malak et al. 2011). Further studies should be conducted to determine the population trends for the entire region.

useAndTrade:
Found in small numbers in commercial fisheries and utilised as a gamefish. Mariculture of the species has been developed in Italy, Spain, Turkey (Afonso 2000, Grau et al. 2009) and Israel. Experimental aquaculture in Greece has shown a growth reached 340 g in 12 months but it has marine cage adaptation problems (Triantaphyllidis 2012). The species is often found in the community tank of public aquariums in Europe.

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Pollard, D., Bizsel, K. & Goren, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Umbrina robinsoni Gilchrist and Thompson 1908 was considered a junior synonym of Umbina ronchus (Chao and Trewavas 1990). However, it is a valid species distributed from South Africa to Oman (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004). The species is often reported from the northwest Indian Ocean, where it may be misidentified from Umbrina canariensis or U. robinsoni.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The range of the species within the assessment boundaries includes the eastern Atlantic and the western Mediterranean to at least Sicily and, from a recent record, Malta. Whilst there is little information about the population trend of the species in the European Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and it is considered rare in these waters, there are no known widespread threats, and the species is not utilised in commercial fisheries, nor is likely to be found at significant levels in subsitsance fisheries in most parts of the species European distribution. The species is considered Least Concern.

range:
The species is found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Portugal southwards to Angola and the Cape and along the eastern coast of Africa to Oman, although apparently not known from some coasts within this range. It is found in the western part of Mediterranean (including occasional records from Corsica and Sardegna that require confirmation), the Canary Islands, Sao Tome and Principe, with a record in the central Mediterranean from the southern Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Italy, and the species has recently been reported from Maltese waters (Fiorentino et al. 2010). Records from the northwestern Indian Ocean require confirmation.

population:
There is little information about the population trends of the species in the European Atlantic and the western Mediterranean, and it is considered rare in these waters. There are no FAO landings figures specific to this species.

habitat:
A demersal, coastal species (Reiner 1996). It inhabits rocky and sandy substrata, and found at depths from 20 to 200 m in marine, brackish and fresh waters (Schneider 1990). Juveniles may occur in littoral areas, but not in estuaries. It feeds on shrimps, worms and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates (Chao 1986). Max length is 100.0 cm TL male/unsexed (Heemstra 1995); average length 50.0 cm TL male/unsexed (Lal Mohan 1984).

threats:
This is not a target species in European waters but is likely taken in small-scale fisheries or as bycatch.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures or presence in protected areas for this species in Europe, although it likely occurs in marine Natura 2000 sites. Research is required to confirm the identity of records from some parts of the species global range, and monitoring of populations and harvest trends is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This is a species that is occasionally found in local markets.

redListReviewers:
Allen, D.J., Nieto, A. & Comeros-Raynal, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Genetic information suggests that this species is one highly connected population worldwide (Garber et al. 2005, Theisen et al. 2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Wahoo Acanthocybium solandri is found in tropical and subtropical waters worldwide. In european waters the fish is found in the northeastern Atlantic (off the Canary and Madeira Islands and the Azores) and occasionally in the Mediterranean Sea. Although there are few organized fisheries for A. solandri, there is a traditional fishery off the Canary Islands. The fish is fast growing and early maturing, and there is no current evidence of it being significantly impacted by current fishing effort in the region. Therefore, A. solandri is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Acanthocybium solandri is found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, the fish is found off the Canary and Madeira islands and the Azores. It is very occasionally found in the Mediterranean (Romeo et al. 2005). It is found to at least 340 m depth (Nóbrega et al. 2009).

population:
Genetic information suggests that this species is one highly connected population worldwide (Garber et al. 2005, Theisen et al. 2008). Few data are available on the population status of A. solandri, particularly in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It occurs only sporadically in the Mediterranean, and catches are generally not reported. Acanthocybium solandri sustains a traditional fishery off the Canary Islands, and there is no evidence of substantial declines there. The population is estimated to be relatively stable, primarily due to their rapid growth rate and reproductive potential. FAO (2014) capture production data for the fish for the eastern central and northeast atlantic and the Mediterranean and Black sea fishery areas shows no clear trend over the period 1981 - 2012, with a record 2,309 tonnes reported in 1981, declining to 147 tonnes in 1985, but fluctuating above and below 1,000 tonnes per annum since 2006.

habitat:
This is an oceanic, epipelagic species frequently found solitarily or forming small, loose aggregations rather than compact schools. It is found to at least 340 m (Nobrega et al. 2009). It feeds on fishes and squids. This species feeds on cephalopods around São Pedro and São Paulo Archipelago (Andrade et al. 2007), where the flying fish Cypselurus cyanopterus is also an important food item, together with other fishes, such as Oxyporhamphus micropterus and Dactylopterus volitans (Vaske-Junior et al. 2003). Its spawning season in Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas and Bermuda is from at least May–October (Oxenford et al. 2003). In St. Peter and St. Paul's Rocks spawning occurs in April and May. Individuals caught in this region are primarily adults that are gathering to spawn (Melo et al. 2011). Females are multiple batch spawners and are highly fecund. An individual female might spawn every 2–6 days, a total of 20–62 times during a spawning season. The mean batch fecundity in the northern Gulf of Mexico is 1.1 million eggs resulting in a total annual fecundity of 30–92.8 million eggs (Brown-Peterson et al. 2000). Batch fecundity for Florida and the Bahamas ranged from 0.8–1.7 million eggs (Jenkins and McBride 2009). Fish in different maturity stages are frequently caught at the same time. This is a fast growing species with high mortality. This species exhibits early sexual maturity, usually within the first year. Generation length is estimated to be between 3–5 years (Collette et al. 2011). Average reproductive age is one year for females and two years for males. The species lives on average for 5–6 years (Oxenford et al. 2003), but can live as long as nine years (McBride et al. 2008, Melo et al. 2011). In the northern Gulf of Mexico, 50% sexual maturity in males is reached before 93.5 cm fork length (FL), probably at an age of one year. In females, size at 50% maturity is approximately 102 cm FL, at an estimated age of two years (Brown-Peterson et al. 2000). For the Bahamas and Florida, 50% female maturity at 92.5 cm (FL) at 0.6 years of age (Jenkins and McBride 2009). In St. Peter and St. Paul's the first sexual maturity for males was at 101 cm and at 110 cm for females, which corresponds to an age of approximately 3.8 years (Melo et al. 2011). The maximum recorded length is 200 cm from Cape Hatteras, US (Hogarth 1976) and the maximum all-tackle gamefish record an 83.5 kg fish from Cabo San Lucas, Mexico (IGFA 2014).

threats:
There do not appear to be any organized fisheries for this species in most areas (Collette and Nauen 1983). This species is typically caught by trolling, hook and line and as a bycatch in purse-seine and longline fisheries (Collette 1995). Increasing using of FADs, both fixed and those used in the tropical tuna purse seine fishery, has increased the directed and bycatch mortality of Wahoo throughout its range. However, there is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009). As with other large pelagic species, A. solandri accumulates mercury in its flesh and there is a positive linear relationship between Hg and length and age, mean 0.50 mg/kg (Adams 2010).

conservationAction:
This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas. There are limited species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the US Atlantic, the harvest of this species is restricted to hook and line gear (SAFMC 2003). Area wide annual closures of 62 days exist for this species in the Eastern Pacific, and there is also a FAD closure in the western and central Pacific for two months a year (WCPFC 2009). The fish is frequently grouped with a number of other species as 'Small tunas' for management purposes (STECF 2014). No management recommendations have been presented by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses (STECF 2014). Improved knowledge of migration patterns, reproductive characteristics and critical habitat, validation of age, growth and mortality estimates, and a more comprehensive analysis of stock structure for the eastern Atlantic are needed for informed Wahoo stock assessment and management (Oxenford et al. 2003). Acanthocybium solandri was assessed as Least Concern globally (Collette et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is caught in commercial, artisanal, or recreational fisheries throughout its range. In the Atlantic, small scombrids are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small scombrids. Although there are few organized fisheries for A. solandri, there is a traditional fishery off the Canary Islands.

redListContributors:
Acero, A., Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Canales Ramirez, C., Cardenas, G., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Die, D., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Hinton, M., Juan Jorda, M., Kada, O., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Montano Cruz, R., Ne


taxonomicNotes:
Before 1960, many researchers thought that there was only one world-wide species in the genus Auxis, which was recorded as Auxis thazard (Collette and Aaland, 1996).  The species contains two subspecies;  A. rochei rochei (Risso, 1810) worldwide except for the eastern tropical Pacific where it is replaced by A. r. eudorax Collette and Aadland, 1996.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Auxis rochei is widespread in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, A. rochei is one of the most common juvenile tunas. There are small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean, and it is caught as bycatch in commercial fisheries. Landings of Auxis spp. are not reported separately, but it is currently thought that only A. rochei is present. There is no evidence that the populations are declining. Therefore, A. rochei is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is cosmopolitan in warm waters and is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, including the Mediterranean Sea. Recently Oray and Karakulak (2005) observed concentrations of A. rochei larvae in the eastern Mediterranean basin.

population:
Juvenile Auxis are the most abundant juvenile tunas in the world and they are widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters. Auxis rochei is one of the most common juvenile tuna in the Mediterranean. The population is assumed to be stable. FAO does not report statistics for this species as Auxis spp. catches are generally not identified to species. Worldwide reported landings for Auxis spp. show a gradual increase from 22,278 tonnes in 1950 to 256,325 in 2006 (FAO 2009). In the Atlantic, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) includes statistics for Frigate Tuna (Auxis thazard), which are suspected to include both A. rochei and A. thazard. In the total catch of Frigate Tunas, the proportion of each of the two species is not known. However, almost all catches from countries in the Mediterranean are thought to be Auxis rochei (Collette and Nauen 1983). ICCAT estimates for A. rochei range from 12,000 t in 1990, to 2,600 t in 1999 (ICCAT 2009), however no capture production is reported by FAO (2014) for the European region. In the Mediterranean, this is a common species in fisheries and abundance changes from place to place every year (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2008). No assessment summary is given for this species from the Mediterranean. Auxis rochei (together with catches reported as A. thazard but are most likely A. rochei) accounts for 2 to 32.7% of the total catches reported from Mediterranean countries (Di Natale et al. 2009). However, it is important to note that A. rochei is caught in every country of the Mediterranean, so the reported catches are likely underestimated. In the 1980's there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. Reported landings for the 1989–1995 period decreased to approximately 92,637 t, and since then values have oscillated, with a minimum of 69,895 t in 1993 and a maximum of 123,600 t in 2005. Declared catches were 79,228 t in 2006 and 74,087 t in 2007. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 t. The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna amounted to 55,876 t, of which 6,018 t was Bullet Tuna (STECF 2009). There are more than ten species of small tunas, but only five of these account for about 88% of the total reported catch by weight. These five species are: Atlantic Bonito (Sarda sarda), Frigate Tuna (Auxis thazard) which may include some catches of Bullet Tuna (Auxis rochei), Little Tunny (Euthynnus alletteratus), King Mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla), and Atlantic Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) (ICCAT 2009).

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that forms schools. It is an off-shore predator feeding on whatever abundant resource is available with a preference for planktonic crustaceans, small cephalopods, and fish larvae. Among crustaceans, hyperiidean amphipods are often the most important followed by a euphausiids (Mostarda et al. 2007). Because of their abundance, they are considered to be an important element of the food web, particularly as forage for other species of commercial interest. Longevity is five years, and males and females are of equal length. Adults can grow to 50 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle gamefish record is of a 1.84 kg fish taken off L’Ampolla, Spain in 2004 (IGFA 2014). Bullet Tuna mature at around two years old, or about 35 cm FL, but this can vary by region. Length at first maturity in the Philippines 17 cm FL, generally before one year of age. Length at 50% maturity of both sexes off India 24 cm and 18.8 cm in the Philippines (Yesaki and Arce 1994, Niiya 2001a, Collette 2010). Age of first maturity in Japan is 1.25 years with a longevity of two years (Niiya 2001b). Length at first maturity for females is 23.8 cm FL  and 24 cm FL for males in India (Muthiah 1985). The length-weight relationship in Tunisian waters was W=0.00207 X L3.59345 for males and W = 0.00138 X L3.70218 for females (Allaya et al. 2013). It is a multiple spawner with fecundity ranging between 31,000 and 103,000 eggs per spawning (according to the size of the fish). Larval studies indicate that Bullet Tuna spawn throughout its range (IOTC 2007). The spawning season varies from region to region at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher. Gonosomatic index estimates from Tunisia indicate that spawning occurs from July to September (Allaya et al. 2013). Fecundity estimates range between 31,000 and 162,800 eggs per spawning correlated with the size of the female (Collette 2010).

threats:
This species is fished throughout its range, with high regional importance in some areas, but this is not thought to be a major threat at this time. There are no known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is a highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. No fishery management plan is currently in place except a prohibition on drift nets in EU member states. Auxis rochei was assessed as Least Concern globally (Collette et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Data on catch composition, biology and trends are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, thanks to the ICCAT/GFCM joint expert group in 2008. More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) suggests that countries be requested to submit all available data to ICCAT as soon as possible, in order to be used in future meetings. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. ICCAT (2014) reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions. ICCAT in 2009 noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Given that, many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins, therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2009).

useAndTrade:
This species is fished throughout its range, with high regional importance in some areas. It is caught by pole and line and as bycatch in a variety of gears including gill nets. It is also taken incidentally in artisanal purse seines. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). However here is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009). In the Mediterranean Sea the price of this fish is low but quantity can be important in local markets. It is caught mostly by purse seine, set surface gill nets, and small drift nets (the latter was banned in EU countries in 2002), hand and troll lines, and traps.

redListContributors:
Acero, A., Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Canales Ramirez, C., Cardenas, G., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Juan Jorda, M., Kada, O., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Montano Cruz, R., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H


taxonomicNotes:
Auxis rochei rochei (Risso, 1810) is worldwide except for the eastern tropical Pacific where it is replaced by A. r. eudorax Collette and Aadland, 1996.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Euthynnus alletteratus is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. It is routinely taken by a variety of gears including seines and gill nets in commercial, artisanal and recreational fisheries, however whilst landings have increased, they appear to be stable in recent years. As the catch in the Mediterranean is the bulk of the fishery for this species in European waters, there do not appear to be any population declines. Therefore, E. alletteratus is assessed as Least Concern at present.

range:
Euthynnus alletteratus is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, the fish is known from the southern North Sea and the English Channel to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea and the western Black Sea (Collette and Nauen 1983). Oray and Karakulak (2005) observed high concentrations of E. alletteratus larvae in the eastern Mediterranean basin zone. It is typically found to 150 m.

population:
This species is caught in relatively small quantities throughout its range. Landings reported from the northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea fishing regions have increased from less than 1,000 t in the 1950's to about 6,900 t in 2009 (FAO 2014). In the 1980s there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. Reported landings for the 1989–1995 period decreased to approximately 92,637 t, and since then values have oscillated, with a minimum of 69,895 t in 1993 and a maximum of 123,600 t in 2005. Declared catches were 79,228 t in 2006 and 74,087 t in 2007. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 t. The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna amounted to 55,876 t, of which 11,552 t was Euthynnus alletteratus (STECF 2009). There are more than 10 species of small tunas, but only five of these account for about 88% of the total reported catch by weight. These five species are: Atlantic Bonito (Sarda sarda); Frigate Tuna (Auxis thazard), which may include some catches of Bullet Tuna (Auxis rochei); Little Tunny (Euthynnus alletteratus); King Mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla); and Atlantic Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) (ICCAT 2009). In the Mediterranean, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) statistics are very weak for this species with many countries not reporting catches for many years. Landings reported for the period of 1997–2002 fluctuated around 2,500 t. This species is sporadically caught and larger specimens are becoming more available in recent years (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2008). Euthynnus alletteratus accounts for 0.5 to about 17% of the total landings of small tunas reported to the FAO (Di Natale et al. 2009).

habitat:
This is a reef-associated and oceanodromous species found in neritic waters close inshore (Cervigón 1994). It is found in surface waters, mainly on the continental shelf. Less migratory than Katsuwonus pelamis or other tunas, it is usually found in coastal areas with swift currents, near shoals and offshore islands. In the Mediterranean it is also found far offshore. This schooling species is an opportunistic predator which feeds on primarily on fishes (mainly clupeoid), but also on crustaceans, squids, hyperiid amphipods, heteropods and tunicates (Bahou et al. 2007, Falautano et al. 2007). Eggs are shed in several batches when the water is warmest. The fish spawns extensively, both geographically and temporally, throughout its respective range (Schaefer 2001). Eggs are shed in several batches when the water is warmest. Spawning distributions of all three Euthynnus species appear primarily restricted to peripheral areas and around islands within their respective ocean basins (Yoshida 1979, Nishikawa et al. 1985). In Tunisia, the sex ratio is 57.77% females (Hajjej et al. 2011). Gonadal-somatic index (GSI) indicated spawning June–Sept. Size at first maturity 43.13 cm fork length (FL) for females and 42.12 cm for males. The length-weight regression was estimated at Wt = 0.0329.*FL2.8101 for females, 0.0368*FL2.7832 for males. This species has an estimated longevity of between eight and ten years (Cayre and Diouf 1983, Landau 1965), with an estimated age of first maturity of two or three years (Landau 1965, Hattour 2000, Kahraman et al. 2008). Generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately four years. Maximum size is 100 cm FL. The all-tackle gamefish record is a 16.32 kg fish taken in Washington Canyon, New Jersey, USA in 2006 (IGFA 2014).

threats:
This is a commercial species that is part of a multispecies fishery. Overall trends in the small tuna catch may mask declining trends for individual species because annual landings are often dominated by the landings of a single species. These fluctuations seem to be partly related to unreported catches, as these species generally comprise part of the bycatch and are often discarded, and therefore do not reflect the real catch. The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) pointed out the relative importance of small tuna fisheries in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, which account for 28% of the total reported catch from 1980–2007. Several countries from the Mediterranean and Black Sea are not reporting catches to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). It is commonly believed that catches of small tunas are strongly affected by unreported or underreported data in all areas. Small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse-seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). There is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).

conservationAction:
It is a highly migratory species listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Euthynnus alletteratus was assessed as Least Concern globally (Collette et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). It probably occurs in marine protected areas in parts of its European range, and is reported from the Fondali delle Isole Pelagie Natura 2000 site in Italian waters. Data on the catch composition, biology and trends for small tunas are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Di Natale et al. 2008). More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. In 2008, the ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions. ICCAT/SCRS in 2009 (ICCAT 2009) noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Given that, many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins, therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2009). In Turkey there is a minimum landing size of 45 cm. Research is needed, including into population trends.

useAndTrade:
This is a commercial fish species. Almost all the commercial catches (99%) are taken by purse-seiners (2,067 t retained and 1,434 t discarded) (STECF 2009). Specialized traps (madragues) are used in Tunisia and Morocco. Because of its abundance in inshore waters it is a popular sportfish on light tackle, commonly taken by trolling feather jigs, spoons, or strip bait. It is also popular and very effective as live bait for sailfish. Catches in the Mediterranean and Black Sea occur primarily in the late spring and early summer as bycatch of the offshore swordfish fishery (Di Natale et al. 2009).

redListContributors:
Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Juan Jorda, M., Kada, O., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Viera Hazin, F.H. & de Oli


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Katsuwonus pelamis has a circumglobal distribution in tropical and subtropical waters. It is uncommon in the Mediterranean, and not abundant along the northeastern Atlantic coast. Most catches in the Eastern Central Atlantic, Northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean and Black Sea FAO fishery areas are in the Eastern Central Atlantic area off the coast of west Africa (ICCAT 2014). Landings in the Mediterranean Sea are between 0-1% of the total landings of small tunas and there is no evidence that there are declines in the population, although catches from the Mediterranean and Black Sea FAO fishery area have fluctuated greatly in recent years (FAO 2014). Therefore, the species is assessed as Least Concern for the European region.

range:
Katsuwonus pelamis is circumglobal in seas warmer than 15°C. It occurs in the western Mediterranean basin but not in the eastern basin nor the Black Sea. It is found to 260 m depth.

population:
Katsuwonus pelamis is uncommon in the Mediterranean, and not abundant along the northeastern Atlantic coast. Landings in the Mediterranean Sea are between 0-1 % of the total landings of small tunas (Di Natale et al. 2009). There is no evidence that there are declines in the population.

habitat:
This pelagic and oceanodromous species is found in offshore waters to depths of 260 m. The larvae are restricted to waters with surface temperatures of 15–30°C in Australia (Kailola et al. 1993). This species exhibits a strong tendency to school in surface waters with birds, drifting objects, sharks, and whales. This species feeds on fish, crustaceans, cephalopods, and molluscs. It is preyed upon by large pelagic fishes (Kailola et al. 1993). In the western Atlantic it is commonly found in mixed schools with Blackfin Tuna, Thunnus atlanticus. This species is very fast-growing, short-lived, and very fecund. Maximum size recorded is 111 cm fork length (FL) (Bayliff 1988) and 34.5 kg. The all-tackle angling record is of a 20.54 kg fish caught off Baja California, Mexico in 1996 (IGFA 2014). Longevity is estimated to be between 6–8 years (Collette 2010), and age of first maturity is estimated to be 1.5 years (Maunder and Harley 2005). Size at first maturity is 40–55 cm FL, depending on the area (Collette and Nauen 1983, Matsumoto et al. 1984, Wild and Hampton 1994, Schaefer 2001). Estimated length at 50% maturity for females is 42 cm (Cayre and Farrugio 1986, Stequert and Ramcharrun 1996). This species sex ratio is about 1:1 but fisheries that rely on young, immature fish are dominated by females, while those that capture older fish are mostly male. This species spawns several times per season in batches: at sea surface temperatures of 24–29°C throughout the year in the Caribbean and other equatorial waters, and from spring to early fall in subtropical waters, with the spawning season becoming shorter as distances from the equator increases (Erdman 1977, Collette 2010). In tropical waters, reproductively active female Skipjack Tuna spawn almost daily. Models of migration have been proposed, especially from the central Pacific into the eastern Pacific. Fecundity increases with size but is highly variable, the number of eggs per season in females 41–87 cm FL ranges from 80,000 to 2,000,000 (Collette 2010).

threats:
This species is important in highly commercial fisheries. Skipjack Tuna make up 60% of the commercial tuna catch worldwide and is mostly used for canning. They are taken at the surface mostly with purse seines and pole-and-line gear, but is also caught by trolling on light tackle using plugs, spoons, feathers, or strip bait (Collette 2003).

conservationAction:
This is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. There was a record catch of the fish in the Atlantic Ocean in 2012 of 258,300 tonnes (STECF 2014). For the Eastern Central Atlantic, Northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean and Black Sea FAO fishing areas, the 2012 reported capture production was also a record high (216,675 tonnes) and have shown a steady increase since 2006 (112,617 t), following a number of years when reported catches in these fishing areas ranged between approximately 100,000 and 150,000 t (FAO 2014), however it has to be recognised that numerous non-EU fishery fleets operate on these fishery areas. Mediterranean catches represented a small proportion of these reported catches (c.20 t in 2012). STECF (2014) ascribe the increased catches to the numerous changes that have occurred in the skipjack fishery since the early 1990s (e.g., the increased use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) and the latitudinal expansion and the westward extension of the fishing area) have brought about an increase in skipjack catchability and in the proportion of biomass exploited. Maximum sustainable yield is estimated to be around 143,000 t – 170,000 t (STECF 2014). A number of factors (e.g., the use of FADs and the subsequent difficulty in estimating fishing effort, changes in catchability) are constraints on the effective application of classic stock assessment methods, however there is no evidence of a fall in yield, nor in the average weight of individuals captured (STECF 2014). However, despite these constraints, STECF (2014) expressed the opinion that, although it is unlikely that the eastern skipjack stock is overexploited, current catches could be at, even above, the MSY. In the Atlantic, there are currently no specific regulations in effect for Skipjack Tuna; although restrictions on the use of FADs (ICCAT Rec. 98-01 and Rec. 99-01) or the complete closure to surface fleets (Rec. 04-01) have been implemented in the East Atlantic but with the intended aim of protecting yellowfin and bigeye tuna juveniles (ICCAT 2014). A new Recommendation (Rec. 11-01) concerned with the complete closure of the surface fishery replaced Rec. 04-01 came into force in 2013 and establishes a new moratorium on FAD fishing in the area that extends from the African coast to 10ºS and 5ºW latitude to 5ºE longitude during the months of January and February. Despite evidence that the Eastern Atlantic stock is overexploited, but as a result of data uncertainty and inadequacy in some areas, ICCAT (2014) recommends that catch and effort levels do not exceed the level of catch in recent years. There is ongoing concern that reported catches underestimate true levels of exploitation.

useAndTrade:
Skipjack Tuna make up 60% of the commercial tuna catch worldwide and is mostly used for canning. They are taken at the surface mostly with purse seines and pole-and-line gear, but is also caught by trolling on light tackle using plugs, spoons, feathers, or strip bait (Collette 2003). In the Atlantic Ocean, the numerous changes that have occurred in the Skipjack Tuna fishery since the early 1990s (such as the use of FADs and the expansion of the fishing area towards the west) that have brought about an increase in Skipjack Tuna catchability and in the proportion of the stock that is exploited. At present, the major fisheries are the purse seine fisheries, particularly those of Spain, France, Cape Verde, Guatemala and Ghana, followed by baitboat fisheries of Ghana, Spain and France. Increasing harvests and fishing effort could lead to involuntary consequences for other species that are harvested in combination with Skipjack Tuna. In the West Atlantic, the major fishery is the Brazilian baitboat fishery, followed by the Venezuelan purse seine fleet (STECF 2009). The Brazilian bait boat fleet of Santa Catarina State yields almost half of the Skipjack Tuna catches in the West Atlantic (Andrade and Kinas 2004).With respect to the West Atlantic, the fishing effort of the Brazilian baitboats seems to be stable over the last 20 years. There has been a recent increase in Skipjack Tuna catchability from 1–13% per year since the early 1980s. The change in the selectivity pattern observed for the purse seine fishery suggests that this fleet is mainly targeting juvenile tunas (ICCAT 2009). In the insular Caribbean, this species is important to the artisanal fishery (Mahon 1996). In the Mediterranean, this species may be caught with drift nets. The species is also found in recreational/sports fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Vulnerable (VU) Orcynopsis unicolor is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, O. unicolor is found from Norway as an occasional vagrant, to the Straits of Gibraltar, including the Mediterranean. It is not found in the Black Sea. It is a neritic species which is found to depths not exceeding 200 m.  The estimated generation length of this species is five to seven years, and population trends were examined over a period of three generation lengths (15-21 years). The rate of decline in landing statistics over the last 15-21 years was used as a proxy for the rate of decline in the regional population. The use of decline in landing statistics as a proxy for decline in population is supported by evidence that within the Mediterranean basin, where the majority (>90%) of this species' regional population is located, fishing effort is too high and is not decreasing, and most fish stocks are over-exploited. The estimated overall trend in landings within the Mediterranean shows a maximum rate of decline of approximately 60% over the last three generation lengths. We infer that the increase in landings declared from the northeast Atlantic fishing zone, which accounts for less than 10% of the regional population, reflects an increase in the population of O. unicolor within the assessment region due to warming waters. It is estimated that the overall rate of decline within the European Assessment Region is likely less than 50%, but greater than 30%, over the past three generation lengths. Reported landings to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) have declined by 41 to 48% over the past three generation lengths, and support the previous estimate of a regional decline between 30 and 60%. Therefore, O. unicolor is assessed as Vulnerable under A2bde.

range:
Orcynopsis unicolor is only found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the Mediterranean Sea south to Dakar, Senegal. There is an historical vagrant record from Oslo (1879). It is not known from Madeira, the Azores or Cape Verde, but may be rarely found around the Canary Islands (Collette in press). It does not appear to be found in the Black Sea. Orcynopsis unicolor is a neritic species, found in the top 200 m of the water column (Collette in press).

population:
Orcynopsis unicolor is taken incidentally in small tuna fisheries throughout its range (Collette and Nauen 1983). Landings reported to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) from the assessment zone have declined by 41% over the past 15 years and 48% over the past 21 years (ICCAT 2012). In the Mediterranean Sea, landings reported to Eurostat and compiled from other sources remained fairly stable between 1975 and 2005 (Di Natale et al. 2009), however within the last approximately three generations lengths (1996 to 2012), reported catches within the EU27 member states have shown a fluctuating decline from 7,416,164 tonnes to 4,355,188 tonnes, an overall decline of 41.3% (Eurostat 2014; Catches - Total all fishing areas). It is commonly believed that catches of small scombrids are strongly affected by unreported or under-reported data in all areas (STECF 2009). Reported landings to the ICCAT have declined by between 41-48% over the past 15 to 21 years (three generation lengths), with no evidence that effort has been decreasing. Based on these data, it is inferred that there has been a population decline of at least 30% over the past three generation lengths. FAO landing statistics summary Within the European region, the fish appears in landings statistics from Morocco, Algeria, Ireland, Tunisia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and Portugal (Di Nitale et al. 2009, FAO 2014). Landings of O. unicolor are declared from the following Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fishing regions, in order of decreasing landings declared in 2011: Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA), Mediterranean and Black Sea, Northeast Atlantic (NEA). The ECA zone has accounted for 82-85% of landings in the last 15-21 years. The Mediterranean and Black Sea zone has accounted for 14-17% of landings. The Northeast Atlantic zone has accounted for between 0-1% of total landings in the last 15-21 years. Based on the distribution of global landings, it is estimated that 20% of the global population of O. unicolor is found within the assessment zone; the population is primarily distributed in the Gulf of Guinea but extends into the Mediterranean. Based on the % contribution of NEA vs. Mediterranean and Black Sea landings, it is estimated that 80 to >90% of the population within the assessment zone is found in the Mediterranean, and that no more than 20% of the population within the assessment region is found in the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone. The trend in landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone over the last three generation lengths (estimated at 15-21 years) was calculated using landing statistics provided by the FAO. The average landings from 1992-1998 was 167 tonnes. The average landings from 2006-2012 was 49 tonnes. The estimated rate of decline in landings in 15-21 years in the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone was approximately 70%. The trend in landings in the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone were first declared in 2002, and have fluctuated from 2 to 10 tonnes, with no overall trend. There were no landings declared prior to 2002, and this species may be expanding its range northwards due to climate change. The estimated overall trend in landings within the assessment region is a maximum rate of decline of approximately 60% over the last three generation lengths. We infer that the increase in landings declared from the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone reflects an increase in the population of O. unicolor within the assessment region due to warming waters, and that the overall rate of decline is likely less than 60%, but greater than 30%. There is no evidence of reduced fishing effort in the region, but there is anecdotal evidence that O. unicolor is rarer in markets in the assessment region (B. Collette pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous and neritic species, confined primarily to temperate waters, but juveniles may be encountered in waters of up to 30°C. This species forms small schools at the surface and is also frequently associated with birds. It feeds on small fishes, especially sardines, anchovies, jacks, mackerel, bogue and others (Collette 1986). There is no information available about the migratory pattern of O. unicolor in the Mediterranean sea, or possible correlation with Atlantic populations (Di Natale et al. 2009). The main mode of the size-frequency distribution from Tunisian waters was the class 41-45 cm, which represented 25% of the total number of sampled fish. Length of maturity at 50% is 43.5 cm fork length (FL) for females and 45 cm FL for males, although other modes were in the classes 8-15 cm and 61-65 cm. Both sexes mature at two years in Tunisia. In Tunisia, spawning is from May to September. A female weighing five or six kilograms may carry some 500–600,000 eggs which are spawned in portions (Hattour 2000). We have assumed a generation length of five to seven years for the species, based on the known age at first maturity (two years; Hattour 2009) and expert opinion (B. Collette pers. comm. 2014).

threats:
Small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. There is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009). Within the European region, O. unicolor is primarily landed in the FAO Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone, which accounts for >90% of total landings declared within the European Assessment Zone. Mediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas, where biodiversity is greatest. The majority (80%) of the Mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels <12 m, and as such Mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small-scale artisanal fisheries. Additionally, fisheries tend to be multi-species. As such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes. There are several Issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity, the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean catches, and high discard rates (40-56% of the catch taken in waters <150 m) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species (Vassilopoulou 2010). According to a 2013 synthesis of the Status of Mediterranean and Black Sea resources in European Waters, while the state of knowledge on the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks is improving rapidly, between 94% and 95% of stocks analyzed are overexploited. Recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality. Overall reductions between 45% and 51% are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields (Cardinale and Osio 2013). Orcynopsis unicolor may be experiencing competition with the Lessepsian invader, Scomberomorus commerson, which has expanded along the coast of the Mediterranean as far as Tunisia (Ben-Souissi et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although catches within the European Union are reportable to ICCAT. STECF (2014) states that the absence of management recommendations is due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. Data on the catch composition, biology and trends for small tunas are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, thanks to the ICCAT/GFCM joint expert group in 2008. More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) suggests that countries be requested to submit all available data to ICCAT as soon as possible, in order to be used in future meetings. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. ICCAT SCRS (2008) reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions. ICCAT SCRS (STECF 2009) noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins. Therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is landed in small tuna fisheries throughout its range. Landing data from Mauritania, Morocco, Portugal reach up to 1,000 tonnes/year. It is caught mainly with hook and line. It is marketed canned or frozen. Small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). There is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).

redListContributors:
Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Fox, W., Graves, J., Juan Jorda, M., Kada, O., Nelson, R. & Oxenford, H.


taxonomicNotes:
There is some genetic differentiation between samples from the Atlantic and those from the Mediterranean, but not at the species level (Vinas et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Sarda sarda is a widely distributed species on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from the North Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, including the Mediterranean and Black seas. It is fairly fast growing and abundant in many areas. The species it is caught in both commercial and recreational fisheries, there is no evident overall population declines in the assessment region, although there are concerns about the Turkish populations. The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is found along both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is found from Norway to the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean and Black seas (Collette and Nauen 1983).

population:
Sarda sarda is considered to be abundant in many localities. Landings in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean and Black Sea FAO fishing regions are dominated by landings from the Mediterranean (FAO-FIGIS 2005, FAO 2014). Since 1950, landings have fluctuated with no apparent increasing or decreasing trends from about 6,000 tonnes to 76,000 tonnes (FAO 2014). There is some genetic differentiation between samples from the Atlantic and those from the Mediterranean, suggesting that they may be reproductively isolated (Vinas et al. 2010).

habitat:
A small epipelagic, neritic species that occurs in schools. It sometimes enters estuaries and has a depth range of 0–200 m. It can adapt to gradual but not sudden changes in the environment and may occur in water temperatures between 12 and 27°C and salinities between 14 and 39 ppm. The species preys upon sardines, squid, anchovy, mackerel and other small fishes (Collette 2003). This species is migratory (Sabates and Recasens 2001) and spawning season and size of maturity varies between regional populations (Valeiras and Abad 2006). In most parts of the Mediterranean, it spawns between May and July but off Algeria spawning extends to July. The all-tackle game fish record is of an 8.3 kg fish caught off Faial Island in the Azores in 1953 (IGFA 2014).

threats:
Sarda sarda is harvested in various parts of its range, with the most important fishery being that in the Mediterranean and Black seas (FAO 2014). Turkey and Mexico landed the highest tonnage of this species: 17,900 t and 2,314 t respectively. Oray et al. (2004) have noted that the majority of fish landed in Turkey are below mature size, indicating that the stock will be unable to renew or sustain itself long-term.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required at present. Catches in the Mediterranean Sea of small tunas are considered inadequately or under reported (STECF 2014), and as a result data were considered inadequate to inform management recommendations. Further research and monitoring is required to inform stock assessments and management actions where required (STECF 2014). The fish was assessed as Least Concern globally (IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Marak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is an important food fish, targeted by a number of fisheries throughout its range. It is particularly important in the Mediterranean and Black seas where it is taken by trap net, ring net, gillnet, trammel net, purse seine, beach seine, and hook and line (Demir 1963). The fish is amongst the five species that account for around 88% of the total reported catch of small tunas by weight (STECF 2014).


taxonomicNotes:
This species is now recognized as distinct from the Indo-Pacific Scomber japonicus (Collette 1999, Infante et al. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scomber colias is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, and is widespread and abundant in the northeastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean and Black seas. It is fast-growing and matures at two to three years of age but is relatively long-lived, typically 8–10 years. Scomber colias is targeted throughout parts of its range, but there are no other known widespread threats. There is evidence that the sub-population in the Mediterranean has declined by up to 30% over the past 20 years, but the sub-population off the Iberian Peninsula has been increasing, likely due to improved recruitment. Thus, if the population in the assessment region is declining as a whole, the rate is less than the threshold for a threatened category. Therefore, S. colias is assessed as Least Concern, however ongoing monitoring is required.

range:
Scomber colias is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. It is replaced by Scomber japonicus in the Indo-Pacific region. In the Atlantic, the range of this species is not continuous between the east and west, and north and south, and these should be considered separate stocks or populations. It is typically found from the surface to 250 or 300 m (Collette and Nauen 1983). In European waters, occasionally found northwards as far as Lewis off the west coast of Scotland and in the English Channel.

population:
There is significant gene flow between the Mediterranean Sea and the northeastern Atlantic Ocean populations of Scomber colias (Zardoya et al. 2004). This species is common throughout the Mediterranean and is abundant particularly in the southern part. The population in the Mediterranean is suspected of declining by up to 30% over the past 20 years (Di Natale et al. 2011). However, the population off the Iberian Peninsula appears to be increasing (Martins et al. 2013).

habitat:
This species is a coastal pelagic species, and to a lesser extent epipelagic to mesopelagic over the continental slope (Collette and Nauen 1983). Schooling by size is well developed and initiates at approximately 3 cm (Collette and Nauen 1983). It may also form schools with Sarda species, bonitos, jacks, and clupeids (Collette 1995, 1999). This species feeds on small pelagic fishes such as anchovy, pilchard, sardinella, sprat, silversides, and pelagic invertebrates such as copepods, squids and other crustaceans (Collette and Nauen 1983). This species may live to 13 years (Carvalho 2002), and has a length at 50% maturity of approximately 18 cm corresponding to an age of about two years (Hattour 2000).

threats:
Scomber colias is an important commercial species throughout its range. This species is caught mostly with purse seines, often together with sardines, and sometimes using light trolling lines, gill nets, traps, beach seines and midwater trawls. In the Mediterranean the technology used to catch this species is becoming more sophisticated, which may be resulting in increased mortality.

conservationAction:
There is a minimum size limit of 18 cm for all Scomber species in the European Union and Turkey. In the Mediterranean, a targeted management plan for this species is needed to reverse long term declining trends. Better data on fishing and fishing effort will help to further assess this species in the future. Scomber colias was assessed as Near Threatened in the Mediterranean (Abdul Marak et al. 2011) but as Least Concern globally (IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is an important commercial species throughout its range. This species is caught mostly with purse seines, often together with sardines, and sometimes using light trolling lines, gill nets, traps, beach seines and midwater trawls.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scomber scombrus is a common and locally abundant species although with fluctuating fishery landings. The eastern stock is expanding its range westward. Further, based on a 2012 stock assessment, which is presumed to be an underestimate, the spawning stock biomass (SSB) of the eastern stock is at least three million mt, which represents an increase over the past 11 to 20 years. Therefore, S. scombrus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, the species is present from Iceland to Mauritania, including the southwestern Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean and Black seas.

population:
There are two separate populations, eastern and western, with little or no interchange. Separate stock assessments are conducted for each (ICES 2006, 2009, NOAA 2006). Eastern Atlantic The east Atlantic Mackerel stock is currently considered to comprise three main unit stocks (southern, western and North Sea), with variable proportions of these three mixing in the northerly feeding grounds. The southern component spawns in Spanish and Portuguese waters, and the western component spawns in the Bay of Biscay and northwards around Ireland and the west and northwest of the U.K. The eastern Mediterranean populations (Greece, Italy) are separated genetically from the western Mediterranean stock (Barcelona) which forms a panmictic unit with eastern Atlantic populations (Zardoya et al. 2004). The third component spawns in the North Sea and Skagerrak. Although the North Sea spawners form to some extent a discrete unit from the other ones, commercial catches cannot be allocated to individual stocks, and therefore assessments are undertaken for the combined stock (ICES 2006). For the western Component, estimates of the spawning stock biomass (SSB), derived from egg surveys, indicate a decrease of 14% between 1998 and 2001 and a 6% decrease from 2001 to the 2004 survey. The results from 2007 indicate a 5% increase from 2004 to 2007 (STECF 2009). For the North Sea Component, the 2002 and 2005 triennial egg surveys in the North Sea both indicate similar egg production, but in 2008 it has decreased by about 40% (STECF 2009). For the southern Component, catches increased from about 20,000 t in the early 1990s to 44,000 t in 1998, and were close to 50,000 t in 2002. Estimates of SSB, derived from egg surveys, are highly variable, and give average estimates of around 16% of the combined northeastern Atlantic mackerel stock (1995–2007) (STECF 2009). The main catches are taken in the North Sea (ca. 50%), the Norwegian Sea (10%), west of UK and Ireland (15–20%), south of Ireland and in the Channel (ca. 15%) and the rest in the southern area. Based on the most recent ICES (2009) estimate of SSB in 2009, the eastern stock is classified as having full reproductive capacity. Fishing mortality in 2008 is estimated to be just above Fpa (precautionary fishing mortality). SSB has increased by 47% since 2002 and is currently estimated to be above Bpa (precautionary biomass). The 2002 year class is the highest on record. Subsequent year classes are estimated to be about average (STECF 2009). The SSB is expected to remain stable in 2011 for a catch in the range of 527,000–572,000 tons (STECF 2009). Since 2009, there has been an expansion of the stock into waters of nations that were not part of the traditional quota settlements. They subsequently took unilateral decisions to increase their quota by orders of magnitude, which has resulted in substantial increases in the total fishing mortality for this species, however, due to the uncertainties in the absolute stock size, it is unclear if the elevated level of fishing mortality is sustainable (ICES Advice May 2014; ICES 2014).

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is abundant in cold and temperate shelf areas, and forms large schools near the surface. They overwinter in deeper waters but move closer to shore in spring when water temperatures range between 11° and 14°C. Mainly diurnal, it feeds on zooplankton and small fish. Eggs and larvae are pelagic. Maximum size for this species is 66 cm, although fish greater than 50 cm are uncommon. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 1.2 kg fish caught in the Kraakvaag Fjord, Norway in 1992 (IGFA 2014). This species matures at approximately age two (O'Brien et al. 1993), with 100% maturity at age seven in some populations of the eastern stock (Skagen 1989). For the western stock, longevity is estimated to be about 12 years (Gregoire 1993), and for the eastern stock longevity is estimated to be 18 years (Villamor et al. 2001). Generation length is therefore conservatively estimated to be about 3.5 years in the western stock and 6.5 years in the eastern stock (Collette et al. 2011). Disparities in longevity between stocks may valid, or may be due to differences in methods of age determination, environmental factors, and/or response to fishing pressure over time.

threats:
This is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with trawls, purse seines, gill and trammel nets. It is an important recreational species, fished with hook and line. Climate change may affect the distribution of this species, with possible movement towards the north, making it available for exploitation by additional nations. It is unknown whether this represents an expansion of habitat or if contraction will occur in the southern part of its range.

conservationAction:
Several eastern Atlantic countries have minimum landing sizes for this species: EU (18 cm), Ukraine (15 cm), Turkey (20 cm), Bulgaria (22 cm), Romania (23 cm). ICES advises that any agreed total allowable catch (TAC) should cover all areas where northeast Atlantic Mackerel are fished. The agreed management plan (F between 0.2 and 0.22) would imply catches between 527,000 t and 572,000 t in 2010. The SSB is expected to remain stable in 2011 for a catch in this range. ICES further advises that the existing measures to protect the North Sea spawning component remain in place. These include: areas restricted to fishing, seasonal closures, and minimum landing size (30 cm in North Sea and 20 cm in Skagerrak). In June 2009, an agreement was concluded between contracting parties to the Coastal States on mackerel banning high grading, discarding, and slipping from pelagic fisheries targeting mackerel, horse mackerel, and herring beginning in January 2010 (STECF 2009). For the western Atlantic stock, there are no management measures in place. However, the most recent stock assessment recommends that annual total catches do not exceed the average total landings (80,000 mt tonnes) over the last three years (TRAC 2010). Sarda sarda was assessed as Least Concern globally (IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is commercially fished throughout its range. It is caught with trawls, purse seines, gill and trammel nets. It is an important recreational species, fished with hook and line.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has been erroneously considered as a synonym of Scomberomorus maculatus by many authors (Collette and Russo 1985).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scomberomorus tritor is known from the eastern central Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is uncommon in the Canary Islands and rare in the Mediterranean. It is occasionally caught, incidentally and as gamefish, but this is not considered a major threat at this time. There are no other known threats. Therefore, S. tritor is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Scomberomorus tritor is mostly restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is present from the Canary Islands and Senegal south through the Gulf of Guinea to Baía dos Tigres, in southern Angola. It is rarely found in the northern Mediterranean Sea where it is probably vagrant, records are along the coasts of France and Italy.

population:
The fish is very uncommon in the Mediterranean and uncommon off the Canary Islands (Collette and Russo 1979) and is rarely reported in catches of small tunas in the Mediterranean Sea (GFCM 2008).

habitat:
This is an epipelagic, neritic species penetrating into coastal lagoons (Collette and Nauen 1983, Collette and Russo 1985). It feeds on clupeids particularly Ethmalosa fimbriata (Fagade and Olaniyan 1973). It reproduces in July to August in Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986) and April to October in Senegal (Cayré et al. 1993); and February to September in Guinea-Bissau (Kromer et al. 1994). Length at maturity at 50% was estimated in Senegal for males to be 33.1 cm fork length (FL) and 34.1 cm FL for females (Diouf 1996). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 6 kg fish caught off Grand Bereby, Ivory Coast in 1998 (IGFA 2014). In Guinea-Bissau, length at 50% maturity was 33.5 cm FL for females and 32.2 cm FL for males (Kromer et al. 1994).

threats:
This species is caught with mostly in purse seines. In the Mediterranean it is only incidentally caught by pelagic long lines. Fishing is not at present considered a threat to the fish.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures. Better reporting, and more catch and effort information is needed for most species of small tunas in the Atlantic. Scomberomorus tritor was assessed as Least Concern globally (IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
The fish is caught incidentally and can be a game fish.

redListContributors:
Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Juan Jorda, M., Kada, O., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Viera Hazin, F.H. & de Oliveira Leite


taxonomicNotes:
This species is often confused with juvenile Thunnus obesus, which also has very long pectorals, but with rounded tips.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Thunnus alalunga is widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters of all oceans, including the Mediterranean. It is an important commercial food fish, and managed through most of its range. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is managed as two separate stocks: a North Atlantic stock and a Mediterranean stock. Although the North Atlantic stock has been subject to overfishing in recent years, in 2009 catch quotas were adopted in line with scientific advice to end overfishing and recent stock assessments have suggested that spawning stock biomass is increasing. In the Mediterranean, the first stock assessment was completed in 2012, but there is concern that landings have been under-reported. Declines in catches range from 28 to 31.5% over the past three generation lengths (18-21 years). However, there is evidence that the fishing mortality has decreased over this time period, and that the spawning stock biomass has increased. Therefore, T. alalunga is assessed as Least Concern. However, we recommend that the current monitoring and management measures remain in place.

range:
This is a cosmopolitan species in tropical and temperate waters of all the oceans including the Mediterranean Sea, but it is not found at the surface between 10°N and 10°S. In the Atlantic, this species is widely distributed between 60°N and 50°S.

population:
There are three stocks of Thunnus alalunga in the Atlantic Ocean: the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and Mediterranean stocks (ISSF 2013). The overall population trend within the european region is decreasing. North Atlantic Ocean Catches of this species in the north Atlantic peaked at 65,000 tonnes in the mid-1960s, then declined to a low of 20,000 tonnes in 2008. This decline is partly due to reduced fishing effort by some surface and longline fisheries. The most recent stock assessment in 2009 indicated that recruitment in the fishery is highly variable, and that biomass since 1993 has been less than biomass at maximum sustainable yield (MSY). Currently, the stock is about 40% below the MSY level and spawning stock biomass is currently only 25% of the original biomass (ICCAT 2009). The MSY from the last stock assessment was estimated at 29,000 tonnes, and catches in four of the last ten years have exceeded this value. This species stock in the North Atlantic was considered overfished (ISSF 2010). However, in 2009 catch quotas were adopted in line with scientific advice to end overfishing. The most recent stock assessment suggested that overfishing is no longer occurring (Fcurrent/FMSY = 0.72), however current biomass is still below the biomass required to obtain maximum sustainable yields (Bcurrent/BMSY = 0.94) (ISSF 2013). The 2013 stock assessment for the North Atlantic stock shows a fluctuating but decreasing trend in spawning stock biomass (SSB), from peaks in the 1940's of almost 120,000 mt to about 15,000 mt in 2000. Since then SSB has increased to about 40,000 mt in 2012 (ICCAT 2013), however ICCAT SCRS consider that spawning stock is currently still overfished but close to the BMSY levels (SSB2012/SSBMSY=0.94), and that overfishing is not occurring (STECF 2014). Mediterranean The first stock assessment for T. alalunga in the Mediterranean was completed in 2012. The ratio of Fcurrent/FMSY is less than or equal to 1, suggested that overfishing is probably not occurring at this time (ISSF 2013). However, the ratio of Bcurrent/BMSY could not be estimated with the available data, so it is unknown if the stock is overfished (ISSF 2013). Catches have increased from about 500 mt from 1965 to the early 1980s, to about 4500 in the mid-1980s, and peaking in the 1990s at about 7,000-8,000 mt (ISSF 2013). The Mediterranean albacore fisheries are characterized by high spatio-temporal variability in landings and fishing patterns. Albacore fishing is a traditional activity for a number of fleets including those of Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Malta. ICCAT statistics, however, are considered quite incomplete due to unreported catches from several countries and the lack of data in some years from other countries. Fishing effort is not possible to estimate due to short time series and inadequate coverage of artisanal gears. Even though catches of Mediterranean albacore have been increasing for the past few years, there is a lack of general information on this stock and biological information is also limited (ICCAT 2010). Although many countries are not yet reporting any catch for this species, the Mediterranean stock does not show any general trend, and the mixing rate with the Atlantic stock appears to be insignificant (Nakadate et al. 2005, STECF 2007). Montes et al. (2012) found that there appear to be two genetic groups of albacore in the Mediterranean (East and West); Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Sea samples were grouped together and could be differentiated from the Balearic Sea.

habitat:
This is an epipelagic and mesopelagic, oceanic species, that is abundant in surface waters of 15.6–19.4°C. Deeper swimming, large albacore are found in waters of 13.5–25.2°C. Temperatures as low as 9.5°C may be tolerated for short periods. It is known to concentrate along thermal discontinuities (Collette and Nauen 1983). This species forms mixed schools with Skipjack Tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnus albacares) and Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus). These schools may be associated with floating objects, including sargassum weeds (Collette and Nauen 1983). It is a pelagic predator, feeding on fish, crustaceans and squid. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species feeds on paralepidids, Paralepis speciosa and P. coregonoides; crustaceans - hyperidean amphipods Phrosina semilunata; and cephalopods - Brachyscelus cruslculum (Consoli et al. 2008). Use of combined Japanese and US tagging data confirm the frequent westward movement of young albacore and infrequent eastward movements in the North Pacific. This corresponds to albacore life history where immature fish recruit into fisheries in the western and eastern Pacific and then gradually move near their spawning grounds in the central and western Pacific before maturing (Ichinokawa et al. 2008). Immature Albacore Tuna (<80 cm) generally have a sex ratio of 1:1 but males predominate in catches of mature fish. Maturity is attained at about 90–94 cm (FL) for females and 94–97 cm (FL) for males. Spawning occurs at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher. Fecundity increases with size but there is no clear correlation between fork length and ovary weight and number of eggs. A 20 kg female may produce between two and three million eggs per season, released in at least two batches (Collette 2010). Longevity for this species may be as long as 13 years in the South Atlantic (Lee and Yeh 2007) and in the South Pacific (Labelle et al. 1993, Lee and Yeh 1993). Age of first maturity is estimated to be between five and seven years (Wu and Kuo 1993, Ramon and Bailey 1996). Based on age-structured data from the Atlantic and Pacific (Collette et al. 2011), generation length is conservatively estimated to be between 6–7 years. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 39.97 kg fish taken off of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands in 1977 (IGFA 2014).

threats:
This species is caught by long-lining, live-bait fishing, purse seining, and trolling. In the Eastern Pacific it is also a bycatch of swordfish fisheries. Albacore Tuna are caught by long-line gear in most of the North and South Pacific (but not often between about 10°N and 5°S), by trolling gear in the eastern and central North and South Pacific, and by pole-and-line gear in the western North Pacific. In the North Pacific about 60% of the fish are taken in pole-and-line and troll fisheries that catch smaller, younger Albacore Tuna, whereas about 90% of the albacore caught in the South Pacific are taken by long-line (IATTC 2008). Catches of northern Atlantic Albacore Tuna are primarily made by pole-and-line (35%), trolling (28%), trawlers (17%) and longline (17%). The main fisheries are Spain, France, and Chinese Taipei. Surface fisheries concentrate mainly in the Bay of Biscay and the Azores and Canary Islands during summer and fall, taking young fish while longline vessels operate throughout the Atlantic year-round and target larger fish (ISSF 2010). For the south Atlantic stock, the main fisheries are longliners from Chinese Taipei (56%), pole-and-line from South Africa (18%) and from Namibia (13%). Surface fisheries operate mainly between October and May capturing juvenile and subadult fish (ISSF 2010).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994). In the north Atlantic, a total allowable catch (TAC) of 28,000 tonnes was established for 2010 and 2011 for the northern stock. TACs are also in place for the southern Atlantic albacore fishery. For the south Atlantic, the TAC for 2009–2011 is 29,900 and adjustments are made to reduce the TACs in the following year if the actual catch exceeds the TAC in a given year (ICCAT 2009). The driftnet fishery for albacore has been banned since January 1st  2002 in the European Union countries and from 2004 in all the ICCAT Mediterranean  countries, but it is known that illegal fishing activity still occurs in some areas (STEFC 2007). Ongoing monitoring of population and harvests trends is required for this species (STECF 2014). Thunnus alalunga was assessed as Least Concern globally (IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
An important fishery exists for this species, which is mainly marketed as canned white meat tuna.

redListContributors:
Acero, A., Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Canales Ramirez, C., Cardenas, G., Carpenter, K.E., Chang, S.-K., Di Natale, A., Die, D., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Hinton, M., Juan Jorda, M., Masuti, E., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Mont


taxonomicNotes:
This is now considered to be a separate species from the Pacific bluefin, Thunnus orientalis (Collette 1999).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) In European waters, Thunnus thynnus is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Norway to the Canary Islands, and present in the Mediterranean Sea. The sub-population in the Black Sea is now extinct, however the causes of this are not fully understood. There are currently three known spawning areas, one aggregation in the Gulf of Mexico and at least two separate spawning aggregations in the Mediterranean Sea (Riccioni et al. 2010, 2013), however there is exchange between the eastern and western populations, and recent work detected several subpopulations in the Mediterranean Sea (Riccioni et al. 2013). The fish is a highly valued species, particularly for the Japanese sashimi markets. Historically, it has been heavily overfished throughout its range, resulting in substantial declines in the population. Environmental conditions in the Black Sea have contributed to a range contractions of 46% since 1960 (Worm and Tittensor 2011), greater than any other pelagic species. The most recent stock assessment for T. thynnus suggests that the recent management efforts to reduce the fishing mortality on the eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna are working; overfishing is no longer occurring but the stock remains overfished. The estimated spawning stock biomass (SSB) has increased over the past three generation lengths (21 years), and is currently close to exceeding the maximum SSB in the time series (1957-1959) depending on the model specifications. The current assessment, if it is correct, would lead to Least Concern. However, the virtual population analysis (VPA) methodology is completely dependent on the reported landings, which are uncertain, and the trend is driven by data from the last two years which, in a VPA, are the least reliable of the time series. Therefore, T. thynnus is assessed as Near Threatened in the European marine region. It is inferred that cessation of fishery management interventions that reduce fishing mortality would rapidly (within ten years) lead to population declines exceeding 30%. Management  of the eastern Atlantic stock is essential to the future of this species, as  it represents the majority of this species' global population, and populations in the European region are considered conservation dependent. There remains an urgent need to have more reliable and complete size frequency data for the species in European waters. Tagging programs, fishery independent surveys and mining of historical data will all contribute to a better understanding of the status of this species.

range:
Thunnus thynnus is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, where it is primarily found in the North Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Norway to the Canary Islands. It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea. The fish was historically present in the Black Sea and its presence there was well documented in ancient times, but no individuals have been seen or caught since the 1980s (MacKenzie and Mariani 2012). An analysis of present over historical ranges concluded that Atlantic Bluefin Tuna has shown larger range contractions (minus 46% since 1960) than any other pelagic species (Worm and Tittensor 2011). In the eastern Atlantic, the fish is also reported from Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986) and off South Africa (Collette and Nauen 1983). This species was present in the western Atlantic from Canada to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, although the bulk of the population off Brazil has now disappeared (Porch 2005, Takeuchi et al. 2009, Worm and Tittensor 2011). However over the last 20 to 36 years, the species has not been recorded off the coast of Brazil (R. Lessa and A.F. Amorim pers. comm. 2010) and there are no records of Bluefin Tuna in southern Brazil in the 21st century (M.A. Gasalla pers. comm. 2010).

population:
This species has become rare relative to historical levels because of massive overfishing (Fromentin and Powers 2005, Majkowski 2007, MacKenzie et al. 2009). Genetic differentiation and homing to breeding sites indicates that there are at least three reproductively isolated stocks (Boustany et al. 2008, Carlsson et al. 2007), although there is considerable trans-Atlantic migration of individuals between the Mediterranean and western North Atlantic stocks (Rooker et al. 2008, Dickhut et al. 2009). Mixed western and eastern Bluefin Tuna are found from Labrador and Newfoundland south into the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna are also found from Norway south to the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean Sea. There is a distinct Mediterranean/East Atlantic stock but there is some mixing with the western Atlantic stock in the North Atlantic (Block et al. 2005); in addition, there are genetically recognizable populations within the Mediterranean (Riccione et al. 2010). Worldwide reported landings show fluctuating, but relatively stable landings from 1950–1993, of between 15,000 and 39,000 tonnes per year. Reported catches increased to a peak of 52,785 tonnes in 1996, and then fell again to 38,830 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). However, in many regions, the catch statistics for this species are considered to be unreliable because catches are not reported from some countries and landings data are confounded by ranching harvests occurring months to years after the fish have been caught (STEFC 2009). Based on the most recent stock assessment (ICCAT 2010), the summed SBB biomass for both the Eastern and Western Atlantic stocks has declined at least 51% since 1970. Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stock The most recent stock assessment suggests that overfishing is no longer occurring, as the current fishing mortality is less than the target fishing mortality (Fcurrent/FMSY = 0.36-0.70); however the stock remains overfished, as the current biomass is less than the target biomass (Bcurrent/BMSY = 0.63-0.76) (ISSF 2013). In the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stock, the reported catch from 2000–2011 averaged 25,000 tonnes/year (ICCAT 2014). The high mortality for large Bluefin Tuna is consistent with an apparent shift in targeting larger individuals destined for fattening and/or farming in the region. A quota system has been put in place to set levels for maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of 30,000-36,000 mt, and have set the TAC at 13,400 for 2014 (ISSF 2013). The current management structure has established TACs for the entire Mediterranean; however, recent genetic studies suggest multiple populations within the Mediterranean (Riccione et al. 2010). This is problematic because there is the potential for overfishing of segments of the Mediterranean population. In addition, information available has demonstrated that catches of Bluefin Tuna from the East Atlantic and Mediterranean were seriously under-reported between the mid-1990s through 2007. The lack of compliance with TAC and underreporting of the catch may have severely undermined the conservation of the stock (ISSF 2013). In the most recent stock assessment (ICCAT SCRS 2012), final estimated spawning biomass differs slightly between the satisfactory model runs. The spawning biomass peaked at over 300,000 tonnes in the late 1950s and early 1970s, followed by a decline. Under all runs, the biomass continued to decline slightly to about 150,000–200,000 tonnes around 2005, followed by a substantial increase through 2011 to 300,000-500,000 tonnes (ISSF 2013). Considering all runs, there was substantial variability in current estimates of SSB: the recent (2009–2011) SSB ranged from 16% less to 52% more than the highest estimated SSB levels (1957–1959).

habitat:
This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, that seasonally can be found close to shore and can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. This species schools by size, sometimes together with Albacore, Yellowfin, Bigeye, Skipjack etc. It preys on small schooling fishes (anchovies, sauries, hakes) or on squids and red crabs. A recent study on the Mediterranean diet of this species provided evidence that juveniles prey mainly on zooplankton and small pelagic coastal fishes, sub-adults prey on medium pelagic fishes, shrimps and cephalopods, while adults prey mainly on cephalopods and larger fishes (Sarà and Sarà 2007). This species has a maximum size over 300 cm fork length (FL), but is more common to 200 cm. Longevity is at least 35 years and possibly to 50 years (Santamaria et al. 2009). In the Western Atlantic, this species spawns in the Gulf of Mexico from mid-April to early June at temperatures of 22.6–27.5°C, starting at age 8–10 years at around 200 cm (FL), although most individuals first spawn closer to age 12 (Rooker et al. 2007, Rooker et al. 2008, Boustany et al. 2008, Diaz et al. 2009, Collette 2010). Recently, a few larvae were collected northeast of Campeche Bank suggesting that they were spawned outside of the Gulf of Mexico (Muhling et al. 2011). Maximum age is around 32 years (Neilson and Compana 2008), although age composition structure has also changed over time (e.g., there are more younger individuals). For the most recent stock assessment, an age of first maturity was estimated to be approximately 145 kg or about age nine years in the Gulf of Mexico (SRCS ICCAT 2010). For the western Atlantic stock, the generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately 13 years based on average survivorship and fecundity across known scombrid stocks (Collette et al. 2011). The Eastern Atlantic stock spawns in the Mediterranean Sea from May to August at temperatures of 22.5–25.5°C, starting at age three years and full recruitment is reached by age five years. There are distinct behaviours during the spawning time, most noticeably with changes in diving times and depths. Estimated relative batch fecundity is greater (more than 90 oocytes/g of body weight) than estimated for other tunas in the genus Thunnus (Sissenwine et al. 1998, Corriero et al. 2003, Rooker et al. 2007, Boustany et al. 2008, Rooker et al. 2008, Collette 2010). Fromentin and Powers (2005) reported that there is spawning site fidelity for this species both in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Gulf of Mexico. There are at least two separate spawning aggregations in the Mediterranean Sea (Riccioni et al. 2010, 2013). In addition, there are genetically recognizable populations within the Mediterranean (Riccioni et al. 2010, 2013). Median sexual maturity in the Mediterranean Sea was reached at 103.6 cm (FL), and females weighing between 270 and 300 kg produce as many as 10 million eggs per spawning season (Corriero et al. 2005).  In the Eastern Atlantic stock and in the Mediterranean Sea, age of first maturity is about 3–5 years (115–121 cm FL), with a longevity of 35 years or more (Corriero et al. 2003, Santamaria et al. 2009, Rooker et al. 2007, Rooker et al. 2008). For the most recent stock assessment, an age of first maturity was estimated to be approximately 25 kg or age four years in the Mediterranean (SRCS ICCAT 2010). For the eastern Atlantic stock, the generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately seven years based on average survivorship and fecundity across known scombrid stocks (Collette et al. 2011). Maximum Size (in cms) 458 (TL). The all-tackle angling record is of a 678.58 kg fish caught off Aulds Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada in 1979 (IGFA 2014).

threats:
Thunnus thynnus is an important commercial food fish and is specifically targeted in fisheries. This species is mainly caught by purse-seine, longline and traps. Historically, it has been heavily overfished throughout its range resulting in substantial declines in the populations. In addition, T. thynnus is also used for commercial fish farming in the Mediterranean Sea (Forrestal et al. 2012), where juveniles are caught and raised in pens. This may pose substantial threats to the population of T. thynnus for a number of reasons. Individuals are removed from the breeding stock, and this is not always adequately accounted for in the landings statistics. The conversion ratio of forage fish to tuna flesh is highly inefficient, and thus raising tunas is depleting small pelagic fish stocks which might otherwise be food for wild populations of tunas and other large pelagic species. In addition, there is evidence of localized pollution from maintaining the large pens, which may also be impacting spawning tunas and other species in the Mediterranean. Rearing in captivity may also impact the reproductive function of adults through changes in germ cell proliferation and apoptosis (Zupa et al. 2013), which may explain why spawning occurred every day in cages in the Balearic Sea in June 2010, but few or no larvae were found (Reglero et al. 2013). The population in the Black Sea appears to have been extirpated, though the direct cause is unclear. Overexploitation, shipping noise, and changed environmental conditions have been implicated, but the mechanisms are obscure, largely undocumented, and unquantified (MacKenzie and Mariani 2012).

conservationAction:
There are several conservation measures for this species mainly based on regulation of fisheries activities. The International Commission for the Conservation of the Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) was established in 1967. Fisheries quotas have been in place since 1982, and a comprehensive pluri-annual recovery action plan adopted by the ICCAT contracting parties in 2007, including time closure for fishing activities and mandated reduction in fishing capacity. However, many conservation measures are not fully enforced and illegal catch continues. Enforcement of the existing measures is needed to prevent extinction of this species. Also, although the Bluefin Tuna probably has more data collected on it than most other fish species, uncertainties in the data make much of it unreliable. It is crucial to improve the quality of data if fisheries managers are going to be able to improve their methods. Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean For EU Member States, driftnet fishing for tuna has been banned since 1st January 2002, while the ban entered into force in 2004 for all the other Contracting Parties to ICCAT, as well as the GFCM Member States, but a driftnet fishing activity is still officially permitted in Morocco. The ICCAT further believes that a time area closure could greatly facilitate the implementation and the monitoring of rebuilding strategies. In 2006, ICCAT established a management plan to rebuild the stock to BMSY by 2022 with 50% or greater probability (ICCAT SCRS 2006: Rec. 06-05). As various issues related to implementation of the plan have come up, the plan has been amended and strengthened every year since. In 2009, ICCAT (ICCAT 2009: Rec. 09-06) the Commission established a total allowable catch for eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Bluefin Tuna at 13,500 t for 2010. The current management plan (ICCAT 2010: Rec. 10-04) calls for rebuilding to be achieved with at least 60% probability. It includes a number of conservation measures (country-specific TACs, minimum size limit, closed fishing seasons, management controls of fishing and farming capacity) as well as Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) measures (vessel registers, vessel monitoring systems, observer programs, transshipment prohibitions, weekly catch reporting, etc.). ICCAT has also approved a research program with different components aimed at improving data and knowledge of Bluefin Tuna biology and behaviour. It is still early to see what practical improvements these efforts will have on rebuilding the stock and improving stock assessments, but it is generally agreed that investments in research and MCS need to be sustained if overfishing is to be avoided. Deferring effective management measures will likely result in even more stringent measures being necessary in the future to achieve the ICCAT objectives. STECF agrees with the ICCAT-SCRS (2006) that the minimum catch size should be set at 25 kg in order to avoid misreporting and/or discarded catches of mature fish between 25 kg and 30 kg. There remains an urgent need to have more reliable and complete size frequency data (particularly, but not only, for early year-classes 1–3) for the period following the introduction of a TAC in the Mediterranean. Tagging programs, fishery independent surveys and mining of historical data will all contribute to a better understanding of the status of this species and should be encouraged (STECF 2009). SCRS undertook a reassessment of the fish in 2014 (STECF 2014), recognising that there are considerable data limitations, not least the level of underestimated and underrecorded catches, especially up to 2007. In Recommendations (Res. 09-06, 10-04, 12-03, and 13-07) the STECF established a total allowable catch for eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean bluefin tuna of between 12,900 t and 13,500 t since 2010. Additionally, in the Commission required (Rec. 09-06) that the SCRS provide the scientific basis for the Commission to establish a recovery plan with the goal of achieving BMSY through 2022 with at least 60% of probability. Thunnus thynnus was assessed as Endangered globally (IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is a highly valued species for the Japanese sashimi markets, which has led to severe overfishing in both the Eastern and Western Atlantic. It is also an important gamefish particularly in the United States and Canada. The eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna stock is taken by a variety of vessels and types of fishing gears, with landing sites located in many countries. The main gears are longline, trap and baitboat for the east Atlantic, and purse-seine, longline and traps for the Mediterranean. Recreational fishing may also be a relevant but unquantified source of fishing mortality on Bluefin Tuna. The paucity of reliable data from various fisheries has compromised the stock assessments of the eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna stock for many years (see for example SCRS ICCAT 2010, STECF 2009). Size composition data from purse seine fisheries were missing for many years, particularly in the 1990s. For most of the 2000s, tuna farming compounded the problem of obtaining accurate catch and size-composition data because the fish cannot be accurately sampled until harvesting, which takes place from four months to several years after the fish are caught in the wild. The accuracy of overall catches has also been affected over time by under-reporting or over-reporting associated with quotas. In addition, data on juvenile Bluefin Tuna catches from the Mediterranean were also unavailable for many years. Since 2008, ICCAT has adopted several measures that should address these concerns, such as an increase in minimum size, and 100% observer coverage on purse seiners and transfers of fish to cages. However, despite the expectation that these measures will improve fishery statistics, substantial gaps remain in the historical data used for stock assessments. Thunnus thynnus is also used for commercial fish farming in the Mediterranean Sea (Forrestal et al. 2012), where juveniles are caught and raised in pens.

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Di Natale, A., Die, D., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Viera Hazin, F.H., Hinton, M., Juan Jorda, M., Kada, O., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H.,


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Scombrolabrax heterolepis is found in the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Scombrolabrax heterolepis is found in the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Scombrolabrax heterolepis is found in the tropical and subtropical Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans, except for the Eastern Pacific and the South Eastern Atlantic (Nakamura and Parin in prep). It was originally described from south of Medeira (Nelson 2006).  It is found at depths ranging from 130-1,374 m (Higgins et al. 1970, Filho et al. 2010), and the center of abundance is below 1,000 m (Williams et al. 2001).

population:
Scombrolabrax heterolepis is uncommon but widespread (Bineesh et al. 2012). The center of abundance is bellow 1,000 m (Williams et al. 2001). Scombrolabrax heterolepis is abundant in museum collections (186 lots with one to three individuals in most lots and a few lots with more than 10 individuals per lot; www.FishNet2.net 2013). This species is uncommonly captured (Iwamoto pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Scombrolabrax heterolepis reaches a maximum size of 30 cm SL. It has been observed in the vicinity of seamounts, where it is part of the near-bottom fish assemblage, seen hovering about 0.5 m from the bottom (Pakhorukov 2006). Scombrolabracids are found inhabiting edge of continental shelf and slope at depth between 100-900 m. It as been found in the stomachs of tunas, billfishes, large gempylid fishes and so on, but details of the biology of this species are unknown (Nakamura and Parin in prep).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to S. heterolepis. It is captured incidentally in low numbers by trawler and by longliners.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for S. heterolepis.

useAndTrade:
This species is not commercially fished at present, and is caught only very incidentally by trawls (Nakamura and Parin in prep). It is also captured incidentally by longliners, however, it is not likely utilized (Iwamoto pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Anthias anthias ranges from the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic from Portugal and the Azores southward to northern Namibia, including off-lying islands. It can be found at depths ranging from 15 to 300 m, over rock and gravel areas as well as in submarine caves. Anthias anthias is common in some Mediterranean markets, particularly in Morocco. It is taken as bycatch from commercial fishing, shrimp fisheries, and sports fishing. There are slight declines in abundance in parts of its range (e.g., Spanish Mediterranean); however, this is not representative of the entire range and is of minor magnitude. Therefore, A. anthias is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Anthias anthias ranges from the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic from Portugal and the Azores southward to northern Namibia, including off-lying islands. It has recently been recorded in the Çanakkale Straits, Turkey (Tuncer et al. 2011). It can be found between 15 to 300 m in depth (Heemstra and Anderson in press).

population:
Anthias anthias is common and well represented in museum collections. It was among the five most abundant fish species sampled at Seine seamount at 160–180 m depth, accounting for 12% of the total catch. Individuals ranged in size from 10 to 22 cm (Christiansen et al. 2009). International bottom trawl survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) survey in the Spanish Mediterranean Sea from 1994 to 2010 shows a slight decreasing trend in the abundance of this species (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Anthias anthias lives over rock and gravel areas at depths of 15 to 300 m, as well as in submarine caves. It is a nocturnal and feeds on crustaceans and small fish. It can reach a maximum length of 27 cm total length (TL). Off the coast of Maghreb, this species is a protogynous hermaphrodite. Spawning takes place form July through September (Heemstra and Anderson in prep).

threats:
There are no known major threats at this time. This species is of minor commercial importance (Arrasate-López et al. 2012). MEDITS survey data show a slight decline in the abundance of this species from 1993 to 2010 in the Spanish Mediterranean waters and Balearic Islands.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures currently in place, however it is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.Anthias anthias was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Anthias anthias is common in Morocco markets. It is also taken as bycatch from commercial and sports fishing (Heemstra and Anderson in prep). In particular, it is taken in shrimp fisheries (Arrasate-López et al. 2012).

redListAssessors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Heessen, H. & Herrera, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Serranus atricauda ranges from the Straits of Gibraltar to Guinea-Bissau, Madeira, Canary Islands, the Mediterranean, Portugal, and the Azores. It is found in rocky areas and rocky reefs at depths ranging from 0 to 150 metres. There is anecdotal evidence from multiple localities, particularly the Canary Islands, suggesting that this species has declined in abundance. It is a component of small-scale nearshore fisheries and recreational fisheries. Minimum size restrictions have been applied in parts of its range; however, these are below the size at first maturity and a thus not likely to be effective. It is found in marine protected areas in parts of its range. This species matures at 4 years of age, and lives to at least 16 years. There is a general lack of regulations surrounding its exploitation, and it is inherently vulnerable to exploitation due to its moderately late age at first maturity and longevity. In the absence of more comprehensive information on population trends and threats affecting this species within the assessment region, S. atricauda is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Serranus atricauda ranges from the Straits of Gibraltar to Guinea-Bissau, Madeira, Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Portugal, and the Azores (FAO). Serranus atricauda was first recorded in the Mediterranean in 1987. It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 150 metres (Fredj and Maurin 1987, Cuyás et al. 2004).

population:
Serranus atricauda in the Canary Islands is considered to be a single, panmictic population (Santana-Ortega et al. 2004). Serranus atricauda is described as relatively abundant in the Azores, but likely to have declined (Morato et al. 2000). Due to significant decreases in catches recorded around the Canary Islands since the second half of the 1980s, the Canarian government established a minimum length of capture was 15 cm total length, however the size of first maturity for this species in the Canary islands is 19 cm (Cuyas et al. 2004, Saavedra 2011). Serranus atricauda was the most abundant Serranid observed in the Canary islands, and the mean abundances and biomasses were higher at islands with moderate to high fishing pressure, a pattern which may be due to competition relaxation by the removal of the top predators (Groupers) (Tuya et al. 2006). The mean lengths of individuals captured by spearfishing in Sao Miquel Island, Azores was 25 cm, which is within the range of sizes at first maturity (Diogo and Pereira 2013).   In the Western Mediterranean, in Spain, densities of this species have been recorded as 0.04 individuals per 250m2  in Cabo de Palos MPA and 0.3 individuals per 250 m2 in Cabo de Gata MPA. It was found in fewer localities than S. cabrilla and S. scriba, and was the least abundant of the three Serranus species in localities where the three co-occurred. It was not found outside of MPAs in this study, which sampled 4 MPAs and three non-MPA sites (Charton et al. 2000).

habitat:
Serranus atricauda is a demersal species which lives on rocky bottoms and rocky reefs ranging from shore to 150  m in depth. It feeds on invertebrates and other fishes (FAO). Serranus atricauda is slow-growing and long-lived. The oldest individual found in the Canary Islands was approximately 16 years old; fishes of this age had a mean length of 32.52 cm, and a maximum length of 43.2 cm (Tuset 2004). Serranus atricauda, like all fishes of the genus Serranus, is a functional, simultaneous hermaphrodite (Garcia-Diaz et al. 2006). Spawning occurs year round with a peak between March and July. Length at maturity ranges from 16 to 33 cm TL, corresponding to 4 years of age (Garcia-Diaz et al. 2006, Morato 2000). Sexual maturation occurs at 4 years. Spawning can take place throughout the year (García-Díaz et al. 2006). Serranus atricauda is a hermaphrodite and maturation occurs at 4 years old (Costa 1997).  Serranus atricauda is a generalist species, predominantly feeding on crustaceans and smaller fish. The species is highly territorial (Cuyas et al. 2004).

threats:
Serranus atricauda is commercially harvested throughout its range. It is one of the species targeted by the local semi-subsistence fishing industry around the Azores, of which the main catching methods are rod and line from near-shore boat, and coastal nets (Morato et al. 2000). While this species is considered to be relatively abundant (Morato et al. 2000), human fishing pressures have impacted the abundance of this species in islands around the Canarian Archipelago. In the same area, two larger serranid species have been severely overfished and stringent management measures for the area have been recommended (Tuya et al. 2006). Its near-coastal habitat is likely to have been degraded by pollution from human settlements, including agricultural run-off and sewage.

conservationAction:
In 1986, the Canarian Government imposed a minimum length of capture (15 cm total length) for the Archipelago (Cuyas et al. 2004) was still in place as of 2011; however, the size of first maturity for this species is 19 cm (Cuyas et al. 2004, Saavedra 2011) which would not prevent immature individuals from being caught. There are no other known species-specific conservation measures in place for Serranus atricauda. It is found in marine protected areas. Serranus atricauda was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest and habitat status of this species is needed. (http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/summary/155318/0, accessed 26 February 2006)

useAndTrade:
Serranus atricauda is economically important to small-scale inshore fisheries of the Canary islands, however there are no official fisheries statistics for this species (Tuset 2004, Pérez-Barroso et al. 1993). It is caught on hand-lines and in bottom trawls (FAO). In the Azores, there is considerable recreational and semi-subsistence fishing with rod and line or hand-line from the shore and close inshore from small boats, as well as considerable use of coastal nets and spear-fishing activity (Santos et al. 1995).

redListAssessors:
Herrera, J., Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Heessen, H. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Serranus cabrilla ranges from the Straits of Gibraltar to Angola, Madeira and Canary and Cape Verde islands, São Tomé and Principe. It also inhabits the Mediterranean and Black Seas, eastern Atlantic to British Isles, Azores, and the Red Sea. This species can be found in waters up to 450 m over rocky or soft bottoms. It appears to be both common and abundant. It is landed in directed fisheries and as bycatch in parts of its range; however, there are no indications of population decline due to these activities. Additionally, this species matures relatively quickly and is found within a broad depth range. Therefore, S. cabrilla is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Serranus cabrilla ranges from the southern United Kingdom to Angola, including the offshore islands of Azores, Madeira, Canary, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Principe. It also inhabits the Mediterranean and Black seas, and may be entering the Red Sea through the Suez Canal. This species can be found in waters up to 450 m deep (Heemstra and Anderson in press).

population:
Genetic analysis of micro-satellite markers revealed some genetic structuring; however, despite this structuring, pairwise FST within the Mediterranean was low, suggesting genetic exchange within the basin (Schunter et al. 2011).In the Canary Islands, S. cabrilla is less abundant than S. atricauda. The mean abundance per survey was 0.23 (Hajagos and van Tassell 2001). In the Western Mediterranean, in Spain, densities of this species ranged from 1.2 to 3.8 individuals per 250m2  in seven Spanish sampling localities. It was the second-most abundant Serranus species in this study, and was found at all localities sampled (Charton et al. 2000). Serranus cabrilla was among the 30 most abundant species off the coast of Crete. In Crete, individuals ranging in age from 1 to 5 years were captured. The majority of individuals were in age class 1 to 2, ranging in length from 13.2 to 15.8 centimeters. The size at 50% maturity (TL) is approximately 15.2 cm. Estimated annual total mortality rate is between 1.1 and 1.5 and the exploitation rate is around 0.7 (Tserpes and Tsimenides 2001).In the Western Mediterranean, off the Island of Majorca, S. cabrilla was among the most frequently caught species in the recreational fishery. It was the second most common species captured by boat, but was much less abundant when captured by spearfishing or from shore. The modal size was 13 cm, which is smaller than the age of 50% maturity, however there was a peak in the size frequency distribution at 21 cm. It is principally caught over hard bottoms (Morales-Nin et al. 2005). After 10 years of protection, the mean size of S. cabrilla in Carry-le-Rouet, a French MPA, was 50% greater than outside the MPA (Harmelin et al. 1995). Some studies have shown S. cabrilla to be most abundant outside of Mediterranean MPAs (Bell 1983, García Rubies and Zabala 1990).

habitat:
Serranus cabrilla inhabits rocky and soft bottoms from shore to 450 m depth. It is more abundant over rocky reefs, and less abundant on seagrass beds (Alós et al. 2011). Serranus cabrilla is a relatively sedentary species (Morales-Nin 2005). It spent 95% of its time in an average area of 0.77 ± 0.17 km2, with a core area (50% of the time) of 0.10 ± 0.29 km2. It feeds on cephalopods, crustaceans, and fish (Heemstra and Anderson in press, Colloca et al. 2010).  Serranus cabrilla, like most fishes of the genus Serranus is a synchronous hermaphrodite (Garcia-Diaz et al. 2006). The spawning season ranges from February to July with a peak in May. The size of 50% maturity is 152 mm TL (Garcia-Diaz 1997). In Crete, individuals ranging in age from 1 to 5 years were captured. The majority of individuals were in age class 1 to 2, ranging in length from 13.2-15.8 centimeters; the size 50% maturity (TL) is approximately 15.2 cm (Tserpes and Tsimenides 2001). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 24.6 cm TL and the length at maturity is 11.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Serranus cabrilla is a widespread species of commercial importance. It appears to be relatively common. Landings of Serranus species are not monitored by the National Statistical Service of Greece (Tserpes and Tsimenides 2001), and paucity of biological information has been noted from the Canary Islands (Tuset et al. 1996).

conservationAction:
In the Canary Islands, the minimum capture size for this species is 15 cm. This is slightly lower than the size of first maturity in the Canaries, which is 15.2 cm (Saavedra et al. 2011). There are no species-specific measures are currently in place, however its distribution likely overlaps with marine protected areas.Serranus cabrilla was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Serranus cabrilla is caught on hand-lines and in bottoms trawls. It is used for human consumption as well as fish-meal (Heemstra and Anderson in press). It is particularly important in the Mediterranean, where it is taken by bottom trawlers and in the small-scale coastal fishery (Tserpes and Tsimenides 2001) and is one of the species most often targeted by recreational fishermen (Alós et al. 2011). It is also relatively abundant and commercially important in the Canary Islands, however there is relatively little biological information available (García-Díaz et al. 1997).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Heessen, H., Herrera, J., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Fernandes, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Serranus hepatus ranges from the Portuguese coast and Straits of Gibraltar to Senegal including the Mediterranean Sea and, recently, the Black Sea. Serranus hepatus is sedentary species which is found at depths ranging from 5 to 100 m in a variety of habitats including over seagrass beds, sandy, muddy, and rocky areas. It appears to be both common and abundant. Although it is caught in artisanal fisheries, it is of low commercial interest likely due to its small size. Therefore, S. hepatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Serranus hepatus ranges from the Straits of Gibraltar to Senegal. It is also found in the western Mediterranean and the coast of Portugal. Serranus heptatus has recently been recorded, for the first time, in the Black Sea (Labropoulou et al. 1998). It can be found at depths ranging from 5 to 100 m (Heemstra and Anderson in press).

population:
Serranus hepatus is widespread and abundant mainly in the Mediterranean Sea (Labropoulou et al. 1998). Serranus hepatus was absent from a census of seven Spanish localities (four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), three unprotected areas) in Spanish waters (Charton et al. 2000).  Serranus hepatus was among the top 5 most abundant species captured in the 1998 MEDITs survey of the Adriatic Sea, representing 7.7% of the biomass (Jukic-Peladic et al. 2001). Serranus heptatus was the 5th most abundant species taken in the bottom trawl fishery in the Aegean Sea (Izmir Bay, Turkey)(Gurbet et al. 2013). It has recently been recorded from the Black Sea for the first time (Labropoulou et al. 1998). This species is common in the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Serranus hepatus is sedentary and lives over seagrass beds, sandy, muddy, and rocky areas. Its depth ranges from 5 to100 m. This species feeds on fish and invertebrates (Heemstra and Anderson in press). Like other species of Serranus, it is a synchronous hermaphrodite (Labropoulou et al. 1998). Sexually mature individuals inhabiting the south-west of Portugal seamounts were found all year around (Neves et al. 2013). The maximum size S. hepatus reaches in 25 cm TL (Heemstra and Anderson in prep). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 24.6 cm TL and the length at maturity is 11.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Fish aged 2 to 7 years were present in samples from the Eastern Adriatic Sea. This species is characteristic of the Middle Shelf and deeper shelf-slope edge (Colloca et al. 2003). Fishes of the genus Serranus are synchronous hermaphrodites (Garcia-Diaz et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no major threats at present time and no indication of population declines at either global or regional scales.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific measures are currently in place; however, its distribution likely overlaps several marine protected areas. Serranus hepatus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Serranus hepatus is caught by artisanal fisheries, as well as hand-lines and bottom trawls (Heemstra and Anderson in press). It is generally of low commercial importance, likely due to its small size (Dulčić et al. 2007).

redListAssessors:
Heessen, H., Fernandes, P., Herrera, J., Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Serranus scriba is distributed from the Bay of Biscay to Senegal, including the offshore islands, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. There is little species-specific population information available for S. scriba, though it appears to be common and abundant throughout its range. Although S. scriba is very abundant in the marine reserves of the Canary Islands, it is considered a threatened species on the Canary Islands due to its small population size and fishing pressure. It is of low commercial interest, but can be a targeted by recreational fishery; fishing is considered a minor threat at this time. Therefore, S. scriba is assessed as Least Concern. 

range:
Serranus scriba is found from the Bay of Biscay to Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (Tortonese 1986, Carneiro et al. 2014). It also ranges from the Mediterranean and Black seas (Tortonese 1986). Its depth ranges from shore to 150 m (Heemstra and Anderson in press).

population:
Serranus scriba is very abundant in the marine reserves of the Canary Islands (Tuset et al. 2005). It is common and abundant throughout its range.

habitat:
Serranus scriba lives in shallow, rocky bottoms from the shore to 150 m in depth (Heemstra and Anderson in press). This species is slow growing and long lived (Tuset et al. 2005). It is a functional, simultaneous hermaphrodite. The spawning season ranges from January to September with a peak in June. At first maturity, it is 17.3 cm TL, and can grow to a size of 36 cm. (Tusset et al. 2005, Heemstra and Anderson in press). The age range for this species has been found to cover 11 years for fish measuring 15 to 29.4 cm TL. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 22.5 cm TL and the length at maturity is 11.2 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Due to the small size of its population in the Canary Islands and fishing pressure, Serrnus scriba has been included in the list of threatened species of the Canary Islands (Tuset et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
No species specific measures are currently in place, however, several marine protected areas (MPAs) are found within its range (WDPA 2010, IUCN and UNEP-WCMC 2014). MPAs appear to benefit these species, as higher abundance has been documented in MPAs than nearby unprotected areas (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Ordines et al. 2005). It is listed as a threatened species in the Canary Islands because of its small population size and fishing pressure (Tuset et al. 2005). Serranus scriba was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).Serranus scriba was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Serranus scriba is caught by artisanal fisheries, and is also landed as bycatch on hook and line and trawls (Heemstra and Anderson in press). It is caught in the Mediterranean beach seine fishery, but is typically considered a trash fish in Turkey (Akyol 2003). It is generally of low commercial interest, but can be an important recreational fish (e.g., in the Balearic Islands: Alós et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This is a very common and ubiquitous species. Catch landings figures for the Mediterranean indicate a stable population, despite fairly heavy exploitation, and it is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is common throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas, and is also found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Norway and the British Isles southwards to Angola, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands and Sao Tome-Principe. This species can occur to 350 m depth (Sanches 1991).

population:
This species is ubiquitous and common throughout the coastal waters of the Mediterranean Sea. FAO statistics (2012) list annual Mediterranean landings of this species between 1950 and 2005 as ranging from 8,300 to 33,491 mt. Recent landings figures show a relatively stable annual catch ranging from around 23,000 to 30,000 mt. FAO capture production in 2012 were: Morocco (Eastern Central Atlantic) -2,134 tonnes, (Mediterranean and Black Sea) - 1,517 tonnes, Portugal (Eastern Central Atlantic) - six tonnes, (NE Atlantic) - 830 tonnes,  Spain (Eastern Central Atlantic) - 14 tonnes, (NE Atlantic) - 13,219 tonnes, (Mediterranean & Black Sea) - 232 tonnes, France (NE Atlantic) 52 tonnes, (Mediterranean & Black Sea) - 122 tonnes, Albania - 129 tonnes, Algeria - 6,467 tonnes, Croatia - 145 tonnes, Cyprus - 111 tonnes, Egypt - 3,625 tonnes, Greece - 3,200 tonnes, Israel - 49 tonnes, Italy - 2,137 tonnes, Libya - 1,500 tonnes, Malta - 52 tonnes, Montenegro - 16 tonnes, Occupied Palestine Territory - 38 tonnes, Slovenia - 1 tonnes, Syrian Arab Republic - 50 tonnes, Tunisia - 3,279 tonnes and Turkey 1,422 tonnes.  Boops boops constitutes about 2.3% of the total Egyptian Mediterranean Sea fish catch (GAFRD 2003) and is a dominant catch in commercial landings on the Alexandria coast (Ezzat et al. 1993). It is the most abundant species in the local markets at Alexandria and is the most dominant landed sparid throughout the year, accounting for 17.5% of the catch in winter, 31% in spring, 31.8% in the summer and 25% in the autumn (Abdel-Rahman 2003, El-Agamy et al. 2004). In a study by Akyol and Ertosluk (2010), captures from the sea-cage farms along the coast of the Turkish Aegean Sea, were determined with the use of a special cage trap and trammel net. Hand or longlines and underwater harpoons, although rare, were also in use. This species was dominant and accounted for 48.9% of the total weight of one fish farm from 2004-2008. In Maltese fishing ports, Boops boops amounted to 88% of the trap total catch, 3.79% of the total trammel net catch from January to September 2003. It is one of the major small-pelagic species caught in Maltese waters by vessels under 10 m length (Muscat 2004).  In a study assessing the influence of two commercial fish farms on the local aggregation of coastal wild fishes at Gran Canaria Island (Canary Islands), Boops boops also was one of the most abundant species recorded (Boyra et al. 2004).  In the Mediterranean Sea off Alexandria, Allam (2003) calculated total mortality (Z), natural mortality (M) and fishing mortality (F) as 1.283, 0.458 and 0.824 year-1 respectively. The exploitation rate (E) was 0.464. A Beverton-Holt yield per-recruit model indicated that the maximum yield-per-recruit was 21.06 g when fishing mortality was 2.4 and the current fishery harvests approximately 95% of the potential yield. In Algerian waters, this fish often occurs with pelagic species, and it is not possible to separate the echo traces. According to the catches, it was more abundant in the western region. The best catch was made off Cape Oulassa, 188 kg (372 kg/hour) (Aglen and Sigmund Myklevoll 1982).

habitat:
This is a gregarious, demersal, semi-pelagic species found as deep as 350 m over a variety of substrata (sand, mud, rocks and seaweeds), though it is more common at depths of less than 150 m and sometimes in coastal waters. It moves in aggregations, ascending to the surface mainly at night. In the northern part of the area, spawning takes place from March to May (Carpenter in press). There is some uncertainty concerning the reproduction and hermaphroditism of this species (Girardin 1981). The spawning season extends from January to May. The peak value of gonadosomatic index was attained in February for both males and females. Length at first sexual maturity is 12 cm for males and 13 cm for females. Relative fecundity ranges from 288 to 584 eggs per g (El-Agamy et al. 2004). Macroscopic analyses of the gonads and the gonad somatic index showed that off the south coast of Portugal, the species spawns mainly from late winter to spring, between February and May (Monteiro et al. 2006). The length at first maturity was similar for males and females and the value for both sexes combined was estimated to be 15.22 cm, corresponding to an age range of one to three. Age was determined by reading growth bands on otoliths. Age determination was validated by marginal increment analysis. The estimated parameters were L∞ = 28.06, K = 0.22 and t0 = −1.42. Mortality rates were calculated for fish captured with longlines, and the estimated parameters were M = 0.33, Z = 1.04 and F = 0.71. Relative yield per recruit analysis and sensitivity analysis showed that the resource is moderately exploited.  Growth from the central Adriatic was studied by Hernandez (1983). Mean length-at-age values were estimated from otoliths and analysis of polymodal length frequency distributions. Growth pattern was well described by Von Bertalanffy growth equation. Growth parameters L∞ = 338.89 mm, K =0.167 and to= -1.296 were calculated. Age and growth of Boops boops (L.) from the Mediterranean Sea off Alexandria were estimated from scales by (Allam 2003). Boops boops attain their maximum size slowly (K= 0.1531) longevity (five years). Boops boops grew quickly in length during the first year of life reaching 53.49 % of its final growth; this was followed by a reduced growth rate that coincided with sexual maturity (one year for both males and females). No significant difference in growth was found between male and female. Back-calculated lengths at annulus formation for combined sex were 10.97, 14.03, 16.39, 18.56 and 20.51 cm TL. The estimated von Bertalanffy growth parameters were L∞ = 31.68 cm, K = 0.1531 year-1 and to = -1.7838. The length-weight relationship was W = -2.1548L3.1031. Its longevity varied according to locality in Tunisia: 13 years in the east, nine years in the north and seven years in the Gulf of Tunis and in the south (Khemiri et al. 2005). Its maximum total length is 36 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). Generation length: 13-1/2 = six years. This species is often infected with parasitic isopods in Turkey (K. Bizsel pers. comm.).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. There may be localized declines from fishing.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range (IUCN and WCMP 2014). It is recommended that more genetic research be done for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
A moderately abundant species, but not intensively fished in the European region. It is caught on line gear and with bottom trawls and purse seines; also with beach seines and trammel nets. It is marketed fresh, frozen, dried-salted or smoked; it is also used for fishmeal and oil and commonly as bait in tuna fisheries. This species is caught by many fish farmers and artisanal fishermen in the Turkish Aegean Sea beneath the floating sea-cages using trammel nets, handline or longlines and traps (Akyol and Ertosluk 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Genetic analysis of the geographical partitioning revealed that this species showed an Atlantic-Mediterranean partitioning (Patarnello et al. 2007) indicating that exchanges between subpopulations are reduced and may limit rescue effects from migration and dispersal from other subpopulations to compensate for impacts of direct exploitation.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) The species is widespread from the British Isles to Cape Blanc, Mauritania, and probably as far south as Senegal, and throughout the Mediterranean and the western Black Sea. This is a heavily exploited species in the Mediterranean Sea, and is a large top predator which is not likely to recover quickly. Fishing effort on this species in the Mediterranean apparently increased steadily through the 1980s and 1990s when peak landings were recorded. There has been a steady decline in landings from a peak of 10,329 mt in 1992 to around 2,000 mt between 1997 and 2012, with no reason to suspect that effort has declined. It is estimated that the population in the Mediterranean Sea has declined at least 50% over the past 25 years; fishing effort is not expected to decrease in the near future and habitat quality is suspected to have declined as a result of pollution in parts of the species' range. Therefore, we infer that the population has declined by at least 30% in the past three generation lengths (=36 years). It is listed as Vulnerable under criterion A2bd.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the Mediterranean and in the North Atlantic to the British Isles (where it is rare), including the Canary Islands (uncommon; Dooley et al. 1985) and Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008). Globally present along the West African coast to north of Cape Blanc, Mauritania.

population:
According to FAO Fisheries Statistics (FAO Fishstat 2011), this species reached a peak in global exploitation levels from 1984-1995, from around 3,000 mt to 10,329 mt in 1992. In 1997, landings were reduced to around 1,715 mt, and have fluctuated between 1,119 mt and 2,353 mt in the 15 years to 2012. There is considerable question about the accuracy of these data. Nonetheless, the overall trend from data collected from around 12 countries appears to show an increase in effort peaking in the 1980s and 1990s. There is no reason to assume that fishing effort has declined in recent years and therefore the catch trend over the last 10-20 years, that shows at least 50% decline overall, is probably a good estimate of current population trends over the past 25 years. The Mediterranean catch contributes ~45% of the global catch, while the West African and the Northeast Atlantic catches comprise 35% and 18%, respectively. Mediterranean catches also show an overall decline since 1975, peaking in 1990 at over 6,000 tonnes and subsequently declining to less than 1,000 tonnes by 1999, and then to 1,147 tonnes in 2011. In the Mediterranean, average catches declined by about 37% since 1990 (FAO 2014).  There has been a significant population decline in Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007). The recovery time in Mediterranean marine protected areas is slow, around ten years (P. Francour pers. comm.). FAO capture production data for 2012 were: Albania - 143 tonnes; Croatia - 18 tonnes; Cyprus - 10 tonnes; France - nine tonnes; Greece (Eastern Central Atlantic) - five tonnes, (Mediterranean and Black Sea) 210 tonnes; Italy (Mediterranean and Black Sea) 157 tonnes; Latvia - zero tonnes; Libya - 390 tonnes; Malta - seven tonnes; Montenegro - eight tonnes; Portugal (NE Atlantic) zero tonnes; Spain (Mediterranean and Black Sea) 93 tonnes; Tunisia - 193 tonnes; and Turkey - 81 tonnes.

habitat:
The species is littoral and benthopelagic; it lives on rocky bottoms, and also over Posidonia beds, down to depths of 200 m, but mainly between 15-50 m (Fischer et al. 1987). It is common at depths of 60 m (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). Adults are solitary, while the young are gregarious. It is a gonochoristic species with spawning taking place between the end of March and May. Males and females older than one year mature almost simultaneously. Sexually mature females were detected at a minimum standard length of 21 cm (Loir et al. 2001) and sexual maturation and reproduction occurs at age two years (Riera et al. 1993, Abellán et al. 1997). This species can reach over one metre in length (Fischer et al. 1987) and weigh up to 13 kg, although sizes in catches average 35 cm to 40 cm long (Bauchot and Hureau 1986, Ramos-Esplá and Bayle-Sempere 1991). The maximum lifespan appears to be approximately 20 years (Morales-Nin and Moranta, 1997), although longevity has been reported up to 33 years (Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2004). No morphological or length/weight ratio differences are observed between males and females. However, females grow somewhat faster than males, reaching a slightly larger final size. Growth proceeds at a fast pace during the first two years, with animals reaching around 24 cm at one year, and slowing down during adulthood (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). The species' growth rates are not affected by the reproductive period (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). In all likelihood, the large adult size of the species reduces the number of potential predators. Due to the selective fishing techniques currently used for Dentex dentex and its social habits, the mortality rate due to predation is also low (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). This species is a carnivore feeding on fish, molluscs and cephalopods.  Generation length for D. dentex is estimated to be 12 years, using the following equation for a gonochoristic fish species: Generation length = Σxlxmx/Σlxmx

threats:
An important food fish. There have been some successful attempts to culture this species. Overexploitation and eutrophication are considered threats in parts of its range (Turkey). There has been an increase in demand for this species in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s due to increases in coastal resorts and restaurants (K. Bizsel pers. comm.).

conservationAction:
The species occurs in marine protected areas in many parts of the Mediterranean Sea. It is recommended to restrict spear fishing and to establish minimum legal sizes (A. Di Natale pers. comm.), and to also enforce minimum catch sizes in those areas where they are already established (e.g. of 20 cm in Turkey, K. Bizsel pers. comm.). More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
The Common dentex is a highly valued table fish in the Mediterranean region. Some attempts to culture this species have been successful on a trial basis, in Greece, Italy and Spain (Rueda and Martínez 2001), and two countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Spain) have reported production to FAO for this species (Basurco et al. 2011). In culture conditions, this sparid fish has a high specific growth rate and spawns spontaneously. Its fishery is mainly commercial and artisanal. It is caught with beach seines, trawl nets, gill nets, trammel nets, bottom long-lines and hand lines. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Tunisia and Morocco, and also occasionally in France, but rarely in Israel. Greece, Turkey, Italy, Tunisia and Spain account for about 90% of landings (Basurco et al. 2011). It is sold fresh or frozen (Fischer et al. 1987). It is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Francour, P., Bizsel, K. & Di Natale, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread throughout most Mediterranean coasts, and also along the coasts of west Africa and Macaronesia. There is very little population information available for this species: it is not commonly caught and there is no evidence of population declines from fishing at present time. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. We recommend continued monitoring of its population status.

range:
The species is common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, but not recorded from along the northwestern coast, and not in the northern Adriatic Sea. Also it is present off Portugal and around the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985) and Madeira, where it has become common in the last 20 years and is now fished commercially (Wirtz et al. 2008). Elsewhere, it is widely distributed along the West African coast from the Strait of Gibraltar to Angola, and around the Sao Tome-Principe Islands.

population:
This species is very rarely caught around the northern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, but it has a high potential for commercial aquaculture (Fernandez-Palacios et al. 1994). Separate FAO capture statistics are not reported for this species. This species has become common in Madeira in the last 20 years and is now fished commercially there (Wirtz et al. 2008). About 2.8 tonnes of D. gibbosus were landed in 2010 in the Archipelago of Madeira, comprising 5.4% of the demersal landings by weight (Alves et al. 2011). Juveniles and youngs have been caught in Madeiran waters in growing numbers in the last 10–15 years. They have become common in landings in the last 10–15 years, and only during then were there separate statistics (from Pagrus pagrus) kept. Dentex gibbosus has become much more abundant and large than P. pagrus in Madeira (C. Andrade pers. comm).

habitat:
This is a benthopelagic species. It occurs on the shelf on rocky and rubble substrata, on steep drop-offs, around wrecks, as well as on sand around rocks, from 20 to c. 300 m, but more commonly from 40 to 130 m. The young generally occur closer to shore while the adults occur further offshore in the vicinity of the continental slope (Fischer et al. 1987). It mainly feeds on crustaceans, fish and cephalopods (Fischer et al. 1987). The smallest mature males and females captured were 38.7 and 39.8 cm in total length (TL), respectively. Spawning takes place in the summer months around the Madeira archipelago, with a peak in May and June (Alves et al. 2011). In the Canary Islands, Pajuelo and Lorenzo (1995) classified this species as a protogynous hermaphrodite. Females dominated smaller size-classes and males the larger ones. The overall ratio of males to females was 1:1,45. The reproductive period extended from April to September, spawning peaking in June/July. The total lengths at 50% maturity were 34.7 cm for females and 38.6 cm for males. The length-mass relationship for the whole sample can be described by the parameters a = 0.01014 and b = 3.0812. Fish aged zero to 16 years were present in the samples. The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth equation were: L∞ = 101.2 cm, k = 0.149·year−1, and t0 = −0.111 years. The rates of total mortality Z and natural mortality M were 0.57 and 0.28·year−1 respectively. Rates of fishing mortality F and exploitation E were 0.29 and 0.51·year−1 respectively. The estimated length at first capture (LC50) was 17.8 cm total length. In the Adriatic Sea, Grubisic et al. (2007) classified this species as a rudimentary hermaphrodite. Von Berthalanffy growth parameters for it are: L∞ =107.24 cm, k=0.12, t0 =-0.90. It spawns in August, September and October. The mean value for its absolute fecundity is 1,672 x 106 eggs (Grubisic et al. 2007). The maximum length of this species is ~100 cm (Fischer et al. 1987).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. Potential localized declines from fishing are likely.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in marine protected areas. Size limits should take into consideration its protrandic hermaphrodotism (sex change occurs at around 50 cm total length). More genetic information would be useful for the management of stocks of this species, and monitoring of harvest and trade trends is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This species is caught with line gear (adults), bottom trawls and traps (young on the Canary Islands). It is regularly present in markets in Israel, and occasionally in Sicily, Greece and Morocco, but only rarely elsewhere in Italy, and in Turkey and Egypt. It is marketed fresh, frozen, or dried salted (flesh highly esteemed); also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). It has a high potential for commercial aquaculture (Fernandez-Palacios et al. 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean and from Portugal to northern Namibia. Little is known of the population status of this species in the Mediterranean and the northern part of its range along the west African coast, but it is one of the most most abundant demersal fishes along the Angolan coast. It is potentially of high commercial value in the Mediterranean, but occurs mainly in deeper water and at present is only a secondary catch species, and there is no evidence of population declines from fishing at present. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, we recommend further research and monitoring of its biology and population status.

range:
The species is present throughout much of the Mediterranean Sea except for the northwestern coast (Louisy 2002) and the northern Adriatic, and is also absent from around some of the larger Mediterranean Islands. It is present in the Sea of Marmara but not the Black Sea. Also found in the Eastern Atlantic from northern Portugal to Namibia, including the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome-Principe.

population:
In the northern part of the European range this is the most abundant among the species of Dentex. FAO capture production in 2012 were: Portugal (NE Atlantic) - zero tonnes; Greece - 480 t; Turkey - 55 t; Poland - 208 t; and Russian Federation - 255 t. Between 2002 and 2012, reported total Europe landings (FAO 2014) ranged between around 579 and 1,600 mt.

habitat:
This is a demersal and benthopelagic species. It inhabits rocky, muddy, or sandy-muddy substrata, from 20 to 250 m, but is typically found deeper than 60 m, at least in Turkey (K. Bizsel pers. comm.), with individuals gradually descend to greater depths with age. The stocks migrate seasonally between the coast and deeper waters in accordance with local hydrographic conditions and their life cycle. Reproduction takes place from the second year onward, with intermittent spawning activity from October to April north of Cape Verde over the edge of the continental shelf and in the slopes of canyons (cold waters). Adults are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on fish and crustaceans; the young are plankton-feeders. In southern Angola, the life history of D. macrophthalmus was characterised by slow growth (females: Lt = 309[1 − e−0.06(t + 5.43)], males: Lt = 248[1 − e−0.16(t − 1.77)]), advanced age at maturity (females: 7.4 years, males: 6.0 years) and high longevity (females: 36 years, males: 38 years). The sex ratio was 1:1 male-female. The length- and age-frequency distributions and macroscopic observations suggested that the species is a late gonochorist. Males and females reached 50% maturity at 151 and 166 mm fork length respectively. Although individuals with ripe gonads were found during most of the year, the peak spawning period appeared to be in December and January. Despite a life history that renders the species vulnerable to overexploitation, only 38% of artisanal fishers in Angola noticed a decline in the catches of this species. Potential reasons for this include: technology creep; limited pressure on the juvenile portion of the stock as a result of late recruitment (above the length of 50% maturity); the ‘basin affect’, whereby depleted areas are reseeded by areas (e.g. deeper water) inaccessible to the line fishery, and a deep-water reserve of large individuals (Potts et al. 2010).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. Potential localized declines from fishing.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. It is recommended that more genetic research be done for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
The species is a secondary catch of semi-industrial fishing (in the Adriatic and around Cyprus), and of small-scale fishing elsewhere, as well as sport fishing. It is caught with trawl nets, bottom-set long lines, hand lines and bow nets. It is regularly present in many Mediterranean fish markets, but only occasionally in Tunisia and Israel, and rarely in Egypt. It is marketed fresh or frozen (its flesh is highly esteemed) and also used for fishmeal and oil. A seasonal fishery takes place at the time of spawning concentrations (Carpenter in press).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D. & Bizsel, K.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread and common in parts of its range. It is utilized in semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries, and is taken commercially in Algeria and is regularly present in the markets of Sicily and Cyprus. It is also taken as a sport fish in the Mediterranean Sea, however there is no evidence of population declines due to fishing at present and its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas in its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is found in the southern, eastern and northeastern Mediterranean Sea, including the Ionian and Aegean Seas, but not in the Sea of Marmara or the Black Sea, and absent from the northern Adriatic (Bauchot and Hureau 1986, Maravelias et al. 2007, Carpenter in press). Also present in the eastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to Nigeria, but not around the eastern Atlantic islands.

population:
There are few population data available. The species is common in the northern Aegean Sea and is usually caught there together with Pagellus erythrinus (B. Yokes pers. comm.). Dentex maroccanus was observed in 44% of hauls from a bottom trawl survey in the north Aegean Sea but was not taken in any hauls from the Sea of Marmara (Keskin et al. 2011).

habitat:
Demersal, inhabiting various types of bottom but preferring gravel or rubble, from a depth of 20 to about 500 m, its abundance varying with depth according to latitude. Carnivorous feeding chiefly on crustaceans, fish and secondarily on molluscs (Carpenter in press). Investigation of the seasonal distribution of the species in the NE Mediterranean Sea (Maravelias et al. 2007) found preferential seasonal aggregation of Morocco dentex in specific geographic and bathymetric regions of the study area. In all four seasons, these favourable regions were found to be relatively stable and distinct, had the highest catch-per-unit-effort index, and were located over shallower grounds (50–70 m) having a bottom salinity of around 39.1. Data also indicated that, throughout the year, the species was confined to below the thermocline and avoided the deeper waters (>80 m). Ecological preferences for certain sea-bottom salinities, water depth zones and hydrographic regimes may contribute to the processes governing differential settlement to preferred grounds. Seasonal spawning activities occur between depths of 50 and 100 m with a peak from May to August north of Cape Verde (Carpenter in press). In Tunisia, its reproduction occurs between July and October and its sexual maturity occurs at two years of age (at 15 cm) (Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2002). Its longevity is seven years in Tunisian waters and the parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model for it are: L.inf. =33.54 cm, K=0,191, to=-1.434 (Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2004). Generation length is estimated at 2.5 years.

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species, although potential localized declines from fishing are likely.

conservationAction:
No species-specific measures are in place. This species occurs in MPAs over parts of its range. As a commercially utilized species, population monitoring is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This is a commercial species which is fished in semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries, and is also taken as a sport fish in the Mediterranean Sea. There are important catches made with trawl nets in eastern Algeria. It is regularly present in the markets of Sicily, Morocco and Cyprus, but only occasionally or rarely elsewhere. In the NE Atlantic, this species is fished south of Agadir in Morocco, and particularly south of Cape Blanc. It is caught with trawl nets, bottom long lines, gill and trammel nets and hand lines. It is marketed fresh or frozen (flesh highly esteemed), and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D. & Yokes, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in the Atlantic coast from France to southern Spain, Madeira and Canary Islands. It is common throughout the Mediterranean Sea and locally abundant over appropriate habitats. There is some commercial fishing pressure, but no indication yet of any population declines, and it is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is found throughout all of the Mediterranean and Black seas and the Sea of Azov, and is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to Portugal and southwestern Spain, including the Canary Islands where it is a very common inshore species (Dooley et al. 1985). A record of this species from Madeira is doubtful, as this species was not seen in more than 1,000 dives along the coasts of Madeira, and the specimen originally recorded as D. annularis from Madeira, was re-identified as D. vulgaris (Wirtz et al. 2008).

population:
This species is very common everywhere in coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea and is especially abundant wherever Posidonia beds and photophilic algae are present. It is regularly fished for, being the most abundant species of Diplodus within its range (Carpenter in press). This species is often associated with sea-cage farms where it feeds on food from the fish cages (pellets). In a study by Akyol and Ertosluk (2010), captures from the sea-cage farms along the coast of the Turkish Aegean Sea were determined with the use of a special cage trap and trammel net. Hand or longlines and underwater harpoons, although rare, were also used. This species was dominant and accounted for 1.4% of the total weight around one fish farm from 2004-2008.  The exploitation rate for this species is E = 0.46 (Matic-Skoko et al. 2006).  It is generally not any more common in MPAs than outside MPAs, probably because it is primarily a prey fish rather than a predator (Francour 1994). Catch data for Turkey were: 1995 304 mt, 1996 456 mt, 1997 500 mt, 1998 315 mt, 1999 550 mt, 2001 280 mt, 2002 548 mt, and 2006 552 mt. These figures indicate that populations there are stable (Turkstat 2007). FAO (Fishstat 2014) capture production figure for 2012 were: Croatia 13 tonnes; Cyprus five tonnes; Egypt 1,439 tonnes; France five tonnes; Malta one tonne; and Portugal 57 tonnes.

habitat:
The Annular Seabream (Diplodus annularis) is a demersal species found in groups above sandy bottoms and seagrass bed habitats, at depths down to 100 m. It inhabits chiefly Zostera seagrass beds but is also found on rocky bottoms from the coastline to about 20 m depth. The sexes are separate, although these fish are potential hermaphrodites; certain individuals are protandric hermaphrodites (first males, then becoming females) (Carpenter in press). In the Adriatic Sea, juveniles are omnivorous and prefer algae and plants, while adults are omnivorous and prefer animal foods. Its principal food items, by decreasing order of importance, are Chlorophyta (dominant taxa Cladophora sp. and Enteromorpha flexuosa), Decapoda (dominant species Upogebia pusilla), Gastropoda (important species are Risoa ventricosa and Alvania spp.), Bivalvia and Spermatophyta, as well as other food items (mostly unidentified Crustacea and fish eggs). Differences in diets among seasons are not significant (Matic-Skoko et al. 2004). In the Gulf of Annaba (Algeria), macrophytes and ascidians constitute the main diet. Eighteen other taxa were identified in stomach contents, including nine crustaceans, four molluscs, two tunicates, one annelid, one cnidarian and one echinoderm (Derbal et al. 2007). In the Adriatic Sea this species spawns from April through to the end of August, with a peak in May (Matic-Skoko et al. 2006). It is a rudimentary hermaphrodite. Overall male to female sex ratio was 1.00:1.05. Total lengths (TL) at 50% maturity were 9.0 cm for males and 10.0 cm for females. These estimated sizes were smaller than the minimum legal landing size (MLS = 15 cm) and greater than the actual minimum landing size (Lc = 7.1 cm) for the bottom trawl net. All specimens sampled were fully mature above 13 cm TL. The oldest individual was 13 years old. Length–weight relationship showed close to isometric growth (b = 3.073). Parameters of the von Bertalanffy growth equation were: L∞ = 23.95 cm; K = 0.126 per year; t0 = −1.664 year; r2 = 0.896. The low value of total mortality (Z = 0.72) was a consequence of the relatively low rate of natural mortality (M = 0.39) and fishing mortality (F = 0.33). The exploitation ratio was E = 0.46. Estimated parameters and the relative yield-per-recruit analysis did not indicate any overexploitation of the species in the study area. However, the estimates include uncertainties and require further confirmation, especially of the natural mortality (Matic-Skoko et al. 2006).  In the NW Mediterranean Sea parameters of the von Bertalanffy growth equation were: L∞ = 20.37 cm, K = 0.54 per year, t0 = -0.033 year (Gordoa and Moli 1997); and L∞ = 17.12 cm, K = 0.56 per year, t0 = -0.022 year (Girardin 1978). The maximum total length of this species is 25 cm. Its longevity is seven years (Gordoa and Moli 1997). Its mortality parameters are Z = 0.72, F = 0.33 (Matic-Skoko et al. 2007).  In the Gulf of Annaba, Algeria, this species is a rudimentary hermaphrodite. It spawns from April to July and its first sexual maturity occurs at 12.1 cm in the males and at 12.7 cm in the females. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.096 (Nouacer and Kara 2001). Its longevity is five years and the parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model there are: L.inf. = 19.54 cm, K=0.46, t0=-0.56. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship there is 3.137 (Nouacer and Kara 2003). The biology of the species was investigated in the Canaries (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2001); the mean length showed an increase with increasing water depth, and males showed a negative allometric growth and females isometric growth. The species was characterized by protandric hermaphroditism. The overall sex ratio was unbalanced in favour of males (1 : 0.79). The reproductive season extended from January to May, with a peak in spawning activity in March–April. Males reached maturity at a smaller length (103 mm, one-year-old) than females (128 mm, two-year-old). Fish aged zero to six years were found. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for all individuals were: L∞=247.9 mm, k=0.268 years–1, and t0=–0.879 years. In a study assessing the factors affecting mortality of Diplodus annularis, caught and released in a recreational fishery in the Balearic Islands, this species experienced moderate rates of mortality (15%), and only deep-hooking was a significant predictor of death. The incidence of undersized fish for this species there was 48% (Alos and Palmer 2009).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species, although there may be local declines as this species is caught commercially in the Mediterranean and generally artisanally elsewhere.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species and it occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. It is recommended that more genetic research be done for the management of this species. Strategies, such as promoting the use of more selective gears that reduce the capture of undersized fish and implementing gentler release techniques, should be considered in managing this species (Alos and Palmer 2009). For a sustainable fishery in İzmir Bay, Turkey, Özekinci (2005) suggested that monofilament gillnet with greater than 52 mm stretched mesh size should be used.

useAndTrade:
This is a commercial species. Fishing for it is semi-industrial (in Sicily and the Adriatic) and generally artisanal elsewhere, and it is also taken by sport fishers. It is caught with trawl nets, beach seines, hand lines, bottom long lines, and gill and trammel nets. It is regularly present in most of the markets around the Mediterranean; common in Israel, but rarely seen in Morocco. It is marketed fresh, frozen or dried salted (flesh not highly esteemed); it is also apparently used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species has a relatively restricted European distribution, known from the northeastern Atlantic coast of southern Portugal and Spain, and extending into the Mediterranean in the Alboran Sea. It is fished over much of its range but there are no data indicating population declines, no major threats are known, and it is found in marine reserves in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region the species is found from southern Portugal, the Gulf of Cadiz and Straits of Gibraltar (to the north coast of Morocco outside of the European region), extending into the Mediterranean only in the Alboran Sea (Santos et al. 1998). It is absent from Madeira, the Canary Islands and Cape Verde Islands (Wirtz et al. 2013, Carpenter in prep). Elsewhere, the species occurs on the western coast of Africa to Senegal.

population:
This species is common in the region from southern Portugal to the Straits of Gibraltar and in the Alboran Sea (SW Mediterranean). No population data are available and separate statistics are not reported for this species (Carpenter in press). The mean density of this species in the Bensafrim estuary was 0.22 individuals per 1,000 m2 (Guerreiro et al. 2011).

habitat:
This species is found on the upper portions of the continental shelf, from the coastline to a depth of 100 m, but especially from 30 to 50 m. It occurs on various types of bottom and sometimes forms sizeable aggregations. Food items are mainly composed of algae, bivalves and crustaceans. Diplodus bellottii shows a generalist feeding behaviour and is omnivorous (Horta et al. 2004). It is associated with estuaries (e.g., the Tagus estuary in Portugal; Cabral et al. 2001).

threats:
Potential localized declines from fishing and habitat modification (estuaries) are likely for this species. Diplodus bellottii recently appeared in the Tejo (Tagus) estuary and this increase in abundance there has been related to climate warming (Cabral et al. 2001). Diplodus bellottii has a high dietary and spatial overlap with D. vulgaris in the Tejo estuary and there is thus a potential for competition among these two species (Horta et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. In Portugal, there have been artificial reefs deployed along the southern coast (Algarve) since 1990 to enhance artisanal fisheries (Leitao et al. 2009). The minimum landing size for this species off the Algarve coast, Portugal, is 15 cm TL, and it is suggested that a minimum landing size be implemented for sport fishing competitions, preventing undersized fish from being retained (Guerreiro et al. 2011). Monitoring of populations trends is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This species is not fished for intensively, but is taken incidentally throughout its range. It is caught on line gear and with trammel nets, trawls and beach seines.  It is marketed fresh, frozen or dried salted (its flesh is not esteemed), it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). Species of Diplodus, including D. bellottii, are highly valuable resources in Portugal. In 2008, they were the thirteenth most important item in the landings, and eleventh in terms of commercialized value (INE 2009). Official catch data and management do not regard these species as individual units, and catch data are based on combined species of Diplodus genus in general, which is an important limitation for scientific studies and proper management (Vinagre et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Diplodus cervinus was previously recognized as comprising three subspecies: Diplodus cervinus cervinus (NE Atlantic and Mediterranean), D. c. hottentotus (SE Atlantic: Angola, South Africa), and D. c. omanensis (Indian Ocean: Oman). Currently, three species are recognized: D. cervinus, D. hottentotus (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004) and D. omanensis (Bauchot and Bianchi 1984, Amir et al. 2013). However, the Diplodus cervinus complex is in need of taxonomic review (Y. Iwatsuki pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread in warmer waters the Mediterranean, ranges northwards in the Atlantic to the Bay of Biscay, and is also present around Madeira and the Canary Islands. There is evidence that the species distribution in the western Mediterranean has expanded in recent years, possibly as a result of climate change. It is still locally abundant in many areas across its European range, and for this reason has been assessed as Least Concern. However some subpopulations, such as in the Canary Islands, appear to be in danger of recruitment over-fishing, and need to be closely monitored.

range:
This species comprises three sub-species: Diplodus cervinus ssp. cervinus (NE Atlantic and Mediterranean), D. c. hottentotus (SE Atlantic: Angola, South Africa) and D. c. omanensis (Indian Ocean: Oman). In the European region, Diplodus cervinus occurs throughout most of the warmer waters of the Mediterranean except for the Adriatic Sea (Bauchot and Hureau 1990, Louisy 2005) and ranges northwards in the Atlantic to the Bay of Biscay. Also present around Madeira and the Canary Islands. Elsewhere, in the Eastern Atlantic, the species ranges to the Cape Verde Islands, and from Angola to South Africa, and is present in the Indian Ocean (Oman). Diplodus cervinus can occur to 300 m depth but is more common to about 80 m depth (Pajuelo et al. 2003a).In the western Mediterranean, the species was unknown until 1980 but young and adult individuals are now fairly common, possibly due to global warming (Francour et al. 1994).

population:
The species is slow growing and lives for up to 17 years (Pajuelo et al. 2003b). It is one of the most important commercial species in the Canary Islands (Pajuelo et al. 2003a). According to Pajuelo et al. (2003a), in the Canary Islands the exploitation rate indicates that the stock is in danger of over-fishing. The direct effects of fishing on the population result in changes in abundance, with a reduction to 85% of the unexploited equilibrium level. The length at first capture by the commercial fishery is less than the length at maturity. The mean rates of total, natural and fishing mortality are 0.551, 0.215 and 0.336 year−1, respectively. The length at first capture is 183 mm. (Pajuelo et al. 2003a). Length at age was described by the specialized von Bertalanffy growth model (L∞=594 mm, k=0.156 year−1, and t0=−0.188 year), the Schnute growth model (y1=98 mm; y2=565 mm; a=0.131; b=1.158) and the seasonalised von Bertalanffy growth model (L∞=594 mm; k=0.156 year−1; t0=−0.095 year; C=0.639; ts=0.818). A power relationship (a=45.82 and v=1.2414) was estimated between total length and the otolith radius. Back calculated length were similar to those predicted by the growth models. Growth parameters estimated from the back calculated sizes at age were L∞=612 mm; k=0.152 year−1; t0=−0.32 year (Pajuelo et al. 2003b). The exploitation rate indicates that the stock is overfished in the Canary Islands (Pajuelo et al. 2003a). With 58% of the total catch below this length, there is a danger of recruitment over-fishing. In the Gulf of Lyon, the western Mediterranean, the species was unknown until 1980 but young and adult individuals are now fairly common, possibly due to global warming (Francour et al. 1994).

habitat:
A demersal species that is found in schools. It inhabits areas of rocky substrate, to depths of 300 m, although it is most abundant to depths of 80 m. The reproductive season extends from spring to summer, with a peak in spawning activity around May and June. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Pajuelo et al. 2003a). The males generally attain a greater size at maturity (327 mm TL, five years old) than the females (273 mm TL, four years old). Recruitment occurs from October to January, at depths of 0.5-8 m (M. Kara pers. comm. 2008). The generation length of this species has been estimated at around 13 years. In the Canary Islands, this species is a slow growing and a long-lived species, with ages of up to 17 years (Pajuelo et al. 2003a, 2003b). The male : female ratio is in favour of females (1 : 2.16). The recruits are located over rocky substrates with an important algae vegetation forming schools lower than two metres. During the spawning season, schools of adults from three to eight fish are observed. The schools are formed by one large individual and a few moderate size individuals. Mating takes place in small groups formed by one dominant male and a group of several females (polygamy). Moderate size individuals are often observed mixed in large schools (up to 30 individuals) of Diplodus sargus cadenati. Subadults form groups of a few fish (under five individuals) or more commonly mixed groups (>15 individuals) with individuals of species of similar size. Otolith age readings indicate that the population consists of 18 age groups, including a very high proportion of individuals between two and four years old. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the whole population are: L∞ = 603 mm, k = 0.149 year−1, and t0 = −0.22 year.

threats:
The species is reported to be over-fished in the Canarian archipelago (Pajuelo et al. 2003). Given that this species has a relatively slow life history and long generation time, these impacts are thought to pose a significant threat to local populations.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the species, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas, including some in the Canary Islands. In one marine reserve in the northwest Mediterranean Sea, there is evidence that this species is more common in the protected area with complete fishing prohibition, than in the surrounding area (Garcia-Rubies and Zabala 1990). This species is being reared in captivity and released in southern Portuguese waters as part of a restocking program (K. Erzini pers. comm. 2008). As there are three distinct disjunct subpopulations of this species, further taxonomic research is needed to determine their status. Monitoring of potentially over-exploited subpopulations, for example around the Canary Islands, is also needed.

useAndTrade:
The species is harvested throughout its range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This is a widespread species that is locally abundant, with no evidence yet of any population declines in the European region. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This is a common species throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but is rare in the Black Sea, not known from some northern waters, and not present in the Sea of Azov. It also occurs in the eastern Atlantic from northern Spain (Bay of Biscay) where it is rare (Vinagre et al. 2010), Portugal, Strait of Gibraltar, and the Canary Islands, but not off Madeira. Elsewhere in the Eastern Atlantic it is common south to Sierra Leone and Cape Verde Islands. Records of this species from South Africa are based on a misidentification (Smith and Smith 1986). There appears to be a continuing northward extension along the Atlantic coast of Europe due to increasing temperatures (Vinagre et al. 2010).

population:
The species is very common in the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean Sea (B. Yokes and K. Bizsel pers. comm.). It is also common in Israel (M. Goren pers. comm.), Algeria, and the western Mediterranean Sea (H. Kara and P. Francour pers. comm.), and the Strait of Gibraltar. It is relatively common in the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985). In the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia) longevity is six years. The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model are: L∞ =23.19 cm, K=0.472, t0=-0.248. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 2.782 (Bradai 2000). The maximum total length of this species is 60 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). The yearly nature in growth increment formation in the otoliths of Diplodus puntazzo aged one to 10 years from the Canary Islands was validated by Domínguez-Seoane et al. (2006). Lengths at age were described by the specialized von Bertalanffy growth model (L∞ = 541 mm, k = 0.182 year−1, and t0 = −2.531 years), the Schnute growth model (y1 = 171 mm, y2 = 509 mm, a = 0.022, b = 2.59) and the seasonalized von Bertalanffy growth model (L∞ = 546 mm, k = 0.176 year−1, t0 = −2.21 years, C = 0.712, ts = 0.798). Individuals grow fast during the first year of life, attaining approximately 45% of their maximum length. The body proportional hypothesis and the power length–radius relationship used to backcalculate the growth trajectories showed that the growth backcalculation model could be used to provide reasonable estimates of growth in this species. A power relationship (a = 36.19 and v = 1.705) was estimated between the total length and the otolith radius. Backcalculated lengths were similar to those predicted by the growth models. Growth parameters estimated from the backcalculated lengths at age were: L∞ = 508 mm, k = 0.197 year−1,t0 = −1.731 years. Data on length and age used to estimate the parameters of the von Bertalanffy growth model showed that males and females have similar growth rates.

habitat:
The species inhabits rocky bottoms down to a depth of about 150 m, but is more common to 60 m. It forms small aggregations, the young living in littoral pools, the adults often occurring in the surf zone. It is omnivorous, feeding on seaweeds, worms, molluscs and shrimps (Carpenter in press). It is one of the most important species for aquaculture in the Mediterranean (Greco et al. 1993, Favaloro et al. 2002, Pajuelo et al. 2008). In the Canary Islands, Pajuelo et al. (2008) classified Diplodus puntazzo as a rudimentary hermaphrodite, with a low level of protandry. They found that the overall sex ratio was one male to 2.03 females, diverging significantly from 1:1, and that there was a ratio of onw male to 0.11 transitional fish. The sex ratio varied with season; during the reproductive period the ratio was 1:1.86 (male:female), significantly lower than in the non-reproductive period in which the sex ratio was approximately 1:2.26. Both sexes had similar size distributions; however females were predominant in all size intervals, especially in the larger ones. No significant difference in mean total length (TL) between females (330 mm), males (319 mm) or transitionals (321 mm) was found. The smallest functional female and male analysed were 159 and 157 mm TL, and the largest were 520 and 510 mm TL, respectively. No significant difference in length at first level of maturity, attained at the second year of life, was found between males (281 mm) and females (292 mm), respectively. A protracted spawning season was identified for the species: from September to February, with a peak in November. Gonadosomatic index (GSI) values followed the same pattern for males and females, with values of females being similar to those of males; the highest values occurred between September and December, with a maximum in November. Occurrence of transitional fish was significantly higher during that month, with higher values of GSI than in the resting period. Vitellogenesis did not begin synchronously for all females, and the simultaneous presence of oocytes in all stages of development indicated an asynchronous mode of ovarian development. The presence of postovulatory, together with tertiary yolk vesicle oocytes, indicated that the species is a multiple spawner.

threats:
Potential localized declines from fishing and habitat modification (estuaries) are likely.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and it occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. It is recommended that more genetic research be done for the management of this species, and that harvest trends are monitored.

useAndTrade:
The fishing for this species is semi-industrial (in Sicily), and primarily artisanal elsewhere, and it is also a sport fish. It is fished the year round on the Canary Islands (Carpenter in press). It is caught with trawl and pelagic nets, traps (Canary Islands), beach seines, hand lines, bottom long lines, gill and trammel nets, and by spear fishing. It is present in most markets around the Mediterranean, but infrequent in France. It is marketed fresh or frozen (its flesh is not highly esteemed); and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). Between 200-400 metric tonnes have been reported per annum for aquaculture production of this species in Italy between 1997 and 2003 (FAO 2008) and EU statistics reported 159 mt in 2007 in Italy (Basurco et al. 2011). Species of Diplodus, including D. puntazzo, are highly valuable resources in Portugal. In 2008, together they were the thirteenth most important item in the landings, and eleventh in terms of commercialized value (INE 2009). Official data and management do not regard these species as individual units, and data are for the Diplodus genus in general, which is an important limitation for scientific studies and proper management (Vinagre et al. 2010).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Goren, M., Yokes, B., Francour, P. & Kara, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Diplodus sargus as presently recognized is an assemblage of genetically closely related species whose current taxonomic assignments of species and subspecies are somewhat inconsistent and require further work (Summerer et al. 2001, Domingues et al. 2007). Pending more detailed population genetic work, the six subspecies of D. sargus, are retained in individual species accounts but are not separated in the parents species account.   Two geographic subspecies of Diplodus sargus have been recognised in the European region: Diplodus sargus subspecies sargus in the Mediterranean; and Diplodus sargus subspecies cadeneti in the northeastern Atlantic - from the Bay of Biscay to Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (Summerer et al. 2001). Only weak genetic differentiation is found for the European subspecies of D. sargus (Bargelloni et al. 2005) that is not associated with the transition between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, contradicting the separation into distinct sub-species of the Mediterranean and Atlantic D. sargus populations, classified as D. s. sargus and D. s. cadenati, respectively (De la Paz et al. 1973, Bauchot and Hureau 1986). Diplodus sargus requires taxonomic revisions and there may also be two forms in the Persian Gulf (Y. Iwatsuki pers. comm. 2013).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread, common and locally abundant, and despite its commercial importance, there is no evidence for population decline in either subspecies at present (although fishing apparently influences size structure of the populations). It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, Diplodus sargus comprises two subspecies: Diplodus sargus sargus is a Mediterranean Sea endemic subspecies present throughout all of the Mediterranean and Black seas (but not the Sea of Azov); and Diplodus sargus cadeneti is widely distributed in the eastern and northern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands, and along the West African coast from the Straits of Gibraltar to Mauritania, but absent from the Cape Verde Islands (Carpenter in press).

population:
Diplodus sargus sargus is very common and abundant in appropriate habitats throughout the Mediterranean. FAO global catch statistics show a steady increase up to 3,822 mt landings per year from around 1980 to 2009 and remaining over 3,000 mt from 2009-2012, with most of this catch reported from the Mediterranean (FAO 2014). However, it is unclear if this increase in landings figures is due to increased effort, increased reporting or increasing populations.  Diplodus sargus cadeneti is common in the region from the southern Bay of Biscay to Gibraltar and around Madeira and the Canary Islands, as well as along the west African coast from the Strait of Gibraltar to about Cape Verde (Senegal). Separate statistics are not reported for this species (Carpenter in press). In southern Portugal, this species alone represents up to 29% of the total catch by weight (Erzini et al. 1996). Larger individuals are mainly observed within marine protected areas, which may indicate some overfishing even if populations do not show any declines (P. Francour pers. comm.).

habitat:
Diplodus sargus ssp. sargus inhabits the littoral zone in shallow waters down to 50 m. The juveniles are present over shallow sandy bottoms and enter lagoons during spring and return to the sea in autumn, whereas adults prefer deeper rocky areas covered by seaweed. The juveniles are omnivores (eating mainly algae, worms, small molluscs and hydrozoans), and the adults are carnivores (eating worms, molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms) (Fischer et al. 1987).  Longevity for Diplodus sargus sargus is ten years (Gordoa and Moli 1997). The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model are: L∞= 41.7 cm, K=0.245, to=-0.76 (Gordoa and Moli 1997); L∞=21.01 cm, K=0.53, to=-0.138 (Girardin 1978); and L∞=46.7 cm, K=0.115, to=-1.63 (Man-Wai and Quignard 1984). D. s. sargus from the Gulf of Tunis is a rudimentary hermaphrodite with partial protandry (Mouine et al. 2007). In the Gulf of Tunis, spawning occurs in spring (March to May), as the water temperature rises from 15 to 18°C, just after the winter minimum. Size at sexual maturity (TL50) was 21 cm (four years old). The length-weight relationship for all individuals was described by the following parameters: a = 0.015 and b = 3.051. Quignard and Man-Wai (1983) indicated that reproduction for this species takes place only in the Mediterranean Sea. The spawning period increases as the latitude decreases. The maximum total length of this subspecies is 45 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). Mahmoud et al. (2010) studied the fisheries of D. sargus sargus in Abu Qir Bay (Alexandria, Egypt) and found no evidence of over-exploitation. Benchalel and Kara (2012) studied the basic population-specific parameters for D. s. sargus caught along the Algerian coast between December 2005 and December 2006. Total length ranged from 12.2 to 34.6 cm, representing age classes between zero and 10 years. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for all fish were calculated as: TL = 36.3 cm, k = 0.154 year−1, t0 = −0.488 year. The growth performance index (φ) showed a relatively slow growth of the local population. The length-weight relationship showed an isometric growth (b = 2.98; r = 0.98). Overall ratio of males to females was 1:1.4, with males predominant in the smaller size intervals and females in the larger ones. The reproductive season off Alexandria extended from January to May, with a March–April peak in spawning activity. Fifty per cent maturity of the tested cohort was reached at a total length of 20.2 cm for males and 20.0 cm for females. Diplodus sargus ssp. cadeneti is a coastal, schooling species inhabiting rocky bottoms down to depths of 150 m, but especially abundant in the surf zone. The young occur in Zostera seagrass beds. It is a protandric hermaphrodite (first male and then becoming female) (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2002). It is omnivorous, but prefers small crustaceans and molluscs; and it also feeds on seaweeds and may attack small corals. It is a relatively slow growing and long-lived subspecies with a life span in excess of 12 years (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2002). The subspecies is characterized as being dygynous with partial protandry. Overall ratio of males to females was 1:2.9. The reproductive season extended from December to May, with a peak in spawning activity in January–February. Fifty per cent maturity was reached at 201 mm total length in males and 216 mm in females. The length–weight relationship for all individuals was described by the following parameters: a = 0.000023, and b = 2.96, when length is given in millimeters and weight in grams. Fish of zero to 12 years in age were found. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the entire population were: L∞= 467 mm, k = 0.143 year-1 and t0 =- 2.14 year. Growth parameters differed between males and females. For all fish, instantaneous rates of mortality were Z = 0.68 year-1, M = 0.31 ± 0.6 year-1 and F = 0.37 ± 0.6 year-1; the exploitation ratio was E = 0.54 ± 0.9. Length at first capture for all individuals was 173 mm. The stock exploited above is an assumed optimum (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2004).

threats:
No major threats, although size reduction in some areas may be the result of overfishing (P. Francour pers. comm.).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. It is recommended that more genetic research be done to better define the two European subspecies and their management. In addition, conservation measures should include spearfishing limitations, and population and harvest monitoring is recommended.

useAndTrade:
In the southwest European Atlantic and in the Mediterranean the species reaches a high market value (D’Anna et al. 2004, FAO 2004). Although the stocks do not support large scale industrial ﬁshing, this inshore species is an important source of income for local ﬁsherman in many countries (FAO 2004). In the Canary Islands, this species is one of the main target species of the demersal small-scale fishery, and is caught mainly with traps at depths ranging between 10 and 120 m. It is captured all year round with seasonal differences in landings. Catches of D. sargus cadeneti have been declining in the Canary Islands during the last decades. No bag limits are currently imposed on its fishery and only minimum size legislation of 220 mm has been implemented (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2004). In Tunisia, D. sargus sargus represents nearly 7.4% by value of the total fish catch for this region. In Egypt, D. sargus sargus comprises about 62% of Diplodus catch which constitutes about 14.5% of the sparid landed catch in Abu Qir Bay during 2008 (Saleh 2010). Its fishery is semi-industrial (Sicily and Morocco), mainly artisanal elsewhere, and as a sport fish. The fishing gears used are trammel nets, seine nets, handlines, bottom long lines, gill nets and spear fishing. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, France and Morocco, and occasionally elsewhere. It is generally marketed fresh. Several attempts have been made to introduce the species in aquaculture in the Mediterranean (Abellan and Garcia-Alcazar 1995, Bodington 2000, Kentouri et al. 1995). Many of these attempts to farm this species have been hindered by the slow growth of the species in captivity after the ﬁrst year of life. In many cases, this slow growth reduces the proﬁtability of commercial production (D’Anna et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This is a widespread, common and abundant species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It is a highly valuable commercial species, but there is no evidence yet of over-exploitation. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, the species occurs southwards from western France (Bay of Biscay) to Madeira and the Canary Islands, and present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the southern Black Sea. Recently recorded also from the Azores (Afonso et al. 2013). It is found elsewhere in the eastern Atlantic along the coast of North Africa to Senegal, but is absent from the Cape Verde Islands (Carpenter in press). This species occurs to 160 m depth (Sala and Ballesteros 1997). Records from Angola to South Africa are doubtful (Smith and Smith 1986).

population:
The species is common and abundant throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It is common along the West African coast from the Strait of Gibraltar to Cape Verde, around Madeira and the Canary Islands (Carpenter in press). There is significant genetic variation between populations of Diplodus vulgaris in the Aegean and Adriatic Seas (Arculeo et al. 2003). The catch statistics for Turkey were: 1995 - 2,152 mt, 1996 - 1,889 mt, 1997 - 1,250 mt, 1998 - 1,500 mt, 1999 -1,560 mt, 2001- 375 mt, 2002 - 203 mt, and 2006 - 185 mt. An average of 16% of the Turkish catch comes from the Black Sea. FAO (2014) capture production figures for 2012 were: Croatia - 15 tonnes, Cyprus - five tonnes, Malta - one tonne, and Portugal - 367 tonnes.  This species is common outside sea-cage farms in the Turkish Aegean Sea feeding on the feed (pellets) (Akyol and Ertosluk 2010) and accounted for 2.7% of the total weight around one fish farm from 2004-2008.

habitat:
This is a euryhaline species inhabiting particularly rocky and sometimes sandy bottoms to depths of 160 m, but more commonly in less than 50 m. The young are sometimes found in seagrass beds (Carpenter in press). Food items are composed mainly of algae, bivalves and crustaceans (Rosecchi 1987). Diplodus vulgaris is a generalist feeder and is omnivorous (Horta et al. 2004).  It is a hermaphrodite, its reproduction occurs in autumn in the western Mediterranean Sea, the young are present in December-January and the older fish in May-June. Sexual maturity occurs at two years of age (at 17 cm) (Fischer et al. 1987). The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model for this species are: L =28.78 cm, K=0.389, t0=-0.657 (Gordoa and Moli 1997);  L=26.77 cm, K=0.255, t0=-0.607 (Man-Wai and Quignard 1984); and  L=23.47 cm, K=0.224, t0=-1.446 (Bradai 2000). The maximum total length of this species is 45 cm (Fischer et al. 1987) and its longevity is eight years (Bradai 2000). Diplodus vulgaris is a highly valuable commercial species in the eastern Adriatic Sea and age, growth and mortality of  this species were studied by Duli et al. (2011)  from commercial fishery catches by 'tramata' fishing (2005–2006). The oldest female was estimated to be age 11, the oldest male age 10 years. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters estimated by reading scales were: L = 48.60 cm (SE = 1.101), K = 0.112 (SE = 0.005) and t0= -2.366 (SE = 0.060) for all specimens; L = 51.96 cm (SE = 2.153), K = 0.095 (SE = 0.007) and t0 = -2.837 (SE = 0.120) for females and L= 56.25 cm (SE = 2.662), K = 0.084 (SE = 0.067) and t0= -2.920 (SE = 0.117) for males. The overall sex ratio was 1.22:1 in favour of males. Total mortality, corresponding to the slope of the descending limb of the catch curve, was Z = 0.81 per year for females and Z = 0.85 per year for males. Exploitation ratios were E = 0.68 for females and E = 0.73 for males.  The spawning season for D. vulgaris in southern Portugal extends from September to April ,with a length at 50% maturity of 17.27 cm for males and 17.65 cm for females (Gonçalves et al. 2003). The spawning season for this species off the southwest coast of Portugal was reported to extend from December to March, peaking in January and February. This species is characterized as a rudimentary hermaphrodite with possible protandry (Gonçalves and Erizini 2000). 

threats:
Potential localized declines from fishing and habitat modification are likely to affect this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. It is recommended that more genetic research be conducted for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
This is a highly valuable commercial species, and together with other species of Diplodus, constitute the main target family of small-scale demersal fisheries in many areas. In Portugal, in 2008, together they were the thirteenth most important item in the landings, and eleventh in terms of commercialized value (INE 2009), and this genus was the sixth most important fish species in the landings in 2000, averaging 57% of the national catches in weight from 1988 to 2000 (DGPA 2002, Gonclaves et al. 2003). Official data and management do not regard these species as individual units and data are on the Diplodus genus in general, which is an important limitation for scientific studies and proper management (Vinagre et al. 2010).  Fishing for this species is semi-industrial (in Sicily, the Adriatic and Egypt) and artisanal elsewhere, and it is also a sport fish. The main fishing gears are trammel nets, gill nets, hand lines, traps (Canary Islands), beach seines (young fish), bottom long lines and spear fishing. This species is usually present in the markets of Sicily, Italy, Spain, Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, Tunisia, Morocco, France and countries in the Adriatic Sea. This is a candidate species for aquaculture (Ozório et al. 2008). It is marketed fresh, frozen or dried salted (its flesh is not very highly esteemed); and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread and is common in some parts of its European range. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas. While in the Canary Islands there is evidence of population decline and there is also some indication that the size structure of populations is being affected by fishing in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, catch statistics have remained fairly stable and for the present there is no indication of significant overfishing and this species is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, because of increasing fishing pressures, it is recommended that this species be closely monitored for possible future population declines.

range:
In the European region, the species is present in all of the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but is not found in the Black Sea, and is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, from western France (Bay of Biscay) to Gibraltar and Macaronesia (Canary Islands and Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008). Outside Europe, the species is present south from Gibraltar along the coasts of Africa (including the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome-Principe) to the southwestern Indian Ocean and Red Sea (Carpenter in press).

population:
This species is common in the eastern and southern Mediterranean Sea, but less common in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Recent research in Israel indicates that current individuals are smaller than those known from historical museum specimens, and most specimens currently caught are one year old and mature (M. Goren pers. comm.). This same trend is observed in Turkey (K. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm.). In a study by Akyol and Ertosluk (2010), captures from the sea-cage farms along the coast of the Turkish Aegean Sea were determined with the use of a special cage trap and trammel net. Hand or longlines and underwater harpoons, although rare, were also in use. This species was dominant and accounted for 0.7% of the total weight of one fish farm from 2004-2008.  FAO (2014) catch statistics from 1996 to 2006 for the Mediterranean ranged from 718 mt to 1,135 mt and were fairly stable over this period, with five countries reporting catch data. Elsewhere, in Angola, there was a very significant decline in catch from 3,353 tonnes in 2006 to 223 tonnes in 2007. FAO (2014) capture production for the European region in 2012 were: Croatia nine tonnes; Cyprus five tonnes; France (NE Atlantic) 101 tonnes; Italy 568 tonnes; Portugal (NE Atlantic) 34 tonnes; Slovenia six tonnes; and Spain 151 tonnes.

habitat:
This species lives over sandy or mud-sandy bottoms, as well as on seagrass beds, to a depth of about 150 m; it sometimes enters brackish waters. It is gregarious, occasionally forming sizeable schools (Carpenter in press). It is carnivorous, searching the bottom for worms, molluscs and small crustaceans (Carpenter in press). Ontogenetic variation in the dietary composition shows that while growing the fish become more generalist feeders. In the summer season, they become more selective feeders (Kallianiotis et al. 2005). The overall percentage of empty stomachs (17.7%) evidenced variation with seasons, maximum during winter (30.0%) and minimum during summer (8.3%). The prey belong to eight major groups: Gastropoda, Bivalvia, Polychaeta, Decapoda, Amphipoda, Copepoda, Echinodermata and Teleostei. Striped Sea Bream is an active seeking bottom feeder whose diet consists of diverse benthic groups, with wide range of size and morphology (Santic et al. 2010).  The longevity of this species is 12 years (Kraljevic et al. 1996), and its maximum length is 55 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). The parameters for its mortality are: Z=0.79, M=0.61 (Kallianiotis et al. 2005); and Z=0.77, M=0.42 (Kraljevic et al. 1996). The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model for this species are: L.inf.=30.9 cm, K=0.21, t0=-0.99 (Kallianiotis et al. 2005); L.inf.=40.05 cm, K=0.19, t0=-0.94 (Kraljevic et al. 1996); L.inf.=33.27 cm, K=0.27, t0=0.057 (Suau 1970); and L.inf.=26.55 cm, K=0.20, t0=-1.81 (males) and L.inf.=32.6 cm, K=0.13, t0=-2.12 (females) (Turkmen and Akyurt 2003). The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.242 (Kallianiotis et al. 2005), 3.063 (Kraljevic et al. 1996). In the Canary Islands, the oldest age estimated was eight years. It grows relatively fast during the first few years of life, attaining approximately 50% of its maximum length during the second year. After the second year, the annual growth rate drops rapidly, related to sexual maturity. The difference in growth between sexes, with females reaching a slightly larger size than males at the same age, is characteristic of the protandric species such as L. mormyrus (Besseau and Brusle-Sicard 1991, 1995; Pajuelo et al. 2002).  In a study assessing the factors affecting mortality of Lithognathus mormyrus caught and released in a recreational fishery in the Balearic Islands, this species exhibited higher mortality rates (33%) compared to Diplodus annularis, with over 90% of the catch under the minimum legal size. Deep-hooking was the strongest predictor of mortality (Alos et al. 2009).  This species is protandrous. Sex-inversion occurred between 21 and 30 cm (at four to nine years). Males reached sexual maturity at 16.2 cm (2.5 years) and females at 9.04 cm (3.6 years). The spawning period occurs from May to September, while gamete emission peaks in June-August (Kallianiotis et al. 2005). In the Adriatic Sea, sex inversion occurs mainly at lengths between 24.1-35.2 cm (at four to eight years) (Kraljevic et al. 1996). In Turkey, reproductive activity occurs between April and August and the length at first maturity is 13.4 cm for males and 13.9 cm for females (Turkmen and Akyurt 2003).

threats:
Catches of the species have been declining in the Canary Islands during the last few years (Pajuelo et al. 2002) and fishing effort in the Mediterranean also has increased (Vitale et al. 2011), especially in the eastern Mediterranean. In a study assessing the factors affecting mortality of the species caught and released in a recreational fishery in the Balearic Islands, this species exhibited higher mortality rates (33%) compared to Diplodus annularis, with over 90% of the catch under the minimum legal size. Deep-hooking was the strongest predictor of mortality (Alos and Palmer 2009).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. It is recommended that more genetic research and population monitoring be undertaken for the management of this species, and harvest monitoring implemented. Strategies such as promoting the use of more selective gears that reduce the capture of undersized fish (Fabi et al. 2002) and use of circle hooks and implementing gentler release techniques (Alos and Palmer 2009), should be considered in managing these species.

useAndTrade:
The species is fished throughout its range, and is an increasingly targeted and highly prized species. In the Canary Islands, this species is one of the main target species of the demersal small-scale fishery (Pajuelo 1997). It is caught at depths of between 10-100 m with traps and is captured all year round with seasonal differences in landings (Pajuelo et al. 2002). In the Mediterranean (Strait of Sicily), it is one of the principal target species and mainly caught by both trammel and gill nets throughout the year, but fishing methods, areas and price vary according to season. The growth in tourism over the past decades has brought about a higher demand for this species and other sparids, mostly in the warm seasons. Consequently, the fishing effort of the commercial artisanal fleet has increased (Vitale et al. 2011). It is caught on line gear, with bottom trawls, beach seines, trammel nets and traps (Canary Islands).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Bizsel, K. & Goren, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is widespread in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic, from Gulf of Biscay to Angola including the Canary Islands, Madeira and Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome. In the Mediterranean it is commercially fished, with declines approaching 50% in the eastern part, but this could be partly due to competition with the Lessepsian migrants (Pempheris vanicolensis). In other parts of its range, there is no evidence of declines due to fishing. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, because of evidence of localized overfishing and indications of partial displacement in the eastern Mediterranean, this species warrants further monitoring and re-assessment in the medium term.

range:
In the European region, the species occurs from northern Spain (Bay of Biscay) to the Strait of Gibraltar, Macaronesia (Madeira and the Canary Islands), and is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the southwestern Black Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, the species distribution extends south to Angola, and includes Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe.

population:
The species is overfished in the eastern Adriatic Sea, with an exploitation rate of E=0.56 (Pallaoro et al. 1998). In Turkey, landings ranged from around 100 to 300 mt from 1995 to 2006, with the peak occurring in 2006 (Turkish State Statistical Organization Annual Reports). It is common to very common and abundant in appropriate habitats around the Mediterranean Sea, especially around fish farms (Dempster et al. 2002). The FAO (2008) landings data from ten countries showed a steady increase in landings (presumably from increased fishing effort) and then a peak of around 2,000 mt between 1985-1994; thereafter up to 2005 it has been stable at around 1,000 mt. Most of this overall decline is due to decreasing landings in Greece. FAO (2014) capture production in 2012 were: Croatia 49 mt; Cyprus two mt; Egypt 46 mt; Portugal zero mt; France 15 mt; Spain 440 mt; Greece 240 mt; Italy 132 mt; Malta five mt; Montenegro zero mt; Tunisia 35 mt; Turkey 139 mt; and Yugoslavia SFR zero mt.

habitat:
A coastal species forming aggregations over rocky bottoms or seagrass beds (zosteras and seaweeds) to depths of about 30 m. They are omnivorous, but mainly feed on small invertebrates (Fischer et al. 1987). In the east central Adriatic Sea, the main food for specimens of the one-year age group are copepods, while cladocerans are the second most important prey (Pallaoro et al. 2003, 2004). It is often abundant in light-penetrating caves (K. Bizsel pers. comm.), and is found close to the bottom during its mating season (Yokes pers. comm.). Juvenile settlement occurs in the Mediterranean from July to September in depths of less than two metres on rocky areas with various slopes, and is favoured by the presence of overhangs (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 1995). The transition from the pelagic to the benthic life occurs at a length of about eight to nine mm TL (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 1995). This species has a longevity of 11 years and a maximum total length of 30 cm. The coefficients of mortality are Z=1.08, M=0.47.  The coefficient of allometry of the total length-weight relationship differs significantly between sexes, which indicates positive allometric growth for females (3.123) and isometric growth for males (3.017). The parameters of the growth model of Von Bertalanffy are: L.inf. =34.13 cm, t0=-0.75, K=0.20 (females), and K=0.23 (males). The reproductive season is between April and June. This species is gonochoriistic, but some individuals are protogynous hermaphrodites. All individuals larger than 29.3 cm are female (Pallaoro et al. 1998).

threats:
There are localized population declines from fishing. Natural predation may also be a factor controlling populations in the East Adriatic Sea (Pallaoro et al. 1998), where high fishing pressure is also present. Shellfish harvesting of mussels through reduction of macroalgae habitats has also been shown to affect local populations (Guidetti et al. 2004). There is some anecdotal evidence of competition with the Lessepsian migrant Pempheris vanicolensis, potentially displacing Oblada melanura in the eastern Mediterranean (M. Goren pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in some marine protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
This is an important food fish  in the Mediterranean Sea, with total landings of 862 tons in 2005. It is fished commercially and is also sometimes caught as a sport fish. It is fished throughout its range, but no special fishery. The fishing gears used are beach seines, trawl and deep nets, and hand lines. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Egypt, Cyprus and in countries of the Adriatic Sea, but is only occasionally found in north African markets and in Israel. It is rare in France. Marketed fresh or frozen (flesh not highly appreciated), it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Goren, M. & Bizsel, K.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the European region, the species is found in the Eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Macaronesia. This species is relatively widespread and common especially in the Mediterranean, where it is common in commercial and artisanal catches. It occurs in a number of marine protected areas within its range. In some areas (e.g., Canary Islands) the stock is overexploited. However, over most of its range, there is at present no evidence of over-exploitation and the species is therefore listed as Least Concern. Nonetheless, it is recommended that further intensification of the current fishing effort should be avoided, and changes in the exploitation pattern should be directed towards the artisanal component, which would lead to better yields without negatively affecting the state of the resource.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the European region in the eastern Atlantic at the Straits of Gibraltar (where it is common) to the southern and eastern coasts of the British Isles (where it is rare), occasionally northwards as far as Denmark and Norway, as well as Macaronesia (Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores), and is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea. Outside the European region, the species distribution extends southwards to northern Senegal.

population:
The species is common in most suitable habitats in the Mediterranean Sea. FAO (2007) catch statistics for the Mediterranean Sea are inconclusive, with fluctuations between 90 and 670 mt from 1996 to 2005. It is a very abundant species, especially in the northern part of its range (Carpenter in press). Pagellus acarne is an important component of commercial fisheries along the eastern Atlantic coasts and the Mediterranean Sea; it is a sought after coastal demersal resource in parts of its range. This species is common in most suitable habitats in parts of its range. Axillary Seabream is one of the main target species of small-scale commercial fisheries in the northern Atlantic: Algarve (Erzini et al. 2001), Azores (Morato et al. 2001) and the Canary Islands (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1994, 2000). Pagellus acarne is also considered a highly valued resource in the Mediterranean (Spedicato et al. 2002). In the northern Alboran Sea, this species is targeted by multi-species fisheries (bottom-trawl and artisanal fleets) and is considered the most important demersal fish species in terms of volume of catch and economic importance (Baro 1996).  The average global capture from 1950-2011 of the Axillary Seabream reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) indicate that the Eastern Central Atlantic contributed the highest percentage of global landings, comprising 45% of global production over 61 years. The Eastern Central Atlantic landings are mainly driven by catches reported from Portugal (contributing 77% of the landings in the FAO fishing region). The Eastern Central Atlantic is then followed by the Mediterranean and Black Sea; this fishing area comprising 31% of the global production. The total global capture reported from all FAO fishing areas was 58,392 metric tons (1950-2011). Pagellus acarne is of high commercial importance and is targeted by demersal fleets operating along the eastern Atlantic coasts and the Mediterranean Sea. The total aggregated landings of seabreams, and of Pagellus acarne in particular, have declined in recent years in the Mediterranean. In the Gulf of Cadiz, the landings decreased from a combined total of ~238 mt per year in 1993 to less than 120 mt per year from 2004 to 2007, a decrease of up to 60% (data from the Spanish Institute of Oceanography database from Velasco et al. 2011). In the Alboran Sea, landings have decreased from over 1,500 mt per year in 1985 (Gil de Sola 1993) to less than 250 mt from 2004 to 2008, representing a decline of up to 80% (data from the Spanish Institute of Oceanography database from Velasco et al. 2011). Similar declining trends have also been recorded in other areas such as the Atlantic coast of Morocco (FAO Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic, accessed 18 March 2014), the Canary Islands (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2000), and the south of Portugal (Erzini et al. 2001, Coelho et al. 2005). These trends have prompted the necessary steps in establishing management measures in the region (Velasco et al. 2011).  In the Canary Islands, the stock of Axillary Seabream is considered heavily exploited with F > F opt = M; the exploitation ratio is higher than the optimum fishing mortality. The value of the length at first capture is lower than the value of the size at sexual maturity. Over 35% of the total catch recorded was less than this length, indicating endangerment of recruitment overfishing (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2000). FAO (2014) capture production figures in 2012 were: Croatia 49 tonnes; France 15 tonnes; Cyprus two tonnes; Italy 132 tonnes; Spain 440 tonnes; Greece 240 tonnes; Turkey 139 tonnes and Malta four tonnes.

habitat:
Pagellus acarne is a demersal species inhabiting various types of bottom, especially seagrass beds and sand down to a depth of 500 m, but it is more common between 40 and 100 m, being the young nearer to the shore. The species is mainly carnivorous, and the most important prey are fishes (Morato et al. 2003), Arthropoda, Mollusca and Echinodermata (Fehri-Bedoui et al. 2009). Reproduction occurs between June and September in the western Mediterranean Sea, and from September and November in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is a protandric hermaphrodite (most individuals are first males, then become females at a sizes of about 17 to 29 cm, at two to seven years). Sexual maturity occurs at two years of age (at 13 to 18 cm) (Fischer et al. 1987). It is typically a schooling species (Louisy 2002). The maximum total length of this species is 36 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). Axillary Seabream individuals caught off the Canary Islands from January 1991 to December 1994 were studied by Pajuelo and Lorenzo (2000). The length range of the catches was between 11 and 31 cm, with a modal distribution between 17 and 21 cm. The overall ratio of males to females was 1:1.74. Males were observed up to a length of 24 cm. Hermaphrodites were recorded at lengths between 15 and 23 cm. The species was characterized by protandric hermaphroditism. The reproductive season extended from October to March, with a peak in spawning activity in December–January. The size at sexual maturity was 15.8 cm total length (two years old) for males and 19.4 cm total length (3 years old) for females. The total length–total weight relationship for the entire population is described by the parameters a = 0.0068, and b = 3.2401. Otolith age readings showed that the population exploited consisted of 10 age groups (one to 10 years), including a very high proportion of individuals between one and four years old. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for all individuals were L∞ = 32.98 cm, k = 0.22 years−1, and t0 = −0.87 years. Males grew comparatively slower than females. The instantaneous rates of mortality for all fish were Z = 0.96 years−1, M = 0.30 years−1, and F = 0.66 years−1. The exploitation ratio and the length at first capture were, respectively, E = 0.69 and LC50 = 16.1 cm.  Pagellus acarne from the Algarve coast (south Portugal) spawned from May to August, and length at first maturity was 20.95 cm. Males reached first maturity at smaller lengths than females. The relationships between length and weight were W = 0.0085TL3.153 for P. acarne . Gillnet selectivity curves correspond closely to the catch curves, but were narrower, with P. acarne caught in the following length ranges: 15–25 cm, 18–27 cm and 20–29 cm, respectively, by the 60 mm, 70 mm and 80 mm mesh sizes (Santos et al. 1995). Domínguez (2000) studied population dynamics of the Axillary Seabream in the northern sector of the Alborán Sea, off Spain. The population is concentrated in two well-defined areas: in the proximity of the Strait of Gibraltar and west of the Gulf of Almeria. There is a bathymetric segregation in relation to size of the specimens. The spawners prefer the depths below 90 m, while the juvenile fraction of the population is distributed in shallower depths. The sex ratio of the population is clearly skewed towards males. This species is a typical protandrous hermaphrodite, which undergoes a change in sex in sizes between 20.5-20.9 cm. The spawning season in the Alborán Sea is quite extended, from spring (May) to autumn (October). The size at first maturity is 19 cm total length. This species is also a serial spawner, with several spawnings during its reproductive cycle. The size-weight relationship was rather different in the two years of analysis (1990 and 1991); hence, a unique relationship cannot be defined for the area. The size-age relationship showed a good fit with the Von Bertalanffy equation, obtaining the following growth parameters: L∞ = 29.62; K = 027 Y to = - 1.36.  No evidence of over-exploitation was found. However, although it is difficult to establish a maximum sustainable yield, there is certainly an interaction between the fleets that exploit the resource, which is mainly influenced by the trawling fleet. The report concludes with two recommendations: further intensification of the current fishing effort should be avoided; and changes in the exploitation pattern should be directed towards the artisanal component, which would lead to better yields without negatively affecting the state of the resource.

threats:
Actual and potential localized declines from fishing threaten this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. In the Canary Islands, the stock is overexploited, therefore measures such as closed seasons or changes in fishing patterns would be desirable to safeguard the spawning stock and recruits (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2000). Although there is at present no evidence of over-exploitation in the southwestern Mediterranean, it is recommended that further intensification of the current fishing effort should be avoided, and changes in the exploitation pattern should be directed towards the artisanal component, which would lead to better yields without negatively affecting the state of the resource (Dominiguez 2000).

useAndTrade:
This species is fished commercially in the Mediterranean Sea and has also become increasingly important in the Azores (Morato et al. 2001) and Canary Islands (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2000). Its fisheries are semi-industrial and artisanal, and it is also taken as a sport fish. It is caught mostly by trawl net (although not specifically targeted), and also by bottom long-line, beach seine, trammel net and purse seine. The major fraction of the catch in the south-western Mediterranean is taken by the trawl fleet, which intensely exploits a narrower size range (19-23 cm) than the artisanal fleet (20-25 cm) (Domínguez 2000). The species is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Morocco, France, Sicily, Turkey and Cyprus. It is also occasionally found in markets in Tunisia, Greece, Israel and Egypt. Marketed fresh, frozen, or dried salted (flesh not highly esteemed), it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread and is one of the most abundant sparid species on the west African coast. However, in the European region it is only fished in the Canary Islands where it is a non-targeted species; elsewhere in the European region (in the western Mediterranean) it is largely a vagrant. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. Monitoring of its population status, harvest levels and research on its biology in the European region is needed.

range:
The species has a restricted distribution in the European region, found from the Strait of Gibraltar eastwards mainly along the southern coast of the Mediterranean to Algeria, and present around the Canary Islands. It appears to be a largely vagrant species in the southwestern Mediterranean, where it has been recorded along the coast of Spain, Algeria and Morocco. Outside the European region, the species range extends southwards to Angola.

population:
Together with Dentex macrophthalmus, this is the most abundant sparid species on the West African coast. The main fishery is south of 26 N (Carpenter in press); its presence in the European region except for the Canary Islands is largely as a vagrant.

habitat:
A demersal species inhabiting hard as well as sandy bottoms to depths of about 250 m; found in schools, especially in the upper 100 m. Intermittent spawning occurs from the second year onwards between May and November according to the latitude, the stock moving toward the coast for this purpose. It is a protogynic hermaphrodite (the majority of individuals are first females, then become males). It is omnivorous, with a predominantly carnivorous diet including crustaceans, cephalopods, small fish, amphioxus and worms.

threats:
There are potential declines from fishing especially along the west African coast, but impacts within the European region are not known.

useAndTrade:
This species is caught with bottom trawls and also on line gear and in traps (in the Canary Islands). It is marketed fresh, smoked or frozen (as the flesh is esteemed) and it is also used for fishmeal and oil.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT) This species is relatively widespread from Norway to Saharan Africa including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It has a wide depth distribution and is common in parts of its range (in the Mediterranean Sea). Its fisheries are semi-industrial and artisanal, and it is also taken as a sport fish. It is also regularly landed as by-catch. There have been substantial declines in total catch and CPUE in the Strait of Gibraltar, Bay of Biscay, Aegean Sea and Ionian Sea which prompted management measures including: closed seasons, minimum size limits, gear restrictions, and an European Union wide Total Allowable Catch (TAC). Decrease in landings from the Strait of Gibraltar by ~67% in only four years has raised concerns about the fishery and prompted monitoring. This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas in parts of its range. However, because of its particular biology (large size, late maturing, long-lived, protandric hermaphrodite) the Blackspot Sea Bream is especially sensitive to overfishing. The historical evidence of over-exploitation and population collapse in at least one major fishery (the Bay of Biscay) as well as indications of over-exploitation in other parts of its range are a cause for concern in this species. Although the declines are limited in scope and scale, we infer that population declines approaching 30% in three generation lengths (=33 years) have occurred. It is therefore listed here as Near Threatened under A2bd. An increase in the commercial fishery for the species could lead to a rapid population collapse. It is recommended that fisheries for this species be closely monitored and steps be taken to reduce the fishing effort in order to decrease the fishing mortality where this is indicated.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and is known from southern Norway and the western Baltic Sea and around all of the British Isles and Ireland to Western Sahara, including Madeira, the Azores and the Canary Islands. It is common in the western Mediterranean but is rarer east of Sicily, except for parts of the Adriatic, the Aegean and the Sea of Marmara, and absent from the eastern to southeastern Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea (Carpenter in press).

population:
There is evidence of the existence of three Blackspot Seabream stocks in the northeast Atlantic: one in the Azores region (ICES Area X), one in continental Portuguese shelf/slope waters (ICES Area IXa), and one in the waters around Madeira (sub-area 1.2 of FAO 34, central-eastern Atlantic) (Hermida et al. 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is locally abundant in some places in the Aegean Sea (K. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm.), common along the Algerian coast (H. Kara pers. comm.) and common in southwestern France (P. Francour pers. comm.). This species is common outside sea-cage forms in the Turkish Aegean Sea feeding on the feed (pellets) (Akyol and Ertosluk 2010) and accounted for 10.9% of the total weight of one fish farm from 2004-2008. FAO (2014) annual catch data for this species show a steady increase from around 50 to 140 mt to 2005. This increase is likely to be due to improved recording for this species. The vast majority of Blackspot Seabream captures come from the northeast Atlantic (99%) and the rest of the Mediterranean Sea and central-eastern Atlantic. Portugal and Spain are the main producing countries (Basurco et al. 2011). FAO (2014) capture production figures in 2012 were: Croatia - two tonnes; Cyprus - two tonnes; Portugal - 740 tonnes; France - 90 tonnes; Netherlands - nine tonnes; Spain - 236 tonnes; and United Kingdom - three tonnes. The Blackspot Seabream has traditionally been the main target species of the bottom longline fishery in the Azores, but in recent years several other species have increased in economic importance, including the Axillary Seabream Pagellus acarne (Morato et al. 2001). From 1981 to 1994 Blackspot Seabream represented 26% of total landings and 38% of total income of the demersal fisheries in the Azores. During this period, landings of this species increased by about 240% while an overall decrease in relative abundance was observed in the Azores (Menezes and Silva 1999). The fishery of Blackspot Seabream in Greek waters since the beginning of the 1980s were carried out mainly by long lines. In recent years, gill nets and trammel nets have been used in the Aegean Sea and Ionian Sea. Catches were extremely high during the early years of exploitation, with subsequent declines. In 1998, field observations in the Ionian Sea showed catch at 46 kg/1,000 m of netting; this decline in catch prompted a decrease in mesh size which lead to a number of negative outcomes: increased discards, lower market prices, higher pressure on the population, and reduction of the spawning stock. Similar declines in the total catch and the catch per unit of effort has been observed in the Strait of Gibraltar, in the ICES divisions VI, VII, VIII the stock is near to collapse, whereas the Andalucia region (Spain) government since 1999 has adopted a recovery plan for the stock. Generally in the Mediterranean the stock is heavily exploited and the biomass is declining, however, no other regulations are currently imposed on the fishery except the minimum landing size, which is set at 12 cm and applies to all the Pagellus species (Chilari et al. 2006). From the 1950s to the 1970s, Blackspot Seabream was exploited mainly by French and Spanish bottom offshore trawlers, by artisanal pelagic trawlers in the eastern Bay of Biscay (ICES Divisions VIIIa,b) and by Spanish longliners in the Cantabrian Sea (ICES Division VIIIc), with smaller contributions from other fisheries (Sanchez 1983, Dardignac 1988). The stock in the Bay of Biscay collapsed during the period 1975–1985, and it has not been of significant fishery interest since (Lorance 2011). Since the 1980s, the species has been mainly a bycatch species in France, and only a few small-scale handliners have been targeting the species (Lorance 2011). In the late 1960s, trawlers from La Rochelle, the main French port for landings of Blackspot Seabream throughout the twentieth century, redirected more effort towards this species as a result of the declining catch rates for hake (Guichet et al. 1971). Guichet et al. (1971) noted no sign of overexploitation and reported a large proportion of individuals aged 10 and older in the catch. Seven years later, a severe drop in landings was reported (Njock 1978), and from the mid-1980s, it was clear that the stock had collapsed (Dardignac 1988). Based on FAO landings data for the Northeast Atlantic for 1972–2002, Blackspot Seabream was classified as a depleted species and it is one of the few species whose landings had already declined to low levels by the early 1980s (Caddy and Surette 2005). Populations in the Northeast Atlantic are structured regionally, with populations of P. bogaraveo in the Azores genetically distinct from those on the European continental shelf, off Portugal and Madeira. Although, Patarnello et al. (2007) showed very little or no population structure and no signs of Atlantic-Mediterranean division for this species. While this structure may be strongly influenced by historical factors (severe environmental effects of the last glacial maxima), current levels of gene flow have been insufficient to homogenize populations. This finding has implications for management of deep-water species at the regional level, in that migration between populations separated by major hydrographic features, such as ocean basins, is limited. The chance of a rescue effect from migration and dispersal from other populations to compensate for impacts of directed exploitation, in terms of both biomass and genetic variability, will therefore be diminished given this bottleneck (Stockley et al. 2005).

habitat:
A benthopelagic fish that occurs mostly on the continental shelf break and slope, on various types of bottom (rock, sand, mud), on seamounts (Afonso et al. 2012) and around islands, at depths of up to 800 m (Spedicato et al. 2002, Menezes et al. 2006), but more usually 50 - 300 m (Muus and Nielsen 1999). The young are found nearer to the shore, the adults on the continental slope, especially over muddy bottoms. It is omnivorous, with a predominantly carnivorous diet (crustaceans, molluscs, worms, small fish) (Morato et al. 2001). Blackspot Seabream grow to at least 70 cm standard length (about 80 cm total length; Bauchot and Hureau 1986) and up to four kilograms (Frimodt 1995). In the Bay of Biscay, the biggest reported fish in the 1960s were 68 and 70 cm total length. Their scales, which were difficult to read, could have included 25–30 annual growth increments (Gueguen 1969). It is a protandric hermaphrodite, most individuals being first functional males and then develop into functional females, at 20-30 cm length. A fraction of the population never changes sex and is referred to as gonochoric (Lorance 2011). In fish farming conditions, up to 40% of individuals are gonochoric females (Micale et al. 2002), but the proportion of gonochoric females seems to be much lower in the wild (Krug 1989). In the wild, the proportion of females per size class and their state of maturity over time may depend on population abundance, with more females at lower abundances (Krug 1998). As a result, the proportion of females may increase as a result of fishing (ICES 1996). In captivity, male Blackspot Seabream first mature at a size of 28 cm total length and age three; both gonochoric and secondary females first spawn at 29.5 cm total length and age four (Micale et al. 2002). In the wild, the smallest observed mature female was 30 cm long and five to eight years old (Sanchez 1983, Krug 1998). In the Strait of Gibraltar, Gil and Sobrino (2001) estimated the mean size at maturation of females as 35.7 cm total length. Sexual maturity occurs at four to five years (22-25 cm). The spawning period (from GSI estimation) was during the first quarter of the year and lengths at maturity were estimated for males and females to be 30.14 and 35.72 cm, respectively (Gill and Sobrino 2001). It forms spawning aggregations; spawning occurs from January to June when the adults move towards the coast up to the edge of the continental shelf. In captivity, spawning occurred in March-April, at a size of 28.0 cm and an age of three years in males and at 29.5 cm and four years in females (Micale et al. 2002). Undifferentiated gonads were found in fish smaller than 22.0 cm. Adult fish showed four gonadal differentiations: ovotestes with functional testis and quiescent ovary (Mf), ovotestes with functional ovary and regressed testis (mF), ovotestes with both ovary and testis at a resting stage (mf), and ovaries with no male tissue (F). The overall incidence of gonochoric females F was 41%. Functional males Mf were more frequent in age classes one plus and two plus, whereas functional females mF predominated in the three plus age class, above 25.0 cm TL (Micale et al. 2002). In the Azores over the ten year period, there have been increases in fecundity and decreases in length of first maturity in females, apparently related to changes in growth, the fish maturing at an earlier age. In contrast first maturity in males was attained at a greater length than previously, though the age was the same. The sexual transition was also altered, with an increasing proportion of intersexual forms, contrasted with an obvious decrease in males (Krug 1998). In the Ionian Sea, the allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 2.9339. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters based on data from otoliths are L∞ = 49.2 cm, k = 0.106, to =-1.81 for males, and L∞= 49.5 cm, k = 0.100, to =-2.29 for females; whereas based on scale reading these were L∞ = 46.1 cm, k = 0.082, to =-3.40 for males, and L∞ = 52.8 cm, k = 0.059, to =-4.73 for females (Chilari et al. 2006). In the northern Aegean Sea, L∞ = 25.12 cm, k=0.186, to=-2.72 (Mytilineou and Papaconstantinou 1995). In the Strait of Gibraltar, the growth parameters in both sexes obtained according to the von Bertalanffy equation were: L∞ = 58 cm, k = 0.169, to = -0.668 (Sobrino and Gil 2001). Generation length is estimated at 14.25 years.

threats:
Due to its particular biology, the Blackspot Seabream may be especially sensitive to overfishing and declines from fishing are the main threat to this species. There is historical evidence of over-exploitation and population collapse in at least one major fishery, in the Bay of Biscay (Lorance 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007). In the Azores, Silva et al. (1998) suggested the need to reduce the fishing effort in order to decrease the fishing mortality. Better monitoring of catches is recommended, and more genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
This is an important food fish, marketed fresh and frozen in the Mediterranean region. The species is caught with trawls, trammel nets and bottom long lines. Its fisheries are semi-industrial and artisanal, and it is also taken as a sport fish. The main target species of the bottom longline fishery in the Azores (Krug 1998, Morato et al. 2001). It is present regularly in the markets of France, Spain, Morocco and Italy, but only occasionally in Sicily, Tunisia, Greece and Turkey, and rarely elsewhere (Fischer et al. 1987). It is marketed fresh and frozen (its flesh is esteemed), and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). A potential candidate for aquaculture in the Mediterranean, but at present only one commercial operation produces this fish in Galicia on the Atlantic coast of Spain, using floating net cages. Commercial production started in 2002 and has increased from two tonnes in 2002 to 195 tonnes in 2007 (Basurco et al. 2011).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Bizsel, K., Kara, M. & Francour, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species has a wide range in Europe, from Norway to Gibraltar, Madeira and the Canary Islands, and present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the western Black Sea. The species is common and abundant in suitable habitats, and landing statistics indicate that the catch in the Mediterranean Sea has stabilized over the period 1996-2005. Elsewhere in its range, it is heavily exploited in the Canary Islands, but there are no data yet indicating population declines from fishing. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, continued monitoring of its population status and harvest levels is recommended.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and occurs from southern coasts of the British Isles, with records from the North Sea and Norway; southwards to Cape Verde and Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the western Black Sea.

population:
The species is very common and abundant in the habitats in which it occurs. FAO catch data show a steady increase in landings to a peak of around 11,000 mt in the mid 1980s, and then stabilizing at around 5,000 mt from 1996 to 2005. The species was predominant in the by-catch comprising 87.81% by number and 56.61% by weight of the trawl fisheries bycatch in the Mediterranean coast of Egypt (Alsayes et al. 2009). With the exception of Portugal and France, all EU region captures came from the Mediterranean Sea and southern Black Sea, with Algeria, Spain and Tunisia accounting for almost 94% of the volume landed and the balance coming from France, Cyprus, Malta, Portugal and Slovenia (Basurco et al. 2011). Small scale aquaculture production of this species has also commenced in Greece (Klaoudatos et al. 2004, Basurco et al. 2011). FAO (2014) capture production figures in 2012 were: Croatia 80 mt; Israel 40 mt; Libya 4,850 mt; Malta 22 mt; Morocco 11,036 mt; France 104 mt; Portugal 106 mt; Algeria 1,265 mt; Cyprus 31 mt; Slovenia 17 mt; Spain 583 mt and Tunisia 4,065 mt.

habitat:
A demersal species inhabiting various types of bottom (rock, gravel, sand, mud) to depths of 220 m, but mainly in the upper 100 m, the young occurring nearer to the shore. During winter, the stocks move into deeper waters. It is a protogynic hermaphrodite (first females, becoming males in their third year at sizes of about 17 to 18 cm). The species is omnivorous, with a predominantly carnivorous diet. Off the western coast of Greece, polychaetes constituted the main food items in the Corinthiakos Gulf and the Ionian Sea, whilst brachyurans did so in the Patraikos Gulf. Other occasional items included fishes and cephalopods (Caragitsou and Papaconstantinou 1988). Reproduction occurs from spring to autumn depending on hydrological conditions. Spawning takes place in the summer months. In the Atlantic, spawning occurs in spring, extending sometimes until early summer (Lloris et al. 1977). In the Mediterranean, spawning takes place from May to September (Larrañeta 1964, Girardin and Quignard 1985, Papaconstantinou et al. 1988, Livadas 1989). In the Canary archipelago, reproduction occurs when the temperature of the sea reaches the highest values (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Andaloro and Giarritta 1985, Girardin and Quignard 1985, Papaconstantinou et al. 1988, Livadas 1989), the females becoming males first in their third year at sizes of about 17 cm (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). Sexual maturity occurs at two to three years of age (Larrañeta 1967, Girardin and Quignard 1985, Mytilinéou 1989, Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). The sex ratio is unbalanced in favour of females (Vassilopoulou et al. 1986, Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). The absence of females in the largest size classes implies that sex conversion occurs in all fish. A comparison of available growth data from the Mediterranean and the Atlantic revealed higher lengths-at-age for fish in the northwestern Mediterranean and the Atlantic than in the central and eastern Mediterranean (Somarakis and Machias 2002). The maximum total length of this species is 60 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). In the Canary Islands the oldest fish found was ten years old (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). In the Mediterranean, Larrañeta (1967) examined 15-year old specimens, Andaloro and Giarritta (1985) eight-year old specimens, and Livadas (1989) 12-year-old specimens.

threats:
There is potential for localized declines from fishing.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in some marine protected areas in the Mediterranean Sea. The minimum size limit is 15 cm in Turkey. In the Canary Islands, where conservation legislation on fisheries exists, a minimum size limit has been implemented for the species (220 mm TL), but is of limited benefit because the minimum length which may be legally kept is smaller than the length at first maturity of males (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). This species is therefore susceptible to exploitation at a size when many other coexisting demersal species are mature or immature. Measures such as closed season or changes in fishing pattern would be desirable to safeguard the spawning stock and the recruits. It is recommended to implement fishing regulations to ensure that this species is not targeted during its short female reproductive period (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1998). More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
This is an important commercial food fish in the Mediterranean region. The fishery there is semi-industrial and artisanal, and it is also taken as a sport fish. This species is caught with bottom trawls, beach seines, on line gear, traps (Canary Islands), trammel nets, gill nets, bottom long lines and hand lines. It is regularly present in markets in the Canary Islands and around the Mediterranean and is marketed fresh, frozen, smoked or dried salted (flesh esteemed). It is also used for fishmeal and oil.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is relatively widespread along the east Atlantic coast from Portugal to Angola including Madeira, Canary Islands and Cape Verde islands. It is also distributed along the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean and around Greece and Corsica. It is not commonly found in the Mediterranean and except for the Canary Islands, there is limited population information available in the rest of its distributional range. The life history characteristics of this species make the stock more prone to over exploitation, however whilst there is evidence of declines in the past 50 years in the Canary archipelago, there are no data from elsewhere indicating population declines from fishing or from habitat modification. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. We recommend further monitoring of the population status of this species and research on its biology. The introduction of measures in the Canary Islands such as closed seasons or changes in fishing patterns are desirable to safeguard the spawning stock and the recruits, especially if the stock continues to decline.

range:
The species is present in the eastern Atlantic from northern Portugal to Angola, including Madeira, the Canary Islands and Sao Tome and Principe, and in the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot and Hureau 1986, 1990). In the Mediterranean, it is mainly found in the southern and eastern regions and around Greece and Corsica, with single records from Sicily and the Adriatic. This species occurs to 170 m (Bauchot and Hureau 1990).

population:
Separate FAO statistics are not reported for this species. The species is not common throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Canary Islands, the total landings of this species have decreased in the last 50 years. It is subjected to a high fishing effort because it is caught together with other more abundant sparids such as Dentex gibbosus or P. pagrus (Pajuelo et al. 2006b).

habitat:
A demersal marine fish inhabiting various types of sea bottom, especially rocky bottoms. It can be found to depths of about 170 m, but is more abundant in the surfzone (Pajuelo 2006a,b), the young near the coast. It is carnivorous, feeding chiefly on molluscs, including cephalopods, and sometimes, on crustaceans (Carpenter in press). In the Canary Islands, this is an important species in small-scale demersal fisheries and in aquaculture and is caught mainly with traps at depths ranging between 10 and 110 m. It is captured throughout the year but with significant seasonal differences in the landings (Pajuelo et al. 2006a). The species is characterized by protogynous hermaphroditism. The male: female ratio was in favour of females (1:8.2). The reproductive season extends from September to February, with maximal gonadal activity in November–December, and a peak in spawning activity in October–November. Fifty percent maturity was reached at 38.7 cm total length by females and at 53.3 cm by males. Age at maturity is five years for females and 11 years for males. Otolith age readings indicated that the population consists of 19 age groups, including a very high proportion of individuals between zero and seven years old. Growth analysis reveals that the species is slow-growing and relatively long lived (18-24 years) (Pajueolo et al. 2006a, 2006b). The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the entire population were: L∞ = 803 mm, k = 0.081 year-1 and t0 =-2.17 year  (Pajuelo et al. 2006a); length at age was described by the specialized von Bertalanffy growth model,, L∞ = 793 mm; k = 0.081 year−1; and t0 = −1.497 year) (Pajuelo et al. 2006b); and the seasonalized von Bertalanffy growth model, L∞ =798 mm; k = 0.080 year−1; t0 =−1.502 year (Pajuelo et al. 2006b).

threats:
There are localized declines from fishing.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range. In the Canary Islands, a minimum size limit (350 mm) has been implemented; however, this is of limited benefit because the minimum length of fish which may be legally kept is smaller than the length at first maturity. No bag limits are currently imposed on its fishery. Another protection strategy has been introduced with the building of artificial reefs. This protection appears to cover only the earlier stages of the life cycle and encompasses only limited areas. When immature individuals move out of artificial reefs, they are subject to a high exploitation level because fishermen deploy a large number of traps around the reef (Pajuelo et al. 2006a,b).

useAndTrade:
A prized food fish, but of only minor commercial importance in the Mediterranean. In the Canary Islands it is subjected to a high fishing effort because it is caught together with other more abundant sparids, such as Dentex gibbosus or P. pagrus. It is an important species in small-scale demersal fisheries and in aquaculture and is caught mainly with traps at depths ranging between 10 and 110 m (Pajuelo et al. 2006a,b). Its fishery is semi-industrial and artisanal, and it is also taken as a sport fish. This species is taken sporadically throughout its range. It is caught on line gear and with trammel nets and bottom trawls. It is marketed fresh or frozen (its flesh is highly esteemed), and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is relatively widespread in European waters, from Portugal in the eastern Atlantic and present throughout much of the Mediterranean Sea except for the northwestern coast, the central and northern Adriatic, and the northern Aegean Seas. It is not commonly found in the Mediterranean and there is limited population information available for the European part of its distributional range. However, there are no data indicating population declines from fishing or from habitat modification. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. Due to its fishery value, further monitoring of its population status and research on its biology is recommended.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic from southern Portugal to Angola. It is not known from the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985). It is present in most of the Mediterranean Sea except for some northern coasts (there is a single record from France), and the central and northern Adriatic and northern Aegean Seas (Bauchot and Hureau 1986, Fischer et al. 1987).

population:
There are no landing statistics reported from the Mediterranean Sea in general for this species. It is common in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and relatively common in the central Aegean Sea. In Turkey, catch landings were: 1995 - 180 mt, 1996 - 159 mt, 1997 - 70 mt, 1998 - 70 mt, 1999 - 140 mt, 2001 - 35 mt, 2002 - 57 mt, and 2006 - 80 mt (Turkish Statistical Institute Annual Reports). Average fish sizes are becoming smaller in catches in Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm.). FAO capture production in Romania was 109 tonnes in 1989. There are no subsequent catch data recorded.

habitat:
A demersal species inhabiting hard bottoms (rocks and rubble) down to a depth of about 200 m, but most abundant in depths between 50 and 100 m (Fischer et al. 1987), the older individuals in the deeper part of this range, the young in inshore areas. Sexual maturity is attained at the age of two years (Bauchot and Hureau 1990); spawning migrations occur parallel to the coast, with intermittent spawning activity taking place over soft bottoms in shallow water to the north of Cape Verde, throughout the hot season (particularly at its beginning and end). It is carnivorous, feeding chiefly on bivalves, which it crushes with its powerful jaws, and also on crustaceans and fish (Dia et al. 2000, Hamida et al. 2010). The maximum recorded size is 72 cm (TL) but it is common to 50 cm (Carpenter in press).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several marine protected areas within its range.  In the Mediterranean, it is recommended that more genetic research be done for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
This is a commercial species. It is also taken as a sport fish. It is regularly present in the markets of Tunisia, occasionally elsewhere, and only rarely in Morocco and Turkey.  It is one of the most expensive fishes in Turkey (K. Bizsel pers. comm.). Caught on line gear, with bottom trawls and seines, and in traps. It is marketed fresh, frozen or smoked (its flesh is esteemed), and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Yokes, B. & Bizsel, K.


taxonomicNotes:
Genetic studies of Pagrus pagrus have shown Western Atlantic samples to be more closely related to each other than to samples from the Eastern North Atlantic. Within the Western North Atlantic, no significant population differentiation was observed, and within the eastern North Atlantic, only the Azores sample showed detectable differences from those from Crete and Madeira. These data indicate general homogeneity within large areas, and deep divisions between these areas (Ball et al. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread and is typically common and landing statistics suggest a robust and stable population in the Mediterranean Sea. This species' distribution overlaps several marine protected areas in its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, there may be some indications of localized serious declines there (e.g. on the Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey) and therefore this species should be targeted for improved fisheries regulation.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic from the English Channel (scattered records) to Western Sahara, including the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but not known in the Black Sea. The species also occurs in the western Atlantic from the United States to Argentina, including the Gulf of Mexico but not the eastern Caribbean Sea.

population:
FAO catch statistics for the species in the Mediterranean Sea show a steady increase in landings over the past 50 years, with a fluctuation between 1,700 and 4,300 mt from 1996 to 2005 (FishStat 2007). It is unclear whether this steady increase is only due to increased effort or perhaps improvements in data collection. In the Azores, results of a 10-year bottom longline survey and a smaller scale hook-and-line survey indicate that the size and sex of fish caught responded to local factors rather than fishing or larger scale (geographic) factors. Young-of-the-year recruit to shallow, sandy habitats located inshore and apparently migrate toward deeper and progressively rockier bottoms. Significant large-scale differences among islands may be attributed to exploitation, lowest abundance were consistently found off islands subject to higher fishing efforts. Recruitment to the fishery varied twice by an order of magnitude during the 10-year longline monitoring period, reflecting high natural vulnerability (Afonso et al. 2008). Off the southwestern coast of Turkey this species was once very abundant, but has declined to around 1/15th of its original population size (B. Yokes pers. comm.). It is however common in Algeria (M. Kara pers. comm.), Turkey (K. Bizsel and Yokes pers. comm.) and France (P. Francour pers. comm.). FAO (2014) capture production in 2012 were: Algeria - 73 mt; Cyprus - four mt; Egypt - 2,884 mt; France - 61 mt; Greece - 580 mt; Malta - 25 mt; Palestine (occupied tr.) - one mt; Portugal 184 mt, Spain 128 mt; Tunisia - 343 mt; and Turkey - 1,091 mt. Genetic studies of Pagrus pagrus have shown western Atlantic samples to be more closely related to each other than to samples from the eastern North Atlantic. Within the western North Atlantic, no significant population differentiation was observed, and within the eastern North Atlantic, only the Azores sample showed detectable differences from Crete and Madeira. These data indicate general homogeneity within large areas, and deep divisions between these areas (Ball et al. 2007).

habitat:
The species associates with reefs and is commonly found over irregular and low-profile hard bottoms at depths between about 20 and 200 m (Manooch and Hassler 1978). This demersal species is found over rock, rubble or sand substrata (the young are also frequently found over seagrass beds), over the continental shelf (Fischer et al. 1987) down to about 250 m depth, though more often above 100 m. This species is a carnivore and it feeds on crustaceans, fishes and molluscs. In juveniles, crustaceans are the dominant food group, followed by molluscs and teleosts (Castriota et al. 2006).  Reproduction occurs from April to June and sexual maturity at a length of 24 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). The Red Porgy exhibits protogynous hermaphroditism, with sex reversal occurring when the fish are four to six years old, while reproductive maturation begins at the age of three years (Vassilopoulou and Papaconstantinou 1992, Kokokiris et al. 1999). Females dominate the smaller size classes and males occur at all ages (Manooch 1976). Females generally reach maturity from age one to age two at approximately 300 mm TL, and the majority of Red Porgy age five and older are mature males (Hood and Johnson 2000).  In the Canary Islands, the reproductive period extends from December to May, with most gonadal activity between February and March. Fifty per cent maturity was reached at 22.6 cm total length by females and 26.7 cm by males. The length-weight relationship for all fish was described by the following parameters: a = 0.017947, b = 2.9583. Fish aged zero to 14 years old were present in the samples. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for all fish were L∞ = 63.96 em, and k = 0.144 year-1. Mortality rates for all fish, estimated from a length-converted catch curve, were Z = 0.56 year -1, F = 0.24 year-1 with M = 0.32 year-1 derived from Pauly's empirical formula. The exploitation rate was E = 0.43 (Pajeulo and Lorenzo 1996).  Males follow two patterns of testicular development. Some individuals develop testicular tissue and their ovary degenerates before sexual maturation (primary males), while others mature and function as females for a few reproductive cycles and then change sex to males (secondary males) (Kokokiris et al. 1999). The females have an asynchronous ovarian pattern of oocyte maturation and ovulation (Kokokiris et al. 2000). This species spawns small batches of eggs from early winter to late spring. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, the peak of the spawning activity is observed between March and April (Vassilopoulou and Papaconstantinou 1992, Kentouri et al. 1995).

threats:
This species is commercially very important in fisheries in most parts of its range. It is utilized in artisanal and recreational fisheries. There are some indications of localized serious declines in parts of its range (e.g. on the Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey).

conservationAction:
In the Azores, the species occupies home ranges of variable residency. Marine reserves require large areas for permanent protection of Red Porgy, but ontogenic and density-dependent dispersal could promote considerable spillover of adults to benefit local fisheries (Afonso 2007). Additional fishing regulations are recommended, since it is a late maturing protogynous hermaphrodite and more genetic research should be done for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
The species is highly prized in many commercial and recreational fisheries across its full range in the eastern and western Atlantic and in the eastern Mediterranean (Labroupoulou et al. 1999). It is the second most important species for the coastal bottom fisheries conducted in the archipelago of the Azores (Afonso et al. 2008).  This species is commercially very important in fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Its fisheries are semi-industrial (in Spain, Sicily, Egypt and Cyprus) and artisanal elsewhere, and it is also taken as a sport fish. The main catching methods are beach seines, trawl nets, bottom long lines, spear fishing and hand lines. It is regularly (in Greece, Turkey and the Maghreb) or occasionally present in markets around the Mediterranean Sea, but only rarely in those of the Adriatic Sea (Fischer et al. 1987). It is also a species of great commercial importance for the Mediterranean Sea aquaculture industry, due to its high market demand, good growth rates and adaptability in culture conditions. The main drawbacks for the extensive commercial aquaculture production of this species are associated with its skin discolouration (Pavlidis et al. 2002) and with diseases including bacterial, viral and parasitic infections (Katharios et al. 2006). The species is a candidate for aquaculture diversification in the Mediterranean (Kalinowski et al. 2005).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Pollard, D., Francour, P., Yokes, B., Bizsel, K. & Kara, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is very common and locally abundant in suitable habitats throughout its European range, where it is found along the Atlantic coast from the Bay of Biscay, in Macaronesia, throughout the Mediterranean, and in parts of the Black Sea. Furthermore, the landings data indicate a stable population. Therefore, this species is assessed as Least Concern. However, this species should be monitored closely since it is a protogynous hermaphrodite with late maturation. In addition, it may become threatened in the eastern Mediterranean by the continued success of Lessepsian siganid migrants from the Red Sea, and this should be studied closely.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to Sierra Leone, including Macaronesia (the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands). In the southeastern Atlantic it is known southwards from the Congo to South Africa and in the Indian Ocean to southern Mozambique (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004, Carpenter in press). It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, and in the southwestern and southeastern Black Sea. Occasional records from the North Sea (e.g., Swaby and Potts 1990) require verification, although the species may be an occasional vagrant.

population:
FAO landing statistics for the Mediterranean Sea show a steady increase over the last 50 years, with a peak in the early 1990s at around 4,000 mt and stabilizing at around 2,000 mt during the period from 1996 to 2005. This species is very common and very abundant in suitable habitats throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea. This species is common outside sea-cage forms in the Turkish Aegean Sea feeding on the feed (pellets) (Akyol and Ertosluk 2010), and accounted for 10.2% of the total weight of one fish farm from 2004-2008. In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, there is some circumstantial evidence that this species is being displaced by Siganus luridus and S. rivuluatus, both of which are herbivores and very successful Lessepsian migrants from the Red Sea. This species has since become very rare along the Lebanese coast despite the large numbers existing there in the 1930s (Bariche et al. 2004).

habitat:
Sarpa salpa is an important grazer of Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows. It inhabits rocky or sandy bottoms covered with seaweeds, to depths of about 70 m. Gregarious, sometimes forming sizeable schools. Adults inhabit subtidal gullies and over shallow rocky reefs, largely confined to the surf zone. Juveniles are found in tidal rockpools, sandy littoral, shallow reefs and estuaries. It has an age related mixed diet; larvae are planktivorous, while young, subadults and adults are herbivorous (Havelange et al. 1997). Some individuals are toxic after ingestion of the alga Caulerpa (Fischer et al. 1987).  It is characterized by protandric hermaphroditism. In the Adriatic Sea, size at sexual maturity was 20.6 cm (two years old) for males (Pallaoro et al. 2008). Total length-total weight relationship for the entire population is described by the parameters a = 0.00893, and b = 3.1055. Otolith age readings showed that the population consisted of 15 age groups (one to 15 years), including a very high proportion of individuals of one to seven years old. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters were L = 33.11 cm, k = 0.514, and t0 =-0.392 years for males and L∞ = 40.85cm, k = 0.179, and t0 =-2.606 years for females. Survival rate of females (S = 0.870) was much greater than for males (S = 0.769) (Pallaoro et al. 2008). The maximum length of this species is 51 cm (Fischer et al. 1987). Along the Italian Mediterranean coast (central Italy), the sex change process occurs between 24 and 31 cm TL corresponding to a wide range of ages (three to seven years). Size at maturity (L50) was 19.5 cm, at which almost all the individuals were males. Two distinct spawning periods were observed: one in spring, from March to May, and the other in autumn, from the end of September to November (Criscolli et al. 2006). Maximum spawning occurs from mid-September to mid-October and the period of intensive settlement is at the end of November (Matic-Skoko et al. 2004). During the first year, compensatory growth occurred in the individuals born in the two periods. An annual regular pattern of ring deposition was identified in the otoliths: the translucent ring was laid down during the winter months, while the opaque ring was formed during the summer months. The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth equation which were: L∞ = 37.27 cm, K = 0.27 year-1 and t0 = -0.53 year. This species showed isometric growth (b = 3.04; P = 0.84; t = 0.19) (Criscolli et al. 2006). In the Canary Islands, the parameters of the von Bertalanffy growth equation for all individuals were: L∞ = 479 mm, k = 0.212 year-1, and t0 =-1.08 year. The overall sex ratio was unbalanced in favour of males (1:0.41). The reproductive season extends from September to March, with a peak in spawning activity in December-January. Males reached maturity at a smaller length (226 mm, two years old) than females (294 mm, three years old). Individuals aged zero to 11 years were found (Villamil et al. 2002).

threats:
This species is harvested throughout its distribution. It is a slow maturing species (nearly four years), which makes it vulnerable to overexploitation. It may become threatened in the eastern Mediterranean by the continued success of Lessepsian siganid migrants from the Red Sea, and this should be studied closely.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in marine protected areas in parts of its range. Fishing regulations are recommended because of its relatively slow maturing reproductive strategy. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.

useAndTrade:
An irregular and not very important fishery. Separate statistics are not reported for this species. It is caught on line gear, with bottom trawls, trammel nets, beach seines and in traps (in the Canary Islands). It is marketed fresh or frozen, sometimes dried salted (its flesh is not very highly esteemed) and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). Outside the European region, the species is the second most important species (by number) caught along the Kwazulu-Natal and South East Cape coast (Mann et al. 2000).


