# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is common and abundant throughout most of its range in European waters. Although its overall population size in the Mediterranean may be increasing (though if so probably because of mariculture escapees), the wild population may be seriously threatened with genetic pollution by these aquaculture escapees, and this aspect needs to be studied. In the interim, it has been assessed as Least Concern.         Continued monitoring of its population status and harvest levels is recommended.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and is known from the southern coasts of the British Isles and the southern Irish Sea (Craig et al. 2010) to Senegal, including the Canary Islands (Whitehead et al. 1986), and introduced to Madeira through aquaculture (Freitas and Canning-Clode 2014). It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but very rare in the Black Sea (Bânârescu 1964), where it is known from western and southern coasts.

population:
This is a common and abundant species in the Mediterranean Sea, but relatively rare in the Black Sea. Catch statistics indicate a slow and steady increase for the Mediterranean from 1950 to the mid-1980s. Reported production reached 140,000 tonnes in 2010, mainly as a result of aquaculture which now dwarfs the capture fisheries production. This species is common outside sea-cage farms in the Turkish Aegean Sea feeding on the feed (pellets) (Akyol and Ertosluk 2010), and accounted for 0.7% of the total weight of one fish farm from 2004-2008. Most aquaculture production occurs in the Mediterranean, with Greece (49%) being by far the largest producer in 2002. Turkey (15%), Spain (14%) and Italy (6%) are also major Mediterranean producers. In addition, considerable production occurs in Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Malta, Morocco, Portugal and Tunisia. There is also production in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea. The main producer is Israel (three percent of total production in 2002); Kuwait and Oman are minor producers (Colloca and Cerasi 2009). FAO (2014) production figures in 2012 were Albania - 44 t; Croatia - 74 t; Cyprus - 52 t; Egypt - 1,663 t; France - 696 t; Greece - 180 t; Italy - 672 t; Malta - 13 t; Poland - 230 t; Slovenia - 11 t; Spain - 816 t; and United Kingdom - one tonne.

habitat:
An inshore species which inhabits seagrass beds as well as sand and rocky bottoms (Bauchot and Hureau 1986) to depths of about 30 m, but the adults may occur to 150 m depth. It is euryhaline, entering brackish water. During its first months of life, this species is known to enter coastal lagoons and estuaries in early spring, seeking shelter and food (Arias 1980). Although most juveniles leave the nursery before reaching one year old, some individuals may stay for a second year (Arias 1980). It is a largely sedentary fish, solitary or forming small aggregations. It is mainly carnivorous (feeding on molluscs, particularly on mussels which it can easily crush, crustaceans and fish); but accessorily herbivorous. Fish and molluscs constitute the favourite prey in Mellah Lagoon, Algeria (Chaoui et al. 2006). This is a protandric hermaphrodite, with all individuals functioning as males during their first maturity (i.e. at the end of their first or second year of life), thereafter changing sex, with a certain fraction of fish functioning as females during the second spawning season (Zohar et al. 1978, Zohar et al. 1984, Pavlidis et al. 2006, Mylonas et al. 2011). Sexual maturity develops in males at two years of age (20-30 cm) and in females at two to three years (33-40 cm). Females are batch spawners that can lay 20,000-80,000 eggs every day for a period up to four months. In captivity, sex reversal is conditioned by social and hormonal factors (Colloca and Cerasi 2009). Spawning generally occurs from October to December and from December to April in the southern Mediterranean, and females are characterized by high interspawning intervals and annual fecundities (>2.0 ×106 eggs kg−1) (Barbaro et al. 1997, Zohar et al. 1995, Mylonas et al. 2011), with sequenced spawning during the whole period. Incubation of the eggs lasts about two days at 16-17°C, and the larval stage lasts about 50 days at 17.5°C or about 43 days at 20°C. Egg size is 0.9-1.1 mm and larval length at hatching is 2.5-3.0 mm. The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth equation for this species are: L∞ = 55.33 cm, K = 0.513, to = - 0.282 (Chaoui et al. 2006); L∞ = 62 cm, K = 0.221, to = - 0.774 (Lasserre and Labourg 1974); L∞ = 59.76 cm, K = 0.153, to = - 0.711 (Kraljevic and Dulcic 1997); and L∞ = 36 cm, K = 0.39 yr-1 and t0 = -1.68 yr (Ahmed 2011). The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.06 (Chaoui et al. 2006); 2.88 (Lasserre and Labourg 1974); and 3.05 (Kraljevic and Dulcic 1997). The maximum total length of this species is 70 cm (Fischer et al. 1987), and its longevity is 12 years (Kraljevic and Dulcic 1997).

threats:
Localized declines from fishing are reported for this species in parts of the Mediterranean (e.g. Ahmed 2011). This is a very important commercial species, and it is also one of the most important fishes used for aquaculture in the Mediterranean Sea. There may be a problem here with genetic pollution of the wild stocks through interbreeding with the numerous artificially bred and selected aquaculture escapee fish (Somarakis et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. Studies are needed to determine if aquaculture specimens are genetically polluting the wild stocks. The escape of eggs from sea bream farms may have ecological consequences, which are likely to depend on the sex ratio and intensity of farming within specific regions. To avoid potentially negative ecological and genetic consequences of escape through spawning, farms with large fish should not be placed close to the nursery grounds of wild seabream, such as in coastal lagoons (Somarakis et al. 2013). As this species relies very heavily on estuarine lagoons as nursery grounds, these habitats need to be preserved for this species to survive. The wild catch figures should also be separated from the aquaculture production in the fisheries statistics for this region.

useAndTrade:
This is a very important commercial species, and it is also one of the most important fishes used for aquaculture in the Mediterranean Sea. The richest fishing grounds are located between 36oN to 21oS, the species being less common further south and around the Canary Islands. It is fished most intensively from February to October. It is caught on line gear, with trammel nets, bottom trawls, beach seines and traps. Marketed fresh or frozen (its flesh is highly esteemed) and it is also used for fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). It is an important sport fish, and is regularly present in the markets throughout the Mediterranean region. It is also a targeted recreational species, mostly by spearfishing (Jouvenel and Pollard 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is present throughout much of the European region and is reasonably common throughout most of its range. Though there have been localized population declines (i.e., Canary Islands) and overall increased landings of this species, the overall global population shows no indication of declines from fishing. Therefore, this species is listed as Least Concern.         Continued monitoring of its population status and harvest levels is recommended.

range:
The species is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, occurring from Scandinavia to Namibia, and around the Madeira, Azores, Cape Verde and Canary Islands. It is also common throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the southwestern Black Sea (Bauchot and Hureau 1986, 1990).

population:
One of the most important commercial fish species from the inshore waters of Portugal, with current annual landings of c. 3,200 tonnes/year (DGPA 2008). Populations along the southwest coast of Portugal are intensively fished and the high exploitation rate suggests that the stock could be overfished (Gonçalves and Erzini 2000).  FAO capture production data in 2012 were: Greece 105 tonnes; Morocco 1,598 tonnes; Senegal - 1,431 tonnes; Germany - two tonnes; Spain - 897 tonnes; France 2,667 tonnes; Netherlands - 69 tonnes; Portugal - 187 tonnes; United Kingdom 157 tonnes; Angola - 26 tonnes; Croatia - seven tonnes; Italy 70 tonnes; and Turkey - 49 tonnes.  Overall catch landings statistics from FAO indicate a steady increase from early 1980s to present time.

habitat:
A demersal species inhabiting the continental shelf, especially on seagrass beds and rocky or sandy bottoms to about 300 m depth, mainly between 10 and 100 m. The young are found in shallower water, to about 50 m depth. It is gregarious, sometimes forming sizeable schools. Spawning takes place from March to May in the northern part of its range; and the eggs are laid on sand (Carpenter in press). In the Algarve (southern Portugal), spawning took place from February to April, peaking in March. Overall size at first maturity (L50) was 20.10 cm total length (TL), with a significant difference between males (22.41 cm, TL) and females (19.98 cm, TL) (Gonçalves and Erzini 2000). This species is believed to be a protogynous hermaphrodite with sex reversal occurring at various ages. In the Canary Islands, age at sexual maturity for females is two years and for males is three years. These results are in a good agreement with those reported for the same species on the northwest African coasts, in the English Channel, and in the Cantabrian Sea (southern Bay of Biscay). Sexual dimorphism in body colour has been reported for this species during the spawning season. It is a relatively long-lived and slow growing species. It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on algae and small invertebrates (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1999). In the Algarve (southern Portugal) this species feeds on a wide variety of crustaceans (Pita et al. 2002) The total potential annual fecundity varies between 31,670 and 554,070 eggs per female. Its relative fecundity reaches a maximum of 850 eggs per g in the 30.5 to 31 cm length class (Dulcic et al. 1998). The maximum total length of this species is 60 cm (Fischer et al. 1987).  In the Canary islands, the von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the whole population are: L∞= 43:35 cm, k = 0:24 year-1, and t0 =-0:11 year. The rates of total, natural and fishing mortality are 1.36, 0.52 and 0:84 year-1, respectively. The length at first capture is 16.8 cm. The exploitation rate indicates that the stock is overfished (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1999). The size range of the catches is between eight and 40 cm, with a main distribution between 16 and 24 cm. The mean length of the individuals shows an increase with increasing depth. The males:females ratio is unbalanced in favour of females (1:2.18). The reproductive season extends from late autumn to mid-spring, with a peak in spawning activity in January-February. A dichromatism is found between males and females during the spawning season. Males reach maturity at a larger total length, 22.7 cm (three years old), than females, 17.3 cm (two years old). Otoliths age readings indicate that the exploited population consists of eleven age groups, including a very high proportion of individuals between two and three years old.  In the eastern middle Adriatic, the von Bertalanffy growth equation was: L∞ = 47.7 cm, K = 0.178 and t0 = -0.27. The Black Sea Bream is a long-lived species. The oldest male was estimated to be 14 and female nine years old. The sex ratio rapidly became skewed in favour of females (3.12:1). Sex reversal was mainly observed in age classes seven and eight. Females were found only up to a total length of 37.7 cm (Dulčić and Kraljević 1996).

threats:
This species is an important commercial and food fish. The value of the exploitation rate &gt;0.50 suggests that the species is heavily exploited off the Canary Islands. The value of the length at first capture (16.8 cm) is less than that of the length at first maturity and over 45% of the total catch is less than this length, indicating a danger of overfishing (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1999).

conservationAction:
In the Canary Islands, a minimum size limit has been implemented for the target species. In the case of the Black Seabream, the minimum size regulation is of limited benefit because the minimum length which may be legally kept is smaller than the length at first maturity. No bag limits are currently imposed for Black Seabream in this fishery (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1999). This species' distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).

useAndTrade:
This species is an important commercial and food fish. It is fished throughout its range.  It is caught on line gear, with pelagic and bottom trawls, beach seines and traps (Canary Islands). It is utilized fresh, frozen or dried salted (its flesh is highly esteemed) and it is also reduced to fishmeal and oil (Carpenter in press). It is regularly present in the markets of Tunisia, Morocco, Italy, Cyprus, Greece, Turkey and Sicily, and is occasionally sold elsewhere. The fisheries of this species are semi-industrial, artisanal and as a sport fish, with landings of 3,805 mt in 2003 in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Algarve (southern Portugal), Spondyliosoma cantharus is targeted by gill nets, fish traps and longlines using small hooks, and accounts for 22.7% of the catches of the latter gear (Erzini et al. 1997). This fishery takes place throughout the year, with higher catches in the winter season (Nespereira and Pajuelo 1997). In the Canary Islands, this species contributes approximately 5% of the total catches of demersal fish. This species is caught at different depths (up to 250 m) with traps. It is captured all year round with significant seasonal differences in the landings (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Sphyraena barracuda occurs only in Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Sphyraena barracuda occurs only in Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).Globally, Sphyraena barracuda occurs in tropical to warm temperate waters of the Atlantic and Indo-West Pacific Oceans, and does not occur in the eastern Pacific (de Sylva 1963). In the western Atlantic it is known from Massachusetts south along the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along South America to southern Brazil including Trinidade Island (Russell 2002, Simon et al. 2013). In the eastern Atlantic it has been recorded along West Africa from Sierra Leone to Gabon and from Ascension Island (Friedlander et al. 2014, Wirtz et al. 2014). In the Indo-Pacific it is known along East Africa, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, northern Australia, and the Hawaiian Islands (de Sylva 1981, Al-Sedfy et al. 1982, Rose 1984, Smith and Saleh 1987, Carpenter et al. 1997, Grandcourt 2012). It occurs mainly at the surface, but can be found down to 100 m depth (Russell in prep).

population:
Sphyraena barracuda is uncommon throughout the eastern central Atlantic.

habitat:
Sphyraena barracuda is a pelagic fish, found on shallow reefs, on over-shelf deep reefs and on shelf-edge deep reefs (Feitoza et al. 2005). It feeds mainly on littoral schooling and coral reef fishes (de Sylva 1981), cephalopods and shrimps (Cervigon 1993). Juveniles and small individuals are schooling and are usually found over shallow waters over sandy, weedy bottoms and mangroves. Larger adults (>65 cm standard length) are usually solitary and found over reef areas and offshore waters (Kells and Carpenter 2011). Large schools of this species have been observed and are probably associated with spawning behaviors. This species is a voracious predator and can usually be found over structures and reefs. The maximum length for this species is 200 cm (Robins and Ray 1986). The maximum published weight is 50 kg (De Sylva 1990). It can reach at least 14 years of age. Most males of this species mature by two years of age and all are mature by three years. The majority of females mature at three years and all are mature by four years of age. Young barracuda will spend their first summer in shallow nursery areas, and move offshore to deeper water in late fall. During the second summer young S. barracuda will enter the mangrove habitat or the deeper weed beds. In the third year it enters the coral-reef habitat. Sphyraena barracuda use seagrass beds and mangroves as lifestage biotopes (Nagelkerken et al. 2000). It is a lie-in-wait predator that forages on the edges of reefs and seagrass beds and strikes its prey using a high velocity lunge (de Sylva 1963).

threats:
There do not appear to be any substantial threats to this species overall.

useAndTrade:
Sphyraena barracuda is marketed frozen, canned in oil, fresh, salted and smoked (Russell 2002). It is also reduced to fishmeal (de Sylva 1981). The main fishing grounds for this species are inshore, coastal and offshore waters. This species is not targeted by a specific fishery and is of minor commercial importance. It is usually caught with hand lines, spearing, gear, bottom trawls, gill nets and trammel nets. Human consumption of large barracuda can cause ciguatera poisoning, due to reef fishes consumed by larger barracuda (Russell 2002). This species is caught with trolling lines by commercial and sportfishermen.

redListContributors:
Abdulqader, E., Aiken, K.A., Alghawzi, Q., Carpenter, K.E., Collette, B.B., Dooley, J., Hartmann, S., Marechal, J., Pina Amargos, F., Russell, B. & Singh-Renton, S.


taxonomicNotes:
Sphyraena intermedia was only recently described on the basis of 19 specimens collected from the Mediterranean Sea (Pastore 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
Sphyraena intermedia is currently known from  from the Gulf of Taranto in the central Mediterranean Sea. There is little species-specific information available as this species was recently described. It is likely taken in fisheries targeting Barracuda spp. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and there is a need for more research to better clarify the geographic range of this species. It is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Sphyraena intermedia is distributed from  from the Gulf of Taranto in the central Mediterranean Sea (Pastore 2009). There is little species-specific information available as this species was recently described (Pastore 2009). There is no species-specific depth information available for S. intermedia, however fishes of the genus are usually found to depths of up to 100 m.

population:
Sphyraena intermedia was described in 2009 from the Gulf of Taranto in the central Mediterranean Sea (Pastore 2009). There is little species-specific information available for S. intermedia. The overall trend in landings of Barracudas nei in the Mediterranean and Black Sea is one of increase to a peak of roughly 5,602 tonnes in 1994, followed by a period of decline and stabilization around 2,000 tonnes from the late 1990s to 1,000 tonnes in 2010 to 2011 (FAO 2011). Local knowledge indicates that Barracudas, along with many other thermophillic fishes, have increased in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea (Azzurro et al. 2011).

habitat:
There is little species-specific habitat information available for S. intermedia. Fishes of the genus Sphyraena are typically found in shelf waters ranging to a depth of approximately 100 metres. There appears to be some ontogenetic segregation of habitat, with young individuals being found in shallow waters in small schools, while adults tend to be sedentary (Robins and Ray 1986, Barreiros et al. 2002, Pastore 2009). There is no maximum size information available for this species.

threats:
Sphyraena intermedia is taken in fisheries targeting other species of Barracuda. Species of the genus Sphyraena are not often identified at to the species level (Coll et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. intermedia. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). There is a need to better clarify the range of this species.

useAndTrade:
There is little species-specific information available for S. intermedia. This species is taken in fisheries targeting other species of Barracuda. Barracuda are taken with gill-nets, trawl nets, seining and ‘lampara’ engine, as well as by spear-fishing (Pastore 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
Europe Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Sphyraena sphyraena occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay to Mossamedes, Angola, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Madeira, Cape Verde and the Azores. It is a pelagic species which is found at depths ranging from 0 to 100 metres. Sphyraena sphyraena is a commercially important species in parts of the assessment zone, particularly in the eastern and southern Mediterranean. There are some indications of declining mean size and decreased range in size of S. sphyraena from the eastern and southern Mediterranean. Juveniles of this species are taken as bycatch in small-pelagic fisheries (i.e. sardine, anchovy). Adults are relatively sedentary, and are vulnerable to spearfishing and other gears. There is no species-specific abundance information available, and it is likely that such information would include other species in the region, particularly S. viridensis and possibly a new species, S. intermedia. Given the lack of information concerning abundance, age at first reproduction, and other basic biological information of this commercially important species, S. sphyraena is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Sphyraena sphyraena occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay to Mossamedes, Angola, including the Mediterranean and Black seas, Madeira, Cape Verde (Russell in press), and the Azores. Sphyraena sphyraena probably does not occur in the Canary Islands, and that all previous records of this species at the Canaries are likely misidentifications of the very common S. viridensis (Brito 1991, Dulčić et al. 2009a). There are records from Bermuda and Brazil (de Sylva 1981). This species is found at depths ranging from 0 to 100 metres. The record from Bermuda is a misidentification, and this species does not occur in Bermuda. Brazilian specimen from Piaui, Sambaiba remains to be verified.

population:
Regional Population Information Sphyraena sphyraena is easy to misidentify as S. viridensis (Golani et al. 2006).  There are rarely species-specific catch statistics available for S. sphyraena. The majority of landings (>90%) within the eastern Atlantic range of S. sphyraena are declared from the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA) fishing zone. The overall trend in declared landings is one of increase from the late 1980s onwards. Landings from the Mediterranean and Black Sea represent 5 to 10% of total recent landings. The overall trend in declared landings of "Barracuda nei" in the Mediterranean and Black Sea is one of increase to a peak of roughly 5602 tonnes in 1994, followed by a period of decline and stabilization around 2000 tonnes from the late 1990s to 1000 tonnes in 2010 to 2011 (FAO 2011). Global catch production for S. sphyraena in the Mediterranean and Black Sea was not reported until 1999, when catch statistics for this species were separated from "Barracudas nei". The catch peaked in 2006 at 398 tonnes and fluctuated through 2010 (FAO 2011). However, this may be due to increasing recording from different countries and also increases in other species (including in the catch figures for S. chrysotaenia and S. flavicauda, both immigrant species from the Red Sea). In Spanish waters, the mean abundance of S. sphyraena was much higher in marine protected areas (Charton et al. 2000). Estimates of biomass of small pelagic fishes include S. sphyraena, which feeds on small pelagics (Coll et al. 2007). Local knowledge indicates that Barracudas in general, along with many other thermophillic fishes, have increased in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea (Azzurro et al. 2011).  Global Population Information  The global aggregate catch production for barracuda species in the ECA increased from 1950 to the 1970s, peaking in 1974 at 25,686 tonnes. The catch fluctuated in the late 1970s and early 1980s and decreased by 60% from 1982 to 1985. Global catch production in the area subsequently fluctuated from 1985 to 1995 and continued to increase in 1996 into the 2000s. It peaked in 2010 at 33,340 tonnes, a 23% increase from the peak in 1974. The majority of landings are declared by Nigeria. Nigerian catches alone increased 75% from 1982 to 1985 (FAO 2011).

habitat:
Sphyraena sphyraena is an epipelagic species which is found in coastal and offshore waters (Schneider 1990). It is primarily a specialized piscivore with a diet consisting of >99% pelagic and supra-benthic fishes (In the Mediterranean: Clupeidae, Atherina boyeri, Spicara smaris, Boops boops), less often on cephalopods and crustaceans (Kalogirou et al. 2012). It may be found to 100 m depth. In the Mediterranean this species is recorded to 50 m depth (Louisy 2005), and grows to perhaps up to 150 cm length (Golani et al. 2006). The maximum age for this species is eight years (de Sylva 1981, Allam et al. 2004). At Elba island, recruits were seen in July and August (Biagi et al. 1998). The spawning season for S. sphyraena is in the spring and summer. Eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani et al. 2006). Golani et al. (2006) reports the length range of this species as typically encountered as 25 to 60 cm, with a maximum length of 150 cm. The mean length of S. sphyraena in Greek waters (Euboikos Gulf) was 39.4 cm, with an observed minimum of 33.5 cm and a maximum of 49.8 cm (Petrakis and Steriou 1995). The mean length of S. sphyraena in Turkish waters (Gokova Bay, Aegean Sea) in 2009 was 27.1 cm (range 21 to 32.6). Length range from France was 35 to 76 cm (Crec′hriou et al. 2013). The length range from the eastern Adriatic was 82.6 to 93.2 (Dulčić and Glamuzina 2006). The maximum recorded size for S. sphyraena is 150 cm (Golani et al. 2006). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 42 cm TL and the length at maturity is 26 cm TL for females and 23 cm TL for males (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Allam et al. (2004) conducted a study in Egyptian Mediterranean waters and found the growth performance index for this species was 2.58, the annual weight ranged from 39.47 to 256.55 g at one to eight years, and that the annual weight increment was high in the eighth year for this species at 20.10%. Otolith radii is directly proportional and highly correlated with total length for this species (Allam et al. 2004). Fishes of the genus Sphyraena are typically found in shelf waters ranging to a depth of approximately 100 meters. There appears to be some ontogenetic separation, with young individuals being found in shallow waters in small schools, while adults tend to be sedentary (Robins and Ray 1986, Barreiros et al. 2002, Pastore 2009).

threats:
Sphyraena sphyraena is captured by artisanal fishing practices with purse seines, gillnets, handlines, trolling lines. It appears regularly in the markets of Algeria and Morocco, where it is highly regarded, and occasionally in other markets in the area. This species is marketed fresh (Fischer et al. 1987). Sphyraena sphyraena was among the larger fishes targeted by spearfishing, and has a relatively high intrinsic vulnerability to this form of fishing (Lloret et al. 1998).  In Turkey, Israel and Tunisia (FAO Area 37) up to 1,000 tons are landed per year. Bycatch in small pelagic fisheries Sphyraena sphyraena feeds almost exclusively on small pelagic fishes, including Boops boops, Spicara smaris, Atherina boyeri, and Clupeids (Kalogirou et al. 2012). Additionally, it is inferred that, at some stage in their life history, S. sphyraena are spatially distributed amongst schools of commercially-important small pelagics, as estimates of biomass of "small pelagics" gathered from trawling surveys in the Adriatic Sea (ISMAR–CNR, Italy) include S. sphyraena (Coll et al.2007). It is occasionally caught and marketed in the purse seine fisheries in the Aegean and Ionian seas (Tsagarakiset al. 2012).   Sphyraena sphyraenamay also be experiencing local declines in abundance as a function of declines in prey. Anchovies and sardines have been severely depleted in a number of areas in the Mediterranean, including the eastern Ionian, potentially due to overexploitation (Bearzi et al 2006). This has resulted in declines in abundance of marine megafauna, perhaps including S. sphyraena (Bearzi et al 2006).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Sphyraena sphyraena, however, the range for this species overlaps with a number of marine protected areas. Sphyraena sphyraena was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Sphyraena sphyraena is a commercially important species. It is a component of both artisanal fisheries and recreational fisheries. In Turkey, Israel and Tunisia (FAO 37), up to 1,000 tons are landed per year. Sphyraena sphyraena appears regularly in the markets of Algeria and Morocco, where it is highly regarded, and occasionally in other markets in the area (Fischer et al. 1987). This species is typically discarded from trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean (Sánchez et al. 2007).  The total catch of unclassified barracudas reported from the area (Eastern Central Atlantic) in 1979 exceeded 21,000 t. Sphyraena sphyraena is reportedly caught mainly with bottom or pelagic trawls, gillnets, fixed bottom nets, seines, beach seines, and handlines. It is marketed fresh, smoked, fried, and canned in oil. It is caught by local and foreign trawlers, and is consumed locally as well as in several foreign markets (de Sylva 1981).


taxonomicNotes:
After several years of confusion and mistake, the underwater identification of S. viridensis is now correct. Consequently, Dufour et al. (2007) gives accurate repartition of S. sphyraena and S. viridensis (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) The geographic and depth distribution of Sphyraena viridensis is not well known, as it is often misidentified as S. sphyraena. Both species are commercially important species in parts of the assessment zone, particularly in the eastern and southern Mediterranean. There are some indications of declining mean size and decreased range in size of S. sphyraena from the eastern and Southern Mediterranean, which may be representative of S. viridensis. Juveniles of both species are likely as bycatch in small-pelagic fisheries (i.e. Sardine, Anchovy). Adults are likely relatively sedentary, and are vulnerable to spearfishing and other gears. There is no species-specific abundance information available, and it is likely that such information would include other species in the region, particularly S. sphyraena and possibly a new species, S. intermedia. Given the lack of information concerning abundance, age at first reproduction, and other basic biological information, this species is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
The exact distribution and abundance of S. viridensis are unknown because most published records do not separate it from S. sphyraena. Its geographical range is probably wider than currently known for this reason (Russell in press, Barreiros et al. 2002). Golani et al. (2006) presents the following distribution: in the Atlantic from Iceland to Morocco and Cape Verde. It is also found in the Canary Islands, Azores, and Madeira (Barreiros et al. 2002, Wirtz 1998). Relini and Relini (1997) identified S. viridensis from the Italian shores as well as from the Balearic and Sardinian waters. Sphyraena viridensis is reported from Lebanon in the eastern Mediterranean, Turkey (Bizsel and Cihangir 1996), Rhodes (Corsini and Economidis 1999), Sicily (Ustica Island) (Vacchi et al. 1999), the Balearic Islands (Massuti et al. 2001), Algeria (Kara and Bourehain 2003), and the Adriatic Sea (Kozul et al. 2005). It is probably present in the southern Adriatic (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded at depths ranging from 0 to 50 metres, however it may be found at greater depths.

population:
Regional Population Information  In the western part of the Mediterranean Sea the population of S. viridensis is increasing, it is possible to now see very large schools of a species which was considered uncommon to rare around ten years ago (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007). This may be due to warming sea temperatures. In the southwestern coast of Turkey, S. viridensis is common (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). An important population of  S. viridensis occurs in Algeria (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007). It has recently become possible to observe juvenile barracuda in the northwestern part of the Mediterranean (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).  There are no species-specific catch statistics available for S. viridensis. The majority of landings of "Barracuda nei" (>90%) are declared from the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA) fishing zone. The overall trend in declared landings is one of increase from the late 1980s onwards. Landings from the Mediterranean and Black Sea represent 5 to 10% of total recent landings. The overall trend in declared landings of "Barracuda nei" in the Mediterranean and Black Sea is one of increase to a peak of roughly 5602 tonnes in 1994, followed by a period of decline and stabilization around 2,000 tonnes from the late 1990s to 1,000 tonnes in 2010 to 2011 (FAO 2011). Global Population Information  The global aggregate catch production for barracuda species in the ECA increased from 1950 to the 1970s, peaking in 1974 at 25,686 tonnes. The catch fluctuated in the late 1970s and early 1980s and decreased by 60% from 1982 to 1985. Global catch production in the area subsequently fluctuated from 1985 to 1995 and continued to increase in 1996 into the 2000s. It peaked in 2010 at 33,340 tonnes, a 23% increase from the peak in 1974. The majority of landings are declared by Nigeria. Nigerian catches alone increased 75% from 1982 to 1985 (FAO 2011).

habitat:
Sphyraena viridensis is an epipelagic species whose habits are probably similar to those of the closely related S. sphyraena (de Sylva 1981). The habits of S. viridensis are not known for certain because of confusion with S. sphyraena, but are probably similar to that species (Russel in press).  Golani et al. (2006) report the maximum size as 90 cm. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 113 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 62.5 cm TL  and for males is 59.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).The maximum age for S. viridensis is eight years (Russell in press, Allam et al. 2004). Allam et al. (2004) conducted a study in Egyptian Mediterranean waters and found the growth performance index for this species was 2.95 and also has a higher asymptotic length and weight than S. sphyraena, S. flavnicauda, S. barracuda and S. chrysotaenia. The annual weight ranged from 15.03 to 54.6 g at one to eight years for S. viridensis and that the annual weight increment was high in the eighth year for this species at 20.19%. Otolith radii is directly proportional and highly correlated with total length for this species (Allam et al. 2004). Barreiros et al. (2002) observed schools of S. viridensis of up to 180 individuals, with an average size of 30 to 50 individuals, between May and October in Azores near shallow sea-mounts and deep cliffs wherever the depth was greater than 20 m. Schools occupied the water column from the surface down to 30 m. Large schools were always associated with areas subjected to noticeable currents; however, the correlation between school and current speed was found to be insignificant. The individuals in the aggregations were sub-adults of both sexes which tended to group near the surface, medium sized fish in the intermediate position, and larger females occupied the bottom of the school. Females are generally larger than males, however, examination of the gonads is required to determine sex. No large schools were observed from November to April. Barreiros et al. (2002) also observed that during 75% of the time, fish stayed almost immobile, drifting with currents in the water column. The rest of the time was spent chasing prey or, in brief occasions, apparently, interacting sexually. The mean lengths of S. viridensis from the Azores was 78.5 cm, while the mean length for females was 84.8 cm (Morato et al. 2001a). Barreiros et al. (2002) examined stomach contents of 66 individuals, all of which consisted solely of fish. Fishes of the genus Sphyraena are typically found in shelf waters ranging to a depth of approximately 100 meters. There appears to be some ontogenetic separation, with young individuals being found in shallow waters in small schools, while adults tend to be sedentary (Robins and Ray 1986, Barreiros et al. 2002, Pastore 2009).

threats:
Sphyraena viridensis is commercially important in the Mediterranean. It is found in markets in Turkey. It is caught as bycatch in trammel nets and as bycatch in Algeria. No particular commercial importance in the northwestern areas at present (it is a recent occurrence there).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for Sphyraena viridensis, however, the range for this species overlaps with a number of marine protected areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC 2010, accessed April 2014). Sphyraena viridensis was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Sphyraena viridensis was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Sphyraena viridensis is a commercially important species in the Mediterranean. It is found in markets in Turkey. It is of no particular commercial importance in the northwestern areas at present as it has only recently been recorded from these regions. Fishing gear and utilization for this species is not not recorded, but is probably similar to that of S. sphyraena (bottom or pelagic trawls, gillnets, fixed bottom nets, seines, beach seines, and handlines) (Russel in press). In Azores, Sphyraena viridensis is caught using spearfishing and rod fishing methods in the artisanal sector and is also sought after in recreational fisheries (Morato et al. 2001b). Barracudas constituted about 2.6% of the total landed catch of Egyptian Mediterranean waters, mainly caught with trammel nets, purse-seines, gill nets and trawl nets (Allam et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Anisarchus medius is known from the Arctic, North Atlantic, and North Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, Anisarchus medius occurs in the Barents Sea off the Murman coast and Spitsbergen, and in the White Sea. Little population information is available from the assessment region; however, it is not targeted and no major threats have been identified. Therefore, A. medius is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Anisarchus medius occurs in the North Atlantic, Arctic and North Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from the Murman coast (Motovsky Bay, 69° 30' N, 32° 30' E) eastward along the Siberian coast, through the White Sea and to Spitsbergen. The depth range for this species is 10–150 m (Makushok 1986).

population:
Anisarchus medius is relatively uncommon in the Barents Sea (Dolgov 2009). Additional population information from the region is not available. 

habitat:
Anisarchus medius is found on muddy bottoms, generally preferring water below 0°C and salinities above 30 ppt. (Makushok 1986). It is a benthic species which feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Coad and Reist 2004). Anisarchus medius is one of three species of the family Stichaeidae are commonly found in arctic waters. These Stichaeids have evolved unique adaptations to survive sub-zero temperatures and prolonged periods of food shortage. Among these are the synthesis of antifreeze proteins and a unique lipid sac in post-larval fish (Ottesen et al. 2011). The maximum recorded size for this species is 30 cm TL (Novikov et al. 2002).

threats:
There are no major species-specific threats to A. medius.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for A. medius. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is not commercially utilized in the region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC ) Chirolophis ascanii is widespread in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the Northeastern Atlantic, C. ascanii is known from the Norwegian coast to Kattegat, including the Faroes and British Isles. Although widespread within the region, it appears to be relatively uncommon. This species does not appear to be targeted and no major threats have been identified. This species is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Chirolophis ascanii occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeast Atlantic, C. ascanii is found from the Norwegian coast to Finmarken and Waranger Fjord, occasionally Murman coast, rare in Skagerrak, Kattegat and Öresund, around Helgoland, the British Isles and off the Orkneys, Faroes, Shetlands and Iceland (Robins and Ray 1986, Makushok 1986, Scott and Scott 1988). This species occurs at depths of 100–280 m (Makushok 1986).

population:
Chirolophis ascanii is rarely recorded in the North Sea (Jiming 1982). There was no trend in abundance of C. ascanii  in a rocky sub-tidal site on the West Coast of Scotland from 1995–1999 (Magill and Sayer 2002). It was among the least abundant species recorded in a demersal trawl survey undertaken at depths of less than 70 m in the Eastern English Channel and Southern North Sea from 1993–2001 (Parker-Humphreys 2005). This species is widely distributed along the European coast, but is not abundant, based on a trawl survey of 60,000 hauls (Dunne and Cooper 1980).

habitat:
Chirolophis ascanii is a benthic species, usually found over rocks and among seaweeds. It is never found in the inter-tidal zone and may occur at 20 m depth but descends from 100–280 m (Makushok 1986). This species feeds on bottom invertebrates (small mollusks, polychaetes, hydroids, sponges) as well as algae (Makushok 1986). Chirolophis ascanii spawns from October to December (Muus and Nielson 1998). It is a part of the diet of a number of organisms, including black guillemots, black Cormorants (Steven 1933, Ewins et al. 1990) and mammals, such as otters (McMahon and McCafferty 2006). The maximum recorded size for this species is 25 cm SL (Makushok 1986).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to C. ascanii.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. ascanii.

useAndTrade:
Chirolophis ascanii does not appear to be utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
Two subspecies have been recognized: the Atlantic form, L. m. maculatus, and the Pacific form, which is sometimes treated as the subspecies Leptoclinus maculatus diaphanocarus (Mecklenburg and Sheiko 2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Leptoclinus maculatus is a circumglobal species. In the Northeastern Atlantic, L. maculatus occurs from Scandinavia, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, Bear Island, Murmansk, the White Sea and Iceland, where it can be locally abundant. This species does not appear to be utilized in the region and no major threats have been identified. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Leptoclinus maculatus is a circumglobal species found in arctic and temperate waters between latitudes 79°N and 43°N. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs along Scandinavia from Skagerrak to Finnmarken, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, Bear Island, Murmansk, the White Sea and Iceland (Makushok 1979), including the North Sea. The reported depth range for this species is 2–607 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Leptoclinus maculatus is abundant  in the arctic waters of Norway, and is considered to be an ecologically significant species (Ottesen et al. 2011). It is rare in the North Sea (Yang 1982). In the Barents Sea, the range of this species has been reduced in the southwest, but extended from littoral areas (Byrkjedal and Høines  2007). It appeared infrequently in trawl surveys, and towards the later time series.

habitat:
Leptoclinus maculatus is a benthic species which inhabits sandy bottoms, usually in waters less 170 m in depth (Eschmeyer 1983). As an adult, it feeds on polychaetes and crustaceans (Mecklenburg and Sheiko 2004). This species has a relatively low fecundity (<1,000 eggs) and produces large eggs that are 1.50 mm in diameter (Andriyashev 1954). It may exhibit parental care, as has been reported for several species within the family (Baylis 1981, Gross and Shine 1981). As a postlarva, it feeds on large amounts of Calanus spp. and store lipids from this high-energy diet in a unique lipid sack on the ventral side of its body. Due to its high abundance, it is considered to be an ecologically significant species in the arctic waters of Norway. Leptoclinus maculatus spends the first 2–3 years life as a pelagic postlarvae before transforming to a benthic mode of life. Transition occurs when the postlarva reach about 80 mm in length (Ottesen et al. 2011). Valuable food source for predatory fish, birds, and seals (Ottesen et al. 2011). This species enters shallow waters from October to December to spawn (Makushok 1979). The maximum recorded size for this species is 20 cm SL (Muus and Nielsen 1999).  Leptoclinus maculatus is one of three species of the family Stichaeidae are commonly found in arctic waters. These Stichaeids have evolved unique adaptations to survive sub-zero temperatures and prolonged periods of food shortage. Among these are the synthesis of antifreeze proteins and a unique lipid sac in postlarval fish (Ottesen et al. 2011).

threats:
There have been no confirmed population declines in this species. There are no known species-specific threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for L. maculatus. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species does not appear to be commercially utilized in the region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Lumpenus lumpretaeformis is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean. In the Northeastern Atlantic, L. lumpretaeformis ranges from Spitsbergen southward to Scandinavian coasts, North Sea, southern part of the Baltic, the Faroes and Iceland. This species occurs to depths of 200 m. Lumpenus lumpretaeformis can be locally abundant, seasonally. It is not a targeted species but it is an important prey item for some commercially important species in the region, including cod. Major threats have not been identified for this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lumpenus lampretaeformis occurs on both side of the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is distributed from Spitsbergen southward to Scandinavian coasts, North Sea, southern part of the Baltic, the Faroes and Iceland (Makushok 1986). It is found at depths ranging from 50–200 meters (Mecklenburg and Sheiko 2004). This species has exhibited northward climate-related shifts in distribution (Perry et al. 2005).

population:
Lumpenus lampretaeformis is seasonally abundant on the west coast of Scotland (Gordan and Duncan 1979) and is also fairly abundant in the Kattegat (Heessen in prep.).

habitat:
Lumpenus lampretaeformis is a benthic species (Coad and Reist 2004), living in Y-shaped tubes in the mud in 50–200 m depth (Muus and Nielsen 1999). The burrows are believed to be used for parental care of the eggs (Gordon and Duncan 1979). This species feeds on small crustaceans, mollusks, brittle stars and worms (Wheeler 1992). This species matures at three years with about 20 cm length. Spawning takes place in December-January, 1,000 eggs are laid on the sea floor, in deep water. Isolated population in the Baltic Sea is probably a relic from the last ice age that reached the Baltic Sea during the early saltwater stage of the sea (Segerstråle 1957, Muus and Nielsen 1999). In 1979, individuals ranging in age from 0–9 years were present on the West Coast of Scotland (Gordon and Duncan 1979). This species is prey for commercially important demersal species including Polar Cod Boreogadus saida, Cod Gadus morhua, White hake (Urophycis tenuis) (Nash and Gibson 1982). The maximum recorded size for this species is 50 cm SL (Muus and Nielsen 1999).   Stichaeids have evolved unique adaptations to survive sub-zero temperatures and prolonged periods of food shortage. Among these are the synthesis of antifreeze proteins and a unique lipid sac in post-larval fish (Ottesen et al. 2011).

threats:
There are no known population declines, or species-specific threats to L. lampretaeformis.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for L. lampretaeformis. 

useAndTrade:
Lumpenus lumpretaeformis is not utilized; however, it appears to be an important prey item for several commercial species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Stromateus fiatola is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, Stromateus fiatola occurs from the Bay of Biscay southward including the Mediterranean. This species is a minor component of fisheries in some parts of its range but there are no indications of population declines. No major threats have been identified for this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Stromateus fiatola is known only from the eastern Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay where rare (Haedrich 1986) and the Mediterranean southward to the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is found in Portuguese and, rarely, Spanish continental shelf waters southward, including the Mediterranean Sea (Haedrich 1986). The occurrence of S. fiatola throughout the Mediterranean Sea may be linked to climate change, and it is considered rare in the Adriatic Sea (Dulčic et al. 2006). It typically occurs at depths of 10–70 m, but has been recorded in waters up to 160 m deep (Haedrich FAO in prep. 2012).

population:
Stromateus fiatola regularly occurs in the Mediterranean and tropical Atlantic (Piper 2010). Stromateus fiatola is considered rare in the Adriatic Sea and the occurrence of this species in the Adriatic Sea may be related to the proliferation of jellyfishes, which constitute a very significant component of this species' diet (Dulčic et al. 2006). In the Atlantic Ocean, S. fiatola is considered is rare around oceanic islands but reported from the Canaries. It is also considered to be rare off the coast of Portugal (Santos et al. 2002). This species was considered one of the main species collected in 1989 off Congo-Gabon (Bianchi 1992). Total landings in Analucia are less than 500 kilos in 2000 and 2013 (Accessed through IDAPES portal, http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/, accessed May 2014).

habitat:
Stromateus fiatola is a pelagic species which forms schools in coastal bays and waters over the continental shelf. It is usually at depths from 10–70 m, but has been recorded to depths of 160 m (Schneider 1990, Haedrich FAO ECA Guide in prep. 2012).  Juveniles are found in coastal waters under floating weeds or in association with medusae. This species feeds on zooplankton, jellyfish and small fishes. The recent occurrence of this species in the Adriatic Sea may be related to the proliferation of jellyfishes, which constitute a very significant component of this species' diet (Dulčic et al. 2006). It reaches a maximum size of 50 cm, although it is more commonly seen at 40 cm (Haedrich FAO ECA Guide in prep 2012).

threats:
Stromateus fiatola is a component of small-scale fisheries; however it is not directly targeted.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. fiatola. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Stromateus fiatola was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Fisheries for Stromateus fiatola are modest. This species caught mainly with otter trawls, purse seines and fixed trap nets, less commonly on lines. The flesh is excellent eating and is usually marketed fresh, and more occasionally salted or frozen. This species can be used for fishmeal or fish oil (Haedrich FAO ECA Guide in prep. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Tetragonurus atlanticus is found in the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Tetragonurus atlanticus is found in the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Tetragonurus atlanticus is found in warm waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans (Haedrich in press). It has been recorded from the central Tyrrhenian Sea (Psomadakis et al. 2006). Tetragonurus cuvieri replaces T. atlanticus north of about 34oN in the central Pacific, and north of about 22oN in the eastern Pacific (Ahlstrom et al. 1976).

population:
Tetragonurus is a rarely collected genus, however the species likely to be more common than collections indicate (Janssen and Harbison 1981). Tetragonurus atlanticus is moderately common in museum collections (22 lots - one individual per lot).

habitat:
Tetragonurus atlanticus reaches a maximum size of 50 cm (Haedrich in press). Tetragonurids are oceanic fishes of warm and temperate waters. Juveniles are epipelagic and adults are presumably mesopelagic. Most adults are taken singly far out at sea, or are occasionally found stranded on shores near deep water. Juveniles commonly live within the body cavity of pelagic tunicates, in the upper layers of the water column, while adults are meso- or bathypelagic and migrate to surface waters at night (Grey 1955). The teeth of Tetragonurids are adapted for browsing on soft-bodied coelenterates, ctenophores, macrozooplancton, and especially salps. Spawning occurs in spring and summer in the eastern Atlantic (Haedrich in press).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats to T. atlanticus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for T. atlanticus.

useAndTrade:
Tetragonurids are of no interest to fisheries (Haedrich in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Tetragonurus cuvieri is known from the temperate Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In the northeaster Atlantic, T. cuvieri ranges from the British Isles southward to the Mediterranean. It has been reported to depths of 800 meters. This species is rare in the Tyrrhenian Sea, but is nowhere abundant. It is of no interest to fisheries, and there are no indications of population decline. Major threats to this species have not been identified. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Tetragonurus cuvieri is found in temperate latitudes of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and in the western Mediterranean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from the British Isles southwards, including the western Mediterranean (Haedrich 1986). This species has been reported to depths from 1– 800 m (Haedrich 1986).

population:
There appear to be high levels of gene flow between widely separated specimens of  T. cuvieri, as implied by the relatively low level genetic divergence seen in the COI marker between specimens of T. cuvieri from the North Atlantic and those from Australasia (Ward et al. 2008). Tetragonurus cuvieri is rare in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Psomadakis et al. 2006). This species a nowhere abundant (Haedrich 1986).

habitat:
Tetragonurus cuvieri reaches a maximum size of 70 cm. The flesh of T. cuvieri is reported to be toxic. Tetragonurids are oceanic fishes of warm and temperate waters. Juveniles are epi-pelagic and adults are presumably mesopelagic. Most adults are taken singly far out at sea, or are occasionally found stranded on shores near deep water. Juveniles commonly live within the body cavity of pelagic tunicates, in the upper layers of the water column, while adults are meso- or bathypelagic and migrate to surface waters at night (Grey 1955). The teeth of Tetragonurids are adapted for browsing on soft-bodied coelenterates, ctenophores, macrozooplankton, and especially salps. Spawning occurs in spring and summer in the eastern Atlantic (Haedrich FAO in prep 2012).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats to T. cuvieri.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for T. cuvieri. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed May 2014). Tetragonurus cuvieri was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Tetragonurids are of no interest to fisheries (Haedrich FAO in prep 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Europe Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Echiichthys vipera is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found along the coast of Morocco, the Canary Islands, and Madeira, northward into the Mediterranean, and along the Atlantic coast of Europe to Norway. This species appears to be experiencing northward shifts in its distribution which may be related to climate change. It is generally found to 50 m depth. It appears to be relatively common and abundant throughout its range, and does not appear to be commercially important in the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone. Therefor, E. vipera is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Echiichthys vipera is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from Norway south to Morocco, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the Mediterranean Sea (Smith in press). This species appears to be experiencing northward shifts in its distribution which may be related to climate change (Perry et al. 2005). It is generally found to 50 m depth.

population:
Echiichthys vipera was the most abundant Trachinid found over sandy substrates in a Portuguese estuary, and was among the five most abundant species of the fish assemblage from the coastal zones adjacent to the Tagus and Douro estuaries, Portugal (Vasconcelos et al. 2004). It was most abundant during winter, during low tide, and during the day. It was among the most numerically important fishes found only in sandy habitats (Ribeiro et al. 2006). Echiichthys vipera was among the species most frequently caught demersal fishes in English waters between 1974 and 1991. Population abundance indices for 54 selected demersal species in English inshore demersal fish populations decreased in all sampled areas from 1974 to 1991 (Rogers and Millner 1996). However, a different study shows that Echilichthys vipera, which is considered a southern species, increased in abundance during the late 1980s and early-mid 1990s in the North Sea (Heessen 1996). Echiichthys vipera was the 13th most abundant fish species taken in a beam trawl survey of set cover the southern and eastern North Sea (ICES Division IVb and IVc), the English Channel (ICES Division VIId and VIIe), the Bristol Channel (ICES Divisions VIIf and VIIg) and the Irish Sea (ICES Division VIIa) (Rogers et al. 1999). This species is very abundant in the Southern North Sea (Heessen in prep. 2014, International Bottom Trawl Survey Data 2014). A comparison of catch rates of demersal fishes during beam trawl and otter trawl surveys carried out in the period 1990–1995 and 1906–1909 in the North Sea revealed marked declines in this species. Catch rates from 1906 to 1909 were 808.8 (individuals per hour of fishing), whereas from 1990 to 1995 catch rates ranged from 9.4 to 47.5 individuals (Rijnsdorp et al. 1996).  This species is considered an abundant benthic species off sandy beaches in the Azores, where it may a year-around resident. There was some evidence of movement and changing abundances (Santos and Nash 1995). Off the central coast of Portugal, this species was found to be most abundant in August (Cabral et al. 2003).

habitat:
Echiichthys vipera inhabits sandy bottoms in littoral and shallow coastal waters, often burrowing in the substrate, moving into somewhat deeper depths during the winter. This species is considered the most dangerous of the European weevers, due to its occurrence near beaches and the poisonous dorsal-fin and gill-cover spines (Vasconcelos et al. 2004). Echiichthys vipera feeds mainly on small crustaceans and fishes (Smith in prep 2012). Specifically, the most important prey items were small crustaceans, primarily Mysidacea, Amphipoda, and Isopoda. Larger individuals fed on more diverse prey items (Vasconcelos et al. 2004). Echiichthys vipera is considered a characteristic species in sandbank habitats (Kaiser et al. 2004). It is occasionally found in estuaries, but is considered to be a primarily marine species (Maes et al. 2005). In the Sea of Marmara individuals ranged in size from 1.7 to 14.3 cm (the maximum size of this species is 15 cm) (Ozen et al. 2009).  Trachinids are littoral or benthic fishes which inhabit sandy or muddy bottoms, typically on the continental shelf but also at deeper depths of 150 to 200 metres. These fishes are typically encountered buried in the sediment with their eyes and venomous dorsal spines exposed. Envenomation can cause serious injuries or death. These fishes feed primarily on small invertebrates and fishes. Reproduction occurs during spring and summer. Eggs are oviparous, larvae are pelagic. Weeverfishes are typically taken in trawls and with various forms of artisanal gear such as traps, tines, and beach seines. They are consumed in many localities and marketed fresh (Smith in prep 2012).

threats:
Echiichthys vipera is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries in parts of its range, however there is no species-specific data available.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for E. vipera. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. Echiichthys was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species does not appear to be utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic. Echiichthys vipera is frequently found in markets in the Eastern Central Atlantic, but is not of great commercial importance. Separate statistics are not reported for this species. It is caught mainly with bottom trawls and various types of artisanal gear such as traps, lines and beach seines (Smith in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: LC Trachinus araneus is found in the eastern Atlantic, from Morocco to southern Angola. Its range extends north into the Mediterranean, and along the Atlantic coast of Europe to southern Portugal. It is found to depths of 100 metres over sandy substrates. It appears to be both common and abundant, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean. This species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries and is sometimes marketed, but this is not considered a major threat at this time. This species is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, T. araneus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachinus araneus is found in the eastern Atlantic, from Morocco to southern Angola. Its range extends north into the Mediterranean, and along the Atlantic coast of Europe to southern Portugal. In the Mediterranean, T. araneus occurs in the entire basin (Akin et al. 2005). It is found to depths of 100 metres (Smith in press).

population:
Trachinus araneus appears to be common and abundant in parts of its range, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean. In the eastern Mediterranean, Trachinus areneus was ranked 24 by CPUE, with a mean CPUE of 0.59 (Akin et al. 2005). In Turkey, where this species is landed, it was among the top 20 most-abundant species and was landed at a rate of 0.10kg/hr (Akyol et al. 2011). In the eastern Adriatic, this species ranked 54th in abundance in trammel net catches from 1995 to 2009.

habitat:
Trachinus araneus was first described from the western Mediterranean Sea. Trachinus araneus is found in shallow waters from the coastline to about 100 m depth, burrowing in the sand. The first dorsal-fin spines and the spine on the gill cover are venomous. It feeds primarily on small invertebrates and small fishes (Smith in press). Trachinids are littoral or benthic fishes which inhabit sandy or muddy bottoms, typically on the continental shelf but also at deeper depths of 150 to 200 m. These fishes are typically encountered buried in the sediment with their eyes and venomous dorsal spines exposed. Envenomation can cause serious injuries or death. These fishes feed primarily on small invertebrates and fishes. Reproduction occurs during spring and summer. Eggs are oviparous, larvae are pelagic. Weeverfishes are typically taken in trawls and with various forms of artisanal gear such as traps, tines, and beach seines. They are consumed in many localities and marketed fresh (Smith in press). This species reaches a maximum size of 45 cm SL.

threats:
Trachinus araneus is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries in parts of its range. Specifically, this species is discarded in demersal trawls in the Northwestern Mediterranean, and is likely taken as unwanted trawl bycatch throughout its range (Sánchez et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for T. araneus. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Trachinus araneus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachinus araneus is frequently found in markets, but is not of great commercial importance. It is landed in Turkey (Akyol et al. 2011) and in the Northern Adriatic Sea (Barausse et al. 2011). Separate catch statistics are not reported for this species. It is caught mainly with bottom trawls and various types of artisanal gear (e.g. traps, lines, beach seines)(Smith in press).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Herrera, J., Heessen, H. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Trachinus draco is known from Morocco to Mauritania, to the Canary Islands, and Madeira. Its range extends northward into the Mediterranean and Black Seas up the Atlantic coast to Norway and the northern part of the Danish Straits. It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 200 metres over sandy substrates. It is regularly found in local markets in Morocco, Canary Islands, and Madeira. Although Trachinus draco is commercially important in parts of its range, and is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries, separate landings statistics are not reported. There is no evidence that T. draco is experiencing population declines. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for T. draco. It can be found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Trachinus draco is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachinus draco is known from Morocco to Mauritania, to the Canary Islands, and Madeira. Its range extends northward into the Mediterranean and Black Seas up the Atlantic coast to Norway and the northern part of the Danish Straits (Whitehead et al. 1989). The Greater Weever is a marine species commonly occurring and reproducing in Kattegat, and in the Baltic in the Belt Seas and the Sound (HELCOM 2013). It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 200 metres (Smith in press).

population:
Landings and fisheries-independent surveys Greater Weever landings are declared from the following FAO regions: Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea. The overall trend in landings is one of dramatic fluctuations with a general increase in landings over time. The majority of landings are declared from the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone. Within this fishing zone, the majority of recent landings are declared by Sweden (FAO 2011). In the waters of Kattegat, Denmark, T. draco, a commercial species which is used as bait and also for human consumption, landings peaked at around 1,000 tonnes in 1957, and then gradually declined to around 100 tonnes in the early 70s. After a subsequent peak to 500 tonnes, recent landings have declined to 40 tonnes. The catch record for Sweden is incomplete and appears well correlated to landings in Denmark. The pound-net fishery, which operated from May-September, accounted for 41% of the landings from 1952 to 1976. This fishery has mostly been abandoned in favor of trawl fishing, which occasionally target this species directly, but more often take it as bycatch (Bagge 2004). In the Baltic Sea, both monitory data and commercial landings show a positive trend in the last decades. Swedish International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) data in the Kattegat shows no long term trend in sampling in the first quarter but data from the third quarter sampling between 1991 and 2010 shows a strong increase after 2000. The same pattern is seen in a coastal bottom trawl monitoring in Kattegat. The German Acoustic survey only dates back to 1995 but show the same pattern of increase in Kattegat as well as in Öresund and the Belt Seas in the 2000s. Swedish commercial landings from Kattegat 1999 and 2011 show a drastic increase from less than 10 tonnes yearly before 2006 to almost 800 tonnes in 2011 (HELCOM Red List Assessments)Trachinus draco is taken in the IBTS in the Kattegat both in the first and third quarter of the year. Swedish IBTS in Kattegat show no long term trend in sampling in the first quarter but data from the third quarter sampling between 1991 to 2010 shows a strong increase after 2000. The same pattern is seen in a coastal bottom trawl monitoring in Kattegat. The German Acoustic survey only dates back to 1995 but show the same pattern of increase in Kattegat as well as in Öresund and the Belt Seas in the 2000s. Swedish commercial landings from Kattegat 1999 to 2011 show a drastic increase from less than 10 tonnes yearly before 2006 to almost 800 tonnes in 2011 (HELCOM Red List Assessments) General population information In the Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean, T. draco was the most abundant member of the Trachinidae, captured with a 49% frequency of occurrence (Massutí and Reñones 2005). Trachinus draco accounted for 1.95% of the commercial catches taken in beach-seines in the Aegean coast of Turkey (Akyol et al. 2003). In a study of species and size selectivity in a Portuguese multi-species artisanal long-line fishery, T. draco was among the six species which contributed 81% of the total catch by weight, and there was no difference in size-selectivity detected (Erzini et al. 1996). In a study of length-weight relationships of fishes off the coast of Portugal, T. draco was the most abundant species collected. Individuals ranged in size from 11.8 to 39.6 cm, with a mean size of 24.3 cm (Santos et al. 2002). The standardized mean catch rate of T. draco in the North Sea in 1906 to 1909 ranged from 178 fish/hour of fishing to 3.6 fish/hour of fishing, depending on the survey. From 1990 to 1995, T. draco was absent from surveys of the North Sea. It disappeared from the North Sea during a severe winter in the 1960s (Rijnsdorp et al. 1996, H. Heessen pers. comm. 2014). This species is very concentrated in the Kattegat and Skaggerak, as well as the Bay of Biscay (Heessen in prep. 2014, P. Fernandes pers. comm.). It is also common along the Iberian Peninsula, on soft bottoms (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Trachinus draco burrowing in the substrate, from the coastline to about 200 meters depth, but more commonly between 20 and 50 meters, migrating into deeper waters (to 100 m) during winter. It is pelagic at night (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It is most abundant in waters of moderate salinity, and has a preference for sandy bottoms (Damalas et al. 2010). A study by Demestre et al. (2000) suggests that this species is characteristic of habitats which are directly influenced by seagrass meadows, primarily Posidonia oceanica. Life History Trachinus draco reaches a maximum size of 53 cm (IGFA 2001), however it is more commonly seen to about 25 cm. In Denmark, both male and females reach spawning condition in July, and the spawning season is restricted from June to August, peaking in July. Females are slightly larger than males of similar age, and among the larger and older age groups females are more numerous. Males and females are difficult to separate at age 1. The oldest individuals recorded in the Kattegat were 14 years old (Bagge 2004).  In the Black Sea, the age of first maturity was 1+ year and the first reproduction length was 12.01 cm for females. The maximum age was 6+ years for females and 5+ years for males (Ak and Genç 2013). Mortality coefficients (F) are in the range 0.3 to 0.4. The correlations between fecundity, and length and weight were significant (n=57; 10-3 X F = 0.0031 X L3.1093; r2 = 0.543; 10-3 X F = 0.06243 X W - 2.2581; r2 = 0.5524; p<0.001). The first dorsal-fin spines and the spine on the gill cover are venomous. This species feeds chiefly on small invertebrates such as mysids and decapods, as well as small fishes (Smith in press 2012). The Greater Weever spawns during summer in shallow coastal waters with soft bottoms with sand or gravel. During winter it migrates to deeper area down to 150 m. This species often lays buried with just the eyes and tip of first dorsal fin exposed. The first dorsal fin rays, as well as the spine on the pre-operculum contains venomous spines protecting the species from predators. During night the Greater Weever leaves the burrow to feed on small invertebrates and fishes. Adults normally reach a total length of 25 cm.Family Trachinidae Trachinids are littoral or benthic fishes which inhabit sandy or muddy bottoms, typically on the continental shelf but also at deeper depths of 150 to 200 metres. These fishes are typically encountered buried in the sediment with their eyes and venomous dorsal spines exposed. Envenomation can cause serious injuries or death. These fishes feed primarily on small invertebrates and fishes. Reproduction occurs during spring and summer. Eggs are oviparous, larvae are pelagic. Weeverfishes are typically taken in trawls and with various forms of artisanal gear such as traps, lines, and beach seines. They are consumed in many localities and marketed fresh (Smith in press).

threats:
Trachinus draco is commercially important in parts of its range, and is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries. It is not in any way protected by legislation or management, although it moves little, grows slowly, has high catch-ability, and has been exposed to high total mortality (Bagge 2004).

conservationAction:
Trachinus draco is has not been and still is not in any way protected by legislation or management, although it moves little, grows slowly, has high catchability, and has been exposed to high total mortality (Bagge 2004). Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. Trachinus draco has undergone Regional Red List Assessment in the Baltic Sea. It was assessed as Least Concern due to increasing population trends between 1991 to 2010 detected by the fisheries-independent International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Kattegat, which is corroborated by trends in landings in the region (Regional HELCOM RedList Assessment project). Trachinus draco was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachinus draco is regularly found in local markets in Morocco, Canary Islands, and Madeira. It is also found in some Spanish markets (i.e., Huelva: J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014). Separate statistics are not reported for this species. It is caught mainly with bottom trawls and artisanal gear (e.g. traps, lines) and is marketed fresh (Smith in press). In the Black Sea, this species is mainly taken as bycatch with purse seines, bottom trawl, and gill nets (Ak and Genç 2013). In Denmark, since at least 1834, this species has been landed as by-catch poundnet fisheries which operate at depths which are generally <20 m depth. Specimens > 25 cm are considered a valuable export for human consumption. It is used as bait on longlines and for local human consumption, as well as for fodder for trout farming. An increase in trout farming after the second World War led to increasing demand for fodder, which led to increased effort in the Danish industrial fishery deploying small-meshed gear (Bagge 2004).

redListAssessors:
Heessen, H., Fernandes, P., Collette, B., Herrera, J. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)  Listed as Data Deficient as the information on the species in Europe is limited and there is no information on its population size and trend. It is taken occasionally by trawl and artisanal fisheries, but separate catch statistics are not reported for this species and the effects of potential trends should be studied. Further research should be conducted to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
In European waters, Trachinus pellegrini is found in the Canary Islands. However, the inclusion of the Canary Islands in some published old catalogues (Roux 1990) was not validated (Brito et al. 2002). Nonetheless, it has been recently recorded from the Canary Islands (several specimens were caught off Fuerteventura Island), enlarging its general bathymetric range to 188 m depth and establishing a new northern limit of the species distribution (Almón et al. 2012). The range of the species also extends to the tropical coast of Cape Verde, West Africa, Senegal to Cameroon. Its range likely extends south to Gabon, as it has been recorded in the Nansen survey off the coast of Gabon (coordinates (S2 32.7, E9 13.7)). It has also been recorded in Mauritania (Maurin 1968). It is found at depths ranging from coastal waters to 188 metres depth.

population:
There is little species-specific population information in place for T. pellegrini, as in Europe it is known only from several specimens caught off Fuerteventura. The population of the species is represented by two lots in museum collections (FishNet2 2014). It is rare in the southern portion of its range (Gabon), but it is also reported to be common in some areas.

habitat:
Trachinus pellegrini is a benthic fish, inhabiting rocky, muddy sandy bottoms in littoral areas and coastal waters on the continental shelf, but also at deeper depths of around 150-200 m. These fishes are typically encountered buried in the sediment with their eyes and venomous dorsal spines exposed. The first dorsal-fin spines and the spine on the gill cover are venomous; envenomation is the cause of serious injuries or death. They feed primarily on small invertebrates and fishes. Reproduction occurs during spring and summer; the eggs are oviparous and the larvae pelagic. It reaches a maximum size of 21.5 cm (Cadenat 1937).

threats:
Trachinus pellegrini is caught occasionally with bottom trawls and with various forms of artisanal gear such as traps, tines and beach seines. There is no further information on the potential threats to the species.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, and it is unknown whether it is found in protected areas. Further research is needed on the population trend and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Trachinus pellegrini is caught occasionally with bottom trawls and with various forms of artisanal gear such as traps, tines, and beach seines. They are consumed in many localities and marketed fresh (Smith in prep. 2012). Separate catch statistics are not reported for this species.

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., de Bruyne, G., de Morais, L. & Stump, E.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Trachinus radiatus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is found from Gibraltar southward to Angola, including the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean Sea. It occurs at depths of 10 to 150 metres and is found over sandy and muddy bottoms. It appears be be uncommon in the assessment zone; however, it becomes more common further south in warmer waters. This species is occasionally taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its range, and is sometimes marketed but more typically discarded. There is no evidence of population declines. Therefore, T. radiatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, Trachinus radiatus is found from Gibraltar southward to Angola. It has been reported from the Canary Islands (Uiblein et al. 1998). It occurs at depths of 10 to 150 metres (Smith in press). This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea, including the Aegean Sea (Stergiou et al. 2002) and the eastern Mediterranean (Golani et al. 2006).

population:
Many Trachinus radiatus were captured off the Canary Islands (Uiblein et al. 1998). This species was considered on of the most (numerically) important components of the demersal assemblage off Congo and Gabon (Bianchi 1992). Trachinus radiatus was not among the 7 species which dominated sandy bottoms in Ibiza, Spain (Fischer et al. 2007). It appears to be relatively uncommon in the eastern Mediterranean (Edelist et al. 2011).

habitat:
Trachinus radiatus inhabits sand and mud bottoms of the continental shelf between the coastline and 150 metres depth, burying in the substrate. The first dorsal-fin spines and the spine on the gill cover are venomous. It reaches a maximum size of 45 cm, but is more commonly seen to 25 cm (Smith in press). There was no correlation between size and depth in T. radiatus in the Canary Islands (Uiblein et al. 1998). Family Trachinidae Trachinids are littoral or benthic fishes which inhabit sandy or muddy bottoms, typically on the continental shelf but also at deeper depths of 150 to 200 metres. These fishes are typically encountered buried in the sediment with their eyes and venomous dorsal spines exposed. Envenomation can cause serious injuries or death. These fishes feed primarily on small invertebrates and fishes. Reproduction occurs during spring and summer. Eggs are oviparous, larvae are pelagic. Weeverfishes are typically taken in trawls and with various forms of artisanal gear such as traps, lines, and beach seines. They are consumed in many localities and marketed fresh (Smith in press).

threats:
Trachinus radiatus is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries of the Mediterranean coast of Egypt (Alsayes et al. 2009). In Mediterranean waters off the coast of Israel, this species is captured relatively infrequently and is discarded 100% of the time (Edelist et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for T. radiatus. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas. Trachinus radiatus benefits from marine protected areas. Whereas inside the marine protected area, CPUE for this species was 0.037, outside of the protected area it was 0.009 (Stobart et al. 2009). Trachinus radiatus was assessed as Least Concern in the regional Mediterranean Red List Assessments (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trachinus radiatus is taken occasionally by trawl and artisanal fisheries, but is reported to be common in some areas. Separate catch statistics are not reported for this species. It is caught with bottom trawls and marketed fresh (Smith in press). In the eastern Mediterranean, this species is discarded from the Israeli trawl fishery 100% of the time (Edelist et al. 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Aphanopus carbo is generally distributed on both sides of the North Atlantic and on seamounts and ridges south to about 30°N. In the northeastern Atlantic, A. carbo is found over various seamounts as well as the offshore islands of Madeira and the Azores. Aphanopus carbo exists in sympatry with A. intermedius in the Azores. The southern portion of the range (Canary Islands, northwestern coast of Africa) of A. carbo is unclear due to the existence of the morphologically similar congener A. intermedius. This is notable because A. carbo undergoes large-scale migrations and reproductively mature individuals have only been found in the southern portion of the range. Aphanopus carbo is a commercial species; the fishery in the northern part of the range is based entirely on reproductively immature individuals, while that off the coast of Portugal is based individuals of adult size but these individuals do not achieve spawning off continental Portugal. Only individual caught around Madeira and the Canary Islands are fully mature and these areas are the only known spawning areas of the species. Aphanopus carbo is found at depths ranging from 180 to 1600 m. This species has traditionally been landed in long-line fisheries of offshore islands, and has more recently (early 1990s) been targeted by trawl fisheries operating on the continental slope in the northeast Atlantic. Large declines in CPUE (>80%) accompanied the onset of these northern slope trawl fisheries, which have recently shown signs of reversal. Aphanopus carbo is managed with TACs throughout European waters.  Landings since 2003 follow TACs set in the European Commission regulation which have been decreased from 2012 to 2013. As a result, trend of landings in the past decade reflect rather the regulation than the fish abundance. Global landings declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show 41% declines in landings since the early 2000s in the northeast Atlantic fishing zone, and 71% decrease in landings in the neighboring Eastern Central Atlantic fishing zone since the 1990s, despite a generalized increase in fishing effort in that region. While fisheries in the northern parts of the range are well regulated, and TACs enforced, the spawning grounds of this species are in the southern portion of the range where illegal fishing practices, foreign fishing pressure, lack of control and surveillance, fish habitat loss and high rates of discards have led to the over-exploitation of demersal resources. This species is assessed as Least Concern owing to estimated trends in the Northeast Atlantic, where the abundance has been stable and the harvest rate declining over the past ten years. There is a lack of clarity regarding the southern boundary of this species' range where all known spawning activity occurs, the potential of two species being represented in catches from the southern portion of the range, the decline in landings in the Eastern Central Atlantic despite increased fishing pressure which may be indicative of a true population reduction, and the threat of unregulated exploitation from multiple fisheries operating in the southern portion of this species' range. However, the existence of one single stock that migrates around the NE Atlantic is considered consistent with all available studies so that the stable abundance in northern areas suggest that the whole population is stable.

range:
Aphanopus carbo is generally distributed on both sides of the North Atlantic and on seamounts and ridges south to about 30°N (ICES 2012). Specific confirmed records within the assessment zone include the Atlantic, Plato, Irving and Great Meteor Seamounts (Stefanni et al. 2009) and Madeira (Parin in press) and the Azores (Stefanni and Knutsen 2007). The specific geographic distribution of this species is somewhat unclear due to confusion arising from the presence of a recently described sister species, A. intermedius, which largely replaces this species in the eastern central Atlantic. Records of A. carbo from Cape Verde are likely misidentifications of A. intermedius. Additionally, records from the Canary Islands are questionable, which is of significance because the Canary Islands have been identified as a spawning location (ICES 2012). This species is broadly distributed, occurring at depths ranging from 180 to 1600 m.

population:
Population structure The results of micro-chemical otolith analysis, used for the purposes of stock delineation, were inconclusive (Swan et al. 2003), and the stock status/structure of this species is currently unknown (ICES 2012). Phylogeographic analysis using the mTcontrol region and cytochrome b markers revealed two distinct, strongly differentiated clades which lacked a clear geographic pattern. Possible hypotheses include vicariance, followed by secondary contact within the species A. carbo, or the unexpected presence of a second, recently described, sympatric tropical species A. intermedius. Sequences of A. intermedius from Angola were extremely similar to the A. carbo phylogroup corresponding with the southern coast of Pico Island, Azores, suggesting that the two species may exist in sympatry in the Azores (Stefanni and Knutsen 2007). Aphanopus carbo and A. intermedius differ by geographic distribution, maximum adult size, and vertebral count. External distinguishing characters are absent (Parin 1986, Stefanni and Knutsen 2007). A PCR-based method for the rapid identification of A. intermedius and A. carbo has recently been developed (Stefanni et al. 2009). Regional population information Aphanopus carbo is common off Madeira islands, where it supports a dedicated fishery (Morales-Nin and Sena-Carvalho 1996). Exploratory deep-water trawling surveys to the west of the British Isles in the 1970s and early 80s showed that this species was one of the dominant species at depths of 600 to 1000 m (Bridger 1978, Ehrich 1983). Catch of this species west of the British Isles is mainly supported by sexually immature individuals (Lorance and Dupouy 2001). Aphanopus carbo is a rare species in the Eastern Central Atlantic (Parin in press). With the decline in catches of traditional gadoid species on the continental shelf, increased effort from 1989 onwards has been directed at slope fisheries in the north east Atlantic. Aphanopus carbo was one of the five main species caught during deep-water voyages by French commercial trawlers in the early 1990s. It has been increasingly targeted by the Portuguese, French, and Irish fishing fleets (Gordon et al. 2003, Large et al. 2003, ICES 2006, Bordalo-Machado and Figueiredo 2009). Global aggregated landings data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) over the past 10 years show a decline of 47%, from 18,088 tonnes in 2001 to 14,829 tonnes in 2011. Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions, in order of decreasing recent landings: Northeast Atlantic (NEA), Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA), Northwest Atlantic, Western Central Atlantic. Landings have declined steadily since the early 2000s in the NEA (approximately 46%). Despite a generalized increase in fishing effort in northwestern Africa (Anticamara et al. 2011), landings in the ECA fishing zone have declined by 71% since the 1990s.   Information from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Prior to the 2014 benchmark meeting  A. carbo was arbitrarily managed in three management units: The Northern (ICES subareas Vb, VI, VII, and XIIb), Southern ( ICES Subareas VIII and IX), and Other (ICES subarea I, II, IIIa, IV, X, Va, and XIV) areas. Based upon linkage between Northern and Southern management units (the population is a single stock doing a clockwise migration in these areas), the status for all areas was considered as a whole as of 2014. Results from the 2014 benchmark meeting indicated that the abundance in the considered areas did not show a clear upward or downward trend. Mature individuals only occur in Madeira and the Canary Islands and Northwest Africa, though it is possible that two different species may occur in these areas (ICES 2014).  Within the southern Area, A. carbo, off Portugal and the Azores, the large majority of landings originating from subarea IX, the Azores. Annual LPUE estimates from subarea IXa show a reversal of a period of decline starting in 2000 and continuing onwards to 2012. CPUE from 1995 onwards in the southern area has been relatively stable. Average landings from subarea IX since 2000 are 3,110 tonnes per year and are relatively stable. Catches of A. carbo account for 49.3% of total landings from subarea IX and VII, off the coast of Portugal. Indications in this area is that stocks are stable, with recommendations to increase catches. Sex ratios are unbalanced, favoring females (ICES 2009, 2012).  In the northern parts of the range of A. carbo, sexually immature individuals dominate commercial landings. In the Northern Area, A. carbo is primarily taken in subarea VI, in mixed-trawl fisheries along with Roundnose grenadier and Blue Ling (ICES Advice 9.4.16.1 2012). In the Northern Area, indicators (declines in LPUE for French Trawlers) show a decline in abundance since 1990. In Subareas Vb and XIIb and Divisions VI and II, CPUE declined to about 20% of initial levels in the early 1990s, when the fishery was first created following the collapse of Orange Roughy fisheries. This represents a decline of approximately 80% in approximately 20 years. Advice for this region was that catches should be constrained to no more than 3700 tonnes (ICES 2014).    ICES advises on the basis of the approach to data-limited stocks that there should be annual catches of no more than 2802 t in Subareas VI, VII, and Divisions Vb, IXIIb, annual catches of no more than 2726 t in Subarea VIII and Division IXa, and annual catches of no more than 366 t in the adjacent areas (Subareas I, II, IV, X, and XIV, and Divisions IIIa and Va) (ICES Advice 2014 Book 9).

habitat:
Aphanopus carbo is a benthoplagic species which occurs at 180 to 1,600 metres depth. In Madeira, this species occurs mainly at depth layers of 700 to 1,300 m, which is characterized by layers of low dissolved oxygen, small salinity gradients, high nutrient values, and a temperature range of 8.5 to 10.5°C. The juveniles are mesopelagic. This species migrates to mid-water at night, and feeds on crustaceans and fishes. It has an affinity for epi-pelagic and benthopelagic species. Aphanopus carbo reaches sexual maturity at 80 cm (Parin FAO guide in press 2012). Aphanopus carbo is a relatively fast-growing species living up to 15 years (ICES 2012). FAO reports the lifespan of this species as 12 to 14 years (Morales-Nin et al. 2002, Figueiredo et al. 2003). Vieria et al. (2009) estimated a maximum age of 15 years in Madeira. The von Bertalanffy growth curve describing species growth was TL = 138.6 {1 − exp[−0.251(t + 2.284)]}, where TL is total length and t age (years). Males grow at slightly lower rate than females (Morales-Nin and Sena-Carvalho 1996). Reproduction The life cycle of A. carbo is not fully understood. This species has a primary spawning area at the southern range of its distribution, in Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the northwest coast of Africa (ICES 2012, Figueiredo et al., 2003, Pajuelo et al., 2008). There is uncertainty as to whether the population in the Canary Islands consists of A. carbo or the congeneric A. intermedia. Sexually mature A. carbo are captured at Madeira, where spawning takes place from November to December. Only spent individuals have been captured off mainland Portugal (Morales-Nin and Sena-Carvalho 1996). Only sexually immature individuals have been captured in Rockall Trough, ranging in size from 80 to 110 cm TL, and immature individuals dominate landings from commercial deep-water fisheries in the northern parts of its range (Swan et al. 2003). In Madeira, 50% of the population is sexually mature at lengths of 103 cm (Figueiredo et al. 2003). In the Canary Islands, 2 to 3 year old females range in size from 1120 mm and 1220 mm TL, and this species reaches a maximum reported age of 12 years (Pajuelo et al. 2008). It is inferred from the above information that sexual maturity in A. carbo is reached between ages 2 and 3. Family Trichiuridae Trichiurids are benthopelagic on continental shelves and slopes, and underwater rises from surface to about 1600 meters depths. These fishes are voracious predators feeding on fishes, squids and crustaceans. The eggs and larvae are pelagic (Parin in press).

threats:
Exploitation Aphanopus carbo is a targeted and bycatch species within the assessment area. In the northern portion of its range, the relative abundance index for this stock has declined to about 20% of its initial level. As the start of the CPUE series may not correspond to the start of the fishery, the true decline is likely to be greater than this. However, in several areas a reversal of this declining trend has been seen since the early 2000s (ICES 2009). Heavy metals Aphanopus carbo, captured off the continental coast of Portugal or in the Azores and Madeira archipelagos is known to present considerable levels of heavy metal contamination, particularly of the highly toxic methyl-mercury. Limits on consumption have been advised, particularly for human populations in Madeira. (Cardoso et al. 2010). Intrinsic vulnerability Aphanopus carbo has been considered a low-productivity species which can only sustain low rates of exploitation (ICES 2012).  However the maximum longevity estimated to 12-15 years suggests a moderate generation time and population dynamics similar to that of numerous shelf fish species. The life history and population structure of A. carbo are poorly understood although the existence of one single population tht migrates around the NE Atlantic driven by feeding and reproduction is the most likely hypothesis consistent with available data (Farias et al. 2013) Global threats While fisheries in the northern parts of the range are relatively well regulated and regulations are relatively well enforced, the only known spawning grounds of this species are in the southern portion of the range. Off the coast of northwest Africa illegal fishing practices, foreign fishing pressure, lack of control and surveillance, fish habitat loss and high rates of discards have led to the over-exploitation of some resources (Belhabib et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Aphanopus carbo is considered a Data Deficient Stock by ICES, and there is increasing interest in collecting needed biological data for its assessment. It has been managed by European Union (EU) vessels fishing in EU and international waters since 2003, with the implementation of Total Allowable Catches. These have been systematically overshot (ICES 2012). In 2002, the European Union passed measure PSM55 - Restrictions on landing/transhipment, applying to EU vessels (Council Regulation (EC) No 2347/2002 of 16 December 2002 establishing specific access requirements and associated conditions applicable to fishing for deep-sea stocks, article 3(1).

useAndTrade:
In the Northeast Atlantic, this species is taken in mixed-trawl fisheries along with Roundnose Grenadier and Blue Ling (ICES Advice 9.4.16.1 2012). Madeira longline fishery Aphanopus carbo is commercially exploited in Madeira (Parin in press) and on the continental slope of Portugal (Martins et al. 1989) by long-line fishery. It is caught primarily by long-line, with squid as bait (McDuffie et al. 2005). The Madeira fishery captures fishes ranging in size from 54 to 151 cm TL, which includes immature individuals. It is a highly-valued species which commands a good price. The Madeira fishery was first documented in the early 19th century (Morales-Nin and Sena-Carvalho 1996). Effort and yields increased substantially with the introduction of engine propulsion in the 1950s, and again with changes in techniques for setting drifting long-line gears and the discovery of new fishing grounds in the early 1980s  Landings of this species increased substantially from about 1,500 tonnes in 1985 to nearly 3500 tonnes in 1992 (Martins and Ferreira 1995). Landings in Madeira reached a maximum value of around 4400 tonnes in 1998 and since have steadily decreased to just below 3000 tonnes in 2007 (Bordalo-Machado et al. 2009). The number of vessels active in this fishery has progressively decreased over time. However gear efficiency has increased mainly though an increase in the number of hooks per line set (FAO FIRMS 2012 to 2013). Commercial deep-water slope fishery With the decline in catches of traditional gadoid species on the continental shelf, increased effort from 1989 onwards has been directed at slope fisheries in the northeast Atlantic. Aphanopus carbo was one of the five main species caught during deep-water voyages by French commercial trawlers in the early 1990s. It has been increasingly targeted by the Portuguese, French, and Irish fishing fleets (Gordon et al. 2003, Large et al. 2003, ICES 2006, Bordalo-Machado and Figueiredo 2009). Landings by French commercial vessels operating in the north east Atlantic increased from 0 tonnes in 1988 to 12,219 tonnes in 1992 (Charuau et al. 1995). Aphanopus carbo is an important component of the mixed bottom trawl fisheries in Rockall Trough, N.E. Atlantic (Swan et al. 2003). Portuguese continental waters Exploitation of this species expanded to Portuguese continental waters in 1983 (Ribeiro Santos et al. 2013). It is taken primarily in long-line fisheries.

redListAssessors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Collette, B., Heessen, H. & Herrera, J.


taxonomicNotes:
Aphanopus intermedius is easily confused with A. carbo the areas where both species occur, because there are no conspicuous external characteristics that differentiate the two species (Nakamura and Parin 1993, Parin 1995). Biscoito et al. (2011), analysed  both species in terms of genetic and morphological features and stated that they could not be correctly identified in a classical taxonomic way and a full separation of the two species could only be achieved through the use of a combination of morphometric and meristic characters in a numerical taxonomic approach. Sequences of two markers  (control region and cytochrome b) of A. intermedius from Angola were extremely similar to the A. carbo phylogroup corresponding with the southern coast of Pico Island, Azores, suggesting that the two species may exist in sympatry in the Azores (Stefanni and Knutsen 2007). Aphanopus carbo and A. intermedius differ by geographic distribution, maximum adult size, and vertebral count; and external distinguishing characters are absent (Parin 1983, Stefanni and Knutsen 2007). A PCR-based method for the rapid identification of A. intermedius and A. carbo has recently been developed (Stefanni et al. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as this benthopelagic species is widespread and fairly common. Due to its close resemblance to A. carbo and co-occurrence, the species is likely taken in commercial fisheries and not reported as such. Fisheries for A. carbo have seen significant catch declines in the North Atlantic, which includes the Canaries, where A. intermedius also occurs and is likely also taken in this fishery; and the species is also commercially exploited in Madeira and possibly in other parts of its range. Therefore, further research should be conducted on the geographic range and population trend of this species.

range:
Aphanopus intermedius is found in moderately tropical and warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, it is known from off the western Sahara, Mauritania, Gabon, Namibia and well as from underwater rises in southwestern parts of the area. This species also occurs off Angola (Parin 1990, Stefanni and Knutsen 2007) and the Cape Verde Islands (Monteiro pers. comm. 2013).In European waters, A. intermedius occurs in the Canaries (Brito et al. 2002). Stefanni and Knutsen (2007) stated that this species exists in sympatry with A. carbo in the Azores. Biscoito et al. (2011) confirmed the presence of these sympatric species in the Azores, Madeira and the Canaries and elsewhere off the coasts of Morocco and Western Sahara. This study confirmed that A. carbo is the only species that reaches mainland Europe and that the northern distribution limit of the Intermediate Scabbardfish is the Azorean waters.The species is present at depths ranging from 800 to 1,300 m.

population:
Aphanopus intermedius and A. carbo are easily confused and are likely to have a sympatric distribution, and catches are likely to report both species together, providing no separate catch statistics for the species.  Considering the distribution of A. intermedius in the Eastern Central Atlantic and assuming this species is not caught by the mainland Portugal Black Scabbard fishery (Biscoito et al. 2011), the Madeira fishery of Scabbardfishes is the only major exploitation targeting these two species indistinctly. There was a considerable decline in landings which originate in the Eastern Central Atlantic, reported by the Madeira fleet. They have declined by 52%, from 4,008 tonnes in 2001, to 1,913 tonnes in 2014. However, in the last five years the trend of the landings is stable, with around 1,840 tonnes in average.   However, in interpreting population trends based on the unloadings of this fishery, several factors need to be considered. The first is connected with the considerable reduction of the fleet from 2009 onwards, following two adjustment plans implemented to reduce fishing effort. The second is the considerable geographical expansion of the fishery from 2005 onwards, reaching fishing grounds located off the Canaries and south of Azores: Great Meteor, Hyères and Irving seamounts; and some changes in the fishing methodologies (namely the time of immersion of the longlines) that may have increased the capturability of the fishery and changed the proportion of A. intermedius in the catches.

habitat:
Trichiurids are benthopelagic on continental shelves and slopes, and underwater rises from surface to about 1,600 m deep. These fishes are voracious predators feeding on fishes, squids and crustaceans. The eggs and larvae are pelagic (Parin in press 2012). In the European waters off the archipelagos of Madeira, Azores and the Canaries, this benthopelagic species is present in sympatry with A. carbo. Specimens of A. intermedius collected from the unloadings of the commercial fishery of Madeira using mid-water drifting longlines, corresponding to about 20% of total unloadings of Scabbardfishes, were compared with A. carbo respect to their population structure, age and growth and reproduction (Delgado et al. 2013). The study showed clear differences between both species in the length-frequency distribution and growth. Intermediate Scabbardfish individuals varied between 105.4 and 148.0 cm TL, and attained a mean size of 128.3cm TL; they were most common from 126 to 136 cm TL. It was estimated a maximum age for Intermediate Scabbardfish of 15 years, reaching a greater length (females attaining greater lengths and having a lower growth rate than males) and growing more slowly than the Black Scabbardfish. In both species, females in mature stages were encountered mostly from October to December.

threats:
Aphanopus intermedius is commercially exploited in parts of its range, notably off the Madeira and Canary archipelagos and in seamounts in international waters south of Azores (Great Meteor, Hyères and Irving).

conservationAction:
There are measures in place regulating the fishing opportunities targeting A. carboin the north and central eastern Atlantic fishing areas, under Regulation (EU) 2347/2002, disposing, among others, the applicable fishing effort and also the TAC available for the 2015-2016 biennium: Regulation (EU) 1367/20014. The European Union has thus established for 2015 a Total Allowable Catches of 10,499 tonnes to be used in ICES and CECAF fishing areas, mainly by the French and Portuguese (Sesimbra and Madeira) fisheries. Deep-sea stocks, given its biological characteristics and vulnerability to fishery,are limited as to the fishing opportunities exercised by European fleets in differentAtlantic fisheries. The Regulation 2347/2002 established a framework for the maximum capacity and fishing effortlevel that can be applied in the fleet licensing to catch deep water species.Also,in each biennium, there is the establishment of an annual TAC for the species listed in Annex I of that Regulation (including the Black Scabbard fish). The limit for the catches of this species by the Portugal fleet (registered in Madeira) for 2015-2016 (Regulation (EU) 1367/2014) is set at 3,141 and 2,827 tonnes respectively; and this include both Aphanopus carbo and A. intermedius as these species are not separated in the landings.In certain areas (seamounts) off Madeira, Azores and the Canaries, where the species is present, there are some protection measures enforced, namely the prohibition to use certain types of more harmful fishing gears for example gill nets, trammel nets and bottom trawling under 200 m deep (Regulation 1685/2005).Further research should be conducted on the distribution and population trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
The Scabbard fishes (Aphanopus spp.) constitute an important bathyal fishery resource in the north and central eastern areas of the Atlantic Ocean (Gordo 2009). This is an important deep water resource exploited mainly by the French and Portuguese (mainland and Madeira) fleets. The European Union has established for 2015 a Total Allowable Catches (TCA) of 10,499 tonnes to be used in ICES and CECAF fishing areas, mainly by the French and Portuguese (Sesimbra and Madeira) fisheries. In the Macaronesian area, comprising the fishing grounds off Madeira, the seamounts inside Madeira EEZ, the Canaries and south of Azores (Great Meteor, Hyères and Irving seamounts), the Intermediate Scabbarfish represents around 20% of the unloadings of Scabbardfishes caught by the drift longline fisheries operated by the Madeiran fishing fleet operating in all these fishing grounds combined. In average, about 1,840 tonnes per year of Aphanopus intermedius and A. carbo were landed in Madeira in the last five years. Income from first auction sells of Aphanopus spp, landed by the Madeira fishing fleet, yielded around 6.2 million euros in 2014.


redListCategoryRationale:
Europe Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Benthodesmus simonyi is widely distributed along both coasts of the North Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, B. simonyi is known from Iceland and Norway south to Portugal, Madeira, and Canary Islands. It is found at depths of up to 950 m. There is little species-specific population information available for B. simonyi. It does not appear to be commercially utilized, although it may be taken as bycatch. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, B. simonyi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Benthodesmus simonyi is found in the North Atlantic, from off Newfoundland (Canada), Bermuda, and New England (USA) southward to the Gulf of Mexico. To the east, it is found along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Madeira, and Canary Islands (Nakamura and Parin 1993) as well as Cape Verde. It is found to depths of 950 metres.

population:
There is no species-specific population information available for B. simonyi. International Bottom Trawl Survey data from Gulf of Cadiz, Spain, shows no trend in abundance (g/haul and n/haul) in the spring and autumn bottom trawl survey (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Benthodesmus simonyi is found on the continental slope and underwater rises. It is found over seamounts. The juveniles are meso-pelagic (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Benthodesmus simonyi ranged in size from 95 to 123 cm off the Madeira archipelago (Ferreira et al. 2008). It ranges is size from 72 to 103 cm at Sedo Seamount, Azores (Menezes et al. 2012). It reaches depths down to 950 metres (Gordo et al. 2009).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to B. simonyi, however it is likely taken as bycatch in long-line fisheries.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for B. simonyi. Its distribution most likely overlaps with marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for this species. It does not appear to be commercially utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
This species may comprise at least two separate species (Ward et al. 2008), therefore taxonomic research is needed. Cryptic species Lepidopus caudatus shows very high levels of intra-specific divergence (2.75% using the CO1 barcode region) between northern (Atlantic and Mediterranean) and southern (Australasian) clades (Ward et al. 2008). Additionally, there are differences in pigmentation and meristic characters between these main population centers which require further study (FAO 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread in the western Mediterranean basin and the East Atlantic basin, occurring mainly in deeper waters (100-620 m). It is fished commercially in the Mediterranean and there is some indication of a decline in catches from 1993-2009. However, these have not been quantified, and further research and monitoring are needed on the population trend of the species. Although the species is currently listed as Least Concern, it is strongly suggested that the status of stocks of this species in the Mediterranean is closely monitored.

range:
The species is widely distributed through all the oceans. It is found in the eastern Atlantic, from France to Senegal (and possibly South Africa), including the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is also found in Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, UK and Ireland. This wide distribution may actually comprise more than one species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014). It is widespread in the western Mediterranean, and it occurs in Iberian waters (Bozzano et al. 2005, Coll et al. 2006), the Ligurian Sea (Minganti et al. 1996, Tunesi et al. 2005), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005, Reale and Sbrana 2007), the Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), eastern Ionian Sea (Madurell et al. 2004), the Adriatic Sea (Santic et al. 2005), the Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004) and Turkish waters. The species has also been reported at several places in the Levantine Basin (Fishbase 2014). Its depth lower limit is 620 metres, while its upper limit is 100 metres.

population:
The species is apparently relatively uncommon in surface waters in the Mediterranean, and the population in deeper waters is unknown.  Filiz and Bilge (2004) caught 40 specimens (21.9 to 81.5 cm TL) with trawls in March and July of 2003, in the Sgacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea) at depths between 70 and 378 m. Carpentieri et al. (2005) sampled this species during four seasonal 24 hour surveys conducted in July 2001 (18 individuals per 24 hrs), November 2001 (four individuals per 24 hrs) and May 2002 (64 individuals per 24 hrs) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. Gristina et al. (2006) sampled this species during two trawl surveys (in autumn 1997 and 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily. Mean density values varied from four to 42 per km2.  The population trend is unknown, although catches as registered in Eurostat show a severe decline during the period 1993-2009. However, reports on its vulnerability and stock status are contradictory (Figueiredo et al. 2014).

habitat:
It occurs along the shelf and slope down to 450 m in the Catalan Sea. Lepidopus caudatus exhibits fast growth and attains a maximum age of eight years. It feeds on small mesopelagic prey. It is a partial spawner (in that its spawning takes place over a protracted period and in which ripening eggs at very different stages of development can be found at any one time in the same ovary both before and during spawning); and its reproductive activity occurring from April to November. Males attain sexual maturity at 97 cm and females at 111 cm total length (Demestre et al. 1993), and its maximum size is 210 cm (TL).

threats:
This is a species with high commercial importance. It is affected by semi-industrial fishing in Spain and Sicily and craftsmanship. It is mainly caught with purse seines, nets, lamparos, trawls and longlines.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends and threats to the species, and the effects of fishing pressure on the species. Catch statistics should be carefully monitored to determine whether there is a decreasing trend for this fish.

useAndTrade:
This is a species with high commercial importance utilized as a food fish, and it is also utilized for game fishing (Fischer et al. 1987). In the Mediterranean, L. caudatus are landed in the northern and central Tyrrhenian Sea in large quantities, bringing in a high revenue (Reale and Sbrana 2007). In France there is not a high demand for this fish and its market price is low, in contrast to demand in some parts of Italy (P. Francour and L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2007). It is regularly present in the markets of Morocco, occasionally or rarely elsewhere. It is marketed fresh or chilled (Fischer et al. 1987).  Lepidopus caudatus is fished by two types of commercial method, trawl and long-line; catches by the latter method display a marked seasonality. The minimum size of fish caught is 26 cm total length by trawling and 71 cm by long-line. Maximum sizes are similar for both gears: 196 and 188 cm, respectively (Demestre et al. 1993). Catches as registered in Eurostat show a severe decline during the period 1993-2009.

redListContributors:
Garcia, S., Blanco, J., Yokes, B., Pollard, D.A., Kara, M. & Francour, P.


taxonomicNotes:
Although considered a worldwide species by previous authors, T. lepturus is now known with certainty only from the western Atlantic and Indo-west Pacific. The eastern Atlantic population reported as this species is probably an undescribed species. There are multiple lines of evidence showing geographically-correlated divergence and supporting the treatment of at least 3 species in the T. lepturus complex (Chakrabarty and Iwatsuki 2006, Hsu et al. 2009).  Trichiurus japonicus, which was originally described from Japan as Trichiurus lepturus japonicus, was synonymized with Trichiurus lepturus. Another nominal species synonymized with Trichiurus lepturus is Trichiurus nitens from the eastern Pacific Ocean (California to Peru).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Trichiurus lepturus was once considered a single, globally distributed species; however, there is now evidence for the existence of multiple species within the T. lepturus species complex. At the level of the Atlantic Ocean, there is genetic structuring between the eastern and western Atlantic, suggesting barriers to dispersal and possible reproductive isolation of eastern and western Atlantic stocks. In addition, it is possible that T. lepturus is misidentified as Lepidopus caudatus in parts of the assessment zone. It is found over the continental shelf, where it has been reported to depths of 589 metres, however it appears be be more common at depths of 100 to 350 metres, and undergoes diel vertical migrations during feeding which bring it into shallower waters. This species sexually mature by its second year. This species appears to be most abundant in upwelling zones, and there is a large upwelling zone off the North African coast. There is little to no population information available for this species other than landing statistics. Worldwide, T. lepturus is the most commercially important Trichiurid. Based on Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landing statistics in the Atlantic, most landings originate in the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA) fishing region  (averaging 72% from 2001 to 2011), with Senegal, Morocco, and Mauritania representing the majority of landings. Landings in the ECA fishing zone have declined by more than 60% since the 1990s, despite the general increasing trend in fishing effort in the region. The Northeast Atlantic (NEA) and Mediterranean and Black Sea FAO fishing zones account for a small portion (averaging 0 to 5% from 2001 to 2011) of reported landings. Landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone have been increasing since the early 1990s, while those in the NEA have decreased. This species does not appear to be managed in the Atlantic Ocean, and it is unclear whether the trends in landings are representative of trends in population status. Based on the lack of population data and the clear need for taxonomic revision of this species complex, T. lepturus is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) considers T. lepturus to be a single, globally distributed species found in temperate and tropical waters of the world. However, there are multiple lines of evidence showing geographically-correlated divergence and supporting the treatment of at least 3 species in the T. lepturus complex (Hsu et al. 2009, Chakraborty and Iwatsuki 2006). The eastern Atlantic population reported as this species is probably an undescribed species (Chakraborty and Iwatsuki 2006). Within the assessment region, it is commonly found from the southern British Isles to the Mediterranean Sea, with occasional records north to Scandinavia (Parin 1986). It is found to depths of 589 metres, but is more common at depths ranging from 100 to 350 metres.

population:
Population structure: However, Trichiurus lepturus:  type locality South Carolina (Western Atlantic). Trichiurus lepturus: type locality South Carolina (Western Atlantic). Once considered to be a globally distributed species, there are multiple lines of evidence showing geographically-correlated divergence and supporting the existence of multiple species which remain to be described within the T. lepturus complex. Additionally, there is evidence of structuring of this species within the Atlantic basin. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome b, cytochrome oxidase subunit I, and 16S ribosomal RNA) suggested three species in the T. lepturus species complex: Trichiurus lepturus, from the Atlantic (two distinct population centers in the eastern and western Atlantic) and Pacific, the not-yet-valid T. japonicus, from the northwestern Pacific, and an un-described species from the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Hsu et al. 2009). Phylogenetic analysis using a 509 bp segment of the 16S rRNA gene in of T. lepturus indicated three major clades: An Atlantic clade, comprised of two sub-clades containing the haplotypes of West Africa and the Western Atlantic, an Indo-Pacific clade, and a clade representing T. japonicus, which inhabits the Chinese and Japanese coastal waters and is not yet universally accepted as a valid species. Additional unresolved structuring was seen in specimens from Oman/Persian Gulf.  Three to four percent sequence divergence was found between specimens from the western Atlantic and Western Africa/Eastern Atlantic (Chakraborty and Iwatsuki 2006). The degree of sequence divergence between Western African specimens and the Indo-Pacific specimens was 7 to 8%. This degree of sequence divergence is within the range of inter-specific genetic distances seen in marine fishes, and is further supported by geographically correlated meristic and morphometric differences between eastern and western Atlantic specimens of this species (Burhanudin 2003). Given the highly commercial nature of this species the task of revising T. lepturus and communicating this revision remains to be completed and is of high importance. Population information by region: northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea: Once considered a single, globally-distributed species, there is evidence for the existence of multiple species within a complex. At the level of the Atlantic Basin, there is genetic structuring between the eastern and western Atlantic, suggesting barriers to dispersal and possible reproductive isolation of eastern and western Atlantic Stocks. There is little species-specific population information available from the assessment region consisting of the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea, other than landing statistics. In the Northeast Atlantic, T. lepturus occur mainly from the English Channel southward to the northwest coast of Africa, including the Mediterranean. This species inhabits the continental shelf down to 350 to 400 m (occasionally 600 m) and is commercially exploited (Parin 1986). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) common name is Largehead Hairtail. An examination of landing statistics declared to FAO in the Atlantic Basin shows that most landings (average 72% from 2001 to 2011) originate in the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA) fishing zone, with the North African nations of Senegal, Morocco, and Mauritania reporting the majority of landings. It is worth noting that landings in the ECA fishing zone have declined by more than 60% since the 1990s despite a generalized increase in fishing effort in the region (Anticamara et al. 2011). The Northeast Atlantic (NEA) and Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zones account for a small portion (0 to 5% from 2001 to 2011) of landings. Landings in the Mediterranean/Black Sea fishing zone have been increasing since the early 1990s (FAO 2011). In Northern Spanish waters, only two specimens were taken in the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS), in 1989 and 1990 (data available to 2013). The first specimen was taken at depths of 166 metres: 650g weight, second one: 228 metres, weight 419 g, length 82 cm TL both were caught during the day (J. Herrera pers. comm.2014). These surveys are undertaken during day. In fisheries of the Gulf of Cadiz Lepidopus caudatus is targeted, and it is likely that T. lepturus is misidentified as this species in fisheries statistics (J. Gil Hererra pers. comm. 2014).  Global Population Information: Global capture trends in T. lepturus have been stable between 1,100,000 and 1,200,000 tonnes, with slight fluctuations, from 2001 and 2011. The trend is largely driven by landings reported by China. The majority of Chinese landings are reported to have originated in the North Western Pacific; however, China systematically over-reports its domestic landings, and under-reports landings taken by foreign fleets (Pauly et al. 2013). Excluding China, the largest reported landings, in decreasing order, are reported from Korea, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, and Senegal. When examining landing statistics exclusively originating from the Atlantic Ocean, the majority of landings (47 to 85% of landings declared from 2001 to 2011) are from the ECA fishing region. Within the ECA fishing zone, most of the landings are declared from the northwestern African nations of Senegal, Morocco, and Mauritania. It is worth noting that the overall trend in landings in the ECA is one of decline, from a peak of 99202 tonnes in 1990 to 29679 tonnes in 2011, a decrease of roughly 60%. Landings in the Southwest Atlantic are increasing, while the overall trend in landings in the Southeast Atlantic is one of continuous decline since the 1970s. Northeast Atlantic NEA and Med/Black Sea landings accounted for a mean of 0% and 5% of landings originating from the Atlantic Ocean from 2001 to 2010, respectively.  Landings in the Mediterranean have been steadily increasing since 1994, to current values slightly above 2000 t. Landings in the Northeast Atlantic exhibit a single peak of slightly above 800t in 2001, followed by a decline to less than 30 tonnes (FAO 2011).

habitat:
Habitat/Ecology Trichiurus lepturus is a bentho-pelagic species which is found on continental shelves, usually at depths ranging from 100 to 350 m, usually in shallow coastal waters over muddy bottoms. This species occasionally surfaces at night to feed on their the primary prey item, Euphausiids, which undergo vertical migrations. Young and immature specimens feed on crustaceans and small fishes. Adults are more piscivorous. It has been reported to depths of 589 metres.   Trichiurus lepturus was found to be to be more abundant in bottom water temperatures of over 16°C and in the 40 to 120 m depth range off southern Brazil. From late spring to fall juveniles ranging in size from 5 to 30 cm total length (TL) were found in coastal waters, sub-adults (TL 30 to 70 cm) mainly in inner shelf waters and adults (TL > 70 cm) in coastal, inner and outer shelf waters. Increase in adult abundance is associated with thermal fronts in the western boundary of the Subtropical Convergence or with a shelf break up-welling observed in summer (Martins and Haimovici 1997). A positive correlation exists between T. lepturus and Cynoscion guatucupa; this was associated with similar spatial distribution and an indication of trophic competition. Trichiurus lepturus has a non-specialized diet but Euphausia simiilis is a main prey item (Martins 1992, Martins and Haimovici 1997). This species is well adapted to sharp temperature changes within its tolerance. It is absent in waters of less than 10°C (Martins and Haimovici 1997). Reproduction Trichiurus lepturus grows to 51.2 cm at the end of its first year, 82.5 cm at the end of its second year, and 101.0 cm by the third year of its life (Chakraborty 1990). In Brazil, the total length at first gonadal maturity for males is 63.9 cm and 69.3 cm for females. This species has a batch fecundity of  3,917 to 154,216. Spawning occurs during late spring and summer and is probably year round. Adult female T. lepturus remain to feed off southern Brazil during the cold season on the continental shelf while males move northward or offshore to warmer water (Martins and Haimovici 2000). This species matures at about 2 years. The eggs are pelagic (Parin and Nakamura 2002). Maximum size has been reported as 120 cm (TL) however this species is common at 50 to 100 cm (TL) (Parin and Nakamura 2002).This species undergoes large-scale migrations in parts of its range. Migration of this species is considered to be carried out between the wintering grounds in the East China Sea and the spawning grounds in the Yellow Sea (Misu 1961). In the Sea of Japan, the wintering grounds is situated in the coastal waters, mostly on the continental shelf (Shiokawa 1988).

threats:
Trichiurus lepturus is commercially important throughout its range, and does not appear to be managed. There is little species-specific population information available other than FAO landing statistics, however it is worth noting that T. lepturus, which is considered a single globally-distributed species, is likely a complex of several species. Trichiurus lepturus is subject to the bio-accumulation of mercury from the sugarcane agro-industry and sewage from settlements and villages in The Goiana River Estuary (7º30'S 34º47’W) (Barbosa et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for T. lepturus. Trichiurus lepturus was assessed as Least Concern in Regional Assessments of the Caribbean and Eastern Central Atlantic. There is a need for taxonomic revision of this species complex, as well as more information concerning the population, life history, and exploitation pressure faced by this species. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Regional Mediterranean Red List Assessments (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Trichiurus lepturus is the most abundant and frequently caught commercial Trichiurid worldwide (Nakamura and Parin 1993, Chakraborty and Iwatsuki 2006). It is caught mainly with bottom trawls, mid-water otter trawls, beach seines, trammel nets, purse seines, and hand-lines. This species is commercially important in Portugal and Mauritania (Parin 1986). Large, single individuals are caught by longline, while schools of small specimens are caught by trawl. This species is locally commercially important in the eastern Mediterranean (Golani et al. 2006). This species is marketed fresh, frozen, and salted. Trichiurus lepturus is often caught in the coastal trawl fishery but is almost always discarded by commercial fisherman (Haimovici and Palacios 1981). In parts of its range T. lepturus is misidentified as Lepidopus caudatus (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2014).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Herrera, J., Heessen, H. & Fernandes, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Tripterygion delaisi is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from the southern UK to Senegal, including the Mediterranean Sea. It can be locally common, and there are no known major threats. Therefore, T. delaisi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Tripterygion delaisi occurs in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea, recorded from southern United Kingdom and the English Channel southwards along the coast of west Africa, including Madeira and the Canary Islands (Zander 1986), and south to Senegal. It known from depths ranging from 1 to 40 m.

population:
This species is very common in the Mediterranean (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2006). Larvae of T. delaisi were the most abundant larvae during plankton sampling in the Arrabida Marine Park (Portugal) in 2008 (Borges et al. 2009). Two sub-species of T. delaisi have been described: T.d. xanthosoma in the Mediterranean and T.d. delaisi in the Atlantic. An examination of the population structure of this species using mitochondrial and nuclear markers identified two clades: one in the eastern Atlantic islands, and one along the Atlantic coasts of Europe and in the Mediterranean. Migration is occurring from west to east (Domingues et al. 2007). Population structure was further examined using highly polymorphic micro-satellite loci, which detected a pattern of isolation-by-distance within eight analyzed population across this species' range. This pattern suggests that T. delaisi has limited dispersal capabilities, with areas of rocky habitat allowing contact between populations, while large discontinuities of sand or deep-water channels seem to reduce gene flow (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2006).

habitat:
Tripterygion delaisi is a demersal species, inhabiting shallow coastal waters with rocky substrate to depths of 40 meters. It prefers depths between 6 and 12 meters (Zander 1986). It is found under overhanging rocks, entrances of caves and other biotopes with reduced light. In the Atlantic, it also occurs in shallow, light-exposed biotopes. It feeds on benthic invertebrates, also on harpacticoids. Males court by figure-8-swimming (Zander 1986). This species exhibits territorial breeding and male parental care of benthic eggs (Domingues et al. 2007).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. It does not have any commercial interest and is not the target of fisheries.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for this species. Tripterygion delaisi was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Pollard, D., Kara, M., Goren, M., Williams, J.T. & Craig, M.T.


redListCategoryRationale:
Tripterygion melanurum is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is widespread and relatively common. There are no known widespread threats to T. melanurum. Therefore, T. melanurum is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Tripterygion melanurum is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It has been recorded from the Balearic Islands (Spain), southern Sardinia, Tunisia, Israel, Lebanon, Cyprus and southern Turkey. It is also in the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005).

population:
This species is not very common in Levant, but is common in Aegean and northwestern Mediterranean.

habitat:
Tripterygion melanurum is a demersal species that inhabits dimly-lit areas, clinging to walls or ceilings (Zander 1986). It feeds on small invertebrates, especially harpacticoids (Zander 1986). Several females lay eggs on substrate of males' territory, often on sponges, and eggs are guarded by the male (Zander 1986).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. It does not have any commercial interest and is not caught by any fishing techniques.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures. However this species is found in marine protected areas. Tripterygion melanurum was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Pollard, D., Kara, M., Goren, M. & Francour, P.


taxonomicAuthority:
Carreras-Carbonell, Pascual & Macpherson, 2007

taxonomicNotes:
Tripterygion tripteronotum was split into two distinct species, T. tripteronotum and T. tartessicum, based on genetic and morphological characteristics (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Tripterygion tartessicum is known from Atlantic coast of Morocco and the western Mediterranean Sea. Although it was only relatively recently described (2007), the population is considered stable. There are no known threats and it occurs within marine protected areas. Therefore, T. tartessicum is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Tripterygion tartessicum is found along the coast of Morocco and in the western Mediterranean Sea (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007). Specifically, it has been collected from the southern coast of Spain, and from Plage David, Morocco to Tunisia (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007). It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 6 m.

population:
Tripterygion tartessicum was recently described in 2007. It is sister to T. tripteronotus, from which it diverged during the Pliocene glaciations 2.7-3.6 Mya (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007). Tripterygion tartessicum populations are considered stable (Cheung et al. 2005).

habitat:
Tripterygion tartessicum inhabits similar habitats to Tripterygion tripteronotus, shallow rocky shores to 6 m, preferably between 0 and 3 m. Tripterygion tartessicum can also be found in light-exposed and shady biotopes dominated by algal communities (e.g. Corallina elongata, Cladophora spp., Litophyllum spp., Enteromorpha spp.). Nests are usually situated in sciaphyl habitats dominated by steep rocky zones, without arborescent algae (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007). The family Tripterygiidae contains species of bottom-living blennioid fishes usually associated with rocky habitats and inhabiting cold, temperate, subtropical and tropical areas (Fricke 2002).

threats:
The threats to Tripterygion tartessicum are unknown.

conservationAction:
Tripterygion tartessicum occurs within marine protected areas. It was assessed as Least Concern in 2010 (unpublished).

useAndTrade:
Tripterygion tartessicum is not utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
Tripterygion tripteronotum was split into two distinct species, T. tripteronotum and T. tartessicum, based on genetic and morphological characteristics (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
Tripterygion tripteronotum is endemic to the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is widespread and common, with no widespread threats. Therefore, T. tripteronotum is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Tripterygion tripteronotum is endemic to the Mediterranean and Black Sea (Zander 1986). It is found throughout the northern Mediterranean, from southeastern Spain to Turkey (Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2007), including the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005). There is a record from Libya (Jonge 1989), but this may be the sister species T. tartessicum.

population:
This species is common throughout its range in the Mediterranean, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.

habitat:
This is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999) found in shallow rocky shores to six metres. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. It does not have any commercial interest and is not caught by any fishing techniques

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for this species. It was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Pollard, D., Kara, M., Francour, P. & Goren, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Uranoscopus scaber is widespread in the Mediterranean and Black seas as well as along the Atlantic coast of Europe up to Portugal and the Bay of Biscay. It is found at depths ranging from 15–400 m over sandy or muddy substrates. Uranoscopus scaber is a commercially important species off the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, where it is a component of small-scale artisanal fisheries. It is also taken as by-catch in trammel-nets and trawls. It reaches a maximum size of 40 cm. There have been no documented population declines in this species; however, length-frequency distributions indicate a reduction in size from the observed maximum of 40 cm, and from the reported common size of 30 cm, particularly in the Black Sea. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for U. scaber. Although there is some evidence for changes in the population structure, potentially due to overexploitation, based on the lack of documented population declines, U. scaber is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Uranoscopus scaber is widespread in the eastern Atlantic, from northern Spain to Senegal, and also occurs in the Red Sea. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from the bay of Biscay to Portugal and throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas. This species is found at depths ranging from 15–400 m (Roux 1990).

population:
Uranoscopus scaber is most abundant during the spring/summer period (Demirhan et al. 2007). This species is considered common off the coasts of Europe and Africa, and is very common in the Mediterranean (Çoker et al. 2008). Off the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, the population was characterized by a low exploitation rate (Rizkalla and Bakhoum 2009). Off the southeastern Black Sea, the total length of this species ranged from 5.2 to 21.9 cm, and the population was composed of five age-classes. The population was composed of 32.94% male, 65.31% female (Demirhan et al. 2007). In the Northern Aegean Sea, U. scaber ranged in size from 8.7 to 26.9 cm (Karachle and Stergiou 2008). The maximum size of this species is 40 cm, however it is more commonly seen to 30 cm. Populations in the Black Sea, where this species is not typically commercially utilized but is taken as by-catch, are seen to a maximum size of 21.9 cm. MEDITS survey shows fluctuations in abundance from 1993 to 2010. Survey data from the IBTS Gulf of Cadiz also shows fluctuations from 1993 to 2013.

habitat:
Uranoscopus scaber is found buried in sand and mud of the continental shelf and upper slope, between 15 and about 400 meters depth. Uranoscopus scaber reaches a maximum size of 40 cm, and is more common to 30 cm. In a study focusing on differences among fish assemblages associated with a variety of habitats in the Adriatic Sea, U. scaber was found exclusively over un-vegetated sand habitats (Guidetti 2000). In the Black Sea, the sex ratio was biased toward females (1:1.98). Spawning in the Aegean sea occurs from March to September (Çoker et al. 2008). The diet was mostly fishes (Demirhan et al. 2007). In Egyptian Mediterranean waters, females reach larger sizes than males, attaining 30.0 cm while males are typically seen at 26 cm (Rizkalla and Bakhoum 2009). Off the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, U. scaber did not exceed five years of age; females were larger than males, reaching 30.0 cm and 26.0 cm (Rizkalla and Bakhoum 2009). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 33 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 13.8 cm to 18.0 cm TL and for males ranges from 11.0 cm to 15.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).  Some uranoscopids occur in littoral areas and waters of the continental shelf and slope to depths of 400 meters. All species of bottom-dwelling, usually burrowing in sandy or muddy sediments leaving only their eyes exposed. They are carnivorous ambush predators. Some species in the family Uranoscopidae are electric, though they are unlikely to be strong enough to be harmful to humans. The sharp humeral spine is venomous. Uranoscopids are not abundant or commercially important, but they are edible and are valued as food fishes. They are typically taken as by-catch in trawl fisheries, but several species are also caught using bottom trawls, fixed bottom nets, and other artisanal gear. All species are marketed fresh and dried-salted. Additionally, some species are reduced for fishmeal (Smith FAO guide in prep. 2012).

threats:
There have been no confirmed population declines in U. scaber. It is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, and is commercially important off the Mediterranean coast of Egypt.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for U. scaber. There is interest in managing this species in Egypt since it is commercially important in that region. There is a need for additional study on the harvest levels of this species. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Red List Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Uranoscopus scaber is collected mainly with bottom trawls and is marketed fresh and dried-salted (Smith FAO in prep. 2012). It has no economic value in the Black Sea (Demirhan et al. 2007); however it is commercially important in Egypt, and there are plans to manage the fishery in this region (Rizkalla and Bakhoum 2009). It is rarely found in the commercial catches from the eastern part of the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, whereas it constitutes 2.6% of trawl catch from the western Egyptian Mediterranean coast (El-Sayes et al. 2001). It is discarded from commercial purse seine vessels in the Aegean and Ionian seas (Tsagarakis et al. 2012). Uranoscopus scaber is a component of artisanal fisheries in the Tyrrhenian Sea. Here, it is taken in trammel and combined nets for cuttlefish and red mullets (Collaca et al. 2004). In the Black Sea, U. scaber is captured predominantly as bycatch, and is most abundant during the spring/summer period (Demirhan et al. 2007)


taxonomicNotes:
Mitochondrial DNA restriction analysis reveals that genetic differentiation occurs between populations inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and the tropical Atlantic Ocean, indicating that little genetic exchange occurs between the two (Kotoulas et al. 1995). Recent study of mitochondrial DNA by Viñas et al. (2010) found further differentiation between populations in the eastern and western Mediterranean Sea.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Globally, this species has shown a 28% decline over three generation lengths (20 years). Although the Mediterranean and North Atlantic stocks are genetically different and they are treated as two stocks, they are currently considered to be a single species. In the Mediterranean, where at least 50% of the population in the assessment region is found, there have been declines of 27 to 50% over the past 20 years and the fish is considered Near Threatened there (Abdul Malak et al. 2011). As the North Atlantic stock is stable to increasing in biomass, we assume there has been a 13 to 25% decline of the European population. Despite these declines, Xiphias gladius does not meet the thresholds for a threatened category under Criterion A, and additional management measures have been enacted that appear to be efficient at preventing further declines. Therefore, X. gladius is assessed as Least Concern for the European region. However, we recommend that the current management measures remain in place, and ongoing monitoring is required, especially in the Mediterranean part of the region.

range:
Xiphias gladius is pandemic, found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans in tropical, temperate and sometimes cold waters, including the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov. Based on records of forage organisms taken by swordfish, its depth distribution in the northwestern Pacific ranges normally from the surface to a depth of about 550 m, but there are depth records down to 2,878 m.

population:
The Atlantic population is comprised of three stocks that are genetically distinct: South Atlantic, North Atlantic and Mediterranean. The best scientific evidence indicates that there are four stocks of Swordfish in the Pacific Ocean (Hinton and Alvarado Bremer 2007), with centres in the northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast. The Indian Ocean population is currently assessed as a single management unit. FAO (2014) data show that catches in for the Eastern Central Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic, and Mediterranean and Black Sea FAO major fishing areas show a peak take of 33,938 tonnes in 1988, then showing a declining trend to 15,069 t in 2012. The North Atlantic stock of Swordfish is not overfished and overfishing is not occurring (ICCAT 2009). The stock is rebuilding with current biomass levels increasing by 4.4% over a three generation length period based on the ASPIC base case (ICCAT 2009: Figure 20). The reduction was calculated using the first and last data points of the time series considered. The stock is considered to be under adequate management. Recent ICCAT review (STECF 2014) concluded that the current total allowable catch (TAC) of 13,700 t has an 83% probability of maintaining the North Atlantic swordfish stock in a rebuilt condition by 2021 while maintaining nearly level biomass. However, catches in 2012 (13,972 t) slightly exceeded the TAC (13,700 t), which could slow recovery of the Eastern Atlantic stock (STECF 2014). The Mediterranean stock is currently considered to be overfished and stock is experiencing slight overfishing (STECF 2014). The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (ICCAT-SCRS) report that the Mediterranean Sea swordfish compose a unique stock separated from the Atlantic, although more research is needed to clearly define the stock boundaries. Mitochondrial DNA restriction analysis reveal that genetic differentiation occurs between populations inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and the tropical Atlantic ocean, indicating little genetic exchange occurring between the two (Kotoulas et al. 1995). Current (2013) SSB is less than 30% of BMSY and F is almost twice the estimated FMSY (STECF 2014). In addition, STECF (2014) again noted the large catches of small size swordfish, i.e. less than three years old (manyof which have probably never spawned) and the relatively low number of large individuals in catches. However, landings statistics and population parameters indicate a certain stability over the past 20 years. The estimated decline in total biomass over a three generation period (20 years) ranged from 27–50% depending on whether a regression line or first and last points of the data series were used (Figure 21, ICCAT 2010). The Mediterranean population of Swordfish was therefore regionally assessed as Near Threatened in an overview of the conservation status of Mediterranean fishes (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

habitat:
This is an oceanic species, but sometimes found in coastal waters; generally above the thermocline, preferring temperatures of 18–22°C. It migrates toward temperate or cold waters for feeding in the summer and back to warm waters in summer for spawning and overwintering. Adults are opportunistic feeders, known to forage for their food from the surface to the bottom over a wide depth range (Nakamura 1985, 2003). Swordfish typically forage in deep water below 400 m during the day and stay in the mixed layer closer to the surface, less than 100 m, at night (Abascal et al. 2010, Lerner et al. 2013). Based on records of forage organisms taken by swordfish, its depth distribution in the northwestern Pacific ranges normally from the surface to a depth of about 550 m but there are depth records down 2,878 m.  This species uses its sword to kill prey. It feeds mainly on fishes but also on crustaceans and squids. Large individuals may accumulate high concentrations of mercury in the flesh (Collette 2011).  The distribution of larval swordfish in the Pacific Ocean indicates that spawning occurs mainly in waters with a temperature of 24°C or more. Spawning appears to occur in all seasons in equatorial waters, but is restricted to spring and summer at higher latitudes (Nishikawa and Ueyanagi 1974). In the Atlantic Ocean, spawning occurs in the upper water layer at depths between 0–75 m, at temperatures around 23°C, and salinity of 33.8–37.4 ppt. Pairing of solitary males and females is thought to occur when spawning (Palko et al. 1981). Fish in pairs were observed at temperatures over 24oC showing well-defined courtship in the central Mediterranean Sea (Romeo et al. 2011).Spawning in southern Brazil occurs from November to February in between 20–28°S and 40–47°W (Amorim and Arfelli 1980). Estimates of egg numbers vary considerably, from one million to 16 million in 168,000 g female (Palko et al. 1981) and 29 million in a 272,000 g female (Wilson 1984).  Determination of age is difficult since the otoliths are very small and scales are missing in adults. Year rings have been successfully counted on cross sections of the fin rays (Arocha et al. 2003, DeMartini et al. 2006). Longevity is estimated to be 15 years (based on Arocha et al. 2003, DeMartini et al. 2006), and age of first maturity is estimated to be five years (based on Arocha and Lee 1996, Hinton and Maunder, unpublished data). These life history parameters do not differ greatly between stocks, therefore, the generation length for this species was estimated to be 6.5 years globally. The generation length is calculated as: age of first reproduction + z * (longevity - age of first maturity), where z is 0.15 (Collette et al. 2011).  Maximum size is 445 cm. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 536.15 kg fish caught off Iquique, Chile in 1953 (IGFA 2014).

threats:
This species is a highly important food and game species. The tuna longline fishery started in 1956 and has operated throughout the Atlantic since then, with substantial catches of swordfish that are produced as a bycatch of tuna fisheries (ICCAT 2009). In the Atlantic, the Mediterranean stock is considered to be overfished and that overfishing is occurring. The stocks of the North and South Atlantic are considered to be well-managed (ICCAT 2009).

conservationAction:
This is a highly migratory species, listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994). Xiphias gladius was assessed as Least Concern globally (Collette et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) but as Near Threatened in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).  Mediterranean Sea In the Mediterranean Sea, there are minimum size regulations for catches for all EU vessels, such as 90 cm lower jaw-fork length. In Greece, the fishing season is closed from October to January. In 2009, ICCAT implemented a closed season for the Mediterranean Sea from 1 October to 31 November (GFCM 2008), and an additional month in the spring. The EU has banned the use of drift nets since January 2002 for highly migratory species and ICCAT banned them entirely in the Mediterranean Sea since 2005, although some illegal use of drift nets still occurs. North Atlantic Since 1994 there have been quotas and minimum size limits to restrict the harvest of north Atlantic Swordfish. There are also longline area closures in place in the U.S. Atlantic. Reduced landings have been attributed to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) regulatory recommendations and shifts in fleet distributions, including the movement of some vessels some years to the South Atlantic or out of the Atlantic. In addition, some fleets, including the United States, EC-Spain, EC-Portugal and Canada, have changed operating procedures to opportunistically target tuna and/or sharks, taking advantage of market conditions and higher relative catch rates of these species previously considered as by-catch in some fleets. Recently, socio-economic factors may have also contributed to the decline in catch. Consistent with the goal of the Commission’s swordfish rebuilding plan (Rec. 96-02), in order to maintain the northern Atlantic Swordfish stock at a level that could produce maximum sustainable yield (MSY) with greater than 50% probability, the Committee recommends reducing catch limits allowed by Rec. 06-02 (15,345 t) to no more than 13,700 t. This reflects the current best estimate of maximum yield that could be harvested from the population under existing environmental and fishery conditions. Should the Commission wish to have greater assurance that future biomass would be at or above BMSY while maintaining F at or below FMSY, the Commission should select a lower annual TAC, depending on the degree of precaution the Commission chooses to apply in management. The Committee noted that allowable catch levels agreed in (Recs. 06-02 and 08-02) exceeded scientific recommendations. The successful rebuilding of this stock could have been compromised if recent catches had been higher than realized. Because of the poor size-selectivity of longliners, regulating minimum landing size may inadvertently have resulted in under-reporting of juvenile catches. Alternative methods for reducing juvenile catches, such as time and/or area closures or technological changes in gear deployment, may be more effective and their utility should be further investigated (STECF 2009). Future TACs above MSY are projected to result in 50% or lower probabilities of the stock biomass remaining above BMSY over the next decade (SWO-ATL-Figure 13) as the resulting probability of F exceeding FMSY for these scenarios would trend above 50% over time. A TAC of 13,000 t would provide approximately a 75% probability of maintaining the stock at a level consistent with the Convention Objective over the next decade (ICCAT 2009).

useAndTrade:
This species is of high commercial importance. Swordfish are caught by longline, harpoon, drift gill net, set net and other fishing gear in commercial fisheries. For the most part, swordfish captures are incidental in tuna longline fisheries. Major sport fishery areas, trolling, and drifted baited lines are located off the coast of California to Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile (Nakamura 1985, 2003). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is mostly caught by drift nets, long lines, but also by harpoons, tuna traps and in sport and recreational fisheries. A summary of the harpoon fishery in the Mediterranean was presented by Romeo et al. 2014. It is a good food fish, marketed fresh or frozen. The largest proportion of Atlantic catches are made using surface drifting longlines, mostly by Spain, United States, Canada and Portugal. However, many additional gears are used (STECF 2009). Other directed swordfish fisheries include fleets from Brazil, Morocco, Namibia, EC-Portugal, South Africa, Uruguay, and Venezuela. The primary by-catch or opportunistic fisheries that take swordfish are tuna fleets from Chinese Taipei, Japan, Korea and EC-France. The tuna longline fishery started in 1956 and has operated throughout the Atlantic since then, with substantial catches of swordfish that are produced as a bycatch of tuna fisheries (ICCAT 2009). In the Atlantic, the Mediterranean stock is considered to be overfished and that overfishing is occurring. The stocks of the North and South Atlantic are considered to be well-managed (ICCAT 2009).

redListContributors:
Acero, A., Amorim, A.F., Bizsel, K., Boustany, A., Canales Ramirez, C., Cardenas, G., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Die, D., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Hinton, M., Juan Jorda, M., Masuti, E., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Montan


taxonomicNotes:
Lycenchelys labradorensis Geistdoerfer et al. 1970 is a junior synonym of L. alba (Andriashev 1986, Møller 1999, Møller et al. 2010)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Lycenchelys alba is a deep sea, demersal species found in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, Lycenchelys alba occurs from the Azores and France, the Iberian basin, and Rockall off the coast of the British Isles. It is known only from a few records, and little is known about its habitat, ecology, or population. As major threats to L. alba are unknown and there are very limited records in the assessment zone, L. alba is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Lycenchelys alba is found in the north Atlantic between the Azores and France, the Iberian basin, and Rockall trough off the coast of the British Isles (Andriashev 1986, Carniero et al. 2014). This species can be found at depths from 3,365–4,100 m (Andriashev 1986). Outside the region, this species has also been recorded from the Labrador Sea (Andriashev 1986). 

population:
Lycenchelys alba has only rarely been collected; therefore, information about its population trends are extremely limited.

habitat:
Lycenchelys alba is a deep sea, benthic species that may prefer muddy bottoms (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded length for this species is 26.7 cm SL (Anderson 1994).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycenchelys alba. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, habitat and ecology, and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Lycenchelys muraena is a deep sea benthic species found from the Norwegian Sea, Spitsbergen and south to the Faroes. Little is known about its habitat, ecology, or population, but it may be naturally rare. Climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future as it is typically restricted to bottom temperatures of less than 0 oC. Therefore, L. muraena is listed as Data Deficient. 

range:
Lycenchelys muraena is known from the North Atlantic Ocean. This species is found from the Norwegian Sea, Spitsbergen south to the Faroes (Møller et al. 2010). The species can be found at depths from 350–1,500 m (Nielsen and Bertelsen 1992, Møller et al. 2010).Elsewhere, it is found in the Greenland Sea (Møller et al. 2010) and the northern part of the Kara Sea (Andriashev 1986).   

population:
Lycenchelys muraena is rare in Icelandic waters (Stefansdotter et al. 2010). There are 30 specimens in the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen (ZMUC).  Additional population information from the region is not available. Elsewhere, this species is rare in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004) but is common in the waters around Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Lycenchelys muraena is a deep sea, benthic species found in the north Atlantic Ocean. It is typically found on muddy bottoms with temperatures below 0oC (Andriashev 1986). It feeds on small crustaceans (Andriashev1986). The maximum recorded size for this species 22.6 cm SL (Anderson 1994).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycenchelys muraena. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (Stefansdotter et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, habitat and ecology, and threats to the species especially as with warming sea temperatures the species may become threatened in the future. 

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean


redListCategoryRationale:
Lycenchelys platyrhina is a deep sea benthic species endemic to Jan Mayen Island in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. It is known from only one or two specimens, so little is known about the habitat, ecology or population. Climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future; the type specimen was collected at -1 oC. Therefore, L. platyrhina is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Lycenchelys platyrhina is only known from near the Jan Mayen Island, in the northeast Atlantic Ocean (Wienerroither et al. 2011). The type specimen was collected at 1,848 m (Andriashev 1986).

population:
Lycenchelys platyrhina is only known from a single specimen, possibly two; therefore population information is not available. 

habitat:
The type specimen of Lycenchelys platyrhina was collected at 1,848 m with a bottom temperature of -1oC (Andriashev and Fedorov 1986). It is a benthic species found above muddy bottoms (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size of this species is 14.6 cm SL (Anderson 1994).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycenchelys platyrhina. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (Møller et al. 2010, Stefansdottir et al. 2010); as this species appears to be endemic to the Jan Mayen Island, it may be more vulnerable to future changes.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycenchelys sarsii is a widespread, benthic species found in the north Atlantic Ocean from 150 to 600 m depth. Little is known about the habitat, ecology, or population of any zoarcid species. However, it has no known major threats and is not uncommon. Therefore, L. sarsii is listed as Least Concern

range:
Lycenchelys sarsii is known from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from Scandinavian fjords to Skagerrak, Finmarken and Kola Bay. Additional records include Iceland south to the British Isles and Bay of Biscay. The species can be found at depths from 150 to 600 m (Andriashev 1986). Elsewhere, it is found on the Grand Banks off of Newfoundland (44°06' N, 49"05' W) (Leim and Scott 1966, Andriashev 1986) and in southwestern Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

population:
The species is not uncommon. There are 100 specimens at the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen, 90 of which have been caught from 1991–2014. There is no further information available for the population size and trend of this species.

habitat:
Lycenchelys sarsii is a benthic species, found primarily on muddy bottom in waters 0–6oC (Andriashev 1986). The maximum size of L. sarsii is 19 cm total length, and maturity is reached at about 11 cm or 3–5 years (Nash and Geffen 2005). It feeds primarily on small invertebrates and can attain 30 cm in length but is more commonly from 12–16 cm (Andriashev 1986).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycenchelys sarsii. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, habitat and ecology, and threats to the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes esmarkii s a deep sea benthic species found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean to the Kara Sea, from the western Barents Sea to southern Norway, the Faroes-Shetland slope and northern Iceland. Little is known about the habitat, ecology, or population of this species, although it is well represented in the museum collection of Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen (ZMUC). It has no known major threats. Therefore, L. esmarkii is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Lycodes esmarkii is found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean to the Kara Sea, from the western Barents Sea to southern Norway, the Faroes-Shetland slope and northern Iceland (Andriashev 1986, Møller et al. 2010). It can be found at depths from 200–550 m (Andriashev 1986).Elsewhere, it is found off of south-western Greenland and Newfoundland southward to Virginia (probably L. esmarki vachonii) (Andriashev 1986). This species has been recorded down to 1,090 m outside of European waters. . 

population:
Lycodes esmarkii is not uncommon (Morosova 1982). There are approximately 80 specimens from the collection held at the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen. Additional regional population information is not available for this species.

habitat:
Lycodes esmarkii is a deep sea, benthic species on soft bottoms at 275 to 550 m, with temperatures mostly above 0°C (usually 2–5°C) and salinities high (34.5–35.0) (Andriashev 1986). It primarily preys upon echinoderms (ophiurids, sea-urchins, starfishes, brittlestars) (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size for L. esmarkii is 63 cm (Morosova 1982).

threats:
There are no known major species-specific threats to Lycenchelys alba. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). It is not found at high enough abundances to be commercially exploited, but it is often caught as bycatch (Morosova 1982). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes eudipleurostictus is a deep sea demersal species found in the Norwegian Sea, northwestern Barents Sea and around Spitsbergen.. It is not uncommon and it is well represented in collections of the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen. It has no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. eudipleurostictus is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Lycodes eudipleurostictus is known from the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs in the Norwegian Sea, northwestern Barents Sea and around Spitsbergen. It is primarily found at depths from 200–914 m (Andriashev 1986). Elsewhere, it is found in Severnaya Zemlya, Beaufort Sea, Greenland Sea, Davis Strait and Baffin Bay (Andriashev 1986) down to Maine, USA and has been found down to 2,200 m in Baffin Bay.

population:
Lycodes eudipleurostictus is not an uncommon species (Bergstad 1990) and there are over 100 specimens in the ZMUC.

habitat:
Lycodes eudipleurostictus is a deep sea benthic species, found primarily on soft bottoms at depths of 200–914 m with bottom temperatures near or below 0oC. Lycodes eudipleurostictus primarily feeds upon small invertebrates (Andriashev 1986). It probably reproduces in autumn, the eggs are demersal, about 123–260 are produced at about 8 mm diameter (Andriashev 1986). This species can reach 45 cm in length but usually attain 25–35 cm  (Andriashev 1986).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes eudipleurostictus. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefensdottir et al. 2010).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Lycodes frigidus is a deep sea benthic species found in the Norwegian Sea, but not to south of the Faroes-Shetland Ridge. This species has rarely been caught. Climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. frigidus is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Lycodes frigidus is known from the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs in the Norwegian Sea, but not to south of the Faroes-Shetland Ridge. Elsewhere, this species occurs in the Greenland Sea, to north of Spitsbergen, in northern part of the Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi seas (absent from Baffin Bay) (Andriashev 1986). It has been recorded at depths from 1,000–3,000 m (Andriashev 1986).

population:
Lycodes frigidus is an uncommon species. Outside the region, it is rare in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004).

habitat:
Lycodes frigidus is a deep sea, benthic species, primarily found on soft bottoms at 1,000-3,000 m (Andriashev 1986). It feeds on invertebrates, including bottom crustaceans, ophiurids, and cephalopods (Andriashev 1986). It probably reproduces in early autumn, the eggs are demersal and about 500 are produced at 7 mm in diameter (Andriashev 1986).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes frigidus. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
This species was regarded a subspecies of L. vahlii Reinhardt, 1831, but Carl (2002) showed that it has specific rank. Illustrated in Saito and Okamura (1995: 201) as L. vahli. (Møller et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Lycodes gracilis is a demersal species found along the coasts of Iceland and Norway southwards to Kattegat. It is not uncommon and it is well represented in collections of the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen (ZMUC). Although it was assessed as Data Deficient in the Baltic Sea and eastern North Sea, there are no known major threats. Therefore, L. gracilis is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lycodes gracilis is found in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is found along the coasts of Iceland and Norway southwards to Kattegat (Anderson and Fedorov 2004, Møller et al. 2010). The species can be found at depths from 100 –200 m (Anderson and Fedorov 2004).

population:
The species is not uncommon and there approximately 250 specimens in the ZMUC.

habitat:
Lycodes gracilis is found over soft bottoms at depths between 100–200 m. The maximum recorded size for this species is 28 cm TL(Anderson and Fedorov 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycenchelys gracilis.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It was assessed as Data Deficient in the Baltic Sea and eastern North Sea (HELCOM 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Lycodes paamiuti has been previously treated as L. pallidus, L. frigidus, and L. squamiventer in the literature (Møller 2001).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes paamiuti is a deep sea, benthic species that  occurs from Baffin Bay to the Norwegian Sea, off Iceland and the Faroe Islands. It is not uncommon and it is well represented in collections of the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen (ZMUC). It has no known major threats. It was assessed globally as Least Concern, and there is no additional evidence that the population is undergoing any significant declines. Therefore, L. paamiuti is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Lycodes paamiuti occurs in the North Atlantic and Arctic waters. In the northeast Atlantic, this species occurs from Baffin Bay to the Norwegian Sea (Møller 2001) and is also found off Iceland and the Faroe Islands. It is found at depths from 200-1,520 m (Fricke and Eschmeyer 2013).

population:
The species is not uncommon and there approximately 150 specimens in the ZMUC (Fricke and Eschmeyer 2013). Outside the region, it is uncommon in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004).

habitat:
Lycodes paamiuti is a benthic species found on continental slopes at a depth range of 350–1,520 m (Fricke and Eschmeyer 2013). It is possible this species has the same general habitat and diet as closely related species which occur on muddy bottoms and feed on polychaetes, ophiurids, amphipods and small bivalves (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 24 cm (Møller 2001).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes paamiuti. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Callum 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for Lycodes paamiuti. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, habitat and ecology, and threats to the species.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has previously been confused with L. paamiuti, L. marisalbi (see Møller 2001), L. squamiventer and many other species in museum collections (Møller 2001) (Møller et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes pallidus is a deep sea benthic species commonly found in the north Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. It has no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. pallidusis listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lycodes pallidus is found in north-eastern Greenland, Jan Mayen Island, the northern coasts of Iceland, the Faroes-Shetland slope, the northern part of the Barents Sea, around Spitsbergen, White Sea. Elsewhere, eastwards to Kara Sea and western part of Laptev Sea, Beaufort Sea; also, Arctic Canada to Labrador and Gulf of St Lawrence (Andriashev 1986). It is benthic, from 60 to 1,020 m depth with water temperatures below 0oC (Fricke and Eschmeyer 2013), and globally it ranges from 19 - 1,750 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Lycodes pallidus is a common species in the northeastern Atlantic; however, it is uncommon in Canada (Coad and Reist 2004).

habitat:
Lycodes pallidus is a benthic species, found primarily on soft bottoms with bottom temperatures below 0oC (Andriashev 1986). It preys upon small invertebrates, including polychaetes, bivalves, ophiurids and amphipods (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 28.7 cm (Coad and Reist 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes pallidus. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Callum 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes reticulatus is widely distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it ranges from Jan Mayen Island, to northern part of Barents Sea, and the northern parts of the Kara and Laptev seas. It is a common and locally abundant deep sea species. It has no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. reticulatus is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Lycodes reticulatus occurs throughout the North Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species ranges from Jan Mayen Island, the northern part of Barents Sea, and the northern parts of the Kara and Laptev seas. It is a benthic species at depths of 60–800 m (Andriashev 1986, Pethon 2005).  Elsewhere it is found off western Greenland, Hudson Bay, Labrador, Nova Scotia and occasionally south to Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts (Andriashev 1986, Møller et al. 2010). In Canadian waters, it has a depth range from 100–930 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Lycodes reticulatus is a common and abundant species (Morosova 1982, Coad and Reist 2004).

habitat:
Lycodes reticulatus is a deep sea benthic species, found at depths of 60–800 m and bottom temperatures typically below 0oC (Andriashev 1986, Coad and Reist 2004). It primarily preys upon invertebrates, particularly the ophiuroids (Rodríguez-Marín et al. 1994, Coad and Reist 2004). The maximum size of L. reticulatus is 76 cm (Coad and Reist 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes reticulatus. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes rossi is found in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is found in just north of Iceland, northern Norway, the Barents (but not in southern parts), to the Kara and Beaufort Seas. It is a deep sea benthic species. It has no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. rossi is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Lycodes rossi is found in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeast Atlantic, this species occurs just north of Iceland, northern Norway (Porsanger Fjord), the Barents (but not in southern parts), to the Kara and Beaufort Seas at depths of 45-365 m (Andriashev 1986, Pethon 2005).

population:
Lycodes rossi is not uncommon in the northeastern Atlantic with 73 specimens in the ZMUC. Outside the region, it is uncommon in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004).

habitat:
Lycodes rossi is a deep sea, benthic species found primarily on soft bottoms with temperatures typically below 0oC (Andriashev 1986). It preys upon invertebrates, including amphipods, polychaetes, and bivalves (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 38 cm (Coad and Reist 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes rossi. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes seminudus is widely distributed in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs southeast to just north of the Faroes, Jan Mayen Island, around Spitsbergen and in northern parts of the Barents, Kara and Beaufort Sea. Lycodes seminudus is a common deep sea benthic species. It has no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. seminudus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lycodes seminudus occurs in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs southeast to just north of the Faroes, Jan Mayen Island, around Spitsbergen and in northern parts of the Barents, Kara and Beaufort Sea (McAllister 1981, Andriashev 1986, Møller et al. 2010). It is a benthic species, found  at depths of 200–600 m (Andriashev 1986). Outside the region, this species occurs in eastern central Greenland waters and has a depth range from 50–1,400 m (Møller et al. 2010). It is also found from the Beaufort Sea, East to Franklin Bay, Canada (McAllister et al. 1981).

population:
Lycodes seminudus is common in northeastern Atlantic waters (Møller et al. 2010). Outside the region, this species is common in the west Greenlandic Sea (Møller et al. 2010) but is uncommon in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004).

habitat:
Lycodes seminudus is a deep sea, benthic species, found on muddy bottoms at depths of 200–600 m with bottom temperatures always below 0oC (Andriashev 1986). It primarily preys upon Pandulus spp. and fishes (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 57.0 cm (Coad and Reist 2004). Ripe females have been recorded in June; eggs demersal, about 300, 8.2 mm diameter (Andriashev 1986).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes seminudus. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
This species was once regarded a subspecies or deepwater form of L. pallidus (Jensen 1904b). Since then the two former subspecies and L. paamiuti have been confused, resulting in false records of L. squamiventer off West Greenland (Nielsen and Bertelsen 1992, Møller 1996). Møller (2001b) presented new characters supporting the specific status of L. squamiventer and showed that it is probably endemic to the Norwegian Sea. (Møller et al. 2010)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodes squamiventer is widely distributed in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from Iceland, the Norwegian Seato the north of the Faroe-Shetland slope, and the western Barents sea. Lycodes squamiventer is a relatively common deep sea benthic species. There are no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. squamiventer is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lycodes squamiventer is found in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Iceland, the Norwegian Sea to the north of the Faroe-Shetland slope, and the western Barents sea (Andriashev 1986). However, records from the Barents, Kara and North sea are likely to be misidentifications (Møller 1995). It is found at depths from 1,350–1,500 m (Møller et al. 2010).  Outside the region, records reported from west of Greenland are likely to be misidentifications (Møller 1995).

population:
Lycodes squamiventer is not an uncommon species. This species is common around the Hakon Mosby mud volcano in the Norwegian Sea (Gebruk et al. 2003).   Outside the region, it is present, but rare, in the western Greenland Sea (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Lycodes seminudus is a deep sea, benthic species, found at depths of 1,350–1,500 m (Møller et al. 2010) with bottom temperatures always below 0oC (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 26 cm (McAllister et al. 1981), and maturity appears to be reached around 14 cm for females and 18 cm for males (Møller 2001). The maximum age was determined to be 21 years in the Greenland and Barents Seas (Hildebrandt et al. 2011).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodes squamiventer. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Robert 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Lycodes atlanticus Jensen, 1902 is a junior synonym (Møller 1997, 2000; Møller et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Lycodes terraenovae is found in the North and eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known only from the Porcupine Sea Bight, off the southwest coast of Ireland. It is a deep sea benthic species. Little is known about the habitat, ecology, or population of any zoarcid species. As the distribution of L. terraenovae in the assessment zone is restricted and major threats are unknown, it is listed as Data Deficient. 

range:
Lycodes terraenovae occurs throughout the north and eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known from the southwest of Ireland, in the Porcupine Sea Bight (Anderson and Fedorov 2004) south to the Canary Islands. The depth range for this species is 630–2,604 (Bogutskaya 2007).

population:
Population information is not available for the region; however, outside the region Lycodes terraenovae is rare in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004) but common off the southern coast of Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Lyocodes terraenovae is a deep sea, benthic species (Andriashev 1986). This species can reach 54 cm SL (Andriashev and Fedoroc 2004). Zoarcids feed mainly on gammaridean amphipods, other small crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves. They mature near their maximum sizes and females produce a few large eggs probably laid in shallow depressions in muddy bottoms (Anderson FAO in press).

threats:
Widespread threats to L. terraenovae are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for L. terraenovae.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for L. terraenovae. It does not appear to be utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
Lycodonus flagellicauda has been confused with L. mirabilis by Muus (1981: 109) and Nielsen and Bertelsen (1992: 46, Fig. 7, is L. mirabilis) (Møller et al. 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)Lycodonus flagellicauda is known from the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs in the Norwegian Sea, north of Iceland to Jan Mayen Island and south to the Faroe Channel, southwest of Spitsbergen, and the western Barents sea. Lycodonus flagellicauda is a common deep sea benthic species. It has no known major threats, though climate change and global warming may impact this Arctic species in the future. Therefore, L. flagellicauda is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lycodonus flagellicauda is found in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs east of Greenland in the Norwegian Sea, north of Iceland to Jan Mayen Island and south to the Faroe Channel, southwest of Spitsbergen, and the western Barents Sea (Andriashev 1986, Møller et al. 2010). It found at depths from 350–1,500 m (Møller et al. 2010).

population:
Lycodonus flagellicauda is common in the northeastern Atlantic. It is also common off the north eastern coast of Greenland, outside the region (Moller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Lycodonus flagellicauda is a deep sea, benthic species, found primarily at depths of 350–1,500 m with bottom temperatures below 0oC (Andriashev 1986). It primarily preys upon small crustaceans (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 57 cm (Coad and Reist 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Lycodonus flagellicauda. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future. Further, as this species inhabits cold, deep water, climate change may be reducing the available habitat (e.g., Stefansdottir et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Melanostigma atlanticum is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, M. atlanticum commonly occurs from Iceland to the Canary Islands. It is a benthopelagic species with no known major threats. Therefore, M. atlanticum is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Melanostigma atlanticum occurs throughout the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs off the coast of Iceland, the Faroes, the western coast of Scotland, the Bay of Biscay, off of Portugal (Carniero et al. 2014), near the Azores (Porteiro et al. in press), the Mediterranean (Matallanas 1975, Andriashev 1986, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Massuti et al. 2004), and the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002). The species occurs at depths from 400–1,000 m (Andriashev 1986). Elsewhere, it is found on the Atlantic coast of north-western Africa (Golovan 1978), western North Atlantic (Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras) (Andriashev 1986). It can be found down to 1,500 m in Greenlandic waters (Møller et al. 2010).

population:
Melanostigma atlanticum is common throughout its range. Outside the region, it is a rare species off the southern coast of Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Melanostigma atlanticum is a benthopelagic species found primarily at depths of 400–1000 m (Andriashev 1986), though spawning occurs in the bottom sediment (Møller et al. 2010). It primarily eats small crustaceans, including euphausids, copepods, and ostracods (Andriashev 1986). The maximum recorded size is 16 cm (Coad and Reist 2004).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Melanostigma atlanticum. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Melanostigma atlanticum was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean, as it is known from only two records there (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Pachycara bulbiceps is widely distributed in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is only known from two localities: the Porcupine Sea Bight and Bay of Biscay. Little is known about its habitat, ecology, or population. As the distribution of P. bulbiceps in the assessment zone is restricted and major threats are unknown, P. bulbiceps is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Pachycara bulbiceps is found on both sides of the Atlantic and in the eastern Pacific (Anderson in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is known from the Porcupine Sea Bight and the Bay of Biscay (Anderson and Fedorov 2004). It is has been recorded at depths from 2,400–4,780 m (Andriashev 1986). Outside the region, this species occurs in the southeastern Atlantic it is found from West Africa (Merrett and Marshall 1981, Anderson and Peden 1988), northwestern Atlantic (Markle and Sedberry 1978) and Middle Atlantic Bight (Anderson and Peden 1988), northeastern Pacific from the Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada, to the Panama (Anderson and Peden, 1988, Anderson 1989)

population:
Little is known about the population of Pachycara bulbiceps.

habitat:
Pachycara bulbiceps is a deep sea, benthic species typically found at depths of 2,400–4,780 m (Andriashev 1986). It has been observed in the vicinity of cetacean carcasses (Jones et al. 1998). It has been recorded in association with seamounts, although it appears to be rare here (Lundsten et al. 2009). Zoarcids feed mainly on gammaridean amphipods, other small crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves. They mature near their maximum sizes and females produce a few large eggs probably laid in shallow depressions in muddy bottoms (Anderson in press). The maximum recorded length for this species is 51.5 cm TL (Anderson and Almeida 1990).

threats:
Widespread threats to P. bulbiceps are unknown. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for P. bulbiceps.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Pachycara crassiceps is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from only scattered records. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is only known from Ireland and the Bay of Biscay. It is known only from a few records, therefore little is known about its habitat, ecology, or population. As the distribution of P. crassiceps in the assessment zone is restricted and major threats are unknown, P. crassiceps is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Pachycara crassiceps is known from the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, specimens are known from southwest Ireland (Goburn Spur) and the Bay of Biscay (Anderson and Fedorov 2004). This species has a depth range of 900–2,191 m (Anderson and Almeida 1990).  Outside the region, it is known off Senegal, Mauritania as well as the north western Atlantic (Anderson and Almeida 1990).

population:
It is only known from two localities in the region.

habitat:
Pachycara crassiceps is a deep sea, benthic species typically found over soft bottoms (Andriashev 1986). Zoarcids feed mainly on gammaridean amphipods, other small crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves. They mature near their maximum sizes and females produce a few large eggs probably laid in shallow depressions in muddy bottoms (Anderson in press). The maximum recorded size for this species is 54 cm (Anderson and Almeida 1990).

threats:
Widespread threats to Pachycara crassiceps are unknown. However, the deep sea is increasing impacted by human activities; in particular fishing pressure is increasing as the shallow water fisheries are depleted (Roberts 2002, Glover and Smith 2003). Direct exploitation or habitat destruction could have negative impacts on this species in the future.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Zoarces viviparus is widely distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, Z. viviparus is known from northern Brittany north to the Barents and White seas. It is common within the assessment region and there are no known major threats. Therefore, Z. viviparus is listed as Least Concern. However, research should be conducted to determine the population trends and further threats to the species.

range:
Zoarces viviparus occurs in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from from northern Brittany around the British Isles, east towards the Baltic Sea and north through the North Sea, towards the Barents and White seas (Andriashev 1986, Anderson and Fedorov 2004). This species is usually found from the intertidal zone down to 40 m (Andriashev 1986).

population:
In the North Sea and Baltic Sea, Zoarces viviparus is widely distributed and reproducing in coastal areas. Z. viviparus is is common also in Estonia and Finland, but in Germany it has been considered near threatened. Zoarces viviparus is a cold water species with its thermal tolerance close to the southern limits of its range (Graham and Harrod 2009). It declined in the lower Forth Estuary (east Scotland) from a high of about 275 in 1982 to about 25 in 2001 (Greenwood et al. 2002), representing a 90% decline over 19 years. Two of the four available Swedish surveys observed significant declines of more than 50% during the last 20 years. There has been a negative population development also in Skagerrak (HELCOM 2012). A regional study (Simonsen and Strand 2010) on populations of Z. viviparus in Danish waters found that the migration among the areas is low or that selection is going on. Several Danish population studies of Z. viviparus have revealed that the populations are homogenous for multiple genetic markers (Christiansen et al. 1976, Christiansen et al. 1977, Christiansen et al. 1981, Christiansen et al. 1984, Christiansen et al. 1988).

habitat:
Zoarces viviparus is a benthic species that occurs on rocky shores under stones, among algae and in tide-pools, between tide marks down to 40 m, in marine and brackish waters (Andriashev 1986). It is considered a cold water species and survival is lower during warm summers. Increasing temperature also results in reduced growth and fecundity. Mating takes place in August - September with internal fertilization of the eggs. Female give birth to 30–400 developed young (35–55 mm) in December-February. It seems that Z. viviparus to a high extent is stationary (Simonsen and Strand 2010). Due to its viviparous behavior, reproductive impairments can easily be linked to the mother fish and due to its stationary behavior it can also be linked to the environment (Simonsen and Strand 2010). Therefore this species has been commonly used in environmental monitoring and toxicology studies. A recent genetic study has revealed considerable gene flow and an absence of genetic divergence on distances up to 90 km in the Baltic Sea, suggesting that migration might be more common than previously believed (Bergek et al. 2012). Eelpout feeds mainly on gastropods, chironomids and crustaceans, and occasionally on fish eggs and larvae. The maximum size for this species is 52 cm TL (Andriashev 1986) but adults commonly range from 20–40 cm in size and have a life span of approximately 5–14 years (Kristoffersson and Oikari 1975). Females reach maturity at an age of 1–2 years and males already at one year. There is a differentiation in life-history traits in the Baltic Sea with more slow-growing, later maturing individuals in northern, less saline areas (Bergek et al. 2012).

threats:
Zoarces viviparus is a cold water species, so the increases in water temperatures due to changed climate may adversely impact aerobic performance (Pörtner and Knust 2007), potentially causing local extinctions. Reproductive impairment due to pollution may have serious consequences not only for individuals but also for populations (Hanson et al. 2005, Hedman et al. 2010). Other perceivable threats may be predation by cormorants and cod. Eelpout is commercially fished in Latvia, and in the Russian part of the Gulf of Finland fishermen often catch it from ice when hook-fishing smelt in spring time. The invasive round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) could also possibly have a negative effect on the eelpout as they overlap in habitat. The elevated frequency of females with deformed offspring and the high frequency of not pregnant females in some coastal areas might be an indication of environmental pressure factors being a threat to eelpout populations (Simonsen and Strand 2010). The species could be locally threatened, however over the whole range of the species distribution it is not sufficiently threatened to justify classification within a threat category. This species is also caught as bycatch (Berghahn et al. 1992).

conservationAction:
Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends and overall threats to the species. Zoarces viviparus was assessed in the Baltic Sea/HELCOM Region and was assessed as NT in the Baltic Region. 

useAndTrade:
This species is of minor commercial value in some parts of its range


taxonomicNotes:
There has been considerable historical confusion regarding the taxonomic validity of this species. It has often been considered a synonym of Arnoglossus kessleri.

redListCategoryRationale:
Arnoglossus grohmanni is a little-known species which may be endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. There is considerable taxonomic uncertainty concerning this species, and there is little published information and few specimens. Therefore, this species is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Arnoglossus grohmanni is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, with records from Italy (Torchio 1963), Izmir, Turkey (Akyol et al. 2011), Sea of Marmara and Aegean Sea (Ererazi 1942, Economidids 1973). Questionable records from several older published works report A. grohmanni from the coast of England (Holt and Calderwood 1895 and Jeflresysii 1897). Specimens have been collected to depths of 10 m (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 January).

population:
There is no current population information available for Arnoglossus grohmanni. D. S. Jordan stated that it is rather common in the Mediterranean and that numerous specimens were examined and collected off Venice (Jordan and Goss 1889).

habitat:
There is no published habitat and ecology information available. There is no maximum size information available. Specimens have been collected in shallow waters, over bottom sand and algae substrates (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 January).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation actions in place for A. grohmanni. Its distribution may overlap with marine protected areas. The taxonomic validity of this species is unclear.

redListAssessors:
Munroe, T., Costa, M., Nielsen, J., Herrera, J. & de Sola, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Arnoglossus imperialis ranges from Scotland south to Namibia including the Mediterranean and the Azores. It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 400 m and is found in a variety of habitats. There is little species-specific population information available. This species may occasionally be marketed; however, when taken as bycatch this species is generally discarded. This species has a widespread distribution and is likely to occur in marine protected areas.. Arnoglossus imperialis is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Arnoglossus imperialis ranges from Scotland south to Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1999). Arnoglossus imperialis is found from both coasts of Scotland (Gibson and Ezzi 1980) and the Celtic Sea (Ellis et al. 2013) to the Tagus estuary along the Atlantic coast of Portugal (Cabral et al. 2002) and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997). It is also found throughout the Mediterranean (Nielsen 1972), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 400 m (Sanches 1991, Munroe in press).

population:
Arnoglossus imperialis is reported to be most common around the Angola/ Congo region (Munroe in press). Arnoglossus  imperialis has an average abundance of 0.72 specimens per 2 m beam trawl on the southern Celtic Sea assemblage and an average abundance of 0.82 specimens per 2 m bean trawl on the shelf edge assemblage (Ellis et al. 2013).

habitat:
Arnoglossus imperialis is a demersal flatfish which can be found in habitats ranging from estuarine systems to deeper benthic areas. It is found on sand, mud, shell and coral substrates (Bianchi et al. 1999). Its diet consists primarily of crustaceans, with Mysidacea being the most common prey item in the Tagus estuary on the Portuguese coast (Cabral et al. 2002). It reaches a maximum size 25 cm (standard length) SL (Munroe in press).

threats:
Arnoglossus imprerialis is taken as bycatch throughout its range, and is typically discarded. According to a survey of Portuguese fishing, A. imperialis is occasionally discarded as bycatch during crustacean trawling, demersal purse seine fishing, mid-water trawling (Borges et al. 2001). Arnoglossus imperialis is listed as a discard in Portuguese fisheries with 93.1 g per 10,000 m-1 with and average of 2.2 fish per 10,000 m-1 (Batistas et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for Arnoglossus imperialis. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is little species-specific use and trade information available for this species.When taken as bycatch it is generally discarded. Arnoglossus imperialis is listed as low to no commercial value in the Mediterranean fisheries (Matić-Skoko et al. 2011) and in Portugal.

redListAssessors:
de Sola, L., Nielsen, J., Monroe, T., Costa, M. & Herrera, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
Arnoglossus kessleri is distributed throughout the east Mediterranean Sea. It is caught as bycatch although it is discarded and not sold commercially. For this reason, there is no population information available. The main threats are bycatch and possibly interactions with non-native species. Arnoglossus kessleri is uncommon, but it is unknown if it is naturally rare, or rare due to fishing activities. Therefore, A. kessleri is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species is endemic to the Mediterranean and Black seas. It is present all through the Mediterranean Sea coast, except for Morocco and Algeria (Nielsen 1986), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). Recently it was found off the Iberian coast (Raventos et al. 2006), but it is unclear whether this record represents an established population. It is also found in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea (Unsal and Oral 1993), including the Crimean Peninsula and the Sea of Azov (Nielsen 1986, Salekhova et al. 2007). It is not found in the Spanish Mediterranean Sea (L. Gil de Sola pers. obs. 2014).   

population:
This is an uncommon species in the Mediterranean Sea, but abundant populations were once recorded from Black Sea. It was commercially exploited in the northern Black Sea until the mid 1970s, but significant population decline was noted due to eutrophication and changes in benthic conditions (Shiganova 1998). Georgian coast population is also noted to be rare (Komakhidze et al. 2003). Artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries are recorded in Cyprus (trawls, trammel nets and beach seine (Bauchot 1987)). It is not a target fish in the rest of the Mediterranean Sea but it is sometimes captured as bycatch and is discarded. There is no fisheries information on this species. Adriatic Sea population is rare according to Jardas and Pallaoro (1987), and very rare according to Bello and Rizzi (1988). Unsal and Oral (1993) mention that only one specimen (8.2 cm total length) was captured from Sea of Marmara, during the period between August 1990 and April 1994. Collection depth was 38 m. According to Cakir et al. (2003) a total of 32 specimens were captured during bottom trawls conducted at Edremit Bay (north Aegean Sea), during September 1999 and September 2000. Specimens had total lengths ranging from 5.2 cm to 8.9 cm.

habitat:
This is a benthic species that can be found on the upper part of the continental shelf, at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m. It lives on muddy and sandy substrata, migrating to deeper waters during the winter. The species feeds on small fishes and invertebrates. Its reproduction period is from May to August.

threats:
A possible major threat could be bycatch in trawlers. There could also be potential predation by non-native species from the Red Sea.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place. Arnoglossus kessleri was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Arnoglossus kessleri is not commercially targeted and there are no data on bycatch.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Arnoglossus laterna is a widespread demersal species found throughout the eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black seas. It is listed not a commercial species but is caught as bycatch in demersal fisheries throughout its range. Within the assessment region of the northeastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black seas it appears that this species is typically discarded, however in some parts of its range it is marketed at the local level. Within the assessment region of the northeastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black seas,  A. laterna may be becoming increasingly abundant due to warming temperatures. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for A. laterna, however its distribution overlaps marine protected areas. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Arnoglossus laterna is present in the east Atlantic from southern Norway, including the Skagerrak and Kattegat, to Angola including the Mediterranean and Black seas. Arnoglossus laterna is widely distributed from the Rockall Trough (Neat and Campbell 2011) and the North Sea (van Hal et al. 2010) to the Bay of Biscay (Hermant et al. 2010) and Portuguese coast (Paulo-Martins et al. 2011). Arnoglossus laterna is not found in the Madeira Islands, it was erroneously recorded present by Froese and Pauly (2007) on the basis of another citation by Nielsen (1986) that did not include Madeira as its range (Wirtz et al. 2008). It is widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea (İlhan et al. 2010), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 400 metres.

population:
Arnoglossus laterna is a common species in the along the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (Nielsen 1986). The abundance of Arnoglossus laterna in the North Sea is increasing due to shifting temperatures (van Hal et al. 2010). It is one of the most dominant benthic species of the west coast of Portugal and is the most abundant flatfish in the Cascais Bay (Prista et al. 2003). This is a common species found throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Nielsen 1986). According to Gristina et al. (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 4 to 39/km2, from 62 hauls. In the Aegean Sea it has a CPUE of 171.4 (N/h) from 342 bottom trawls with 37,062 individuals caught (Damalas et al. 2010). Letorureur et al. (2001) mention that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River. A small beam trawl with opening of 1=.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size was used.  Mean densities were 23.68 ± 8.24 individuals ha-1 from 31 hauls conducted in a first site, and 89.33 ± 30.29 from 26 hauls conducted in a second site, for a total surface area of 2,778 m2 at depth of 5–8 m. Karakulak et al. (2006) reported that eight specimens (7.6 to 18.3 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. According to Bariche et al. (2007), three specimens were collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, along the north side of Beirut, for 4 months starting from May 2001, with one sample taken each week. Fishing activities were conducted with a purse seine (5 mm mesh, 170 m long and 40 m deep). Romanelli et al. (2002) mention that 22 samples were collected in the east Ligurian Sea in the fishing season of 1997, with 15 hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m). Ungaro et al. (1999) report that this species was sampled from trawl surveys carried out in the south Adriatic Sea (mean abundance value of 23 specimens in 224 hauls), during summer 1996 and 1997 inside 112 stations (1 haul/60 square nautical miles) with 72 hauls in the Italian area and 40 hauls in the Albanian area each year, using an otter trawl net (length 40 m, wing spread 8 m) with a 10 mm mesh size at the cod-end. According to Carpentieri et al. (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24 h surveys conducted in July 2001 (6 ind/24 h), November 2001 (10 ind/24 h), March 2002 (2 ind/24 h) and May 2002 (34 ind/24 h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24 h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively. Gokce and Metin (2007) mention that 117 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line. Ozaydin et al. (2007) reported that 1,078 specimens (4.5 to 14.9 cm TL) were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 6.8 and 21.9 cm. In the Sea of Marmara in 1997, the species was collected 167 kg/km2 and in 2007 it was collected 15 kg/km2 (Keskin 2010). According to Darnaude et al. (2004), 741 specimens (2.0 to 13.2 cm TL) were collected in the Gulf of Lion, seawards of the Rhone River from March 2000 to November 2001.

habitat:
Arnoglossus laterna is a benthic species found on sand or mud at depths ranging from 10 to 400 m. It is a diurnally active, visual, opportunistic predator which feeds primarily on Crustacea (Mysidacea), polychaetes and small fishes (Paulo-Martins et al. 2011, De Morais and Bodiou 1984). Arnoglossus laterna undergoes a metamorphosis when it is between 16 and 23 mm. The maximum length is 25 cm, but the usual length is between 8 and 15 cm. There is very little information on this species' biology. This species may live to about 8 years off the coast of Brittany (van Hal et al. 2010; İlhan et al. 2010).

threats:
Arnoglossus laterna is taken as bycatch of industrial and small-scale demersal fisheries throughout its range. It is typically discarded, however in some regions it is marketed locally.  In the Sea of Marmara (and perhaps elsewhere), depth of hypoxic events overlaps the depth distribution of this species, and these event could have potential impacts on populations of this species in these areas (Keskin et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Arnoglossus laterna. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its range. Arnoglossus laterna was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Arnoglossus laterna is not a targeted species. It is taken as bycatch of industrial and small-scale demersal fisheries throughout its range, although it is typically discarded (Machias et al. 2001). In the Mediterranean this species is not considered commercially important (Hermant et al. 2010, Machias et al. 2001). In some parts of its range, particularly off the coast of western Africa, this species is captured in artisanal and industrial fisheries and marketed in various forms in local markets and at the national level (Munroe in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient Arnoglossus rueppelii is widely distributed from the Mediterranean and to the Canary Islands. Although it is a deep benthic fish that is not commercially targeted, it is taken as bycatch in the Alboran Sea. There is little species-specific population information available as this species occurs in low abundances and is rarely caught. Therefore, this species is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Arnoglossus rueppelii is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it occurs from the Iberian peninsula to Western Sahara. It has been recorded in the Azores (Santos et al. 1997) and Canary Islands. It is also known from the Mediterranean Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005, Moranta et al. 2008, D’Onghia et al. 2010, Golani 2006), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It has a depth range of 85 to 897 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
There is little species-specific information available for A. rueppelii. Adults are rarely caught and when captured they occur in low abundance (Munroe pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Arnoglossus rueppelii is a demersal species lives on sand and mud substrates. Its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates (Aldebert et al. 1990). Spawning occurs during the autumn in the Mediterranean Sea (Nielsen 1986). It reaches a maximum size 15 cm SL (Nielsen 1986). It is found at depths ranging from 85 to 897 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

threats:
Arnoglossus rueppelii is not a targeted species; however, it is taken as bycatch by fisheries operating within the Alboran Sea in the western Mediterranean (Abad et al. 2007). In this study it formed a relatively small portion of the catch. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution (Abad et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures are in Arnoglossus rueppelii. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Arnoglossus rueppelii is not a commercially fished species in Europe waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and there are no major threats to the species. However, research should be conducted on the population size and trend of the species, as it is a non-gregarian species that is caught as bycatch, sold locally and targeted by recreational fishermen in some areas.

range:
This is a sub-tropical species that is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from its northern distribution in Ireland (Nielsen 1986) to Sierra Leone and Cape Verde.  At the northeast Atlantic, the species is present from the British Islands to Gibraltar and Madeira (Fishbase 2011). It is also known from the Mediterranean and Black seas. In the Mediterranean Sea basin, this species occurred from the Alborán Sea, along the Iberian coast (Junta de Andalucía 2001, Valle et al. 2003, Oceana 2011), Palos Seamount (Marín et al. 2011a), Balearic Islands (Marín et al. 2011b), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998, Blanchard and Boucher 2001, Letourneur et al. 2001), south Adriatic Sea (Ungaro et al. 1999) and in the Aegean Sea (Lamprakis et al. 2003, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak et al. 2006, Ozaydin et al. 2007). It is also found on the Turkish coast and in Cyprus. In Spain, larvae of the species have been collected in Oiartzun, a estuary in the Biscay Bay (Uriarte et al. 2013), and it has also been recorded in the north coast of Spain in Galicia, Cantabria and Euskadi (Aguilar et al. 2009), and in Palos Seamount, in the southeastern coast of Spain (Marín et al. 2011b). Its depth limits range from 300 metres to 15 metres below sea level.

population:
This species is widespread and occurs occasionally in the west Mediterranean Sea and is rare in the Levantine coasts. According to Valle et al. (2003), 37 specimens (5.2 to 9.5 cm TL) were collected in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa), with 108 samples at a 20–22 m depth range, using a beam trawl of 1.8 m width and 0.8 m height. Ungaro et al. (1999) report that this species was sampled from trawl surveys carried out in the south Adriatic Sea (mean abundance value of one specimen in 224 hauls), during summer 1996 and 1997 inside 112 stations (one haul/60 square nautical miles) with 72 hauls in the Italian area and 40 hauls in the Albanian area each year, using an otter trawl net (length 40 m, wing spread 8 m) with a 10 mm mesh size at the cod-end.  Ozaydin et al. (2007) mention that 20 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 6.1 and 7.9 cm. Eight specimens (8.5 to 11.2 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005 (Karakuilak et al. 2006). Letourneur et al. (2001) report that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River. A small beam trawl with opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size. Mean density of 1.86 ± 1.35 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: two knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m2 at depth of 5-8 m. Lamprakis et al. (2003) mention that this species was collected in the Thracian sea during 1996-1998 using two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365m. 572 specimens were caught in 1996-1997 with TL ranging from 3.8 to 12.6 cm. The influence of warming in the Bay of Biscay was analyzed on 20 flatfish species. Being a non-commercial species, the population of A. thori showed no regression but increase during the period of time 1987-2006, so the species is determined to be not affected by climate change or fishing activities occurring in the Bay of Biscay (Hermant et al. 2010). In Ireland, the species was previously regarded as rare (Went and Kennedy 1976), but it is now known to be relatively common, especially off the west and southwest coasts where demersal adults, juveniles, pelagic eggs and larvae have also been recorded (Dunne 1972, Kennedy et al. 1973, Dunne and Koennecker 1976, Dransfeld et al. 2004).  The overall population size and trend of the species are unknown.

habitat:
This is a benthic species that can be mostly found on the upper 100 m of the continental shelf on sandy and muddy substrata, and larvae of the species have also been collected in Oiartzun, a estuarine in the Biscay Bay (Uriarte et al. 2013). It shows preference for sandy bottoms and is more abundant in the upper slope (Damalas et al. 2010). It has also been found in relation with Posidonia meadows (Valle et al. 2001). Arnoglossus thori feeds on small fishes and invertebrates (Nielsen 1986). In the Douarnenez Bay (west coast of France), the species feeds on small crustaceans such as mysidaceans, amphipods and shrimps (Deniel 1975). In the Biscay Bay, the species has been recorded to feed on the mysid crustaceans (Schistomysis spp.; San Vicente and Sorbe 2013).   The reproduction period is from April to July, the longevity is 10 years, the size at maturity is 12 cm and the maximum size is 18 cm (SL).

threats:
This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and it is sold locally (Nouar pers. comm. 2007), but it is totally discarded in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias et al. 2001) as it is caught as bycatch. It is known that global warming is currently not affecting the species population in the Bay of Biscay (Hermant et al. 2010), but there is no information available on other specific threats affecting the species.

conservationAction:
Arnoglossus thori is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. Although the protection of Posidonia meadows by international and regional legislation benefits the species, enforcement is necessary to make protection real and effective. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size, trends and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is sold locally (Nouar pers. comm. 2007), but totally discarded in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias et al. 2001). However, the species is being sold locally in Spain (i.e. Andalucía (Pérez and Rodríguez, 2001), Comunidad Valenciana (Generalitat Valenciana 2014), Madrid), with increasing presence in fish markets. The species is targeted by Spanish recreational fisheries (FAPD undated). In Ireland, it is a non-commercial species, although it is occasionally taken as a by-catch and/or by incidentally by recreational anglers, but it is usually discarded (D. Quigley pers. comm. 2015).

redListContributors:
Blanco, J., Cuttelod, A., Nouar, A., Golani, D., Kada, O. & Quignard, J.P.


taxonomicNotes:
There are three subspecies B. p. podas, B. p. maderensis, and B. p. africanus, and there some question regarding the taxonomic status of these subspecies.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern Bothus podas has a widespread distribution in the eastern central Atlantic Ocean and throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It is found over sandy and muddy substrates at depths ranging from very shallow waters to 400 m. It is not a targeted species within the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black sea assessment zone, however it is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries and is typically discarded and is sometimes marketed in local markets. There are no species-specific landings available, and there is little species-specific population information available. Bothas podas is widespread and appears to be common, and there have been no documented population declines. Therefore, B. podas is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Bothus podas occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the Portuguese coast (Palma et al. 2003, Ribeiro et al. 2006) south along the coast of Western Africa to Angola, including the Azores, Madeira, Cape Verde, São Tomé Islands, the Canary Islands (Aldebert et al. 1990, Nielsen 1973). In the Mediterranean Sea it occurs throughout the basin, including in the Alboran Sea (Molinari et al. 2004), Iberian coast (Moranta et al. 2006, Raventos et al. 2006), Balearic islands (Deudero et al. 2008, Moranta et al. 2006), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur et al. 2001, Carlier et al. 2007), Ligurian Sea (Romanelli et al. 2002, Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2005), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Akin et al. 2005, Karakulak et al. 2006, Ozaydin et al. 200 7) and all Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Lebanese coasts (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 2005) and Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002). It is found at depths ranging from 15 to 100 metres.

population:
Bothus podas appears to be common. It is considered common throughout the coasts of Madeira and the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean Sea (Nielsen 1973).  According to Sangun et al. (2007) 90 specimens with lengths ranging from 6.2–15.7 cm were collected from off the coast of Turkey during 2001–2003, from depths of 5–100 m. Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2004) mention that 17 specimens were obtained seasonally during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece). Abdullah (2002) reports that 310 specimens (5.5–13.6 cm TL) were collected after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998 at depths of 30–200 m. According to Carlier et al. (2007), 17 specimens were collected with trawls during March 2004 between 5 and 35 m depth, in the Bay of Banyuls-sur-Mer (Gulf of Lion). Letourneur et al. (2001) mention that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France) a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River, using a small beam trawl with opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size. A mean density of 7.01 ± 3.94 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: 2 knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m2 at depth of 5–8 m. Deudero et al. (2008) report that this species was sampled in July, September, October and December 2002, with mean abundance and standard error that ranged from 0.11±0.15 to 0.43±0.34. Lengths ranged from 5.5–13.5 cm TL. Individuals were caught over Posidonia oceanica beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl (1.8 m wide and 0.8 m high, with a body of 8 m, 12 mm square mesh at its first half and 9 mm at the back, and a 2 m long cod end, 6 mm square mesh) during daytime (10:00-13:00 h). According to Karakulak et al. (2006), one specimen (11.9 cm TL) was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. Romanelli et al. (2002) mention that one sample was collected in the east Ligurian Sea in the fishing season of 1997, with six hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m).

habitat:
Bothus podas is a benthic species which is found on sandy and muddy bottoms at depths ranging from very shallow waters to 400 m (Torchio 1962), however, it is most common between 5–18 m on sandy bottoms and sea grass beds (Schintu et al. 1994). It is also found in estuaries (Maigret and Ly 1986). It primarily feeds primarily on Crustacea, with Polychaeta, Gasteropoda and Bivalvia of lesser importance (Schintu et al. 1994). Bothus podas has a short life cycle of 3–4 years and has a fast initial growth rate (Schintu et al. 1994). It reaches a maximum length of 45 cm TL (Ly et al. 1996), however it is commonly seen to 18 cm (Munroe in press). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 24.2 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 20.4 cm TL  and for males is 21.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Bothus podas is not a targeted species, however it is taken as bycatch in bivalve dredges (Palma et al. 2003) as well as trawl, seine, gill and trammel nets (Alves 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for B. podas, however it is likely to be found in marine protected areas throughout its range. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Bothus podas is not a targeted species, however small quantities are sold in local markets (Maria Jose Costa pers. comm. 2013). There are no species-specific landing statistics available for B. podas from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and statistics for this species are likely aggregated under "Left-eyed Flounders" (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 January). Bothus podas is discarded from the bivalve dredge fishery (Palma et al. 2003) and Portuguese artisanal fisheries (Alves 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Citharus linguatula is distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea and is also found in the eastern Atlantic off Portugal to 200 m depth. It is found over sandy and muddy substrates. This species is abundant in the Mediterranean Sea and, although it is not explicitly targeted, is an important bycatch species which is commonly found in markets. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for C. linguatula. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefor, this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Citharus linguatula is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from Portugal to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea and the offshore islands of the Canaries and Cape Verde (Munroe in press). In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurs along the entire Mediterranean Sea coast (Nielsen 1986), from the Gulf of Valencia (Redon et al. 1994), in the Catalan Sea (Bahamon et al. 2006), in the Gulf of Lion (Darnaude et al. 2004), in Corsica (Miniconi 1994), in the north Tyrrhenian Sea (Bargagli et al. 1986), in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), in the Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Machias et al. 2004, Karakulak et al. 2006), all Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988) and the Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). The maximum reported depth range is 20 to 450 metres; however, it is more commonly observed at depths of 40 to 200 metres.

population:
Citharus linguatula is one of the most abundant demersal species in fish assemblages next to the continental shelf up to 200 m depth of the Mediterranean Sea (Carpentieri et al. 2010). Results from a distribution and abundance survey carried out in the Mediterranean over a six year period, revealed that this species was most abundant over muddy bottoms between 50 m and 100 m depth (Sartor et al. 2002). In the Aegean Sea, males are more numerous than females but females eventually dominate the population after five years of age (Vassilopoulou and Papaconstantinou 1994). Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2004) mention that a total of 501 hauls were taken during 16 experimental bottom trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis from standard depth stations between 16 and 500 m, at the north Aegean Sea (1990–1993). An otter trawl with 16 mm mesh size was used. Density of the species was 0.11% of all fish specimens captured at depths ranging 25–32 m. At depths of 100–195 m, its density was 1.89%. According to Cakir et al. (2005), 1,096 specimens (6.9 mm to 22.2 cm) were caught in Edremit Bay (north Aegean Sea) from September 1998 to September 2000. Sartor et al. (2002) mention that 6,336 bottom trawling hauls were carried out during 1994–1999, at depths ranging from 10 to 800 m, using an experimental trawl with a mesh size of 10 mm at the cod-end. Mean biomass of C. linguatula was 3.651 kg/km2 for Spain and France, 0.947 kg/km2 for Sardinian and Tyrrhenian seas, 0.821 kg/km2 for Adriatic Sea, 0.451 kg/km2 for Ionian Sea and 8.622 kg/km2 for Aegean Sea. Mean abundance according to depth are as follows: 10–50 m (2.107 kg/km2), 50–100 m (4.829 kg/km2), 100–200 m (1.760 kg/km2).

habitat:
Citharus linguatula is a benthic species that inhabits soft bottoms from the coastline to about 300 m depth, however it is rarely caught at depths greater than 200 m (Nielsen 1981). This species feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Fischer et al. 1987, Redon et al. 1984). It occurs on soft bottoms such as sands, clay, and mud from the coastline to about 450 m depth on the continental shelf, however it is more common at depths of 10 to 100 m (Sartor et al. 2002). Citharus linguatula primarily feeds on teleosts, decapods, mysids, polycheates, mollusks (Carpentieri et al. 2010). In the Aegean Sea, the growth rate of females is faster than that of males older than one year of age and the differences in growth rates occur at the onset of maturity. Males spawn earlier than females (Vassilopoulou and Papaconstantinou 1994). Breeding season probably beings in August in the western Mediterranean with the most preferable temperature between 21°C and 25°C (Sabatés 1988). This species reaches a maximum length 30 cm TL, but is common to 10 to 20 cm (Munroe in press). In the western Mediterranean Sea, spawning occurs during August and September (Munroe in press, Teixeira et al. 2010). Males at mature by age 2, females by age 3 at sizes of 10 to 11 cm. Age estimates for Mediterranean population indicate males live to be 5 years of age, females to age 7.

threats:
Citharus linguatula a species with minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls, gill and trammel nets. On the Moroccan Mediterranean Sea coast, C. linguatula is the second most important commercial flatfish species after S. solea (O. Kada pers. comm. 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for C. linguatula. This species is the most important flatfish in Mediterranean demersal trawl fisheries. This species is likely found in marine protected areas. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Citharus linguatula is a species with minor commercial importance. It is consumed as food. On the Moroccan Mediterranean Sea coast, C. linguatula is the second most important commercial flatfish species after S. solea (Kada pers. comm. 2007). Citharus linguatula is commonly found in fish markets and is an important bycatch species for the trawling fleet. This species is one of the most important and abundant flatfishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Carpentieri et al. 2010, Sartor et al. 2002). In the Edremit Bay, this species is being exploited at a lower than optimal level (Cakir et al. 2005). Off the coast of Portugal, C. linguatula is primarily landed in autumn and winter. Landings from 1992 to 2005 show a decreasing trend with the highest landings per unit effort in 1992 from a 0.51 tonnes vessel-1. The month and amount of rainfall are important predictors for this species (Teixeira and Cabral 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Within the assessment region comprising the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea, this species is known only from the offshore islands of Madeira, Azores, and the Canary Islands. It has a depth distribution of 3 to 23 m. This species is not utilized, nor is it known to have any major threats affecting it. Furthermore, it is likely to occur in one of the several marine protected areas surrounding any of the archipelagos that it is found in. Therefore, S. insularis is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Symphurus insularis occurs in the eastern Atlantic, mainly in the Macaronesian islands, including the Canary Islands, Madeira and also Ponta Delgada, Sao Miguel Island, Azores. It may also occur at Tarrafal, Sao Tiago Island, Cape Verde (Munroe et al. 2000). It occurs at depths between 3 to 28 m (Munroe et al. 2000).

population:
There are no data available on the population size and trend of this species. It is commonly observed at night. Its cryptic behavior may account for its apparent rarity (Munroe et al. 2000).

habitat:
Symphurus insularis is a shallower water demersal species which is found from 3 to 28 m (Brito et al. 1999, Munroe et al. 2000). It is a nocturnal species which feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes (Carvalho et al. 2003).  Symphurus insularis is found on a variety of substrata consisting of open sand, shells, gravel, areas of algae covered boulders of varies sizes with some interspersed sand patches, and sand patches within seagrass beds. It reaches a maximum size 8 cm SL. Females attain larger sizes (to 8 cm SL) than males (to 5.4 cm SL). Females mature at relatively small sizes (46 mm SL) (Munroe et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
The distribution of this species likely overlaps marine protected zones in the Canary Islands, Azores, or Madeira.

useAndTrade:
This species is of no commercial importance, and it is not typically found in bycatch.

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Monroe, T., Nielsen, J., Herrera, J. & de Sola, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern Symphurus ligulatus occurs in the Mediterranean and neighboring Atlantic Ocean to about 18°N.  It has a broad depth range of 200 to 1040 m and is found over soft substrates. There are no known species-specific threats, however, it is occasionally taken as bycatch. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for S. ligulatus. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern

range:
Symphurus ligulatus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from the Mediterranean south to Angola. In the western Mediterranean Sea, S. ligulatus occurs along the coast of Spain from Gibraltar Strait to Catalonia and the Balearic Islands (MEDITS trawl survey, L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013), in south Adriatic Sea (Gulf of Taranto, Naples, Sicily and Gulf of Genoa: Quéro et al. 1986). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, it is only reported from Israel (Goren et al. 2006) and the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), including the Ionian (Mytilineou et al. 2005) and Aegean seas (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005). It is found at depths ranging from 200 m to 1,024 m (Munroe 1990).

population:
There is no population information available for S. ligulatus. It is a deep water species that can be locally abundant. According to D’Onghia et al. (2003), two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off the west Greece), at depth ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting 1 hour, were made. The average density was 0.214 individuals/h and 0.001 kg/h. Mytilineou et al. (2005) report that sampling was carried out in the deep waters of the north part of the east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (September 1999, April 2000, July 2000 and September 2000). Two hired commercial trawlers equipped with trawls of 40 mm (stretched) mesh size in the cod-end were used for sampling. In total, 148 hauls were carried out during the four surveys. Abundance was 0.4 individuals/h (at depths of 500-700 m) and 0.1 individuals/h (at depths of 700-900 m). Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2004) mention that a total of 501 hauls were taken during 16 experimental bottom trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis from standard depth stations between 16-500 m, at the north Aegean Sea (1990-1993). An otter trawl with 16mm mesh size was used. Density was 0.30% of all fish specimens captured at depths ranging 44-98 m. According to Moranta et al. (1998), a total of 32 bottom trawls were made between depths of 200 and 1,800m, during October 1996 at the Algerian basin (Balearic islands). 90 specimens (0.21 kg) were obtained from nine trawl hauls.

habitat:
Symphurus ligulatus is a benthic species which occurs on muddy bottoms on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope (Munroe 1990, Schneider 1990).  Its depth range has recently been expanded to 1,480 m in the Levant sea (Goren et al. 2006). In Algeria, it is found generally below 400 m (Nouar pers. comm. 2007). This species feeds on isopods, euphausiids, small decapods, polychaetes, bivalves, gastropods, small echinoids, foraminiferans, and small fishes (Munroe 1990). This species reaches a maximum length of 9 cm SL, however, it is more commonly seen at 5 to 8 cm SL. This species can live up to 4 years. Males mature at 42 to 44 mm SL and age 2. Some females are sexually mature at 52 to 54 mm SL, but 100% maturity does not occur until females reach 58 to 60 mm SL, at approximately age 3 (Munroe 1990).

threats:
There are no known major threats for to S. ligulatus; however, this species is taken as bycatch in some areas (Fischer et al. 1987, Machias et al. 2001). Due to its small size, the species has little commercial value.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Due to its small size this species does not have commercial value. It is found in deep water habitat, and its range is beyond the depth range of most commercial fishing activity. Symphurus ligulatus is a totally discarded species in Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias et al. 2001). It is taken as bycatch in semi-industrial fishing in Sicily, and artisanal fishing in the Tyrrhenian Sea with bottom trawls. It may occasionally be found in markets in parts of its range (Fischer et al. 1987)


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Symphurus nigrescens ranges from the Bay of Biscay to the Azores, throughout the Mediterranean south to Namibia (45°N to about 7°S). It has a broad depth range of 47 to 1,400 m and is found over soft substrates. There is little available population information, and there are no known species-specific threats, although it is sometimes taken as bycatch. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for S. nigrescens. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Symphurus nigrescens is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it ranges from the Bay of Biscay to Namibia, including the Azores (Munroe 1990). Symphurus nigrescens is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, except for the northern Adriatic Sea and around Cyprus (Quéro et al. 1986, Bauchot 1987). It is known from throughout the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), including the Aegean (Lamprakis et al. 2003, Kallianiotis et al. 2004), Cretan (Kallianiotis et al.2000), and Ionian seas (Madurell et al. 2004). Symphurus nigrescens is also known from the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005) and in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006). This species occurs from depths of 47 to 1,400 m but is more commonly collected between 90 and 350 m (Munroe 1990).

population:
Symphurus nigrecens is the most common species of Symphurus in the eastern Atlantic Ocean (Munroe 1990). According to Lamprakis et al. (2003), 406 specimens (4.7 to 13.0 cm TL) were caught from 1996 to 1998 in the Thracian Sea by two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365 m. Carpentieri et al. (2005) report that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24 h surveys conducted in July 2001 (48 ind./24 h), November 2001 (8 ind./24h), March 2002 (2 ind./24h) and May 2002 (14 ind./24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24 h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30 to 40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively. D’Onghia et al. (2003) mention that two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off west Greece), at depth ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting one hour, were made. Average density was 0.143 individuals/h and 0.001 kg/h (off the Italian coast). According to Abad et al. (2007), a total of 28 hauls were carried out at depths ranging from 50 to 640 m, in the Alboran Sea (during the fishing season between August 2000 and June 2001). An otter trawl net was used for sampling purposes. Density of the species was 0.97 kg/h (at 276–350 m depth), and 0.01 kg/h (at 351–460 m depth). Moranta et al. (1998) report that a total of 32 bottom trawls were made between depths of 200 and 1,800 m, during October 1996 at the Algerian basin (Balearic islands). Eighty-six specimens (0.3 8kg in weight) were obtained from ten trawl hauls.

habitat:
Symphurus nigrescens is a benthic species which occurs on mud substrata of the continental slope and shelf (Schneider 1990). Symphurus nigrescens larvae occurs over rocky and sea grass bottoms in the NW Mediterranean (Sabatés 1990). It is found at depths ranging  from 47 to 1,400 m (Munroe 1990). The maximum size for S. nigrescens is 11.7 cm SL (male) and 11.2 cm (female) SL (Munroe 1990). The maximum age of this species has been estimated at 3 years (Munroe 1990). Females mature at 60 mm SL and is assumed that males of corresponding size are mature (Munroe 1990). In the Mediterranean, this species usually occurs over soft mud and clay bottoms. Symphurus nigrescens primarily feeds on small benthic invertebrates including polychaetes, ophiuroids, mollusks, decapods, and other crustaceans (Munroe 1990).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species. Because of its small size and deep water occurrence, the species is not threatened by most fishing activity. It is incidentally caught with bottom trawls (Machias et al. 2001). It is generally discarded in the east Mediterranean Sea (M. Bilecenoglu pers. obs. 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Symphurus nigrecens is not a commercial species. This species is captured as bycatch of trawl fisheries (Bariche 2012) and is often discarded at sea (C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is widely distributed on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a demersal flatfish which reaches maximum sizes of 60 cm. It is a common species and abundance indices show an increasing trend in some areas in recent years. As a commercial species, G. cynoglossus is principally taken as valuable bycatch, but is also the target of small directed fisheries in some areas. Specific management measures in place include Total Allowable Catches (TAC) and Minimum Landing Sizes (MLS) of 28 cm. It is also likely found in protected areas in parts of its range. Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, G. cynoglossus ranges from the northern part of the Bay of Biscay to Kattegat and the adjacent part of the Baltic Sea (Stuxberg 1895, Otterstrom 1914, Muus and Nielsen 1999), along the entire Norwegian coast to as far as the Murman coast, Russia (Andriyashev 1964), and the southern and western coasts of Iceland. The species occurs over a depth range of 18 to 1,600 m (Møller et al. 2010, Scott and Scott 1988). Adults are mostly found at depths of 45 to 400 m (Bowering and Brodie 1991).

population:
Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is common in the northern North Sea, west of the British Isles and in Icelandic waters (ICES 2013). Based on a survey time series from the North Sea since 1968, abundance indices peaked in 2000, then showed a declining trend until 2006. Since 2006 stock abundance has shown an increase. The stock size indicator for 2011 to 2013 is 20% greater than the average for 2006 to 2010. Exploratory estimates suggest that fishing mortality is above potential FMSY proxies (ICES 2013). Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is one of the most common flatfish species caught in prawn trawl fisheries along the Norwegian coast; however, few are landed despite commercial interest in other areas. The sex ratio of this species from northern Norway was revealed to be 1:1 for individuals of up to nine years of age and females dominated among older fish. Annual rates of instantaneous total mortality (Z) were determined to vary from 0.24 to 0.76 depending on sex, locality and age (Nilsen et al. 1991).

habitat:
Adult G. cynoglossus occur on the continental shelf and upper continental slope. This species prefers fine sediments including clay, muddy sand, and pure mud (McKenzie 1955). Juveniles recruit to the benthos at sizes 5 to 6 cm (ICES Cooperative Report Atlas of North Sea fishes) at depths shallower than those of the adult population (Monroe pers. comm. 2013). The diet of G. cynoglossus is primarily comprised of crustaceans, worms, brittle stars, and fishes (ICES 2013). Sexual maturity is attained in 3 to 4 years and spawns between May and September (Nielsen 1986). Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is a medium-sized species attaining maximum sizes to 60 cm SL (Nielsen 1986). The maximum age reported for this species in the Western North Atlantic is 25 years (Bowering and Brodie 1991). Individuals of up to 14 years in age have been reported from Skagerrak, Kattegat and Iceland and from Scottish waters, specimens have been reported to 12 years of age (Molander 1925, Bowers 1960). In the Irish Sea, this species spawns in late March to May with both males and females reaching about ten years in age. Females grow to a larger size than males. In Icelandic waters, females reach 36 to 40 cm in ten years, while males were reported to reach 33 cm in ten years (Bowers 1960).

threats:
This species appears as bycatch in commercial fisheries. Unknown quantities are also discarded at sea (ICES 2013).

conservationAction:
There are several species-specific measures in place for G. cynoglossus. Advice on management is provided by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), which advises that landings should not exceed 1,574 tonnes within the ICES management area, in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Species-specific issues highlighted by ICES include the difficulties in calculating total catches of G. cynoglossus due to insufficient data regarding discard rates. Overall, landings have declined in the past ten years with the exception of the Skagerrak and Kattegat area where landings increased in 2012 (ICES 2013). There is no Minimum Landing Size (MLS) implemented for European Union (EU) waters, however, a MLS of 28 cm is enforced at a local level in Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Scotland, and Sweden as well as come coastal areas of England. An EU total allowable catch is set for the Norwegian Sea and North Sea areas for this species and another pleuronectid, Microstomus kitt (ICES 2013).

useAndTrade:
Glyptocephalus cynoglossus is a commercially important bycatch species. There are no directed fisheries for this species except for an occasional directed fishery in Skagerrak (ICES 2013). Glyptocephlaus cynoglossus is an important bycatch species in some Nephrops fisheries. Landings of G. cynoglossus had a notable increase in the 1980s primarily due to increasing efforts by countries including Iceland, Spain, and Norway (Nilsen et al. 1991). Commercial landings from the northeast Atlantic primarily come from the North Sea. G. cynoglossus is rarely landed in Norway (Nilsen et al. 1991).

redListAssessors:
Monroe, T., Costa, M., Nielsen, J., Herrera, J. & de Sola, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Hippoglossoides platessoides is distributed over the continental shelf from Greenland to Spitzbergen and the Murman coast south to the western Baltic Sea to depths of at least 700 m, although there are records of this species occurring at far greater depths. It is found over soft substrates. Life history attributes vary significantly between populations (longevity, growth rate, age/size at maturity etc.). This species has experienced marked reductions in the age and size of first maturity due to fishing pressure. This species is well researched within the assessment region, and stocks are monitored to varying degrees. The largest stock, in the North Sea, is increasing in biomass, and biomass is at record high levels. The majority of other monitored stocks are also increasing in biomass. This species is managed by Total Allowable Catch regulations throughout its range. Additionally, there is a two-stage management plan for North Sea Sole and Plaice (Council regulation (EC) No. 676/2007) in place, and precautionary approaches are taken throughout this species range. Therefor, H. platessoides is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Hippoglossoides platessoides is an Arctic-boreal species found in the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Hippoglossoides platessoides inhabits the continental shelf and occurs from Greenland, Iceland, off the coast of Britain, in the North Sea and the western Baltic Sea to Kiel Bay, along the entire Norwegian coast to Murmansk, and in the Barents Sea to Spitzbergen (50° to 70°N). This species occurs from depths of 10 m to 700 m (Bagenal 1955, Walsh 1994, Nielsen1986), however there are reports that this species occurs at depths of up to 3000 m (Bagenal 1955, Walsh 1994, Nielsen 1986, Coad and Reist 2004), but it is most commonly found on the continental shelf between 90 and 300 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Hippoglossoides platessoides is the most common flatfish in the northern part of the North Sea (ICES Atlas).The largest stock biomass of H. platessoides is located north of Dogger Bank in the North Sea, and the smallest located on the East Greenland shelf (Walsh 1994). The overall trend in biomass throughout the region appears to be one of increase. Stocks in the North Sea are well within precautionary limits and have increased in the last 10 years, reaching record high levels in 2013 as recruitment has remained around the long-term average and fishing mortality has declined (ICES advice June 2013). Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) is increasing in the following regions: Western Skagerrak, Irish Sea, Western Channel, Eastern Channel, Celtic Sea, Kattegat, Belts and Sound, Baltic Sea. SSB is decreasing in the Eastern Skaggerak. In Divisions VIIh-k (West of Ireland) and Divisions VIIb,c (West of Ireland) F is still above possible reference points and SSB is increasing, but still relatively low compared to previous SSB in the early 1990s. There is not enough data to assess stocks in the Bay of Biscay/Atlantic Iberian waters. This species has undergone shifts towards earlier maturation at smaller sizes due to selective fishing of large individuals (Grift et al. 2003).Recent data from the Icelandic Fisheries Information Centre indicates declining stock size in Icelandic waters (reference - http://www.fisheries.is/main-species/flatfishes/long-rough-dab/).

habitat:
Hippoglossoides platessoides occurs at a temperature range of -1.5°C to 13.0°C. This is a benthic species that undertakes limited migrations for spawning, feeding, and in response to temperature. The diet of young individuals primarily consists of polycheates, crustaceans, and cumaceans while older individuals feed on echinoderms, molluscs, and other fishes.  Populations in the eastern North Atlantic tend to be less fecund than those in the western Atlantic (Walsh 1994). Fecundity can range from 25,000 ova to 250,000 ova. Fecundity in this species is not correlated to weight and the older and larger individuals spawn first (Bagenal 1957). Female H. platessoides in better condition are more likely to be mature than those who are in a lesser condition as the individual has more energy to allocate to reproduction. This allows for individuals to reach sexually maturity at a younger age and smaller size. Fecundity of this species is strongly correlated to body size and, to a lesser extent, to age (Morgan 2004, Walsh 1994). Spawning in the Northeast Atlantic takes place from January to July and usually peaks in the spring. The Barents Sea population does not undergo a spawning migration or aggregation and it is unknown whether the Svalbard population participates in the spawning migration or not (Walsh 1994). Hippoglossoides platessoides does not spawn every year once it has attained a certain age or size. Newly hatched larvae are 0.62 cm to 0.75 cm in size (Walsh 1994). Larvae begin metamorphosis at about 1.5 cm length and are fully metamorphosed at about 2.5 cm in length. Larvae remain planktonic for three to four weeks and for the first six months of development, individuals grow about 1 cm per month. The spawning season for H. platessoides is from the beginning of March to the middle of April usually between depths of 60 m to 90 m (Bagenal 1957). In the area, this species has been recorded to 19 years of age and a maximum size of 54 cm. The population in the North Sea has the shortest lifespan (11 years) and the smallest maximum size (30 cm) than any other population in the North Atlantic. Life span and size increase along a latitudinal gradient from the North Sea to Svalbard. The North Sea also has the youngest age and smallest size at maturity than any other population in the North Atlantic, 2.6 years and 14.4 cm respectively. The Barents Sea and Svalbard populations had a much older age at maturity and larger size at maturity, 11.7 years, 12.1 years and 35.2 cm, respectively. The North Sea population has one of the fastest growth rates in the North Atlantic. Growth rates decline from south to north on both sides of the north Atlantic (Walsh 1994).The maximum size of  H. platessoides is 82.6 cm TL (Coad and Reist 2004). The species can live up to 30 years (Bowering and Brodie 1991) and for populations in the eastern Atlantic maximum age estimates range between 11 (North Sea) and 19 (Barents Sea). The maximum size for eastern Atlantic populations is 54 cm SL (Walsh 1994). The age of maturity ranges from 2.6 years (North Sea) to 12 years (Barents Sea) (Walsh 1994). In the western Atlantic the age of maturity ranges from 3.8 years (Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank) to 10.6 years in northern Canada. 

threats:
Hippoglossoides platessoides is a commercial species. It is primarily taken as bycatch.

conservationAction:
Hippoglossoides platessoides is subject to Total Allowable Catch regulations in the northeast Atlantic. Biomass for the largest stocks, in the North Sea, is monitored. In the North Sea there is a two-stage management plan for North Sea sole and plaice (Council Regulation (EC) No. 676/2007).

useAndTrade:
Hippoglossoides platessoides is a species of relatively low economic value (Bagenal 1955). Plaice are taken as a bycatch in the beam trawl fishery that mainly targets sole and anglerfish, and as part of a mixed demersal fishery by otter trawlers (ICES advice 2013). Hippoglossoides platessoides is captured as bycatch and is usually discarded at sea, however, catches are unknown but are considered to be high due to the amount of fishing activity in the area (Walsh 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Vulnerable (VU) Hippoglossus hippoglossus has a wide distribution in the North Atlantic and can reach depths of up to 700 m. It is a commercially-valued species with a high market price. Hippoglossus hippoglossus has been a targeted species in the western Atlantic since at least the early 1800s. We infer that it has also been a targeted species in the eastern Atlantic since at least the early 1800s. Longevity has been estimated at a minimum of 50 years. Age at first reproduction varies from 4 to 18 years. The Norwegian National Red List calculated a generation length of 15 years for this species. Although it is possible that the generation length for this species is longer than 15 years, prolonged exploitation of this species is likely to have resulted in some truncation of life history, e.g. early maturation at smaller sizes. The working group accepted the generation length of 15 years, and examined population trends over the last 3 generation lengths or 45 years. In Norwegian waters/the North Sea, landing trends have been similar over the 3 generation length time frame, and have been consistently increasing since the mid-2000s. In Icelandic waters there has been a >90% decrease in the biomass index of this species from 1985 to 2013 (28 years). It is inferred that this rate of decline reflects trends over a 45 year/3 generation length time period. Given that the size of the Icelandic stock is considered approximately the same size as the Norwegian stock, there has been an estimated 38 to 45% decline in this species' population in the assessment region. There are no stock assessments available from the region and this species is not managed by ICES. In recent years it has been landed in low numbers in parts of its ranges. Stock levels are so low that the species is nowhere abundant and is uncommonly seen in fish markets. The population is considered relatively stable at low biomass. This species has undergone population declines of approximately 38–45% over three generation lengths. Therefore, it is listed as Vulnerable under Criterion A2bd.

range:
Hippoglossus hippoglossus occurs from Greenland, Iceland, Barents Sea to Novaja Semlya, the Norwegian coast, Faroe Islands, Great Britain, and Ireland to the North Sea, the western Baltic Sea, and south to the Bay of Biscay (Haug 1990). This species lives at depths from 50 m to 2,000 m (Møller et al. 2010). Elsewhere it occurs from Cape Cod to middle part of western Greenland (Nielsen 1986). This species is found at depths ranging from 50 to 200 m.

population:
Stock levels are so low that the species is nowhere abundant and is uncommonly seen in fish markets. Within the assessment zone, the population trend is considered stable at low biomass compared to historical levels. FAO landing statistics summary The overall trend in landings of H. hippoglossus declared from the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone from 1950 to 2011 is one of nearly continuous decline. Landings declined by approximately 80% from 1950 to 2011. Regional population information This species is still fished in the northeastern Atlantic, however it is landed in low numbers. Total landings north of 62°N have increased in the last year, and catches in Norway are still low (Høines et al. 2009). There has been a slight increase in landings and in the abundance of recruits in recent years. Over the past 3 generation lengths (45 years), the current catch in Norway is similar to that historically observed (e.g., no trend)(K. Nedreaas pers. comm. 2013). Hippoglossus hippoglossus biomass index in Icelandic waters has declined by >90% from 1985 to 2013 (28 years). It is assumed that over the past 3 generation lengths (1968–2012), biomass in Iceland has declined by at least the same, if not a greater, percentage (Marine Research Institute 2014). Given that the size of the Icelandic stock is considered approximately the same size as the Norwegian stock, there has been an estimated 38 to 45% decline in this species' regional European population. Baltic Sea/HELCOM Region: This species was assessed as Not Applicable in the HELCOM Region - less than 2% of the European population can be found in this region. It is rarely found in the Skagerrak. It is occasionally observed in the Belt Sea and the Sound. There was no evidence of regular reproduction within the HELCOM area from 1800-present (2013 HELCOM Red List Assessment). Western Atlantic This species was formerly an important commercial species in the western Atlantic, where directed fishing began in the early 1800s and continued into the early 20th century, when stocks reached the point of collapse. The fishery began to decline by the 1880s. Records are available from 1893 to 2005, with 29 mt recorded from 2001–2005. Record low landings were recorded in the late 1990s (Brodziak and Col 2006). Stocks in the western Atlantic were driven to severely low abundances due to overfishing. Biomass was driven to about 1% of Bmsy and remained there for about a century before rebuilding began. Estimated 50% recovery time is highly uncertain, and is likely around 25 years (Neubauer et al. 2013).

habitat:
The maximum size for males is 470 cm TL and for females 300 cm TL. The species reaches a maximum weight of approximately 320 kg (Robins and Ray 1986). In Greenland waters this species could reach length of 250 cm (Møller et al. 2010). This species reaches sexual maturity between the ages of four and 18 years and at lengths of 55 cm to 110 cm for males and 110 cm to 135 cm for females (2013 HELCOM Red List Assessment).  Hippoglossus hippoglossus spawns in deep water from 300 m to 700 m over soft bottom in Norwegian waters (Devold 1938). In the Baltic Sea, this species spawns from December to April from 200 m to 300 m depth. The diet of H. hippoglossus primarily consists of other fish species including cod, haddock, sand-eels, capelin, and herring, but it also feeds on cephalopods, large crustaceans and other benthic species (2013 HELCOM Red List Assessment). Males and females have similar growth rates until they reach sexual maturity when the females have accelerated growth rates and attain a greater maximum size. Hippoglossus hippoglossus can reach at least 50 years of age, and longevity estimates may be underestimated (Muus and Dahstrom 1974, Armsworthy and Campana 2010, Karlson et al. 2013).  Hippoglossus hippoglossus is the largest flatfish occurring in the North Atlantic. It is a benthic species that occasionally is taken off bottom in the water column. As larvae, this species strongly avoid light and then change at the commencement of exogenous feeding as they become more attracted to light. Light plays a major role in the early life stages of this species (Mangor-Jensen and Naas 1993, Meeren et al. 2013). Newly hatches larvae range from 6 mm to 7 mm SL (Pittman et al. 1990). Generation Length A generation length of 15 years was used to assess this species for the Norwegian National Red List. Although the generation length of this species may be longer, because populations have been exploited for a long period of time it is likely that some truncation of the life history has occurred. The working group accepts the generation length estimate of 15 years used by the Norwegian National Red List.

threats:
Hippoglossus hippoglossus is threatened by overexploitation. It has slow growth rates and matures relatively late in life. It is vulnerable to over exploitation as individuals are harvested before ever reproducing (Sigourney et al. 2006, 2013 HELCOM Red List Assessment). This species aggregates to spawn making it more vulnerable to over exploitation (Høines et al 2009).

conservationAction:
The range of this species overlaps with marine protected areas (IUCN and UNEP 2013). There are no fisheries management plans for this species on a region wide basis. In Swedish waters there is a ban on fishing for this species during the spawning season (December to March). Recent increases in stock size in Norwegian waters may result from two factors: In Norwegian waters and the Skagerrak there is a closed season during the spawning season. In Swedish and Norwegian waters, trawlers have been outfitted with selection grids and escape panels which have increased the survivorship of Halibut in taken as bycatch in other trawl fisheries.

useAndTrade:
Hippoglossus hippoglossus is a commercially valuable species. It has been considered to be an excellent candidate for fish farming (Bjornsson 1994, Bjornsson and Tryggvadottir 1995).

redListAssessors:
Munroe, T., Costa, M., Nielsen, J., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Rijnsdorp, A.D. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
Limanda limanda is distributed from the Bay of Biscay to the North Sea, Baltic Sea, Iceland, Norway and to the Barents Sea. This species is most abundant in the southern North Sea. It occurs over sandy substrates to depths of 200 m, while juveniles can be found in shallower waters. Limanda limanda is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, particularly demersal trawl fisheries, and may also be impacted by eutrophication and pollution events occurring within its range. This is an abundant species which appears to be increasing in abundance in parts of its range, particularly in the southern North Sea where it appears to be most abundant. Limanda limanda is the subject of regulatory measures, including total allowable catches (TACs). It is also found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Limanda limanda is assessed as Least Concern (LC).

range:
Limanda limanda is distributed from the Bay of Biscay to the North Sea, Baltic Sea, Iceland, Norway and to the Barents Sea. This species is most abundant in the southern North Sea. This species is primarily distributed in the western part of the Baltic Sea and the eastern front of its range is not clearly described (ICES 2013). Adults are more common between from 20 m to 40 m and can occur to 200 m depth (Htun-Han 1978, Lee 1972). Juveniles occur in shallower areas from less than one metre.

population:
Limanda limanda is a common and abundant species which is captured as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. It is the most abundant demersal species in the southern North Sea (Daan et al. 1990). The relative impact of fishing mortality on the population is not clearly understood. Stocks in the North Sea are considered stable and the abundance in the Skagerrak–Kattegat area is increasing. The stock size indicator for 2010 to 2012 is 7% higher for the North Sea and 16% higher for Skagerrak–Kattegat than the average from the years of 2005 to 2009 (ICES 2013). There is some evidence for the existence of three populations structured by depth in the Baltic Sea (ICES 2013).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Juvenile Limanda limanda uses shallow, sandy sediments in coastal waters as nursery grounds. Older, larger individuals of Limanda limanda occur in neritic waters on sandy substrata. This species is generalized benthivore which feeds on a wide variety of prey including brittle stars, crustaceans, polychaetes, other echinoderms (sea urchins), bivalves and small fishes. Females of this species tend to consume a significantly greater amount of food than males (Lozán 1992). This species is sensitive to sounds with frequencies from 30 Hz to 250 Hz with the greatest sensitivity from 110 Hz to 160 Hz (Chapman and Sand 1974). Life History and Reproduction The spawning grounds of this species are offshore from 30 m to 50 m depth. The spawning season is from January to September with shorter seasons for each spawning ground. Older, larger individuals commence reproduction first. This species batch spawns with the ovaries maturing at two different rates (Hendersen 1998). Along the west coast of the British Isles, peak spawning takes place from February to April, as late as July in the Barents Sea, and in the North Sea spawning starts in the south in late January/February and progresses northwards and inwards towards deeper water where peak spawning occurs from May to June (Hendersen 1998). Larvae become benthic between 13 mm and 20 mm length (Russell 1976) and settle out at depths of two to five metres (Bolle et al. 1994). Growth rates vary between populations (Jonsson 1966, Lee 1972, Ortega Salas 1988). Maximum size for this species is 40 cm standard length (SL) (Nielsen 1986). In the North Sea, the species matures at lengths from 10 cm to 14 cm (Lee 1972, Htun 1978). In the North Sea, the age of first reproduction is two years for males and two to three years for females (Bohl 1957). Life expectancy in the Irish Sea is eight to nine years and 11 years in the North Sea (Ortega Salas 1981, Lee 1972).

threats:
Limanda limanda is a component of the bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries in nearshore and offshore waters. It is exposed to polyaromatic contaminants (Piechotta et al 1999, Sleiderink et al. 2005) in nearshore waters. Although L. limanda has demonstrated the ability to adapt to low oxygen levels, lethally low levels of oxygen induces stress which in turn can result in the outbreak of disease such as lymphocystis and epidermal papilloma (Weber 1993, Mellergaard and Nielsen 1995).  In the past, L. limanda experienced both inhibitory and stimulatory immune responses when exposed to diesel-based drilling mud which was common around drilling platforms in the North Sea (Tahir et al. 1993). Since this species is sensitive to sounds with frequencies from 30 Hz to 250  Hz with the greatest sensitivity from 110 Hz to 160 Hz (Chapman and Sand  1974), it may be impacted in areas with high sound production.

conservationAction:
Limanda limanda is subject to several regulatory measures within the ICES area. In the North Sea, this species is subject to total allowable catches (TAC) which have been set at 7,795 tonnes in 2014. In the Baltic Sea TACs have been set at 1,437 tonnes in 2014 (ICES 2013). Limanda limanda is considered a monitoring organism for pollution levels in the North Sea and western Baltic (Piechotta et al. 1999).

useAndTrade:
Limanda limanda is captured as bycatch, primarily in the beam trawl but also in the shrimp, flatfish and demersal species fisheries. Catches of this species may be discarded depending on the availability of the target species and the market price. Landings of L. limanda have decreased since the year 2000 (ICES 2013). In the inner Danish waters, this species is included among a mix of flatfish species taken in a variety of inshore fisheries. In other areas it is a bycatch species in demersal trawl fisheries. Global landings of L. limanda peaked in 1998 at 22,134 t and declined to 10,698 t by 2008. Information on total catch is not available, but discards are considered to be substantial (ICES 2013). The total landings for L. limanda in the North Sea in 2012 were 6,673 t, 50% of which were landed by beam trawl and 45% from otter trawl. Landings for 2012 were 1,300 t primarily by the demersal trawl fishery. Total catches for 2012 are unknown as discards are high but not quantifiable (ICES 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Liopsetta glacialis is nearly circumpolar in distribution. It occurs off northern Europe in the White Sea and Barents Sea, including Spitzbergen and eastwards. It is found at depths ranging from 1 to 90 m and occurs in a variety of habitats. There is little species-specific population information available for L. glacialis. It is harvested to a minor extent by Russian fisheries in Arctic waters. This species may be more at risk to be impacted by climate change. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for L. glacialis, however its distribution likely overlaps marine protected areas. Liopsetta glacialis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is nearly circumpolar in distribution and also occurs along the coast of Siberia, in Arctic Alaskan waters and the Bering Sea (Pruter and Alverson 1962). It also occurs in Arctic Canada. It occurs off northern Europe in the White Sea and Barents Sea, including Spitzbergen and eastwards. It is found at depths ranging from 1 to 90 m (Fedorov et al. 2003).

habitat:
Liopsetta glacialis is found on mud and sand bottoms in shallow coastal waters and in estuaries and frequently enters freshwaters (Nielsen 1986, Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). Spawning takes place from December to May under ice. In the White Sea, spawning occurs in May. This species feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.  The maximum length of this species is 35 cm TL (Berg 1965). There is no information available for age and size at maturity. Optimal salinity for Liopsetta glacialis egg fertilization is 28.9‰ (Doroshev and Aronovich 1974). The eggs of L. glacialis do not contain an oil globule, embryonic organs begin to function by day 18 or 19 of development, and the eggs hatch between the 22nd and 42nd day. Emergent larvae are 5.56±0.04 mm in length. Larval growth and yolk sac absorption in the White Sea are slow and temperature dependent (Aronovich et al. 1975). 

threats:
Since this is a shallow water Arctic species, global warming may have significant impacts on populations of this species. Climate change may lead to numerous extinctions to species occurring in subpolar regions (Cheung et al. 2009)

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for L. glacialis. However, the range of this species overlaps with a number of marine protected areas (IUCN and UNEP 2013).

useAndTrade:
Liopsetta glacialis is harvested to a limited extent by Russia in the Barents, White and Kara Seas (Christiansen et al. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Microstomus kitt occurs in the Northeast Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to the English Channel and Ireland to the White Sea, also Iceland (distribution of Iceland need to be checked) and southeastern Greenland. This species occurs at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m and is found over sandy and gravel substrates. Abundance trends indicate a stable population. This species not explicitly targeted, however it is taken as bycatch in demersal trawlers and is often discarded. This species is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microstomus kitt is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean, where it occurs from southern Greenland and Norway to the Bay of Biscay. The presence of M. kitt along the northern coast of Iceland is uncertain. The species occurs at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m (Nielsen 1986, Jennings et al. 1993, Muus and Nielsen 1999, ICES 2013); however, off Greenland, the species has been taken at depths ranging 111 to 424 m (Ratz 1999).

population:
Microstomus kitt is most abundant in the western central and northern North Sea. High concentrations of this species have also been found in the western English Channel (Rae 1965). Rae (1965) reported that between 13 m and 150 m is the area where adults are frequently captured. Additionally, juveniles under two years of age are also taken in the same depth habitat. Microstomus kitt are caught primarily in mixed fisheries by otter trawlers and beam trawlers, ~75% and ~25% respectively.  Total Stock Biomass (TSB) estimated from the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) since the mid-1980s has been relatively stable (ICES 2013). Landings of M. kitt as bycatch in the North Sea and Skagerrak have declined by 14% and 45% between 2004 and 2012 (ICES 2013). Catches of from the northeast Atlantic of M. kitt dropped in 2001 from 15,479 t to 10,390 t in 2002 (FAO 2011). Landing trends of M. kitt from Skagerrak, Kattegat, eastern English Channel, and the North Sea from 1975 to 2012 are driven by catches from the North Sea.  Decreases in landings likely result from decreases in fishing effort throughout the region. Results from King et al. (2006) suggest that the stock is not overexploited on the west coast of Ireland.

habitat:
Microstomus kitt prefer sand and gravel substrates. Spawning takes place in the northwest of the North Sea during April and spreads north and east as the season progresses (ICES 2013). Off the west coast of Scotland, spawning ends around July and continues until August/September around Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles (Jennings et al. 1993). Off the west coast of Ireland, females spawn from January to May (King et al. 2006). In the western English Channel individuals being to recruit to the adult stock at 15 cm to 20 cm TL (Rae 1965). Off the west coast of Ireland, the age at full recruitment for females was found to be six years and five years for males (King et al. 2006) which differs from four years (both sexes) in 1978 to 1979 (King 1982). Microstomus kitt are pelagic until they attain 25 cm to 27.5 cm in length (Rae 1965).  In Scottish waters, M. kitt reach maturity around two years of age; 50% of males are mature in their third year, with a mean length of ~19 cm, and ~50% of females are mature between four and five years, with a mean length of ~26 cm (Jennings et al 1993). The smallest mature males from the west coast of Ireland were 17 cm TL and two years of age and the smallest mature females were 20 cm TL and two years of age as well (King et al. 2006). However, results from a previous study from 1978 to 1979 off the west coast of Ireland revealed 50% of males were mature at 14 cm TL and 2.6 years of age and 50% of females were mature at 15.5 cm TL and 2.5 years of age. Microstomus kitt  from the west coast of Ireland can reach 14 years of age (King et al. 2006). Microstomus kitt in the Celtic Sea, complete most of their growth in their first year which then continues at a slow and constant rate (Mahé et al. 2010). Ranges in length varied in two studies conducted off the west coast of Ireland. King (1982) found M. kitt ranging from 11.5 cm to 37.4 cm TL while King et al. (2006) found individuals sampled from 2000 to 2002 ranging in class sizes from 17 to 17.99 cm to 40 to 40.99 cm TL. Females attain greater lengths then males as well as greater weights at length (King et al. 2006). The maximum length for this species is 66 cm (Wheeler 1969). One study found a female with 295,136 eggs and 631.93 g in weight (467 eggs per gram) (King et al. 2006).

threats:
Microstomus kitt is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. It is sometimes marketed in commercial markets and sometimes discarded at sea as bycatch. Although an EU landing size minimum has not been established, individuals < 25 cm are discarded in some fisheries. Because the juveniles occur in habitats that are difficult to access by trawl or have different behavior compared with that of adults, they are caught less frequently in trawls than adults (ICES 2013).

conservationAction:
Microstomus kitt is subject to several management regulations within its range, including Total Allowable Catches (TACs). For 2014 and 2015, ICES advises that landings should not exceed 4,350t of M. kitt. The North Sea and Norwegian Sea have EU TAC limits established (ICES 2013).

useAndTrade:
Microstomus kitt has commercial importance. In addition, under-sized M. kitt are discarded as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. The annual mean of discard in the North Sea (England and Wales registered Beam, otter, and Nephrops trawlers combined) is 800,000 by number (Enever et al. 2009). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Reinhardtius hippoglossoides is distributed from Greenland, to Novaya Zemlya, along the Norwegian coast to England to depths of 2,000 m. Reinhardtius hippoglossoides is can be locally abundant, but it is commercially important and has been heavily exploited throughout parts of its range. Generation length was estimated at about 13 years. Population trends in R. hippoglossoides were evaluated over a period of 3 generation lengths in order to apply Criteria A. To account for variability in life history, population trends were examined over a 30 to 40 year time window. Historically low stock abundances were documented in the 1980s and 1990s, along with major declines in total biomass, spawning stock biomass, and a reduction in average fish size. As a long-lived and slow growing species, R. hippoglossoides may be inherently vulnerable to overexploitation. Based on historical estimates of biomass in the Barents and Norwegian seas, there has been approximately 25% increase in estimated biomass over the past 45 to 50 years (three generation lengths). However, there has been an approximately 75% decline in relative biomass from the mid-1970s and 1980s to present in the Iceland and east Greenland stock. Based on average landings in both stocks during the time period, it is estimated that the Barents Sea and Norwegian Sea stock accounts for roughly 40% of landings, while the Iceland and east Greenland stock accounts for roughly 60% of landings. The declines in the Iceland and Greenland stock are given slightly more weight in estimating the magnitude of population decline. It is estimated that there has been a 20 to 30% decline in the regional population over the past 30 to 40 years (3 generation lengths). Therefore, R. hippoglossoides is assessed as Near Threatened under Criterion A2bd.

range:
Reinhardtius hippoglossoides is distributed from Newfoundland (Canada) to both sides of Greenland, and in the northern Pacific Ocean from Sagami Bay, Sea of Japan, the Okhotsk Sea, the Bering Sea, and the Pacific coast of North America to northern Mexico (FAO 2013). In the northeastern Atlantic, R. hippoglossoides occurs from south of Ireland and northward to the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and along the continental slope of Norway eastwards to Franz Joseph Land, also including Bear Island and along the submarine ridge to Spitsbergen.  The species occurs at depths of 200 m to 2,000 m (Milinsky 1944, Andriyashev 1954, Godø and Haug 1989, FAO 2013). This species is usually found only to depths of 1,400 m on the continental slope off Norway to 62°N to northern Spitzbergen (Gundersen et al. 1999).

population:
Reinhardtius hippoglossoides was one of the most abundant groundfish species inhabiting the continental slope and shelf areas west, north, and east of Iceland (Solmundsson 2007). Stocks in the northeast Atlantic have been at historically low levels since the 1990s due to periods of high fishing pressure and reduced recruitment (Anonymous 1998, Bowering and Nedreaas 2001). Results from Albert et al. (2001) suggest that the recruitment failure reported from previous assessments may be due to the decreasing proportion of the year classes at younger ages being present in the survey area (ICES 1998). Catches from the northern North Sea (Division IVa) increased from ~200 t in 2011 to ~1,000 t in 2012. Barents Sea and Norwegian Sea Landings from the Barents and Norwegian Sea stock ranged from 12,996 to 21,461 tonnes from 2013 to 2014. Biomass estimates have shown a stable or increasing trend since 1992 (ICES 2013). Based on historical estimates of relative biomass in the Barents and Norwegian seas, averaging of endpoints from 1965-1969, and 2009-2012, there has been approximately 25% increase in estimated biomass (ICES 2013) over the last 30 to 40 years. Iceland Landings from fluctuated between 20,000 and 30,000 t. Relative total biomass estimates are available from 1960 to 2013. This stock reached a record low in 2005. There has been an approximately 75% decline in relative biomass (ICES Advice 2013) from the mid-1970s and 1980s to present. Therefore, it is estimated that there has been a 20 to 30% decline in the regional population over the past 30 to 40 years (3 generations).

habitat:
Reinhardtius hippoglossoides ranges from depths of 200 to 2,000 m, but is more commonly found between 500 and 1,000 m. Reinhardtius hippoglossoides typically feeds on prawns, squids, and fishes including cod, eelpouts, capelin, and redfish. In Spitzbergen waters, juveniles feed primarily on polar cod and prawns (Haug and Gulliksen 1982). Feeding activity of R. hippoglossoides peaks in October between depths of 1,100 to 1,500 m (Huse et al. 1999). Spawning takes place in the spring/summer from April to July, which peaks in May/June, at 700 to 1,500 m depth. Reinhardtius hippoglossoides from the Northeast Arctic region spawn primarily from November to mid-January with the peak of season occurring in December (Albert et al. 1998). It is unknown whether R. hippoglossoides is a serial spawner or if all of the eggs are released in a single batch (Stene et al. 1999). There is evidence that indicates R. hippoglossoides as being both a spring and winter spawner (Hogsnestad 1969, Albert et al. 1998) as well as suggestions that this species spawns throughout the year (Fedorov 1971). Eggs, larvae, and post larvae remain pelagic for several months and metamorphosis is completed when 6 cm to 8.5 cm length is attained (Knutsen et al. 2007, FAO 2013). The maximum length and weight for this species is 120 cm and 45 kg, respectively but is more commonly found between 80 and 100 cm and 11 to 25 kg (FAO 2013).  Reinhardtius hippoglossoides is adapted to a variety of environmental conditions and can be found in water temperature from -1°C to 10.0°C. Reinhardtius hippoglossoides is most abundant at temperatures ranging from -0.5°C to 3.0°C (Templeman 1973). Proportions of small fish are higher north of 76° and larger fish are more abundant in deeper water (Godø and Haug 1989). Only a small proportion of R. hippoglossoides over 65 cm are males (Huse et al. 1999). The coastal northern areas west and north of Spitsbergen are used as nursery grounds for R. hippoglossoides and the mature stock is distributed more south along the continental slope where spawning takes place (Godø and Huag 1989). The Denmark Strait serves as the main spawning ground in Icelandic waters for this species with peak spawning taking place from January to April (Solmundsson 2007).  Fecundity can range from ~7,000 eggs to ~140,000 eggs which is primarily correlated to length and age, a lesser extent to the latter. The eggs are 3.8 to 4.3 mm in diameter and yolk-sac larvae range from 10 to 15 mm. Fecundity was determined for females from the Barents Sea which ranged from 6,800 eggs to 70,500 eggs per female between 48 and 80 cm in length (Gundersen  et al. 1999). Spawning grounds for R. hippoglossoides in the Barents and Norwegian seas are at 600  and 900 m depth between 70°N and 75°N along the continental slope (Godø and Huag 1989, Hognestad 1969). The growth rate of individuals from the Barents Sea were faster than those from Iceland but slower than those from Newfoundland (Godø and Haug 1989).Reinhardtius hippoglossoides grows on average ~6 to 8 cm a year. Individuals from the northeast Atlantic tend to be larger at age, up to about eight years, than those from the northwest Atlantic; however, the growth patterns seem to be more similar in recent years which suggests the convergence to a similar pattern between northeast and northwest R. hippoglossoides (Bowering and Nedreaas 2001). Reinhardtius hippoglossoides migrates from the east coast of Iceland to Norway (Sigurðsson 1981). After spawning, most individuals will begin a feeding migration to the north and northeast of Iceland. This migration ends in September and from then until December, the fish will migrate back to western Iceland for spawning (ICES 1997). Migration patterns of this species are influenced by size and growth characteristics. Males and females leave the nursery grounds at 40 cm length and females appear in spawning condition around 60 cm (Albert 2003).  Off Iceland, individuals of this species <60 cm in length tend to be pelagic or semi-pelagic feeders while individuals >80 cm feed mainly on the or close to the bottom (Solmundsson 2007). In the northeast Atlantic females can reach 16 years of age and males can reach 11 years of age (Bowering and Nedreaas 2001). The growth rate of females is slightly faster than that of males after five years of age and males reach sexual maturity before females (Godø and Haug 1989). Age at 50% ranges from 9.5 years to 15.0 years for females and 8.2 years and 11.6 years for males (Morgan and Bowering 1997). Other suggested ages for 50% maturity are 9-10 years of age and 7-8 years of age (sexes combined) (Anonymous 1996, ICES 1997). Additional data are included from the 1970's and the 1980's suggest that 50% of males were mature at about five years of age and females between nine and ten years of age; however, data from Russian surveys suggest that individuals from the Barents Sea reach maturity at about six years of age (sexes combined) (ICES 1997).  Generation length was calculated using the formula (Amax+Am/2), where Am = age at first maturity (10 years for females), Amax = longevity (16 years). This gives a generation length of 13 years.

threats:
Reinhardtius hippoglossoides has experienced major declines due to exploitation. During the 1970's, the total stock and the spawning stock decreased but have increased slightly since the 1980's. The trawl fishery expanded rapidly in 1969 which contributed to the decline as well. A trawl fishery that operates on the nursery grounds had led to a decrease in the average size of fish in the catch (Godø and Haug 1989). This species also experienced recruitment failure which was indicated by the abundance of juveniles and young fish which contributed to a sharp decrease in catches (Godø and Haug 1987). During the late 1980's the northeast Arctic stock experienced a drop in year-class indices, derived from regular 0-group and juvenile surveys and a historic low spawning stock biomass was also observed (Hylen and Nedreaas 1995, Smirnov 1995). The importance of this species as a commercial fish increased during this time and a decrease in the commercial catch per unit efforts was observed. This series of events led to strict regulation including a fishing ban north of 71°30'N from 1992 (Gundersen et al. 1999). Females of this species tend to live longer, reach sexual maturity at an older age, and reach a larger size than males. These traits may make females more susceptible to exploitation.  In some areas of the species distribution the depth of occurrence of oil exploitation overlaps with the species habitats.

conservationAction:
The ban against a targeted fishery for R. hippoglossoides was lifted by Joint Russian–Norwegian Fisheries Commission (JRNFC) in 2010 which resulted in a directed fishery and capture as bycatch in fisheries for other demersal species. The 38th JRNFC session in 2009 cancelled the ban on the R. hippoglossoides fishery and implemented a TAC which was raised to 19,000 t for 2013. In the  Barents Sea, Norwegian Sea, Spitzbergen, and Bear Island, all targeted fishing by gillnet and long-line vessels longer than 28 m has been banned (Huse et al. 1999).  The fishery in the North Sea does not have Total Allowable Catch (TAC) restrictions but does have catch limits for non-EU countries (ICES 2013). ICES advises that catches should not exceed 15,000 t in 2014 in the Barents and Norwegian seas, and not exceed 20,000 t in 2014 for Iceland and East Greenland (ICES 2013). Coastal states recently began work on a common management plan for R. hippoglossoides in the area. This plan will include a gradual lowering of total catches until biological reference points have been evaluated by ICES and the implementation of a harvest control rule and continuous monitoring (ICES 2013). Reinhardtius hippoglossoides was assessed as Least Concern in Norway (including the Barents Sea) using a generation length of 50 years.

useAndTrade:
The increased use of bottom trawls in the 1960's and 1970's led to the substantial reduction of R. hippoglossides in the eastern Norwegian and Barents Sea (Anonymous 1978 from Godø and Haug 1989). Landing trends for R. hippoglossoides of the Northeastern Atlantic show regular fluctuations in the last decade with a notable decrease from 50,008 tonnes in 2004 to 36,001 tonnes in 2008 (FAO 2011 FishStatJ Accessed 2013 September).  Barents Sea and Norwegian Sea Biomass estimates indicate a stable or increase in trend since 1992 (ICES 2013). The total catch for this area in 2012 was 20,079 tonnes (ICES 2013). Iceland and East Greenland The stock has been below BMSY since the early 1990's and is presently at 56% of BMSY. Fishing mortality is estimated to be 1.5 times the Fmsy and the stock is currently at 56% Bmsy (ICES 2013). Since the record-low biomass observed in 2004 the stock has been stable with a low increase. The total catch for 2012 from this region was 29,309 t, and discarding is considered to be less than 1% by weight (ICES 2013). The total biomass for this species has declined by 75% over the past 50 years (1960-2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and the populations are quite common. Even though the species is caught as bycatch and sold locally in some areas, this is not thought to be currently damaging to the population. However, research should be conducted to determine the population trends to the species.

range:
Lepidorphombus boscii is the most southerly distributed of the two Megrim species, and it occurs in both of the ICES Divisions VIIIc and IXa. It is present in the north-east Atlantic, from the British Isles and the Faroe Islands (63ºN) southwards to Cape Bojador (26ºN) and west Sahara. It occurs along all the Mediterranean Sea coast, from the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998), Ligurian Sea (Pietrapiana et al. 2002), Tyrrhenian sea (Pellegrini and Barghigani 1989, Colloca et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005), Ionian Sea (Madurell et al. 2004, Madurell and Cartes 2005), Aegean Sea (Kallionitis et al. 2004, Celik and Oehlenschlager 2005, Vassillopoulou 2006), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000), and the Thracian Sea (Labropoulou and Papacostantinou 2005). It is not found in north Adriatic, Egypt or Cyprus (Nielsen 1986, Bauchot 1987). It is also known from the Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). Its depth lower limit is 800 metres, while its upper limit is 60 metres below sea level, although it has a preferential depth range of 100 to 450 m.

population:
According to Madurell and Cartes (2005), 155 specimens (12.9 to 37.7 cm TL) were caught in August 1999 in the east Ionian Sea. Samples were collected with an otter trawl equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 14 mm stretched mesh size. Carpentieri et al. (2005) mention that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24 hour surveys conducted in July 2001 (16 ind./24h), November 2001 (28 ind./24h), March 2002 (20 ind./24h) and May 2002 (36 ind./24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every three hours throughout the 24 hour period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively. D’Onghia et al. (2003) report that two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the southeast Italian coast, the other off the west Greece), at depths ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting one hour, were made. Abundance was 9.5 individuals/h and 0.877 kg/h (Greece), 2.5 individuals/h and 0.076 kg/h (Italy). According to Politou et al. (2003), samplings were made at the Greek Ionian Sea during spring, summer and autumn of 2000 at depths from 300 to 900 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm mesh size at the cod-end) and a total of 107 hauls were carried out. CPUE (kg/h) was 2.04 (spring), 3.40 (summer) and 6.75 (autumn), for depths of 300 to 500 m. At greater depths (500-700m), CPUE (kg/h) was 0.13 (spring), 1.01 (summer) and 1.20 (autumn). At 700-900 m, CPUE was 0.11 kg/h (autumn). Mytilineou et al. (2005) sampled deep waters of the north part of the east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (September 1999, April 2000, July 2000 and September 2000). Two hired commercial trawlers equipped with trawls of 40 mm (stretched) mesh size in the cod-end were used for sampling. In total, 148 hauls were carried out during the four surveys. Abundance was 18.0 individuals/h (at 300-500 m), 10.1 individuals/h (at 500-700 m) and 0.1 individuals/h (at 700-900 m). Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2004) mention that a total of 501 hauls were taken during 16 experimental bottom trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis from standard depth stations between 16-500 m, at the north Aegean Sea (1990–1993). An otter trawl with 16mm mesh size was used. Lepidorhombus boscii comprised 2.38% of all fish specimens captured at depths ranging 100-195 m (north Aegean Sea). At 215-490 m, it comprised 5.71% of the total catch. According to Vassilopoulou (2000), 15,323 specimens of this species were collected during eight experimental seasonal fishing cruises, from June 1990 to March 1992. Samplings were carried out in a grid of 33 stations in the north Aegean Sea, at depths of 200 to 400 m. A bottom trawl with a mesh size of 14 mm at the cod-end was used. Mean abundance of the species was 60.3 specimens per hour of trawling.  Sartor et al. (2002) reported that 6,336 bottom trawling hauls were carried out during 1994-1999, at depths from 10 to 800 m, using an experimental trawl with a mesh size of 10 mm at the cod-end. Mean biomass was 4.000 kg/km2 for Spain-France, 1.685 kg/km2 for Sardinian-Tyrrhenian, 2.080 kg/km2 for Adriatic Sea, 0.930 kg/km2 for Ionian Sea and 3.969 kg/km2 for Aegean Sea. Mean abundance according to depth were as follows: 50-100 m (0.298 kg/km2), 100-200 m (2.528 kg/km2), 200-500 m (6.138 kg/km2), 500-800 m (1.169 kg/km2). Castilho et al. (1993) reported the number of individuals sampled to be of 250 females, 328 males and 28 individuals of indeterminate sex. Both mean total length and weight were greater for females (234 mm, 124 g) than for males (188 mm, 51 g). Lepidorhombus boscii is a common species, and it is the most abundant in Portuguese continental coastal waters, as well as in the Bay of Biscay (Castilho et al. 1993). It is also common off the west coast of Ireland, particularly in relatively deep offshore waters (293-730m) (Robson et al. 2000). However, although populations are presumed to be stable, available catch data comprises L. boscii and L. whiffiagonis, so there are no specific data available for L. boscii. Besides, although recent European FAO landing data for both species combined indicate an upward trend in landing volume, it is important to note that the data are not related to either annual TAC/Quota or effort.

habitat:
Megrims are a common component of benthic fauna as evidenced by their abundance along the south European coasts. It inhabits muddy substrata (Nielsen 1990) and is is predominant on all soft bottoms of the continental shelf. It is a moderated long-lived species. The oldest female was estimated to be 13 years old, while the oldest male was 11 years old. (Castilho et al. 1993). It spawns from January to April, with spawning peak in March (ICES Advice 2014).  The growth of this species shows the same features as other flatfishes: females growing faster than males; adult females being heavier than males for the same length (Santos 1994). Its maximum size is 40 cm (SL), however information on age and growth of Megrim is limited (Castilho et al. 1993). The analysis of stomach contents of 347 L.boscii(Risso 1810) captured during five seasonal trawls, has revealed that their diet showed no significant seasonal variations, and highlighted the changes they undergo as a function of size. Macrobenthic crustaceans represent their main source of food, and among these, Decapoda and Mysidacea are the predominant ones, mainly represented by Alpheusglaber, and Lophogaster typicus, respectively. The Mysidacea are preferably consumed by individuals of less than 20 cm total length, while Decapods increase in importance as the size increases, to become the most important prey organisms for 20 cm individuals (Sartor and De Ranieri 1996).

threats:
There are not many statistics available for the species, since for example landings statistics in Portugal are very biased due to the mixture of various flatfish species under the same name, or as there is regional variation in Portuguese common names (Castilho et al. 1993).  Total mercury concentrations were measured in the muscle of L. boscii (0.05±0.92 mg/kg wet wt, 0.39±0.30). According to current regulations, 25% of samples of Megrim exceeded the peak value fixed at 0.5 mg/kg. Correlations between total mercury concentration and specimen weight were evident in all the species examined (Storelli and Marcotrigiano 2000). Therefore, the species is threatened by pollution.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species, but it is present through protected areas throughout its range, such as El Cachucho in Spain. The southern Fourspotted Megrim stock is almost exclusively caught in mixed bottom-trawl fisheries targeting demersal fish, including L. whiffiagonis, Hake, Anglerfish, and Nephrops species. Management measures aimed at reducing fishing mortality on any of these stocks should also reduce fishing pressure on L. boscii. Furthermore, ICES advises on the basis of the MSY approach that catches in 2015 should be no more than 1,036 tonnes. If discard rates do not change from the average of the last 12 years (2000-2013), this implies landings of no more than 821 tonnes. Combined catches of Lepidorhombus boscii and Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis should be no more than 1,244 tonnes and landings should be no more than 1,013 tonnes in 2015 (ICES Advice 2014). Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
The southern Fourspotted Megrim stock is almost exclusively caught in  mixed bottom-trawl fisheries targeting demersal fish, including L. whiffiagonis, hake, anglerfish, and Nephrops species. Since 2000, the Spanish trawl fleet has changed its main target  species, focusing more often on species such as Horse Mackerel, Blue Whiting or Mackerel, and does not usually take Megrim in the catch. This way, Mergrim generally form part of a mixed trawl catch along with other flatfish and Norway Lobster. According to Castilho et al. (1993), this is an important by-catch species of the Portuguese trawl fishery from the Atlantic coast. They have little commercial value and there is no directed fishery for L. boscii, being of marginal but not negligible economic importance (Santos 1994).  However, according to Fuertes (1978), the species is one of the most important in terms of commercial interest of demersal fishers of the Galician shelf. It is fished in Gran Sol Bank, and is a commercially exploited quota species in Ireland, albeit as a by-catch (which is subject to high discarding), along with its close relative L. whiffiagonis. However, it is rarely separated from L. whiffiagonis in landing declarations (Fahy and Fannon 1991, Fahy and Gleeson 1992).

redListContributors:
Garcia, S., Blanco, J., Golani, D., Kada, O., Nouar, A., Quignard, J.P. & Cuttelod, A.


taxonomicNotes:
It seems that the Strait of Gibraltar is a barrier to gene flow for the Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis. At least two separate phylogeographic units, possibly subspecies, should be considered for this species: one Atlantic and one Mediterranean (Garcia-Vazquez et al. 2006). This study confirmed the existence of a strong genetic difference between Atlantic and Mediterranean Megrim species, which had been already described in the literature for L. whiffiagonis on the basis of variations atribosomal genes. There are, therefore, two different stocks within the Atlantic Ocean and one in the Mediterranean Sea that will clearly need to be managed separately. As the present results do not fully support the current Megrim stock boundaries, they will surely help to rethink Megrim management policies in the future (Danancher and Garcia-Vazquez 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern because, even though it is caught by fisheries and sold locally and catches have shown a severe decline during the period 1993-2009, this is not thought to be currently damaging to enough to qualify for a threatened category, and the populations of this deep-water species are quite common. However, research should be conducted to clarify its taxonomy and genetic structure of the populations.

range:
The species occurs in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, from Iceland southwards to Azores, Cape Bojador (26°N) and the west Sahara (Fishbase 2014). It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, except for Cyprus (Nielsen 1986, Bauchot 1987). It is also present in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004) and the Ionian Sea (Madurell et al. 2004, Mytilineou et al. 2005). Its depth lower limit is 700 metres, while its depth upper limit is 100 metres below sea level.

population:
This is not a rare species, being fairly common across its range. According to D’Onghia et al. (2003), two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the southeast Italian coast, the other off the western Greece), at depths ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting one hour, were made. Density was 1.202 individuals/h (Italy) and 0.315 kg/h (Greece). Politou et al. (2003) sampled the Greek Ionian Sea during spring, summer and autumn 2000 at depths from 300 to 900 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm mesh size at the cod-end) and a total of 107 hauls were carried out. CPUE (kg/h) was 1.24 (spring), 0.79 (summer) and 0.75 (autumn), for depths of 300 to 500 m. At larger depths (500-700 m), CPUE (kg/h) was 0.27 (summer) and 0.65 (autumn). At 700-900 m, CPUE was 0.11 kg/h (autumn). This species was collected in the northeast Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (September 1999, April 2000, July 2000 and September 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 3.7 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 1.2 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth 700-900 m (35 hauls) (Mytilineou et al. 2005). Megrim are caught in large numbers on the groundfish surveys that are undertaken by the Marine Institute in waters around Ireland in the first and fourth quarter of each year. In recent years, the Marine Institute has also undertaken surveys that target Monkfish but which also commonly catch Megrim (Gerritsen et al. 2010). Their population trend is supposed to be stable, but little is known on the genetic structure of their populations. It is also common off the west coast of Ireland (Went and Kennedy 1976). However, although populations are presumed to be stable, available catch data comprises L. boscii and L. whiffiagonis, so there are no specific data available for L. whiffiagonis. Besides, although recent European FAO landing data for both species combined indicate an upward trend in landing volume, it is important to note that the data are not related to either annual TAC/Quota or effort.

habitat:
This is a benthic species that occurs on soft mud or muddy sand substrata, and it usually lives at depth range of 100-400 m (Muus and Dahlstrøm 1989). It has also been found from 288-700 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It feeds on small benthic fishes, such as sandeels, dragonets and gobies (Marine Life Encyclopedia), as well as on squids and crustaceans (Nielsen 1986). A total of 33 different prey species were identified from the stomach contents of L. whiffiagonis, with an average number of 3.0 prey per stomach. The diet consisted principally of mystids (Parapseudomma calloplura), natantids (Processa mediterranea and Alpheus glaber) and teleosts (Lesueurigobius friesii). Other taxa found in the stomach contents, but with less importance, were reptands, molluscs, copepods, stomatopods and polychaetes. According to the IRI, the most important prey was L. friesii, followed by P. mediterranea, Parapseudomma calloplura and Alpheus glaber (Morte et al. 1999).  Following the study by Sanchez et al. (1998), the predominant species, at depths from 50 to 225 m, was L. whiffiagonis, and from 250 m and below, it was clearly L. boscii, being therefore a certain bathymetric segregation between the two species, probably to minimize interspecific competition. In the final years of the study (1992 and 1993), the predominance of L. boscii on all types of bottoms was noted in the northern Spanish shelf. Its maximum size is 60 cm (TL).

threats:
This is a species of commercial interest and it is caught with trawls, being quite heavily exploited. Catches as registered in Eurostat show a severe decline during the period 1993-2009.

conservationAction:
The species is listed in the HELCOM Red List (Rare; HELCOM 2007). There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the taxonomy, genetic structure of the populations, size and trend. Once the population has been distinguished and established, with the current Megrim stock boundaries, this will help management policies to be redefined in the future (Danancher and Garcia-Vazquez 2009).

useAndTrade:
This is a species of commercial interest. In the ICES sub-areas VI, VII, VIII and IX, Megrim (L. boscii and L. whiffiagonis) are caught by various types of bottom-trawling gear in multispecific fisheries where, in most cases, they are the target species. In Divisions VIIIc and IXa, they are caught by the Portuguese and Spanish fleets, along with hake, Nephrops species and monkfish. In Division VIIIc, both species have a particularly important commercial value, despite representing a mere 5% of landings, while in Division IXa, only L. boscii shows significant landing levels (Trujillo et al. 1993). The importance of division Vlla as a producer of Megrim has declined, and the main fisheries for the species are in divisions VlIg-k (Fahy and Fannon 1992). Spain exerts most influence in this fishery, being the location of the main market for Megrim as well as having the greatest catching power. However, since 2000 the Spanish trawl fleet has changed its main target species, focusing more often on species such as Horse Mackerel, Blue Whiting or Mackerel, and does not usually take Megrim in the catch.  Two species of Megrim occur in Irish waters, but Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis constitutes the bulk of the catch by the Irish demersal fleet. Megrim is exploited as a bycatch of gadoid fisheries and is particularly associated with fisheries for Nephrops, angler and ray. Over the past 25 years, Megrim landings from the ICES divisions adjoining Ireland have fluctuated between 6,000 and 21,000 tonnes. However, there has been a gradual upward trend of which Ireland has taken an increasing share, rising to 1,800 tonnes in 1980. However, data in catches are rarely separated from L. boscii in landing declarations (Fahy and Fannon 1991, Fahy and Gleeson 1992).It is of minor importance to recreational anglers (Quigley 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Phrynorhombus norvegicus off the southern coast of Iceland and from the southwestern coast of England to the Murmansk coast. It is also found in the Bay of Biscay. This species is found at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m. It is a benthic species which is widely distributed and not commercially fished. While some authors have recorded declines in abundance in parts of its range, others have reported increases and there is no range-wide trend. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Phrynorhombus norvegicus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Phrynorhombus norvegicus is found off the south coast of Iceland and from the southwestern coast of England to the Murmansk coast (Nielsen 1986, Chanet et al. 2003). It is also found in the Bay of Biscay (Chanet et al. 2003, Bañon et al. 2010, Hermant et al. 2010). The species occurs at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

population:
Phrynorhombus norvegicus is listed as rather common (Nielsen 1986). In the North Sea it has has a stable CPUE since the 1970s at 0.04 n/h with an increase in collection in the 1990s (Heessen 1996). In western European waters, Chanet et al. (2003) describes a sharp decline in Phrynorhombus norvegicus starting in 1993 and plateauing in 2000 possibly resulting from over fishing or warming waters (Chanet et al. 2003). Heessen (1996) reports an increase in abundance between 1970s and mid 1990s.

habitat:
Phrynorhombus norvegicus is a benthic flatfish found on rocky bottoms at depths ranging from 11 to 85 m in the Celtic Sea and on soft, muddy bottoms at depths between 8 and 166 m in the Bay of Biscay (Chanet et al. 2003). This species reaches a maximum size of 12 cm SL (Nielsen 1986).

threats:
Phrynorhombus norvegicus is not a commercially targeted species. It is listed as bycatch in the scallop dredge fishery off of the Isle of Man (Craven et al. 2013) and is caught as a non-target species in the North Sea (Piet and Rijnsdorp 1998).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Phrynorhombus norvegicus. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
Phrynorhombus norvegicus is not a commercially targeted species in the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea assessment zone. It is taken as bycatch in the North Sea (Piet and Rijnsdorp 1998).


taxonomicNotes:
Previously Scophthalmus maeoticus was regarded as a separate species. Chanet (2003) in a detailed philogenetic study of the familiy Scopthalmidae concluded that S. maeoticus was conspecific with S. maximus. This taxonomic decision has not been accepted by all researches studying these fishes, however for the purpose of the IUCN Red List assessment, the decision proposed by Chanet (2003) will be followed.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: VU Scophthalmus maximus occurs throughout the Northeast Atlantic from the Arctic circle, North Sea, Baltic Sea to the Aland Sea, Bay of Biscay, and throughout the Mediterranean to depths of 100 m. Scophthalmus maximus is a highly-valued bycatch species which is taken in a variety of gears including beam trawl, gillnet, otter trawl, and static gear. This is a common, widespread species which occurs in low abundance throughout its range. The highest biomasses are observed in the waters around Great Britain. The generation length of T. maximus was estimated using the mid-point of longevity (14 years) and the age of first maturity (4) years using the following formula: Generation length = age at first maturity + 0.5 (maximum age-age at first maturity). This gives a window of 3 generation lengths = 27 years, +/- 2 years due to uncertainties in aging this species and the effects of prolonged exploitation on age structure. Trends in relative Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) and landing statistics were examined across the range over a time window of 25 to 29 years, and the relative contribution of trends in each region was weighed by average of landings contributed over the last 10 years for each region. This resulted in an 84% contribution by landings to the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone, where declines in SSB in the Baltic Sea and North Sea approximated 25%, and a 16% contribution by landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fishing Zones, where declines in landing statistics approached 62%. Trends in landing statistics are used as a proxy for population trends in the absence of other data, and are supported by evidence of poor stock status in parts of the Mediterranean as reported by the European Commission Review of Scientific Advice, and by the poor state of stocks in the Black Sea where SSB is estimated to be <10% of levels seen in the 1970s. An overall decline of 31% in the population of S. maximus was estimated over a 27 to 29 year window. This is a conservative estimate, as this species may be intrinsically vulnerable to exploitation due to its narrow depth range and relatively sedentary nature. Therefore, S. maximus is assessed as Vulnerable A2bd. Scophthalmus maximus has gone through the ICES benchmark procedure in the North Sea, and it is not assessed in other parts of its range.

range:
Scophthalmus maximus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from southern Iceland and Norway south to Western Sahara (Munroe in press). It is also found in most of the Baltic Sea except for the Bothnian Bay. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is known primarily from the western and central basins, including the Adriatic Sea (Arneri et al. 2001), Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), and in the Gulf of Lion (Carlier et al. 2007). The species also occurs in the Black Sea, Sea of Marmara, and Azov Sea. The species is found over a depth range from less than 1 m to 100 m (van der Hammen et al. 2013).

population:
New European Assessment: A generation length of 9 years was estimated using the mid-point of longevity (14 years) and age of first maturity (4 years) using the following formula: Generation length = age at first maturity + 0.5 (maximum age-age at first maturity). This gives a window of 3 generation lengths = 27 years, +/- 2 years due to uncertainties in aging this species and the effects of prolonged exploitation. Trends will be examined over a 27 to 29 year window. Population decline estimated by using decline in landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea as proxy for decline in biomass. A 62% decline was calculated based on % decline between average landings from 1984 to 1986 (1381 t) and landings in 2013 (assumed the same amount landed in 2011 for the region (524 t).  Decline in the Northeast Atlantic Fishing Zone: North Sea: Estimates of relative SSB have recently become available from the North Sea. Relative SSB is estimated to have declined by 20-25% from 1984-1986 (average relative SSB of 1.2) to 2012-2014 (average relative SSB of 0.7). It is worth noting that this species is slated to undergo assessment in the North Sea, and is likely to benefit from effort control in this region (ICES 2013). Declines in the Baltic Sea: The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) estimated a 30% decline in the population of this species in the Baltic Sea over the last 20-25 years. Declines in the Skagerrak are estimated at 50% over the last 20 to 25 years. There is no effort information available from the Iberian Peninsula or Bay of Biscay for the latest years. Landings per unit effort (LPUE) show an increasing trend from 1992 to 2005 (Teixeira et al. 2009), and from 2005 to 2011 LPUE declined (C. Teixeira pers. comm 2013). The highest LPUE value obtained was in 2005. LPUE = 0.01 t/vessel. It is assumed that trends seen in the North Sea and Baltic Sea, where this species is relatively well managed, are also occurring in the Iberian Peninsula and Bay of Biscay, where management is scarce. Weighting: The Northeast Atlantic fishing zone has accounted for 84% of global landings in the last 10 years The Mediterranean and Black Sea have accounted for 16% of global landings in the last 10 yearsCombined percentage declines over the last 25-29 years in the NEA: 23% + 30% in Baltic Sea, with more weight given to NEA: estimate 25% decline Med and Black Sea: at least 62% decline, based on reported landings. Likely to be higher due to unreported catches in the region. 25% decline, 84% of weight 62% decline, 16% of weight This is an approximate decline of 31% throughout this species' range.Population structure: The stock structure of S. maximus has only recently received attention by fisheries management. Scophthalmus maximus displays low larval dispersal, strong spawning site fidelity, and limited adult migration. A 2012 report by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) recommends that S. maximus in the Skagerrak/Kattegat not be included in the Greater North Sea stock, but be treated separately or combined with the Baltic Stock. Additionally, there may be an additional genetic break between northern North Sea and southern North Sea; however, this break is not strongly supported enough to recommend management actions (ICES IBPNew Report 2012). Genetic data show no structure for the turbot within the Baltic Sea (Nielsen et al. 2004, Florin and Höglund 2007), although Nielsen detected population structure between the Baltic Sea and Kattegat, with a hybrid zone in the Belt Sea (from HELCOM 2013 Red List Assessments). Separate stock structures are indicated by historical data from the Skagerrak-Kattegat area (ICES 2013).FAO landing statistics summary: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) common name for this species is Turbot. Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions, in order of decreasing landings: Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea. The overall trend in landings is one of fluctuation until the late 1980s and early 1990s, followed by a period of decline from the early 1990s onward.  Black Sea There is no formal stock assessment but there is information available from surveys. Survey data indicates that the stock size is at a historical low and is < 10% of the stocks size of the late 1970s (Daskalov et al. 2012). Based on a time series of SSB from 1970 to 2010, SSB peaked in 1980 and followed by continuous decline to 2010. Landings peaked in the early to mid-1980s followed by a decrease after 1988 and stabilized from 1995 to 2010 (General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean 2012). The estimated total catch was about 2.44 times higher than the reported landings on average for 2002-2010 (General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean 2012). Recent management advice for the Black Sea is provided by Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) and states that there should be no directed fisheries for this species in the Black Sea (STECF 2014). Portugal Landings per unit of effort (LPUE) show an increasing trend from 1992 to 2005 (Teixeira et al. 2009), and from 2005 to 2011 LPUE declined (C. Teixeira pers. comm 2013). The highest LPUE value obtained was in 2005. LPUE = 0.01 t/vessel.North Sea Scophthalmus maximus has a low abundance compared to other flatfish species (Daan et al. 1990, van Hammen 2013). This species was formerly widely distributed throughout the North Sea, but since the 1960s has almost disappeared from the northern North Sea, and particularly from an area off the eastern Scotland where it was previously abundant. After the 1960s this species was mainly caught in the central and eastern-central North Sea. In the past two decades the distribution has expanded westwards towards the English east coast and northwards along the Norwegian trench (Kerby et al. 2013). Fishing mortality (ages 2 to 6) increased from 1975 to the late 1990s and has decreased since then. Spawning-stock biomass for the same time period fell by 60% until the early 2000s and showed a slight increase since then. Present spawning stock biomass is at 50% of the start of the time series. Relative SSB is estimated to have declined by 20-25% from 1984-1986 (average relative SSB of 1.2) to 2012-2014 (average relative SSB of 0.7)(ICES 2013), a time period of 3 generation lengths. It is worth noting that this species is slated to undergo assessment in the North Sea, and is likely to benefit from effort control in this region (ICES 2013). The information does not show that recruitment is not impaired at low levels of spawning stock biomass. Recruitment of S. maximus is variable around the long-term average (ICES 2013).Baltic Sea:  Within the Baltic Sea, this species is commonly encountered up to the Åland Sea. It is a species of great local economic importance, especially to the coastal fisheries. The main part of the turbot fishery takes place in the southern and western part of the Baltic Sea, within Danish and German fisheries. The targeted fishery increased in the early 1990s, in eastern Gotland basin and Gdansk Bay primarily due to the Polish, Russian, and Swedish gillnet fishery (ICES 2011). The consideration of landings data, CPUE information from commercial gillnet fisheries, and several fisheries-independent surveys resulted in an estimate of the percent population decrease in the Baltic Sea between 30 and 50% (HELCOM Red List Assessment 2013). This species was assessed as Near Threatened in the 2013 HELCOM Regional Red List Assessments utilizing criteria A2bd.  Skagerrak and Kattegat (North Sea: Division IIIa) There is insufficient information to determine the fishing mortality trend but spawning stock biomass has been stable from 2005-2012 (ICES 2013). In the Baltic International Trawl Survey (BITS) no trend in CPUE (N/h) was indicated in the dataset from 1996- 2011 (ICES 2013). Cardinale et al. (2009) performed an analysis of a re-constructed time series of biomass, maximum body size, and spatial distribution in the Kattegat-Skagerrak using standardized research surveys extending back to 1925. This analysis showed biomass declines of 86%, maximum body size decreased by 20 cm (from 50 cm to just above 30 cm), and the northern component of this population nearly vanished.  In the Kattegat, IBTS shows a decrease in captures (N/h) of large fishes (larger than 30 cm) of 65% between 1985 to 2011 (HELCOM Red List).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Scopthalmus maximus is a benthic species which lives on sandy, rocky or mixed substrata, it is rather common in brackish waters. It feeds mainly on other bottom-living fishes (sand-eels, gobies, etc.), and also, to a lesser extent, on larger crustaceans and bivalves. Scophthalmus maximus is a visual predator, feeding on other demersal and pelagic fishes.  Life History and Reproduction While S. maximus spawns at specific locations in shallow waters during the summer, this species generally occurs in spatially separated stock units. Tagging studies from different areas in the Baltic Sea show that Turbot have high spawning site fidelity, with 95% of fishes moving less than 30 km from the spawning cite. Larval dispersal is low and adults have restricted movement. This species exhibits strong spawning site fidelity (ICES 2013). Migrations of this species from the nursery grounds in the southeastern part to more northern areas have been recorded in the North Sea. Adults of this species can tolerate cooler water temperatures in the northern areas of the North Sea which are too low for juveniles to survive (ICES 2013). Spawning season is between April and August, eggs are pelagic. This species may reach weights of 25 kg (Frimodt 1995). Spawning usually happens between the months of February and April in the Mediterranean Sea and from May to July in the Atlantic. Sequenced spawning occurs every 2 to 4 days. Growth rate differs between sexes, such that females become much larger than males (van Hammen et al. 2013, Florin et al. 2013). In the North Sea this species is a summer spawner, with spawning generally occurring from April to July. The size at maturity was 46 cm, at an age of 4.46 years in 1974 (Jones 1974). In the Baltic Sea, females mature at 20 cm at an age of 4 years, while males are mature a year earlier at 15 cm. This is in contrast to the Swedish west coast, where mature females and males are about 30 and 25 cm, respectively. A generation length of 8.5 years was used to assess this species in the 2013 Regional HELCOM Red List Assessment. In the spring, juveniles and adults move to the coast, and in winter they move towards deeper waters (in excess of 30 m in the central Baltic) (Florin 2005). Spawning occurs in shallow waters at depths of 10 to 15 m in the central Baltic. Eggs have an optimal development at 15 psu, while eggs from the North Sea have an optimum between 20 and 35 psu and do not survive in the lower salinities of the Baltic Sea. Based on age-structure data in the Baltic Sea, the average age was about 7 years. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 79.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 50.0 cm TL and for males is 42.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).  Generation length: A generation length of 9 years was used to assess this species. Generation length derived from the following data: longevity The oldest available ages for S. maximus are as follows:   In the Adriatic Sea, maximum age was 18 years, with individuals above 10 years of age being rare in samples (Arneri et al. 2001). In the Black Sea, a maximum age of 10 years was observed (Zengin et al. 2006). In the North Sea maximum age appears to be 13 years (October 2012). There is a report of the oldest individual recorded in the North Sea reaching ages 35 years, however it could not be verified.  maturity In the North Sea, age at 50% maturity was 4.5 years (Jones 1974). In the Baltic Sea, females mature at 20 cm at an age of 4 years, while males mature a year earlier at 15 cm (HELCOM Red List Assessment Project). 

threats:
Intrinsic vulnerability to exploitation Scophthalmus maximus is found in relatively shallow waters at depths ranging from 0 to 100 m. Its entire depth range is within the range of commercial fishing activity. As such, this species is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries. Because S. maximus is fast-growing and large relatives to other flatfishes, gear with smaller mesh sizes may catch younger, smaller individuals resulting in high fishing pressure on immature fish (David Miller pers. comm. 2014). This species is sexually dimorphic, with females reaching larger sizes than males and more likely to be taken by fisheries (Florin et al. 2013). Additionally, this species displays high fidelity to spawning sites and is relatively sedentary. Fisheries characterization  The principal threat to S. maximus is over-exploitation. Population declines have been documented throughout this species' range. Scophthalmus maximus is a valuable bycatch species which is taken in fisheries targeting flatfishes such as sole and plaice. This species is caught with beam trawls, seines, trammel nets, longlines, gillnets and otter trawls. It is a highly-esteemed food fish (Frimodt 1995) which is subject to high fishing pressure. Due to the size dimorphism and current regulation of minimum landing size the majority of landed fish consist of females (Florin et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Scophthalmus maximus is likely to benefit from effort reductions for targeted species such as Sole and Plaice (Kerby et al. 2013). In the North Sea, ICES advises that catches of S. maximus should not exceed 2,978 t. An official minimum landing size has yet to be implemented for this species but Belgian and Dutch producer organizations have adopted voluntary minimum landing sizes of 25 cm to 30 cm (ICES 2013). In the Skagerrak and Kattegat (North Sea: Division IIIa). ICES advises that catches for this area not exceed 102 tonnes in 2014 (ICES 2013). HELCOM recommends a management plan to regulate the fishery in the HELCOM area. Area or time-specific protection of spawning and nursery habitats have been suggested. In the Baltic Sea, ICES advises that catches not exceed 220 tonnes in the region (ICES 2013). Turbot is currently protected from fishing during spawning season in the Southern Baltic Sea and also benefits from a Swedish marine reserve in the Baltic proper (Florin et al. 2013). Scophthalmus maximus was regionally assessed as Near Threatened in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
The northeast Atlantic has driven the global catch trend of S. maximus since 1950, followed by Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries (FAO 2011). In the North Sea, Scophthalmus maximus is valuable as bycatch in flatfish and demersal species fisheries using beam trawl, gillnet, otter trawl, and static gear. ICES did not provide advice for S. maximus fisheries until 2012 (ICES 2013). In the Skagerrak and Kattegat targeted fisheries probably did not begin until before the 1960s when the S. maximus stock was large. Currently, this species is only caught as bycatch and gillnet fisheries in the area. Landings from 2012 were ~189 t which is almost double that of the previous year (ICES 2013). Scophthalmus maximus is bred in captivity and is thought to be an excellent candidate for aquaculture in Europe (Devauchelle  et al. 1988, Imsland et al. 1997).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Scophthalmus rhombus occurs from Norway to the Mediterranean to 80 m depth over sandy or mixed substrata. This is a species of high commercial value which is also considered to be a valuable bycatch species. It is found over sandy and mixed substrates. Biomass in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Kateggat show increasing trends in the last decade. This is a commercial species which is taken primarily in mixed-species beam trawl fisheries targeting flatfishes. Scophthalmus rhombus is subject to Total Allowable Catch (TAC) regulations and minimum landings sizes which vary throughout its range. Due to the high growth rate and high market value, S. rhombus is a candidate for Southern-European and Mediterranean aquaculture. Scophalumus rhombus is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Scophthalmus rhombus occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from southern Iceland and Norway (about 64°N) to Western Sahara (about 26°N). It is also known throughout the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been reported from the Adriatic Sea (Arneri et al. 2001, Pranovi et al. 2001, Dulčić and Glamuzina 2006), the Gulf of Lion (Letourneur et al. 2001, Dumay et al. 2004) and the Sea of Marmara (Keskin and Eryilmaz 2010). The species is also found in the Black Sea and the Azov Sea. Previous records from the east Levant basin (Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey) are apparently erroneous (Golani 1996). Scophthalmus rhombus is found at depths of up to 80 m (Nielsen 1986, Bauchot 1987, van der Hammen et al. 2013).

population:
Scophthalmus rhombus is a common and widespread species which generally occurs in low abundance throughout its range. The highest biomass has been observed in the waters around Great Britain. Early demersal stages have highly-specific habitat requirements. Population studies suggest that the population abundance in an area is determined by the size of the nursery grounds (Rijnsdorp et al. 1992, Gibson 1994, van der Veer et al. 2000). A decrease in trend was observed in commercial length-per-unit-effort (LPUE) from 1992 until 2011 (Teixeira et al. 2013).According to Franco et al. (2006), samples were collected in each season of 2002, at five sampling stations at Venice lagoon in the northern Adriatic. Fish were collected with fine mesh (2 mm inter-knot) and small beach seine (10 m long and 2 m high). Annual mean abundance was 0.15 individuals over bare sand habitat. Dulčić and Glamuzina (2006) report that 31 specimens (31.7 to 44.6 cm TL) were collected with various fishing gear in three estuaries in the central east Adriatic Sea.North Sea Abundance indices show no trend from 1987 to 2012 (ICES 2013) while biomass index increased from 2002 to 2012 (ICES 2013). Abundance index in Kattegat from 1996 to 2012 show an increase in trend (ICES 2013). The spawning-stock biomass has a stable to increasing trend. The stock size indicator from 2010 to 2012 is 56% higher in the North Sea and 2% lower in Kattegat than the average from 2005 to 2009 (ICES 2013). Commercial LPUE shows a declining trend since the 1920s (Kerby et al. 2013). Survey CPUE are variable but do not show a trend in time (1970 to 2010) (Kerby et al. 2013). Baltic Sea The stock size shows an increasing trend from 2001 to 2012 (ICES 2013).  The stock size had an increasing trend until 2011 but a low stock size in 2012. It is unclear whether more than one stock of S. rhombus exists in the Baltic Sea or if the Baltic is a part of a larger stock complex (ICES 2013). Landings in the Baltic Proper approximate 63 tonnes per year.

habitat:
Scophthalmus rhombus is a benthic species which lives on sandy or mixed substrata. Juveniles recruit to sandy substrata in shallow coastal areas as well as in meso-and polyhaline regions of estuaries and lagoons. Adults occur on the continental shelf on sandy substrata (Jones 1974). In some areas adults are more congregated during the spawning season. The specific habitat requirements of the early demersal phase of this species create a population bottleneck because successful recruitment of this species requires significant availability of specific habitats. This species reaches a maximum size of 75 cm (SL) (Nielsen 1986). The maximum age of this species in the North Sea is 16 years for males and 21 years for female (van der Hammen et al. 2013). Males mature at age 1, and females at age 2 (van der Hammen et al. 2013). This species feeds on bottom-living fishes and larger crustaceans, as well as echinoderms and cephalopods (Vinagre et al. 2011). Scophthalmus rhombus occurs over shallow sand, mud, and gravel bottoms. This species is usually found close to shore; however mature individuals are less common inshore while immature individuals often observed inshore and in estuaries. Diet composition of this species changes with size, small individuals feed on small benthic fishes and crabs and large individuals feed on small gadoids. Growth rates of S. rhombus is slower in the northern parts of its distribution and maturation is attained at shorter lengths (ICES 2013). In the Baltic Sea, S. rhombus is distributed primarily in the western part while the eastern limit of its range has yet to be clearly defined. Spawning occurs in shallow water of 5 m to 40 m from March to August in the western Baltic. Shallow coastal estuaries are important nursery areas for this species (ICES 2013). This species has a high growth rate and can reach marketable sizes of 500 g to 1,000 g in the first two years of life (Hachero-Cruzado et al. 2007). In the Adriatic Sea, S. rhombus spawns from January to July with intermittent release of ripe eggs. Individuals in the Adriatic reach size at sexually maturity one year earlier than individuals of the North Sea (Caputo et al. 2001). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 49.0 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 38.5 cm TL  and for males is 25.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Scophthalmus rhombus is a commercial species. It is caught with beach seines, trammel nets, longlines and trawls. Early demersal stages have highly-specific habitat requirements. Population studies suggest that the population abundance in an area is determined by the size of the nursery grounds (Rijnsdorp et al. 1992, Gibson 1994, van der Veer et al. 2000).   Scophthalmus rhombus annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996 to 2005) obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 18 (1996), 20 (1997), 22 (1998), 24 (1999), 26 (2000), 26 (2001), 30 (2002), 27 (2003), 59 (2004), 55 (2005).

conservationAction:
There is a European Union Total Allowable Catch (TAC) set for Scophthalmus rhombus. A minimum landing size has not been implemented, however, Belgian and Dutch producer organizations have adopted voluntary minimum landing sizes of 25 cm to 30 cm. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) advises that catches should not exceed 2,727 tonnes in the North Sea (ICES 2013). In the Baltic Sea, ICES advises that catches should not exceed 29 tonnes (ICES 2013). Management regulations are implemented in order stabilize stock size, however, they may not be effective if the stock size is low and/or overfished (ICES 2013). Scophthalmus rhombus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Scophthalmus rhombus is a commercial species. The landing trends for S. rhombus are driven by the Northeast Atlantic (NEA) fishing zones with minor contributions from the Mediterranean and Black seas (FAO 2011). This species has shown to be a good candidate for diversification of southern Europe and Mediterranean aquaculture due to its high growth rate and high market value (Hachero-Cruzado et al. 2007). The average annual landings from 2001 to 2010 are as follows: Baltic Sea, 63 tonnes. In the waters around Great Britain, 2000 tonnes. In Spain and Portugal, 60 tonnes. In the Black Sea, there is no information on landings for the Black Sea since this species is included as S. maximus. In the North Sea, Scophthalmus rhombus is primarily caught as valuable bycatch by beam-trawl fisheries targeting flatfishes as well as otter trawl and fixed-net fisheries. Total catches for 2012 were 2,253 tonnes and 95% where from beam trawl fisheries (ICES 2013). Landings for S. rhombus were 30 tonnes and discard rates were <1% in 2012 (ICES 2013). In Portugal, there is a decrease in trend in LPUE values from 1992 and 2005 (Teixeira and Cabral 2009).

redListAssessors:
Golani, D., Kada, O., Nouar, A., Quignard, J.P. & Cuttelod, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Zeugopterus punctatus is distributed along the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from Iceland to Portugal and west to the Baltic Sea. It is a demersal fish that is not commercially fished, and is seldom taken as bycatch. There are no other known major threats. Therefore, Z. punctatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Zeugopterus punctatus is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from Portugal (Batista et al. 2009, Henriques et al. 2013) and the coast to Spain to Trondheim, Norway (Nielsen 1986) and the Baltic Sea. It has been recorded from the Rockall Plateau (Neat and Campbell 2011), and the southeastern North Sea off of Germany (Accessed through Le Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle portal 12 November 2012). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present (although scarce) in the Alboran Sea (L. Gil de Sola pers. obsv. 2014) and is native and present in the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). Zeugopterus punctatus is a coastal flatfish that lives at depth between 1 m and 40 m (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

population:
There is no reliable population information for Z. punctatus throughout its range of occurrence. Zeugopterus punctatus is common in the northern Kattegat, and occurs regularly in the southern Kattegat and Sound, as well as sporadically in the Belt Seas. The population in the Baltic Sea may have declined by up to 80%, but the data were not thought to be reliable (HELCOM 2013).

habitat:
Zeugopterus punctatus is a marine, bottom-dwelling species which inhabits rocky bottoms ranging in depth from 1 m to 40 meters, though it is more commonly found at 10 to 15 m. Individuals adhere to the rock surfaces including those in high energy surf zones (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It is typically camouflaged with the surrounding habitat. It feeds on small fishes and invertebrates. Spawning takes place in spring and early summer. This species reaches a total length of 25 cm.

threats:
Zeugopterus punctatus is not a commercially fished species and there are no known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Z. punctatus, though it may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Zeugopterus punctatus was assessed as Data Deficient in the Baltic Sea; based on unreliable data, there might have been a decline of up to 80 %  over the last three generations (HELCOM 2013).

useAndTrade:
Zeugopterus punctatus is not a commercially fished species in Europe waters. Given its specificity for rocky habitats, it is not captured as bycatch in trawl fisheries. It is a species that is included in the fish aquarium and is collected by aquarium enthusiasts.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Zeugopterus regius is distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, Z. regius is found from Scotland to the Iberian Peninsula, including the Mediterranean Sea. There are no known major threats to Z. regius, though it is a minor commercial species. Although further research on the impacts of fishing pressure, direct and indirect, on the population status is needed, Z. regius is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Zeugopterus regius is distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Scotland to Morocco, including the Mediterranean Sea (Quéro and Vayne 1979). It is known from the northern Mediterranean to the Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002), including throughout the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is absent from the Levant basin (Golani 1996, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002) and there are no records available from Egypt, Libya, or Tunisia. Zeugopterus regius is found at depths of 10 to 180 m (Munroe and Chanet in press).

population:
There are no data available about the population status throughout its range. Zeugopterus regius is a rarely caught species in the northeastern Atlantic. In the Mediterranean, Z. regius is rare, but can be locally abundant.

habitat:
Zeugopterus regius is a benthic species that occurs over rocky or muddy substrata, and less frequently on sandy substrata (Göthel 1992). It is a demersal species on rocky bottoms on the continental shelf from depths around 10 to 180 m; occasionally found in a shallower waters (Munroe and Chanet in press). The maximum size about 20 cm ST (Nielsen 1986). It feeds on small fish and invertebrates. Reproduction occurs between February and August (Nielsen 1986).

threats:
There are no recognised threats to this species. It only occasionally appears in commercial markets.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place, though it may occur in protected areas. Zeugopterus regius was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Zeugopterus regius is a species with minor commercial interest (Machias et al. 2001). It is a desirable food fish that occasionally appears on the market (Munroe and Chanet in press).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Bathysolea profundicola occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from south Ireland and the UK to Angola. This species is reported from the Canary Islands. It is a benthic species that occurs on muddy bottoms of the continental slope at depths ranging from 200 to 1,350 m depth. Bathysolea profundicola is relatively widespread and is found at great depths. This species grows to small sizes and therefore is not commercially targeted. It is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries; however, this is not thought to be a major threat at this time. Bathysolea profundicola is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Bathysolea profundicola occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from south Ireland and the United Kingdom to Angola. There are several records from the Mediterranean Sea, from Sicily and Corsica (Quéro et al. 1986), however this species is not widespread nor does it occur in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea. It only occurs regularly in the Alboran Sea in the Mediterranean (L. Gil de Sola pers. obsv. 2014). It is reported from the Canary Islands (Desoutter 1990). This is a benthic species that occurs on muddy bottoms of the continental slope at depths ranging from 200 to 1,350 m depth (Schneider 1990, Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press).

population:
Hureau and Monod (1979) state that this species is rare in the western Mediterranean Sea. There is a gradient of abundance from west to east. According to Abad et al. (2007), a total of 28 hauls were carried out at depths ranging from 50 to 640 m in the Alboran sea (during the fishing season between August 2000 and June 2001). An otter trawl net was used for sampling purposes. Abundance was 0.03 kg/h (at 50 to 150 m depth), 0.26 kg/h (at 151 to 275 m depth), 0.03 kg/h (at 276 to 350 m depth), 0.05 kg/h (at 351 to 460 m depth).

habitat:
Bathysolea profundicola is a benthic species that occurs on muddy bottoms on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope (Schneider 1990) from 200 to 1350 m depth. It mainly feeds on polychaetes and some amphipods (Quéro et al. 1986). This species reaches a maximum length of 25 cm TL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). Spawning occurs throughout the year but maximum spawning occurs at winter and at the beginning of Spring. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 16.5 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 11.4 cm TL  and for males is 8.2 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
There are no major threats affecting this species. It is taken as bycatch in some deep-water trawl fisheries (Massutí and Reñones 2005).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Bathysolea profundicola. Bathysolea profundicola was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Bathysolea profundicola is a non-commercial species.

redListAssessors:
Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Monroe, T., Costa, M. & Nielsen, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Buglossidium luteum is found in the eastern Atlantic from Iceland and Scotland to the Mediterranean. Its range includes the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. This species occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic Sea, Gulf of Lion, Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus. It is found over shallow muddy to to muddy-sandy bottoms which are moderately influenced by estuaries. It appears to be common and abundant throughout its range. This species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range, and its abundance is monitored by surveys such as the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS). Therefore, B. luteum is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Buglossidium luteum is found in the eastern Atlantic from the North Sea to Morocco. This species occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic Sea, Gulf of Lion (De Morais and Bodiou 1984, De Morais 1985, Blanchard and Boucher 2001, Letourneur et al. 2001, Darnaude et al. 2004, Carlier et al. 2007), Sea of Marmara, the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988) and Bosphorus. It is found at depths ranging from 5 to 50 m.

population:
Buglossidium luteum is considered locally abundant in coastal areas in Portugal (Carbral et al. 2002).  It is abundant throughout the waters around the British Islands (Rogers et al. 1998). Buglossidium luteum is abundant in the North Sea, Channel, Celtic Sea and Irish Sea (Rogers et al. 1998). Based on available trawl surveys carried out since 1969, the species increased in abundance and moved to the north since the late 1980s, coinciding with a series of mild winters (van Hal et al. 2010). The catches (both N/h and biomass/h) in the last three years (from 2008 to 2012) are much lower than those of the previous ten years in the Gulf of Cadiz, based on survey data (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Buglossidium luteum has a patchy distribution and prefers shallow muddy to muddy to sandy bottoms which are moderately influenced by estuarine waters, but is never found where salinity is below 20. Buglossidium luteum is a demersal species which occurs at depths ranging from less than 1 m to 450 m, adults generally occur from 10 to 40 m (Quéro et al. 1986). The preferred depth varies slightly with location; along the coast of England, 5 to 20 m, in the southern North Sea, 10 to 50 m, in the Eastern Channel, 5 to 15 m, the Bay of Biscay, 20 to 35 m. This species grows to a maximum size of 10 to 13 cm. Males have a larger growth coefficient than females (0.64 vs 0.49). Buglossidium luteum does not undergo any migrations. Its preferred diet includes, polychaetes, molluscs, and crustaceans (Amara et al 2004). Spawning may occur in May and June (Sabates 1990). It does not make any pronounced migrations (Cabral et al. 2002). The maximum size and age observed in the North Sea is 13 cm and 14 years, respectively (Balthus and van der Veer 1995, van Hal et al. 2010). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 14.5 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 8.1 cm TL  and for males is 7.9 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). In the North Sea juveniles occur in the similar depth habitats as adults (Bathus and van der Veer 1995), off Portugal juveniles are found on coastal waters, including estuaries and lagoons (Cabral 2000, Cabral et al. 2002). In the English Channel region, juveniles live near river outflows, though it avoids the low salinity waters of large estuaries (Amara et al. 2004).

threats:
Buglossidium luteum is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries (Berghahn and Purps 1998). However, this is not considered to be a major threat to this species at this time as it is not affecting the entire population.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Buglossidium luteum. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Surveys such as the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) monitor the abundance of this species. Buglossidium luteum was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Buglossidium luteum is not a targeted species; however, it is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries (Heessen et al. 1996).


taxonomicNotes:
Vachon et al. (2008) state that Synaptura has never been a valid genus name, and re-assigned all Synaptura spp. to Dagetichthys. Synaptura cadenati is a junior synonym of Dagetichthys lusitanica (Desoutter et al. 2001). However, in the Eastern Central Atlantic, many studies and many scientists still consider two nominal species to occur. More detailed information is available under S. cadenati than D. lusitanica.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Dagetichthys lusitanica is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea. However, the precise distribution in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean is uncertain, and specific population and abundance data are unavailable. Dagetichthys lusitanica is caught in artisanal fisheries in many parts of its range, and may be captured as bycatch in commercial trawling throughout its range. It is not known how these threats are impacting the population in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, D. lusitanica is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Dagetichthys lusitanica is found in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal and Gibraltar to Angola, including Cape Verde and the western Mediterranean Sea (Cabral 2000, Cabral et al. 2003, Matallanas 1984). It is not known from the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985) It is typically found at depths ranging from the shore to 60 m (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). In Mauritania, D. lusitanica has been found in scientific surveys from 5 to 159 m (Camara pers. comm. 2012).

population:
There is no population information for D. lusitanica. It does not occur in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea. In Portugal, it is not common, except for two areas where it is more abundant (Setubal and along south-eastern coast) (Cabral et al. 2003).

habitat:
Dagetichthys lusitanica is found over sandy and muddy substrata (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). Dagetichthys lusitanica feeds on polychaetes, bivalves, and cephalochordates (Cabral et al. 2003). Spawning occurs from May to September. The current maximum length is 480 mm TL. No information is currently available on length at first maturity (Cabral 2000, Cabral et al 2003). The species can live up to 8 years (Cabral et al. 2003).

threats:
Dagetichthys lusitanica is caught in artisanal fisheries in many parts of its range. In the northeastern Atlantic, the average commercial trawling depth is from 35 to 200 m, which means that this species is also likely significantly caught as bycatch by commercial trawling within its range. It is not known how targeted artisanal capture or bycatch is affecting this species or its habitat.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. 

useAndTrade:
Dagetichthys lusitanica is caught in artisanal fisheries in many parts of its range, and may be caught as bycatch by commercial trawling. In Portugal this species is caught as bycatch. It is marketed fresh, sometimes frozen.

redListAssessors:
Costa, M., Monroe, T., Rijnsdorp, A.D. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Dicologlossa cuneata occurs from the Bay of Biscay and the western Mediterranean (along the Spanish coast from Gibraltar to Malaga and off Morocco and Algeria), to the Cape of Good Hope. It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 150 m, or to 115 m along the inner shelf of the Gulf of Cadiz. It is found over sandy or muddy bottoms. This is a commercially-targeted species off the coast of Spain; however, there are no indications of population decline, and in the northern parts of its range this species appears to be increasing in abundance. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range, and some spawning grounds are protected. Therefore, D. cuneata is assessed as Least Concern. There is a need for greater monitoring of harvest levels and trends in this species.

range:
Dicologlossa cuneata occurs from the Bay of Biscay (Désaunay et al. 2006) to the Cape of Good Hope (J. Nelson pers. comm. 2009). In the Mediterranean, it has been reported along the Spanish coast from Gibraltar to Malaga and off Morocco and Algeria (L. Gil de Sola pers. obsv. 2014) as well as in Greece (Papaconstantinou 1998) and Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007). Dicologlossa cuneata is found at depths ranging from 10 to 450 m, but is more common between 10 and 100 m (Jimenez et al 1998, Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press).

population:
The population of D. cuneata has been reported as increasing in the Bay of Biscay, possibly due to climate change-induced ocean warming, and subsequent greater juvenile survival (Désaunay et al. 2006). This species shows a decreasing trend from 1995 to 2005 (Teixeira et al. 2003). Dicologlossa cuneata is a targeted demersal species in parts of its range, which is captured primarily by bottom-trawl and gill net. Landings peaked in 1986 with approximately 800 tonnes captured. Since then, landings have been steadily declining to about 200 tonnes in 1994 (Jimenez et al. 1998). According to regional European Union catch data, a steady increase in landings is seen from 1950 to 1968 with a sharp increase to 3500 tonnes in 1969. Afterwards, a crash to zero landings is seen until 1976, when an increase with steady fluxes of 500 to 1000 tonnes between 1976 and 2000. Sharp increases began and continued until a peak in 2004 of 3,000 tonnes followed by steep and continuing declines (FAO 2011). These declines likely reflect a reduction in fishing effort throughout the region.

habitat:
The preferred habitat of D. cuneata is sandy or sand-mud bottoms at depths ranging from 10 to 150 m, or to 115 m along the inner shelf of the Gulf of Cadiz (Jimenez et al. 2001). The diet of D. cuneata consists of crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves.  The length of first maturity is estimated to be 17 cm (Dorel 1986). Spawning occurs in waters at temperatures between 12 to 16oC. Spawning begins earlier in lower latitudes (Garcia-Isarch et al. 2006). This species has a long spawning season, beginning in autumn and continuing through till early summer. This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The eggs are pelagic and non-adhesive (Breder and Rosen 1966). A minimum depth of 10 m was reported from Bianchi et al. (1993). Females reach sexual maturity at 18 cm TL while males reach maturity at 15 cm TL. Water temperatures below 9oC  are lethal (Jimenez et al 1998). The eggs of this species are found to depths of less than 20 m (Baldo et al 2006). Spawning occurs in waters between 12 to 16oC. It begins earlier in lower latitudes (Garcia-Isarch et al. 2006). Currently, it is unclear how rising ocean temperatures will affect the spawning of D. cuneata. This species reaches a maximum length of 30 cm standard length (S) but is more commonly seen at sizes between 10 and 22 cm SL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press).

threats:
Dicologlossa cuneata is a targeted demersal species off coast of Spain (Jiménez et al. 2001), and is of high commercial interest in the Gulf of Cádiz (Baldó et al. 2006). It is captured by bottom-trawl and gill net.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for D. cuneata, however this species' distribution overlaps marine protected areas. The main spawning and nursery area for the D. cuneata is the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. This areas has been designated as a fishing reserve (Garcia-Isarch et al 2006). Further research on the extent to which this species is harvested in this region is needed. Monitoring of the harvest levels is also needed in order to determine if there is a significant decline in the population. Dicologlossa cuneata was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Dicologlossa cuneata is among the main target species along the coast of Spain (Jiménez et al. 2001) and of high commercial interest in the Gulf of Cádiz (Baldó et al. 2006).

redListAssessors:
Monroe, T., Costa, M., Nielsen, J., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Rijnsdorp, A.D. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Microchirus azevia is distributed from Spain and Portugal south to Senegal. It is found over sandy and muddy substrates to depths of 250 m. It is a targeted commercial species in Spain and Portugal, and perhaps elsewhere within its range. It is also taken as bycatch. In most cases species-specific landings are not available, and are lumped under the aggregate "Soleidae". However, M. azevia may account for 20-30% of landings in this category (e.g., in Portugal). This species is subject to minimum size restrictions; however, these are not always followed. Additionally, it is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Available population information suggest a relatively stable population off the coasts of Spain and Portugal. Therefore, M. azevia is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microchirus azevia occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal southward to Senegal (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). A single record is mentioned from south-west of the British Isles. This species is also present in the Canary Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurs in Spain, Morocco and Algeria. Turkish records may be erroneous (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007). Microchirus azevia can be found at depths from 40 up to 340 m (Afonso-Diaz et al. 2005, Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press).

population:
Spanish Gulf of Cadiz Bottom Trawl Survey (SP-ARSA-DATRAS) data (biomass/h) are variable but suggest slightly higher biomass since 2005 (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). Landings from Portugal from 1992 to 2011 show a slight increase. Annual average landings were 571 t/year (Teixeira et al. 2013). Available population information suggest a relatively stable population off the coasts of Spain and Portugal.

habitat:
Microchirus azevia is a benthic species which is found on muddy and sandy substrata. Adults occur on the continental shelf at depths ranging from 40 to 340 m, juveniles occur in shallow waters and in estuaries (Quéro et al. 1986, Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press, Costa et al. 2002). This species feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly amphipods and polychaetes (Quéro et al. 1986). Females reach sexual maturity at 3 years and 23 cm. Spawning occurs from winter to spring (Afonso-Dias et al 2005). Microchirus azevia can live up to 8 years and reach a maximum size of 32.7 cm (Teixeira et a.l 2010). This species reaches a maximum size of 40 cm SL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 37.6 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 22.8 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
This species is harvested commercially in Spain and Portugal and perhaps elsewhere. It is also taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries throughout its range. Microchirus azevia are captured with trammel and gill nets. In Portugal, 365 tonnes/yr were caught and recorded as M. azevia between 1993 and 2001 (Afonso-Dias et al. 2005). They also make up to 26% of the catch under the generic category "Soleidae" in Portugal (Afonso-Dias et al. 2005). Gonads of ripe females are quite visible, distending the abdomen. These specimens are valuable on the black market (Afonso-Dias et al. 2005). Despite minimum capture lengths in Portugal, 13% of specimens found in local fish markets were less than this length (Afonso-Dias et al. 2005).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for M. azevia. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Currently, there is a minimum capture length of 18 cm in Portugal (Afonso-Dias et al 2005). Microchirus azevia was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Microchirus azevia is a commercial species.

redListAssessors:
Keskin, Ç., Rijnsdorp, A.D., Nielsen, J., Monroe, T., Costa, M., Herrera, J. & de Sola, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Microchirus boscanion is distributed from the Gulf of Cadiz to Angola, and has recently been recorded in the Mediterranean. It is a demersal species which can be found to depths of at least 460 m, maybe to as deep as 800 m on the continental slope. There is little species-specific population information available, however this species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. Species-specific landing statistics are not available, and are lumped as Microchirus spp. This species is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Due to its small size and wide distribution in relatively deep water, M. boscanion is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microchirus boscanion can be found in the eastern Atlantic, the Gulf of Cadiz to the Gulf of Guinea and moving into the western Mediterranean Sea (Massuti et al. 2002). This species has been found in trawls at depths ranging from 30 to 800 m along the Iberian coast (Massuti et al. 2002).

population:
There is little region-specific population information available for M. boscanion. Catch statistics for Microchirus spp. are not separated in this region, except in a few scientific surveys. 

habitat:
Microchirus boscanion occurs in mud and sand and outer continental shelf and upper continental slope. This species is found at depth ranges of 10 to 460 m, however it is more commonly found at depths ranging from 0 to 100 m. It has been recorded in trawls to depth of 800 m  (Massuti et al. 2002). It likely feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). This species reaches a maximum size about 20 cm TL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press, Massuti et al. 2002).

threats:
Microchirus boscanion is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries within its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Microchirus boscanion is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawls, and small quantities may enter into small markets.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Microchirus ocellatus is found in the eastern Atlantic from southwest of the Iberian peninsula and Mediterranean south to Sierra Leone, with one record extending the range to Gabon. This species also occurs in west Indian Ocean. It occurs all through the Mediterranean Sea. It is found at depths ranging from 30 to 300 m. There is little species-specific population information available for M. ocellatus, however it can regularly be found in the markets of countries bordering the Mediterranean. It is also regularly taken as bycatch throughout its range. Due to the lack of data concerning what appears to be a commercially important species which is captured in a number of fisheries, M. ocellatus is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Microchirus ocellatus occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from south-west of the Iberian peninsula  and Mediterranean south to Sierra Leone, with one record extending the range to Gabon (Del Gato de Molina and Santana 1985). It also occurs in west Indian Ocean (Heemstra and Gon 1986). It occurs all through the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987), including the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2002, 2006; Molinari and Tunesi 2003), Adriatic Sea (Quéro and Desoutter 1990), Aegean Sea (Karakulak et al. 2006) and Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters (Abdallah 2002). It also occurs in Madeira and the Canary Islands (Quéro and Desoutter 1990). It is found at depths ranging from 30 to 300 m.

population:
This species has been described as not rare. International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) data from the Gulf of Cadiz shows that catches of this species average less than one individual per trawl (IBTS-DATRAS). According to Abdallah (2002), 40 specimens (9.3 to 16.6 cm TL) were collected after 18 cruises at depths of 30 to 200 m were conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Karakulak et al. (2006) mention that five specimens (12.9 to 15.2 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.

habitat:
Microchirus ocellatus is a benthic species which inhabits sandy and muddy substrata at depths from 30 to 300 m. It also occurs around seagrass beds (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press) and estuaries and lagoons (Gordo et al. 2001). This species reaches a maximum length of 20 cm SL, and is more commonly from 10 to 20 cm TL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press).

threats:
Microchirus ocellatus is a species of minor commercial interest. This species is caught with trawls, seines, gills and trammel nets. It is frequently discarded in parts of its range (Tsagarakis et al. 2003) but is common in markets of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and occasionally in Spain, Morocco, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for M. ocellatus. This species is likely found in marine protected areas within its range. Given that this species appears to be a species of local commercial importance in many Mediterranean countries there is a need for further monitoring of harvest trends. Microchirus ocellatus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Microchirus ocellatus is a species of minor commercial interest. This species is regularly present on markets of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and occasionally in Spain, Morocco, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus. It is rarely found elsewhere. Microchirus ocellatus is sold fresh or refrigerated in Israel (Fischer et al. 1987).

redListAssessors:
Keskin, Ç., Costa, M., Monroe, T. & Rijnsdorp, A.D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Microchirus variegatus occurs in the north-east Atlantic, from the British Isles south to Senegal (baie du Lévrier), including Madeira Island and the Mediterranean Sea. It is a common species which can be found over a variety of substrates at depths ranging from 20 to 400 m. It is species of minor commercial importance, is regularly present on markets of Morocco, the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas and considered highly esteemed. Species-specific landing statistics do not appear to be available for the assessment zone. There is little population information available, however available information suggests that this species is common and may be increasing in abundance in the region due to climate change. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for M. variegatus; however, it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. This species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species occurs in the north-east Atlantic, from the British Isles south to Senegal (baie du Lévrier), including Madeira Island. In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurs throughout the basin, including in the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2002) and in the Aegean Sea (Yuksek et al. 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007), all Helenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Izmir Bay (Gokce and Metin 2007), except the Levant coasts (Golani 2005). Microchirus variegatus can be found at depths ranging from 20 to 400 m (Amara et al 1998, Muus and Nielsen 1999).

population:
Microchirus variegatus is a common species. It was a moderately abundant component of the discarded taxa of experimental trammel net surveys in Izmir Bay, Turkey (Gokce and Metin 2007). This species was a dominant component of the demersal assemblage off the Galician coast of Spain in the Fall and the Spring, and increased in abundance over the Galician continental shelf from 1980 to 1991 (Fariña et al. 1997). According to regional European Union catch data, landings of M. variegatus have increased steadily from 1983 to 2000. For the next 2 to 3 years, a sharp increase from 75 tonnes to 650 tonnes occurred. This was followed by steady declines until a crash in 2009 to 200 tonnes. An increase is seen in the next year, with another decline the following (FAO 2011). It is unclear whether or not the decline in landings of this species reflects a decline in biomass or a decline in fishing effort throughout the region. 

habitat:
This is a benthic species that inhabits a variety of bottom types, including mud and sandy substrata and eelgrass beds. This species reaches a maximum length of 35 cm SL, however it is more commonly seen between 18 to 20 cm SL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). It can live up to 14 years (Deniel 1990). This species feeds on a wide range of small bottom-living organisms, mainly crustaceans (amphipods, shrimps) and also polychaete worms and bivalve mollusks (Quéro et al. 1986). Microchirus variegatus breeds in the Mediterranean in February and in March to April in the English Channel (Muus and Nielsen 1999). This species spawns during spring. In the Bay of Biscay, larvae have been found at depths below 40 m and in the Eastern Channel, non have been found above 30 m. Juveniles settle offshore (Amara et al 1998).

threats:
Microchirus variegatus is taken as bycatch in fisheries using trawls, gill and trammel nets (Gurbet et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Given that it is considered to be a highly-esteemed food fish there is a need for more research concerning harvest and population trends.Microchirus variegatus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Microchirus variegatus is a commercial species which is regularly present on markets of Spain, Morocco and the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas. This species is occasionally or rarely found elsewhere in the markets. It is marketed fresh. Its flesh is highly esteemed (Fischer et al. 1987).

redListAssessors:
Keskin, Ç., Rijnsdorp, A.D., Monroe, T. & Costa, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe this species occurs only in Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs only in Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, this species is found in the Eastern Atlantic (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015) from Western Sahara to northern Angola.

population:
There is no population information for this species. Catch information for Microchirus species are not separated in the Eastern Central Atlantic, except in a few scientific surveys.

habitat:
This species is found over sandy and muddy substrata to depths of 145-460 m.

threats:
The average commercial trawling depth in the Eastern Central Atlantic is from 35-200 m, which means that this species may be significantly caught as by-catch by commercial trawling in at least some part of its range, but it is mostly found at deeper depths.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Each country in the Eastern Central Atlantic has protected areas or a specified distance from shore where trawling is prohibited. The distance from shore determines the depth of trawling (usually 6-12 nautical miles from shore), essentially to separate commercial trawling from artisanal fisheries.

redListContributors:
Adeofe, T.A., Camara, K., Camara, Y., Cissoko, K., Djiman, R., Mbye, E., Monroe, T., Sagna, A., Sidibé, A, Sylla, M., Tous, P. & de Morais, L.


taxonomicNotes:
Previously two subspecies were recognized; Monochirus hispidus with a distribution in the Mediterranean and M. atlanticus with a distribution from Portugal to the Gulf of Guinea. Hoenywell et al. (in review) elevated a subspecies to species status. They considered M. hispidus to be a Mediterranean endemic and M. atlanticus to have a distribution from Portugal to Guinea not including the Mediterranean (Hoenywell et al. in review).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Monochirus atlanticus occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the northern coast of Spain, Portugal to Gabon including Cape Verde, the Canary Islands and Madeira. Monochirus atlanticus can be found at depths ranging from 10 to 250 m. It is reported from the lower and middle estuaries and on the continental shelf. Monochirus atlanticus can be locally abundant. It is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries throughout its range. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for M. atlanticus, however its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. This species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Monochirus atlanticus occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the northern coast of Spain, Portugal to Gabon (Honeywell et al. in review). Monochirus atlanticus is not known from Cape Verde (Wirtz et al.2013), the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985) or Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Monochirus atlanticus can be found at depths ranging from 10 to 250 m (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). It is reported from the lower and middle estuaries (Amaral and Cabral 2004), possibly to 20 m depth (M. J. Costa pers. comm. 2013).

population:
There is no species-specific information on the population size or structure for this species with the exception of one study of the Sado estuary where it is reported as common and abundant with more than 100 individuals per 1,000 m2. It is low to absent in adjacent coastal areas (Amaral and Cabral 2004).

habitat:
Monochirus atlanticus is reported as a species found on the continental shelf (Honeywell et al. in review), except that in southern Portugal this species is recorded in estuaries (Amaral and Cabral 2004). Amaral and Cabral (2004) report that this is an estuarine species with adults and juveniles recorded from the same habitat. It feeds on benthic invertebrates, including crustaceans, especially gammarid amphipods, and polychaetes (Amaral and Cabral 2004). This species reaches a maximum size of 20 cm SL. Size at maturity is estimated at 8.5 cm SL (T. Munroe pers. comm. 2013). The maximum age is 4 years (Amaral and Cabral 2004). In the Sado estuary this species spawns between March to June (Amaral and Cabral 2004).

threats:
Monochirus atlanticus is likely taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its range, but this is not thought to be having a major impact on populations of M. atlanticus at this time.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for M. atlanticus. This species is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Monochirus atlanticus is a non-commercial species but is likely included in the demersal bycatch of trawl fisheries.

redListAssessors:
Monroe, T., Costa, M., Nielsen, J. & Herrera, J.


taxonomicNotes:
Previously two subspecies were recognised; Monochirus hispidus with a distribution in the Mediterranean and M. atlanticus with a distribution from Portugal to the Gulf of Guinea. Hoenywell et al. (in review) elevated a subspecies to species status. They considered M. hispidus to be a Mediterranean endemic and M. atlanticus to have a distribution from Portugal to Guinea not including the Mediterranean (Hoenywell et al. in review).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Monochirus hispidus is restricted to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is widespread. It has only recently been considered a distinct species. It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 250 m over a variety of substrates including sandy bottoms, muddy bottoms and algae. This species appears to be somewhat rare, and there is little species-specific population information available. It is a relatively small species which is likely to be short-lived and capable of rapid reproductive turnover. It is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, and is marketed at the local level in some parts of its range. Although this species has only recently been recognized as a separate species and little species-specific population information is available, the reproductive characteristics of M. hispidus suggest that it may be inherently less susceptible to overexploitation. Therefore, M. hispidus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Monochirus hispidus is restricted to the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been recorded from off Toulon (France), Gulf of Lion (France), off Naples, Sardinia, the Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Gulf Thermaikos, off the Tunisian coast (Honeywell et al. in review), as well as off Cyprus and Egypt. It is found at depths ranging from 10 to 250 m.  

population:
There is little species-specific population information available for M. hispidus. This species is known from at least 79 individuals from museum collections (Honeywell et al. in review). According to Karakulak et al. (2006), three specimens (9.9 and 14.5 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. This species is considered to be a rare and little-known species along the coast of Izmir, Aegean Sea (Akyol et al. 2011).

habitat:
Monochirus hispidus is a benthic species found on sand and mud substrata (Schneider 1990) at depths ranging from 10 to 250 m, and is frequently found near plant growth (Göthel 1992). Monochirus hispidus feeds at night on less mobile, sedentary prey such as amphipods and polychaetes. In the Mediterranean Sea spawning occurs between July and September (Cau and Deana 1980). This species attains a maximum size of 14.5 cm SL (Honeywell et al. in review). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 14.1 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 8.5 cm TL  and for males is 5.8 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). The sister species, M. atlanticus, has a maximum age of four years; therefore, it is likely that M. hispidus is short-lived and capable of rapid reproductive turnover.

threats:
Monochirus hispidus is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries throughout its range (Machias et al. 2001). It is considered to be a local commercial species in parts of its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for M. hispidus. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range.Monochirus hispidus was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Monochirus hispidus is considered a local commercial species in the Aegean and Eastern Ionian Sea (Machias et al. 2001). It is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries.

redListAssessors:
Rijnsdorp, A.D., Monroe, T., Keskin, Ç. & Costa, M.


taxonomicNotes:
There is a controversy concerning the validity of P. impar Some authors (Ben-Tuvia 1990, Tinti and Piccinetti 2000) claim that P. impar is a synonym of P. lascaris.  Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of P. impar and P. lascaris.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Pegusa impar occurs in the eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar southward to Senegal, including the Mediterranean Sea. There is controversy as concerning the taxonomic validity of P. impar, which is considered by some authors to be a synonym of P. lascaris. Pending resolution of this conflict, P. impar is assessed Data Deficient.

range:
Pegusa impar occurs in the east Atlantic from Gibraltar southward to Senegal, including the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs throughout the western basin, including Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the Ionian Sea and the east Levant, the Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988) and Turkish waters (Fricke et al. 2007).

population:
Pegusa impar is often misidentified as P. lascaris. According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 12 specimens (25.1 to 30.3 cm TL) were collected using various fishing gears, in three estuaries systems in the central eastern Adriatic Sea.

habitat:
Pegusa impar is a coastal benthic species which is generally found at depths ranging 5 to 100 m (Quéro et al. 1986, Bauchot 1987). This species is found in sandy and muddy substrata (FNAM). It feeds mainly on crustaceans and polychaetes as well as bivalves (FNAM). Spawning occurs from spring until the summer with a peak in May (FNAM). The maximum size of P. impar is 35 cm TL (Bauchot 1987). The species lives up to 10 years (Deniel 1990). This is a coastal benthic species which is generally found at depths ranging 5 to 100 m (Quéro et al. 1986, Bauchot 1987).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to P. impar; however, the closely-related P. lascaris for which this species is often mistaken for is fished, sometimes heavily, in parts of its range (Mehanna 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of P. impar and P. lascaris. Pegusa impar was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Pegusa impar is used as a food fish in some regions (Robins et al. 1991). This species likely appears in the bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries.


