# European_Red_List_2017_December

taxonomicNotes:
Lepus capensis, once thought to be conspecific with L. europaeus, is now generally treated as a separate species (Flux and Angermann 1990, Boitani et al. 1999, Kryger et al. 2004). The taxonomy of this species is unclear, and further research may result in this taxon being split into several species. A taxonomic review based on genetic studies is urgently required, otherwise it is possible that some species may go extinct before they are formally identified. A number of publications indicate that the range of L. capensis extends into China, Mongolia and Russia; however, current taxonomic classification suggests L. tibetanus and L. tolai are valid species (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)The species is Least Concern in Europe. Although some declines in the Sardinian population have been noted, they are not thought to be of sufficient magnitude to warrant a Near Threatened listing. However, population trends should be monitored.

range:
Lepus capensis has a large global range in Africa and the Near East, where it occurs in two separate non-forested areas; the first in the region bounded by southern Angola, Mozambique and South Africa, and the second extending across North Africa, the Sahara and the Sahel to East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, Syria and Iraq. In Europe, it is found only on the island of Sardinia (Italy), where it occurs as a distinct subspecies L. capensis mediterraneus and is found throughout the island. This population is considered to have been introduced by humans in prehistoric or early historic times (Gippoliti and Amori 2004, G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to 4,000 m in Africa (Angelici 1999).

population:
The Sardinian population is suspected to be suffering ongoing decline, even though it is considered locally common in at least parts of its range (Angelici 1999).

habitat:
Globally, it occupies a variety of open habitats including desert, semi-desert, grassland and steppe. On Sardinia, it is found in almost all habitats on the island, but prefers cultivated land and maquis (Spagnesi and de Marinis 2002).

threats:
In Italy the Sardinian hare is considered a game species, and hunting and poaching may have contributed to population declines. Predation by feral dogs is also a potential threat, and anthropogenic bush fires may cause local population declines (Spagnesi and de Marinis 2002). However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this species on Sardinia.

conservationAction:
It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Captive breeding has been carried out in order to maintain the numbers available for shooting. Recommended measures include better regulation of hunting, and measures to control and limit the number of bush fires.


taxonomicNotes:
Past concerns regarding taxonomic status have been resolved with recent genetic evidence that support the classification of Lepus castroviejoi as one of two endemic species of Lepus inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula (Alves et al. 2003, Melo-Ferreira et al. 2005). Recent molecular data suggest that L. castroviejoi is a sister taxa to L. corsicanus (Alves et al. 2002).

There are no subspecies recognized for Lepus castroviejoi (Flux and Angermann 1990, Hoffmann and Smith 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
Lepus castroviejoi is restricted to a relatively small geographic range of approximately 5,000 km². (Ballesteros 2003). This species is considered fragmented, as it occupies highly specialized patches of scarce habitat (Ballesteros in press).  These fragmented populations form a dispersed metapopulation within a matrix of unsuitable habitat (Ballesteros in press).  Population declines have been observed along the northern portion of its range and in the marginal habitat in which it occurs (Ballesteros et al. 1996).

range:
The distribution of L. castroviejoi is limited to the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest of Spain (Flux and Angermann 1990). It occupies elevations of 1,000 to 1,900 m between Sierra de los Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (Flux and Angermann 1990, Ballesteros 2003).  The total distribution is approximately 25 - 40 km from north to south, 230 km east to west (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is estimated that the extent of occurrence is 5,000 km² (Ballesteros 2003).  This species is considered fragmented, as it occupies highly specialized patches of habitat that is scarce (Ballesteros, in press).

population:
L. castroviejoi is experiencing a decline in relation to specific portions of its distribution that are disturbed by human activities and excessive hunting (Ballesteros et al. 1996). Fragmentation, resulting from the patchy distribution of suitable habitat, has produced a dispersed metapopulation of this species (Ballesteros, in press).  A habitat suitability model indicated that L. castroviejoi was experiencing a decreasing population trend of 16.67% and a 4.17% increase within its metapopulation structure, with no appreciable change for 70.82% of the populations (Acevedo et al. 2007).

habitat:
Little is known about the home range, population density, and food preferences, but they are likely to be similar to those of European hares in comparable habitat. No information is available on reproduction (Alves pers. comm.).L. castroviejoi occupies an elevational range of 1,300-1,900 m, descending in winter to 1,000 m to avoid snow.  This habitat consists of heathland where the dominant vegetation forms are Erica, Calluna, and Vaccinium and shrub where the cover consists of Cytisus, Genista, and Juniperus (Flux and Angermann 1990, Alves and Niethammer 2003).  A habitat suitability model determined that L. castroviejoi, "selects areas characterized by a high percentage of broom and heather scrublands, high altitude and slope, and limited human accessibility (quantified as distance to roads variable) (Acevedo et al. 2007).  Its habitat also includes cleared areas of mixed deciduous forest of Fagus and Quercus (Palacios 1977).  L. castroviejoi also selects habitat that has been burned and areas where broom has been cleared within Somiedo Natural Park (Ballesteros et al. 1996).  Nocturnal censuses with spotlights in Somiedo Natural Park determined average densities of 6.83/100 ha (Gonzalez-Quiros et al. 1992).

threats:
There has been excessive hunting at the western edge of its distribution where hares are isolated from the rest of the population during the summer (Palacios and Ramos 1979). In addition to over harvesting, this species is subject to predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides) and habitat change (Ballesteros et al. 1996).

conservationAction:
Recommended conservation actions are (Ballesteros et al. 1996):- Research to determine the effects of habitat change, predation pressure, and illegal hunting.- Develop a global hunting plan for all regional reserves and private hunting areas, accommodating specific characteristics of the situation for the species.- Avoid any restocking with other hare species within the extent of occurrence of L. castroviejoi.- Development of direct or indirect predator control, especially in conjunction with foxes and domestic dogs and cats.- Restoration of altered habitat that is no longer suitable for L. castroviejoi.The establishment of corridors among local populations should be considered to bolster interbreeding within the metapopulation (Acevedo et al. 2007).Research should also be conducted to improve knowledge of reproduction and genetic structure (Alves pers. comm.). Although L. castroviejoi is listed as endangered in Spain, it is still hunted as a game species in some regions (Cantabria and Leon) (Alves per. comm.).The ability to implement policies to manage and conserve this species should be easy, because a substantial portion of its area of occupancy lies within reserves (Ballesteros et al. 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This species has a large range. Population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Population trend has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), although the isolated Alpine population may be declining. For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.

range:
Mountain hares range from Fennoscandia, the Baltic and east Poland to the Pacific Ocean, from 75°N in the far north of Russia and Scandinavia, south to 40-50°N. There are isolated populations in the Alps from France to Slovenia, Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, Italy, the Kurile Islands, and Hokkaido, Japan. It has been introduced into the Faeroes, England, and various Scottish Islands; some introduced on Spitzbergen later died out. It occurs at altitudes of 250 to 3,700 m (Sulkava 1999).

population:
Long-term population trends in Europe appear generally stable, with fluctuations in population density occurring over a multi-year cycle (typically peaking every 4 or 7-8 years in Scandinavia and every 10 years in Scotland and northern Russia). Periodic population crashes occur, potentially as a result of disease (tularaemia, a bacterial infection), parasitism, predation, or starvation (Angerbjorn and Flux 1995, Sulkava 1999). Population densities of 1-10 individuals per km2 are typical in range states (e.g., Scotland and Finland). Population declines have occurred in Russia, and in the far south of Sweden the species has completely disappeared (Thulin 2003). The isolated Alpine population may be declining (Sulkava 1999).

habitat:
Mountain hares occupy tundra and open forest, particularly of early successional stages. In Scotland and Ireland heather moors and bogland are favoured habitats, and in southern Russia copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes. The diet varies with the habitat. In Scotland and Ireland much heather, Calluna, is eaten, but this is not a major food item elsewhere in Europe where willow, aspen, birch, juniper, poplar, and Vaccinium are favoured (Flux and Angermann 1990). Palatable grasses and clovers are taken when available. Mountain hares are nocturnal, but there is increased daylight activity in summer when nights are short, or in winter when food is scarce (Flux and Angermann 1990). In areas where L. timidus and L. europaeus coexist, L. timidus retreats to areas of higher elevation, presumably as a result of competitive exclusion (Thulin 2003).

threats:
It is hunted as game, but current hunting rates appear to be sustainable in most parts of its European range. L. timidus has successfully hybridized with L. europaeus in areas where the latter has been introduced (Thulin 2003). The pathogens European Brown Hare Syndrome (EHBS) and tularemia may be problematic, but research is required to determine how great an impact they have on wild populations (Thulin 2003). Competitive exclusion of the mountain hare by the European brown hare may restrict the distribution of the former (Thulin 2003), and anthropogenic climate change may affect competitive relationships between these two species. The discovery of an introduced population of L. europaeus to Ireland could pose a threat to the Irish subspecies L. t. hibernicus (N. Reid pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
The species occurs in a number of protected areas within its European range. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the Habitats and Species Directive. In areas where L. timidus is proven or suspected to be declining, research should be carried out to determine the potential causes. Monitoring is required to determine if the species is declining in the Alps. Monitoring of the endemic Irish hare (L. t. hibernicus) is already underway. Genetic investigations into the taxonomic status of this subspecies are also underway. A number of reasons for decline have been suggested: interspecific competition with L. europaeus, the impact of pathogens, and the effects of hybridization (Thulin 2003). In Ireland, the cause(s) of population change require further investigation, but agricultural intensification appears to be one of the main concerns.

redListAssessors:
Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly included in Lepus capensis or L. europaeus; see Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951) and Petter (1961); but see also Palacios et al. (1989) and Pierpaoli et al. (1999) who provided evidence of their specific distinctness (see also below).

The taxonomic status of L. corsicanus has been uncertain since its first description by De Winton in 1898. Its species rank was soon rejected by Miller (1912) and others, who considered L. corsicanus a subspecies of L. europaeus. However, Palacios (1996) studied historical museum specimen and described new morphological traits that provided phenotypic support for the species rank of the Apennine Hare. Recent molecular studies confirmed that L. corsicanus is a phylogenetically distinct species, which can be identified by concordant morphological and mtDNA traits. It is reproductively isolated and apparently does not hybridize with sympatric L. europaeus. Phylogenetical analyses suggested that corsicanus and europaeus are not closely related sister taxa, but belong to distinct evolutionary lineages that dispersed in western Europe in different periods during the early Pleistocene. L. corsicanus probably differentiated in isolated refuges in southern Italy during the last glaciation. Comparative analyses of genetic variability highlighted a phylogeographical structure of the Apennine Hare. Recently, it has been hypothesized that L. corsicanus and L. castroviejoi are conspecific, based on preliminary molecular studies involving low sample size and mtDNA (Alves et al. 2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
Our assessment is based on field surveys (spotlight censuses, hunting bag, captures, etc) and on molecular analyses of specimens collected by a network of helpers (hunters, park rangers, etc). This species has been monitored continuously since 1997 in continental Italy and Sicily. L. corsicanus shows a variable conservation status across its distribution range. Due to the fragmentation and scarcity of L. corsicanus populations in continental Italy, mainland status is classified as endangered (following Angelici and Luiselli 2001). However, the creation of several protected areas in southern and central Italy will help the populations to recover.In Sicily, L. corsicanus is widespread and the populations are locally abundant. Furthermore since its official recognition as true species (1998), the local government has forbidden hare hunting on the island. However, hunting of this species was permitted during the 2004-2005 hunting season in Sicily.  Therefore, in Sicily L. corsicanus does not appear to be threatened.Finally we have no direct information on the status of the species in Corsica.  The recent discovery of three specimens in Corsica implies that there are extant populations of L. corsicanus (Scalera and Angelici 2002).  However, it is presumed that population numbers are low.  Further studies are needed to ascertain its true status.Globally, this species is classified as Vulnerable due to its variable conservation status across its geographic range.  Utilizing information currently available regarding the historical range on continental Italy, we replicated this portion of the range using GIS to calculate the total area (Pierpaoli et al. 1999).  The result showed that the historical range on continental Italy was approximately 79,700 km².  Online sources gave an area of approximately 25,700 km² for Sicily.  This provides a total area of 105,400 km² as the historical range for L. corsicanus.  We inferred an approximate decline of 50% for the continental populations from the map provided in Pierpaoli (1999).  From this we derived an overall decrease of only 37.8% for the species as a whole.

range:
Until the 1930s, L. corsicanus was distributed in south-central Italy (the northern limit being marked by Elba Island on the Tyrrhenian coast and the province of Foggia on the Adriatic coast) and Sicily. It was also present in Corsica, where it was introduced by man in historical times (maybe between the 14th and 17th centuries). The current distribution of L. corsicanus is still poorly known. In Sicily, the distribution seems to be continuous, whereas in the Italian Peninsula, populations are known only in Tuscany (in Grosseto province), Latium, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia (Gargano), Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,400 m a.s.l. on Mount Etna. Recently the presence of L. corsicanus has been rediscovered in Corsica, too (Scalera and Angelici 2002). As of 1984, L. corsicanus was thought to be possibly extinct in Corsica; however, one dead specimen was found in 2000 and two dead specimens were examined in 2001 (Scalera and Angelici 2002).

population:
Populations of L. corsicanus in the Italian peninsula have a fragmented distribution and are sometimes in sympatry and syntopy with Lepus europaeus. Density estimates highlight low values in hunting areas (0.5 hares/km²) and higher in protected areas (11 hares/km²). In mainland Italy L. corsicanus is decreasing because of habitat degradation, hunting pressure, and probably, from competition with introduced L. europaeus. However, in Sicily, where there are not populations of L. europaeus, L. corsicanus is continuously distributed and locally abundant (protected areas: 10 hares/km²; hunting areas: 2 hares/km²). No data are actually available on abundance and distribution of L. corsicanus in Corsica (where L. europaeus is present too).

habitat:
Information about the ecology of this species is still limited. However, it seems well adapted to the Mediterranean environment, although it has been recorded from sea level to 2,400 m a.s.l. on Mount Etna (Sicily). The preferred habitats are the Mediterranean maquis and the mosaic of clearings (also cultivated), bushy areas, and broad-leaved woods. Furthermore L. corsicanus inhabits also coastal dune habitat. When L. corsicanus is in sympatry with L. europaeus, the latter species tends to be more a habitat generalist, while L. corsicanus seems to inhabit almost only pastures and grasslands. In Sicily, the species inhabits a variety of natural and artificial habitats: open grassland, bushy pastures, cultivated areas, etc.In terms of elevation, L. europaeus and L. corsicanus do not differ significantly when they live allopatrically. According to Angelici and Luiselli (in press), when the two species coexist in sympatry, L. corsicanus occurs at elevations significantly higher than L. europaeus. L. europaeus inhabits significantly higher elevations when it lives allopatrically than when it lives sympatrically, and L. corsicanus inhabits significantly higher elevations when it lives sympatrically than when it lives allopatrically. However, this ecological allocation is not shared by Trocchi and Riga who always directly observed, in sympatric condition, L. europaeus occupying the mountain grassland and L. corsicanus inhabiting the lower and warmer areas with thermophilous oak woods.The diet of L. corsicanus, studied in Sicily, varies seasonally as the available vegetation changes. Monocotyledones, Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, are ingested year round, while Gramineae and Labiatae are consumed during spring and summer, respectively (De Battisti et al. 2004).  Dicotyledones ingested year round by L. corsicanus are Leguminosae and Compositae (De Battisti et al. 2004).

threats:
The main threats to L. corsicanus have been identified in the following aspects: fragmentation of the range, low or absent genetic flow between populations, low population density, habitat loss, introduction of L. europaeus in central and southern Italy (with interspecific competition and disease spread - L. corsicanus is fully susceptible to EBHS), competition with the European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus (mainly in Sicily, where this species is widely distributed), over-hunting, poaching and predation by foxes and feral dogs (both abundant and largely distributed in southern Italy). L. corsicanus is susceptible to accidental mortality due to difficulties distinguishing it from L. europaeus by hunters (Angelici and Luiselli 2001).  Potential hybridization between L. europaeus and L. corsicanus could constitute a future threat to the species (Pierpaoli et al. 2003).  On the major threat list "other" has been checked and identified as intraspecific genetic pollution.

conservationAction:
The main conservation actions are:-improve data of the distribution and status of the species in Italian peninsula and in Corsica-conservation and improvement of natural populations-habitat improvement-minimizing risk factors-planning specific oriented management both in protected areas and in hunting territories at a local level-carrying out a number of enclosures for captive breeding and initiating behavioral study on L. corsicanus-promote a public educational campaign to develop the awareness and understanding of L. corsicanus-prepare a training program on biology and conservation of L. corsicanus for field biologists, conservationists, game keepers, and protected areas staff-creation of a data bank on the species-improvement of scientific research -place the species on a suitable legal status for international legislationToday L. corsicanus is legally protected in continental Italy because of its conservation status (primarily low population size). However, the problematic discrimination in the field between L. corsicanus and L. europaeus (a game species) produces remarkable problems for effective protection.  Since L. corsicanus was recognized as a true species (1998), hare hunting has been banned in Sicily.  During the 2004-2005 hunting season, this ban was lifted allowing the hunting of hares in Sicily.  In Corsica it is considered a game species, in the French hunting act, since it cannot easily be distinguished from L. europaeus.Lepus corsicanus can be found in many protected areas in Italy.  The following is a partial list.Continental Italy:Parco Regionale della MaremmaParco Regionale Monti LucretiliParco Regionale dell'Appennino "Monti Simbruini"Parco Regionale del CilentoParco Nazionale della SilaParco Nazionale del PollinoParco Nazionale dell'AspromonteSicily:Parco Regionale dell'EtnaParco Regionale dei Monti NebrodiParco Regionale delle Madonie

redListAssessors:
Angelici, F.M., Randi, E., Riga, F. & Trocchi, V.


taxonomicNotes:
Lepus granatensis was formerly included in europaeus or capensis; but see Palacios (1983, 1989), and Bonhomme et al. (1986). The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 and typicus Hilzheimer, 1906, are applied, in the past have been assigned to this species based on Miller (1912), who regarded it as closest to granatensis, though he retained it as a "...very distinct species" because of its small size.  If in the future mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensis, it has priority over granatensis.  The Sardinian population is included in L. capensis until its taxonomic status is resolved.

Molecular phylogeny has shown that L. granatensis is indeed a full species and one of three hare species present on the Iberian Peninsula (Alves et al. 2003).  Previous questions regarding taxonomic distinction of L. granatensis from L. capensis have been resolved by genetic and morphological comparisons (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999, Alves et al. 2003).

There are three subspecies: Lepus granatensis granatensis, L. g. solisi (Mallorca), L. g. gallaecius (Galicia and Astrias, Spain) (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
Lepus granatensis is cited as common and locally abundant within its widespread geographic range of the Iberian Peninsula (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999). The current population trend in general is stable (Duarte 2000).

range:
The geographic range of Lepus granatensis includes Portugal and nearly the entire extent of Spain (Alves et al. 2003). It is excluded from northern regions of Spain where L. castroviejoi and europaeus exist (Alves et al. 2003).  In most of the northern provinces (Navarra, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragon, Catalunya, and Basque Country), L. europaeus and L. granatensis exist in parapatry, the Iberian hare inhabits the southern region and the brown hare can be found to the north (Fernandez et al. 2004).  L. granatensis is also located on the island of Mallorca of the Balearic chain (Schneider 2001).  It has gone extinct on the island of Ibiza (Balearic Islands) (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999).L. granatensis has been introduced in southern France (Perpignan) (Alves et al. 2003).

population:
Lepus granatensis is considered locally abundant and common in the southern and central portions of its range (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999; Farfan et al. 2004). In the autonomous communities of Galicia and Asturias, it is thought to be extremely rare or extinct (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999). On the island of Mallorca it has become extinct in the western mountain range and is rare throughout the remainder of the island (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999).  Population trends in Navarra and Donana National Park, monitored over several years, have been increasing (Carro et al. 2004).  A study of relative abundance and population trends in northeast Spain indicated that L. granatensis experienced, "a general positive trend during the study period" which occurred from 1992-2002 (Gortazar et al. 2007).

habitat:
Lepus granatensis can persist in a variety of habitats within Spain and Portugal (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999). It occupies arable lands of central Spain and mountainous forests of northwestern Spain (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999). Other has been checked on the Habitat Preferences list and has been identified as dunes along the Mediterranean coast (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999).Reproduction in L. granatensis is continuous year round, with peaks experienced between February and June (Alves et al. 2002; Farfan et al. 2004).  It has been estimated that the mean number of litters per productive female per year and the mean litter size are 3.48 and 2.08, respectively (Farfan et al. 2004).

threats:
No major threats to Lepus granatensis have been cited.

conservationAction:
Lepus granatensis is listed as an Appendix III species under the Bern Convention as part of L. capensis sensu lato (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
The last presumed sighting of Prolagus sardus was in 1774 (Smith 2008). This species was present in its historic distribution within the last 2,000 years (Smith 2008).  It is speculated that "habitat loss, predation, and competition with alien invasive species" were responsible for its extinction (Smith 2008).

range:
Prolagus sardus once occupied Corsica, Sardinia, and small adjacent islands of the Mediterranean (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).


taxonomicNotes:
Macaca sylvana is a synonym of M. sylvanus (Alvarez and Horaldo 1975, Burton 1972, Deag and Crook 1971, Hill 1966)

redListCategoryRationale:
There is no conclusive evidence that the Barbary macaque occurred in Europe before the 1700s. Consequently the Gibraltar population is regarded as a relatively recent introduction, and is classed as Not Applicable (NA) at the European and EU 25 level. The Barbary macaque is seriously threatened in its native range in North Africa.

range:
The Barbary macaque is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert, the only species of primate to occur in Europe (apart from Homo sapiens), and the only member of the genus Macaca that can be found outside Asia. The species was once an inhabitant of parts of Europe and all of North Africa (Delson 1980, Camperio Ciani et al. 1986) but the current distribution of the Barbary macaque is limited to relict forest areas in Algeria and Morocco (Fa 1984, Camperio Ciani 1986, Menard and Vallet 1993, Scheffran et al. 1993). A semi wild population lives in Gibraltar, which is a long established population that is almost certainly introduced (see discussion below) (Fa 1981, von Starck 1990, Hodges and Cortes 2006). In Morocco, M. sylvanus can still be found in the Rif mountains (northern Morocco) and the Middle and High Atlas mountains (central and southern Morocco). In Algeria, it is found in the Petit and Grande Kabylie mountains (northern Algeria) (Taub 1977). It occurs from sea level to 1,900 m, but in Morocco at least it is most common at altitudes above 1,600 m (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). In mainland Europe, macaques were widespread during the Pleistocene, but disappeared thereafter. However, there are no fossil or subfossil remains known from Gibraltar, suggesting that the species is not native to this promontory (Hodges and Cortes 2006). It has been speculated that macaques may have been introduced to Gibraltar in early historic times, by the Phoenicians, Romans, or Moors, who kept these animals as pets (von Starck 1990), but there is no conclusive evidence to support this (Hodges and Cortes 2006). The first definite records date from the 1700s onwards, when the island was occupied by the English (Hodges and Cortes 2006). The population was driven close to extinction by disease or persecution on a number of occasions, but each time was replenished by animals imported from North Africa (von Starck 1990). Genetic studies have confirmed that the current population are descendants of a mixture of Algerian and Moroccan stock (Modolo et al. 2005).

population:
In 1999 the total number of remaining macaques was estimated at around 15,000 individuals (Von Segesser et al. 1999), although this estimate was based on incomplete data. The Morocco population was more recently estimated to be 6,000-10,000 individuals (Ross 2004), whereas in 1975 it was about 17,000 (Taub 1975). In Algeria, the population was estimated at 5,500 30 years ago (Taub 1977), but is currently much less, although exact numbers are unknown (Hodges and Cortes 2006). On Gibraltar, the population has been maintained at c.200 individuals in recent years (Hodges and Cortes 2006). Consequently, the global population of M. sylvanus is now estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (Hodges and Cortes 2006). According to Moroccan authorities the number of macaques has increased over the last decade (van Lavieren 2006). However, a number of detailed surveys have documented marked declines in population density, along with losses of a number of sites (Von Segesser et al. 1999, Camperio Ciani et al. 2005, van Lavieren 2006). The remaining subpopulations in the Rif mountains and High Atlas mountains of Morocco are fragmented and small. The same can be said for the Algerian subpopulations (Mehlman 1989, Fa 1984, Von Segesser et al. 1999). In 1999, just seven widely separated isolated populations existed, whereas only 35 years ago they were found in at least 6 additional localities in Algeria (Von Segesser et al 1999). The remaining isolated populations are now completely separated by distances of 50-100 km, with no corridors. The only area where M. sylvanus is thought to occur in relative abundance is the cedar forest area of the central Middle Atlas (Camperio Ciani et al. 1995, van Lavieren 2006), which represents the largest refuge of the North African forest ecosystem. It was estimated that 65-75% of the world' s remaining population lived in this area (Camperio Ciani 1986). The populations in the Middle Atlas outside the central region are much lower in density (Taub 1975). The central region of the Middle Atlas thus has a crucial role in the survival of the species. In the mid-1970s, population densities in the central Middle Atlas cedar forest (the stronghold of the species) were variously estimated at 60-70 individuals per km2 (Deag 1974) or 43/km2 (Taub 1975). More recent surveys showed that the population in this region declined from 44 to 25 individuals per km2 over the last two decades of the 20th century (Camperio Ciani et al. 1999) - a decline of 43% over 20 years. The most recent surveys in the Middle Atlas show an average density of 15 to 20 individuals per km2 (van Lavieren 2006), in some areas dropping to an average density of 7-10 individuals per km2 (Camperio Ciani et al. 2005). Thus over the last 30 years a decline of 53-79% in the average population density is apparent, with declines in some areas being even greater.

habitat:
In Algeria, occupied habitats include mixed cedar and oak forests, humid Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea) and cork oak (Quercus suber) mixes and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation (Taub 1977). Moroccan habitats include high cedar forests (Cedrus atlantica), cedar/holm oak (Quercus ilex) mixtures, pure holm oak forests and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation. In the High Atlas mountains the population of Barbary macaques is restricted to the Ourika valley, where only a small relict population survives (Taub 1977) in a habitat of holm oak and juniper (Juniperus phoenica) scrub on steep mountain slopes. The Rif mountains of Morocco contain a few fragmented and small populations in disjunct remnants of mixed woodland (Taub 1975, Deag 1974, Waters et al. 2007). The cedar/oak forests of the Middle Atlas region contain the largest remaining population of M. sylvanus, and are considered to be optimal habitat for the species (Camperio Ciani et al. 2001). In cedar habitats, macaques can reach densities of 25-40 individuals per km2 or greater, whereas in habitats without cedar much lower densities of 5-7 individuals per km2 are reported (Fa 1984, Mehlman 1989). All the areas occupied by the macaque are under growing pressure from human activity and the habitat availability for the M. sylvanus has severely decreased over the last decades (Camperio Ciani et al. 2005, van Lavieren 2006).M. sylvanus live in social groups of up to 30 individuals of both sexes. Life span in the wild is known to be up to 22 years of age (Lindenfors 2002). Females reach sexual maturity between 2.5 and 4 years of age and males between 4.5 and 7 years of age. Average age at first birth is 4.8 years for females (Lindenfors 2002), and the birth interval is two years (Taub 1974 in Fa 1984).

threats:
Major threats to M. sylvanus include habitat destruction and degradation (including dessication) and illegal live trade (Fa 1984; Camperio Ciani et al. 2003, 2005; van Lavieren 2004; Hodges and Cortes 2006). Severe habitat loss and degradation have been caused by domestic and industrial consumption of wood, use of fire, clearing for cultivation and overgrazing by sheep and goat herds (Taub 1977, Fa et al. 1984, Camperio Ciani et al. 1986, Menard and Vallet, 1993). Additionally, in the last ten years the drought in Morocco has prompted shepherds to settle near water sources. As shepherd tribes move into the forest region, they often enclose open water sources with cement wells so they can extract water for their herds. As a result, macaques and other wildlife have been excluded from water sources in areas where it was previously accessible to them (Camperio Ciani et al. 2003). Live trade is the second largest threat to the wild M. sylvanus population. Most of the specimens taken from the wild are for the international pet trade. In comparison with the international trade, offtake for local purposes is low. M. sylvanus seems to be rarely used for food, except for some reports in Algeria (Deag 1977). In the 1960s, a large number of macaques was captured for the use in laboratories in Casablanca, Tangier and Spain (Deag 1977), but this is no longer permitted in Morocco (A. Camperio Ciani pers. comm. 2003). M. sylvanus are kept fairly frequently as pets in Morocco (van Lavieren 2004). Reports of capture for the international pet trade date back to 1977 (Deag 1977). Since then, the trade has increased markedly (van Lavieren 2004). Sanctuaries and zoos in Europe have become overstocked with Barbary macaque infants offered to them by authorities and ex-owners, most infants coming straight from the wild (van Lavieren 2004). Infant M. sylvanus are very “cute” and are offered openly and covertly for sale on markets all over Morocco (van Lavieren 2004), resulting in frequent impulsive purchases mainly by tourists. Prices of up to 200 Euro per animal have been recorded (van Lavieren 2004). This problem has become so severe that there is only one animal sanctuary in Europe that continues to accept Barbary macaques, leading to many confiscated animals being euthanised (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). It is estimated that 300 infants are taken annually from the Moroccan habitats (van Lavieren 2004). According to van Lavieren (2004) the maximum sustainable annual offtake of macaques in the Central Middle Atlas region lies between 200 and 250 individuals. If the estimate of 300 macaques taken from the wild is more or less correct (van Lavieren 2004) the offtake exceeds sustainability by up to 50% annually. Further potential threats include persecution, and predation by feral dogs (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). The shooting of monkeys as a result of crop raiding and cedar bark stripping was reported by Deag (1977), but the current status of this activity is unknown.

conservationAction:
M. sylvanus receives some protection under national and international legislation. Collection and export of M. sylvanus are regulated by a system of permits in Morocco, but enforcement of the legislation is inadequate. The National forestry department Eaux et Forets is the responsible authority (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). Deag (1977) mentions a maximum quota for trade of 100 macaques annually in Morocco. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (EC 338/97, Annex B). In 2000, the European Community suspended imports of M. sylvanus from Algeria and Morocco under the provisions of Article 4.6b of EC Regulation 338/97 because such a trade was deemed to have a harmful effect on the conservation status of the species. These import suspensions remain in force under the most recent EC suspensions regulation (EC252/2005). Over the last few decades there have been repeated surveys of the species in the wild, mainly carried out by scientists from outside the range states. The national authorities are aware of these surveys but do not always support or agree with the outcome (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). The Moroccan authorities have planned a new survey on the Moroccan Middle Atlas population in 2007 (M. Mouna pers. comm. 2006). Most habitats of M. sylvanus in Algeria have national park status. This is not the case for all the habitats in Morocco. A part of the Rif mountains has national park status, and there are plans to make the cedar/mixed forest in the central Middle Atlas a national park, but a large part of the species' habitat in Morocco lies outside protected areas. In both Morocco and Algeria, the national forestry departments are responsible for the management and the protection of flora and fauna. There has been much debate about appropriate management of M. sylvanus. The national forestry department in Morocco believes that there are too many macaques in the region (due to the disappearance of predators such as the leopard Panthera pardus), and that they are responsible for the degradation of cedar forests through their bark stripping behaviour. There has even been talk of culling or translocating a part of the population (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). However, field studies and surveys indicate that the population is declining, and that bark stripping behaviour is probably induced by water shortage (Camperio Ciani et al. 2001, 2003). The forestry department plans to start a new research project on the status of the Barbary macaque in the central Middle Atlas region, but some scientists have expressed concern that this is not necessary and may postpone the action needed to protect the species (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). AAP (a Netherlands-based sanctuary for exotic animals) has initiated a major project to combat illegal trade of Barbary macaques into Europe, involving inter alia awareness raising among potential buyers, cooperation with authorities in the consuming countries and training of the customs officers in Spain. This project is carried out in collaboration with IUCN Netherlands, who are currently working to protect cedar forests in Morocco (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006).The Gibraltar population is intensively managed, receiving supplementary food and vetinary care (Hodges and Cortes 2006).

redListAssessors:
Thomas Butynski, John Cortes, Sian Waters, John Fa, Maria Elisa Hobbelink, Mohamed Mouna and Andrea Camperio-Ciani


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)The European beaver has shown good recovery across much of its range, as a result of conservation programmes. The highest numbers are found within Europe. Conservation measures are ongoing to prevent the population declining again and as long as these continue, there is no reason to continue to assess the species as threatened or Near Threatened. Now Least Concern.

range:
The Eurasian beaver Castor fiber was once widespread in Europe and Asia. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, over-hunting had drastically reduced both the numbers and range of the species. In Europe, only a few isolated sites remained: parts of the Rhone (France) and Elbe (Germany), southern Norway, the Neman River and Dnepr Basin (Belarus) and Voronezh (Russia). Reintroductions have enabled the beaver to return to much of its former range, and there are now a number of rapidly expanding populations extending from Spain and France across central and eastern Europe to European Russia, and in Scandinavia and parts of western Finland. Free-living populations of beavers are now established or establishing in most regions of their former European range, the main exceptions to date being Portugal, the south Balkans and Great Britain (Halley and Rosell 2002, Ceña et al. 2004). Detailed information on the status and distribution of the Eurasian beaver in each range state can be found in Halley and Rosell (2002), and information on the population that was translocated to Spain in 2003 can be found in Ceña et al. (2004). It is generally a lowland species, but occurs up to 850 m in Europe (D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006).

population:
By the beginning of the 20th century, the global population had been reduced to eight populations, totaling approximately 1,200 individuals (Halley and Rosell 2002). Protection (beginning with a hunting ban implemented in Norway in 1845), natural spread and reintroductions have resulted in a rapid recovery in numbers and range, particularly in Europe. In 1998, the global population was estimated at 430,000 (Nolet and Rosell 1998), by 2002 it had reached at least 593,000 (Halley and Rosell 2002), and in 2006 the minimum estimate was 639,000 (D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). This is almost certainly a considerable underestimate, as both population and range are in rapid expansion (Halley and Rosell 2002, 2003; D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). Considerable further expansion in range and population, especially in western Europe and the lower Danube basin, can be expected. If current trends continue, the Eurasian beaver will be a fairly common mammal in much of Europe within the next few decades. However, populations in Asia are still considered small. In Mongolia, reintroductions have been successful and the population has reached 150, and in China the population has reached 800 (Halley and Rosell 2002, EMA Workshop 2006).

habitat:
Beavers are adapted for a semi-aquatic life, using a variety of freshwater systems, including rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, lakes, and swamps. They generally prefer freshwater habitats surrounded by woodland, but may occur in agricultural land or even suburban and urban areas (Tattersall 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002). In northern Scandinavia, beavers may be found right up to the limit of the willow zone in the mountains, where knee-high willow bushes are the only woody vegetation and it is iced over for 8 months of the year. This is not preferred habitat, but they can survive there. In many places, beavers live both on the valley floor, and on the mountain plateau above (where it is wooded), with a break in distribution where streams flow down the steep valley sides. In general beavers should be able to live in almost any freshwater habitat where there are trees or shrubs and the gradient is not precipitous. However, patterns of recolonisation demonstrate a clear preference for still or slow, laminar water flow if it is available (Nowak 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002, D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006).

threats:
The beaver's historic decline was caused by over-hunting for fur, meat and castoreum (a secretion from the scent glands), combined with loss of wetland habitats. Beaver populations were severely reduced in most countries by mediæval times, but the species clung on in marshes and other inaccessible places until the advent of efficient steel traps and accurate firearms in the 17th century; and then through to the 19th century there was a rash of final extinctions for these reasons combined with drainage of many of the large marshland areas in which the species clung on (all of the European refugia where the species survived, except in Norway, are extensive marshlands). Today, beaver populations in Europe are expanding rapidly, and there are no major threats (e.g. threats of a magnitude likely to cause decline at the regional level). Competitive exclusion of the native European beaver C. fiber by its American cousin C. canadensis may be a threat in parts of Finland and north-west Russia, but it is not a major threat regionally. In Europe North American beavers are now confined entirely to Finland and north-west Russia, where populations are increasing only slowly (due to heavy harvesting). The former population at a reservoir near Paris has been removed, and populations introduced to Poland and Austria have apparently gone extinct in competition with C. fiber, the opposite of what has tended to happen in Finland and north-west Russia (it has been suggested that, due to differences in the life history of the two species, Eurasian beavers may have a competitive advantage at more southerly latitudes, whilst North American beavers may be more successful further north: D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). There are no serious prospects of further introductions (Halley and Rosell 2002, D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). The two species do not interbreed (Tattersall 1999). Roadkill is an important source of mortality for some populations (Tattersall 1999). Rapidly expanding beaver populations may come into conflict with humans in some areas, as they do some damage to forestry and crops. Such damages should be put into perspective: they tend to be less severe than those caused by other species such as deer and voles, but are noticed because beavers are a new and unfamiliar species in areas where they have been recently introduced (Halley and Rosell 2002).

conservationAction:
A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II & IV for all others). In Finland, C. canadensis populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where C. fiber occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Linas Balciauskas


taxonomicNotes:
Populations west of the River Rhine are recognised as a separate subspecies (canescens) (Weinhold 1999).

redListCategoryRationale:
At the European and EU 25 levels the species is considered Least Concern. It has a very wide range and, although population declines are occuring in the western part of the range, it is stable elsewhere (including in a number of EU 25 countries).

range:
Cricetus cricetus has a large global range, extending from western Europe, through central and eastern Europe, Russia, and Kazakhstan, reaching as far east as the Yenisey river (Asian Russia). In Europe, it occurs from Belgium, the Netherlands and northern France in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany, Poland and Russia in the north to Bulgaria in the south (Panteleyev 1998, Weinhold 1999). It is found from sea level to 650 m (Nechay 2000).

population:
It has undergone severe range and population declines in western and central Europe, and it now has a highly fragmented distribution in these areas. Subpopulation extinctions have occurred in a number of countries including Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Germany. Less is known about the status of the species in eastern Europe and Russia, but it is certainly more abundant there than in the west. Spring population densities of 0.5-3 individuals per hectare are reported in western Europe (Weinhold 1999), whereas densities of 3.4-37 occupied burrows per hectare have been recorded in Hungary (Nechay 2000). In Ukraine the species is considered abundant (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). In areas where the species is abundant, periodic population outbreaks occur (Nechay 2000).

habitat:
Its original habitat was fertile steppe and grassland, but it has successfully spread into a variety of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, croplands (especially cereals), and field edges, road verges and scrubby fallow areas on farms. In eastern parts of its range it is found quite often in gardens and orchards, in close proximity to human habitation. It is more abundant in these man-made habitats than it is in natural grassland. It prefers relatively deep, heavy soils, in which it digs extensive burrows. Its diet mainly consists of the green parts of plants and seeds, supplemented by invertebrates and, occasionally, small vertebrates. At high densities, it can be an agricultural pest (Nechay 2000).

threats:
Its decline in western Europe has been attributed to a combination of persecution and agricultural intensification. It was trapped and poisoned to prevent damage to crops, and this practice continues in some parts of the hamster's range (although not in the western part of its range). In eastern Europe it continues to be trapped for the fur trade. Agricultural intensification, specifically the loss of perennial crops and small uncultivated patches of land, the introduction of autumn-sown cereals, and the increased use of pesticides, has had a negative impact on many hamster populations. Changing agricultural practices in eastern Europe, where the hamster population has traditionally been considered stable, may pose a threat in the future.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Specific conservation recommendations to improve the status of the species in western Europe are detailed in Stubbe and Stubbe (1998) and Nechay (2000). These focus on subsidising farmers to manage agricultural habitats appropriately, and minimising use of pesticides. In the last few years, reintroductions have been carried out in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Monitoring is required in eastern range states to determine population trends.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík


taxonomicNotes:
Once believed to encompass most or all New World populations, but karyotypic and breeding evidence supports the strict application of D. torquatus for only Eurasian populations (see Wilson and Reeder 2005 and references therein).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)There are no major threats to the species which is common and abundant. Consequently it is classed as Least Concern. However, the collared lemming subspecies from Novaya Zemlya (Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus) is considered as Vulnerable under Russian nature conservation legislation (included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998).

range:
"Arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra in the Palearctic, from White Sea, W Russia, to Chukotski Peninsula, NE Siberia, and Kamchatka; including Novaya Zemlya and New Siberian islands, Arctic Ocean" (Wilson and Reeder 2005), but excluding Wrangel Island (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov et al. 2002).

population:
Common throughout the distributional area. Shows extreme cycles of abundance approximately every three years. Apparent population declines in the European part of the distribution area may have been the result of natural population fluctuation.

habitat:
Inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra with small Salix spp. bushes. Lives in colonies with simple burrows along feeding routes; nesting and seed storage chambers used collectively. Activity is multiphase and may occur around the clock. Feeds on shoots and leaves of willows and birches, and vegetation and berries of cloudberry, great bilberry and other species. Litters 2-3 times a year with 5-6 young each time. A migratory species.

threats:
No major threats known at present, but climate change may threaten the species in the future.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in several protected areas. The collared lemming subspecies from Novaya Zemlya (Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus) is considered as Vulnerable under Russian nature conservation legislation (included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998).


taxonomicNotes:
Molecular data suggests that this taxon might in fact consist of two (or more) species, although further research is required to confirm this (Kryštufek et al. 2007). Genetic and morphological data clearly indicate that the Balkan Snow Vole is composed of three historically isolated, independently evolving sets of populations, that can be regarded as evolutionary significant units (ESUs).

redListCategoryRationale:
Dinaromys bogdanovi is endemic to the Balkans area of the Mediterranean region. It is restricted to a specialised and fragmented habitat, and may be declining in parts of its range as a result of competition with the European snow vole. The area of occupancy is restricted, and is certainly less than 2,000 km² (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007). Its range is severely fragmented due to the species' specialised habitat requirements and the range is shrinking. Listed as Vulnerable (VU B2ab(i,ii,iv)). Research is urgently needed to determine how serious a threat competition with the European snow vole is.Dinaromys bogdanovi consists of three historically isolated, independently evolving sets of populations, which can be regarded as evolutionary significant units (ESUs), and which are likely to constitute at least two separate species. If these were assessed separately, then it is extremely likely that one or more of them would qualify as Endangered or Critically Endangered under the IUCN Red List Criteria.

range:
The Balkan snow vole is endemic to the Balkan states of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and western Macedonia. Its range is likely to extend into Albania and may include northern Greece, although there are no known records (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m, but is typically found over 1,500 m and rarely much lower (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It is the only living representative of its genus, and its range was restricted throughout prehistorical times.

population:
Because it is restricted to karst limestone habitats, it has a naturally discontinuous distribution, and subpopulations are always small and isolated (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). The long-term population trend has not been quantified, but there is evidence to suggest that the species is declining in both population and range (Kryštufek et al. 2007). At the southernmost known site (on the Macedonia/Albania border) there have been no records of this species in the last 30 years, and the only records since then are of the European snow vole Chionomys nivalis (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). There are three distinct lineages within the population (Kryštufek et al. 2007). One of these, the north-western lineage, is of particular cause for concern: its range is excessively limited andhighly fragmented, with only 17 known localities that stretch along approximately 300 km of the Dinaric mountainrange; and its populations are invariably small and frequently highly isolated, with an extensive survey of its range often yielding only one individual in many of the sampling localities (Kryštufek et al. 2007).

habitat:
It is found exclusively in rocky karst limestone areas, typically being found in stone-piles in meadows above the tree line, less often in rocky areas below the tree line. It has highly specific habitat requirements (Kryštufek et al. 2007). It eats grasses and herbs. The species' life history is slow compared to other Arvicoline rodents: longevity is up to four years, age at sexual maturity is two years, and the species has 1-2 litters per year (Petrov 1992, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).

threats:
It tends to inhabit isolated, inaccessible areas that are subject to little human disturbance. However, interspecific competition with another native rock-dwelling vole, Chionomys nivalis, may possibly pose a threat (Kryštufek 1999, Kryštufek et al. 2007). There has been no research and monitoring to determine whether this is a major threat, or whether this is occurring over a long time period - there is only anecdotal evidence from the southernmost locality (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
The species occurs in several protected areas within its range. There is some national legislation in at least parts of its range. There is an urgent need to establish a long term monitoring program, and to determine the extent of competition with the European snow vole.


taxonomicNotes:
Up to four subspecies are recognized, but eastern forms need taxonomic revision (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)This species has a wide range. Population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range. Although declines have been reported in some parts of the range, it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern. However, in Ukraine this species is considered to be threatened.

range:
Steppe grassland and semi-deserts in SE Europe, Kazakhstan (except SE Kazakhstan) and Turkmenia. Sometimes found in forest-steppes.

population:
Common throughout most of the range. In some parts it is abundant on cultivated lands, especially along forest belts, where one hectare could be inhabited by 15 family groups. In some parts in Russia and Kazakhstan it is a considerable pest. The population in Ukraine is fragmented and declining owing to cultivation of steppe areas. It has been extirpated from areas between Dnieper River and Lugansk region, and from the Dnieper to Crimea (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
A typical subterranean steppe mammal. Lives in large groups, digs complex burrows which may be inhabited by around ten animals. Colonies are very mobile. Burrow entrances usually sealed with soil. Feeds on subterranean plant parts. Nesting chambers (especially winter ones) and foraging chambers are usually about 4 meters underground. Seldom emerges above ground (usually only to clear soil from the burrow or to disperse, rarely for feeding). During dispersal could cover distances up to 800 meters. No real hibernation, but in winter as well as during summer heat and drought, activity declines significantly. During the warm period of the year gives birth to two litters with 2-3 young in each.

threats:
Cultivation of steppe habitat, fragmentation of social groups and populations.

conservationAction:
As the species is abundant across most of the range and even sometimes a considerable agricultural pest, there have been no conservation measures in Russia and Kazakhstan. Ukrainian populations are severely fragmented and recently Ellobius talpinus was included in new edition of the Ukraine Red Data Book.

redListAssessors:
Katerina Tsytsulina and European Mammal Assessment team


taxonomicNotes:
It is the only species in the genus Lagurus.

range:
Distributed in plain and mountain steppes and semi-deserts in Eurasia from Dnepr River to Tuva and to Tien Shan in the south. Occurs from sea level to 2,800 m.

population:
A typical steppe rodent. Very abundant at the beginning of the 20th century in Ukraine (Migulin 1938), but now restricted to easternmost regions. In Russia populations are fragmented, but the species remains a considerable pest of arable and pasture land. Declines in some populations may be related to climate change, specifically to increasingly moist conditions. Since the 1960s, irrigation and planting of trees to protect fields has changed the microclimate for this species.

habitat:
Inhabits steppes and semi-deserts, where it forms large colonies that dig branched burrows extending over hundreds of square meters. Feeds on narrow-leaved cereals and absinths. Also consumes bulbs, tubers and sometimes insects. Breeds up to six times a year, with 5-6 young in each litter (maximum 14). Marked population fluctuations are a characteristic feature of this species; during population peaks it is nomadic.

threats:
Destruction and alteration of habitats by humans (including climate change); pesticides.

conservationAction:
It is an abundant species throughout most of the distribution area, but is listed as Critically Endangered in Ukraine where it partly inhabits protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
A common and widespread species with no major threats.

range:
The Norway lemming is endemic to Norway, western and northern Sweden, northern Finland, and the Kola peninsula (Russia). It is found on at least some islands. During population outbreaks, it may migrate as far as the Baltic (Hansson 1999). The southern border of the range is not stable due to large migrations that occur occasionally.

population:
It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. The species declined in Sweden in the last decades of the 20th century, but it is thought to have remained stable in other parts of its range (Hansson 1999). It is typical for northern lemmings to have population booms every 20-30 years. In Sweden, intensive grazing was thought to be a problem for the species, but perceived population declines may have been a result of natural population fluctuation: long low phases are common for populations in Sweden, and some large populations have been found in Sweden in recent years (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
It inhabits a variety of alpine and subarctic habitats including peat bogs, dwarf shrub heaths, and sparsely-vegetated slopes and ridges. Habitat use varies seasonally: in summer it prefers very moist habitats, whereas in winter it must use other habitats as wet areas freeze. During mass outbreaks, it can be found in forests, farmland, and even on frozen lakes. Large numbers of migrating lemmings may accumulate next to rivers and lakes that bar their passage, and many drown attempting the crossing (Hansson 1999).

threats:
It has been speculated that heavy grazing by semi-domesticated reindeer may have a negative impact on the species' habitat in Sweden (Hansson 1999). Climate change may threaten the species in the future (Nowak 1999). At present, the species is not under major threat.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was formerly broadly defined to encompass not only most Palearctic forms but also North American populations now considered to be a separate species, L. trimucronatus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Now three subspecies are recognised: L. s. sibiricus Kerr, 1792 (found in most of the distribution area), L. s. novosibiricus Vinogradov, 1924 (endemic to New Siberia Island) and L. s. portenkoi Tchernyavsky, 1967 (endemic to Wrangel Island).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A common and widespread species with no major threats. Classed as Least Concern.

range:
Distributed across the Palaearctic tundra zone from the White Sea to Kolyma (Russian Federation); also found on New Siberia Island and Wrangel Island.

population:
A widespread and common species; has marked population cycles with periodicity of 3-4 years.

habitat:
An abundant species in tundra habitats. Populations reach maximum densities in lowland tundra with substantial moss and sedge cover. Also distributed in wetlands on shrubby tundra foothills, and in wetlands at the edge of the forest zone (Arkhangelsk, Northern Urals, Gyda peninsula, Taimyr). Lives in burrows, forming large colonies. Digs its own burrow, or occupies existing burrows of other species. In winter makes tunnels under snow cover and builds large spherical nests. Feeds on sedges, cotton-grass, green mosses and various shrubs. Reproductive peak starts in June and ends in August, however, during periods of low population density reproduction is extended and starts immediately after snowmelt. Animals that have overwintered die off by the end of the following breeding season. During summer produces 4-5 litters with 5-6 young in each. Like Lemmus lemmus, this species has large population fluctuations with a 3-4 year cycle; however, migrations are less pronounced. In summer dispersal occurs and preferred foraging habitat changes.

threats:
There are no major threats to this species known at present. Climate change may be a problem in the future.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in several protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a restricted range, but its extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km². The area of occupancy is not known, but is suspected to approach the 2,000 km² threshold for Vulnerable. The species is adversely affected by agricultural intensification, and is inferred to be decreasing, although there are no quantitative data on population trend. Consequently it is assessed as Near Threatened. If new information shows that the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km², uplisting to Vulnerable (criterion B2) should be considered. However, if the population trend is conclusively determined to be stable, downlisting to Least Concern may be warranted.

range:
Mesocricetus newtoni is a European endemic. It is restricted to lowlands (up to 460 m) along the right bank of the lower Danube river in northern Bulgaria and Romania, Dobrudja (Vohralík 1999). Its extent of occurrence is small (<50,000 km2), but its area of occupancy is unknown.

population:
It is uncommon throughout its small range. Population densities fluctuate, but outbreaks are localised and infrequent. Long-term population trends have not been quantified but are believed to be declining. In Romania, the population was estimated at around 3,000 mature individuals (Murariu 1995).

habitat:
It is found in relatively dry habitats including barren, rocky steppe and steppe grassland, Medicago, Taraxacum and cereal fields, vineyards, gardens, and scrubby slopes (Vohralík 1999). Its diet is probably similar to that of other hamster species.

threats:
The main threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of intensive agriculture. The agricultural utilisation of abandoned fields and steppe-like habitat is very likely to have a negative impact on the species (V. Vohralik pers. comm. 2006), although the species does inhabit some anthropogenic habitats. In Dobrudja intensive agriculture is ongoing (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), and agricultural intensification may have increased since the accession of Romania to the European Union.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this poorly-known species; if there is evidence of declines, appropriate conservation measures should be instated (Nechay 2000). The species is included on the Red Lists of Romania and Bulgaria, and is protected by Romanian legislation.


taxonomicNotes:
Molecular evidence suggests this may be two species (Jaarola and Searle 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and common species with no major threats.

range:
The field vole is a widespread Palaearctic species, ranging from western Europe eastwards through Russia to Lake Baikal in south-east Siberia. In Europe, it is present in Great Britain and western, central and northern parts of the continent, but absent from Iceland, Ireland and southern Europe (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).

population:
It is generally common, although it may be locally rare in marginal parts of its range in western and central Europe. In some areas, population density fluctuates markedly over a cycle of approximately three to four years. In peak years it can cause damage to pastures, orchards and forestry plantations (Zima 1999).

habitat:
It occurs in a wide range of habitats including grasslands, woods, upland heaths, dunes, marshes, peat-bogs and river-banks, tending to prefer damp areas. It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, field-margins and young forestry plantations, but is absent from heavily grazed areas (Zima 1999). The field vole is predominantly herbivorous, feeding on grasses and herbaceous plants, and gnawing bark in the winter. Exceptionally, animal prey (e.g. dipteran larvae) are taken (Krapp and Niethammer 1982).

threats:
There appear to be no major threats to this species over much of its range.

conservationAction:
The species is present in a large number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are required.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk


taxonomicNotes:
The species consists of two allopatric chromosomal races (“arvalis” and “obscurus”: Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This is a widespread and common species with no known major threats.

range:
Microtus arvalis has a large range extending from Spain across much of western, central and eastern Europe to the Middle East and central Russia (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Isolated populations exist in Iberia, Guernsey and the Orkney Islands. It is absent from much of southern Europe, Fennoscandia, northern Russia, Iceland and the British Isles (with the exception of the Orkney Islands, where it was introduced prehistorically). The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Spitzenberger 2002).

population:
It is a common species throughout much of its range, with population densities of over 1,000 individuals per ha reported in peak years. Population densities may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In most areas, populations are apparently stable, although the Orkney subspecies Microtus arvalis orcadensis has declined in recent years (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001).

habitat:
It is typically found in dry, open habitats such as natural alpine grassland above the timber line (Spitzenberger 2002), grazed pastures, arable land, field margins and meadows. Wet grassland and tall grasses are avoided. It feeds mainly on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, and is a serious agricultural pest in some areas (Zima 1999).

threats:
The decline on Orkney has been attributed to land-use changes (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001). Elsewhere it is not under threat.

conservationAction:
The species is present in many protected areas. It is often considered a pest as it damages crops. On Orkney, despite recent declines the vole remains abundant, and simulation modelling suggests that the population is likely to remain viable without requiring specific conservation measures (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001).


taxonomicNotes:
Microtus bavaricus is part of Microtus multiplex species-complex. Its formerly continuous range in the Alps was split into three parts during the last glaciation which led to the evolution of three species: Microtus liechtensteini (south of the Alps east of the river Adige and Balkan mountains), Microtus multiplex (south of the Alps west of the river Adige), and M. bavaricus (north of the Alps in a small refuge in Bavaria and Northern Tyrol) (Haring et al. 2000, Spitzenberger et al. 2000, Spitzenberger 2002, Musser and Carleton 2005, Martinkova et al. 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is restricted to one location, which is severely fragmented and under threat from habitat loss. There are confirmed extinctions of populations in Germany, and good certainty that the species is restricted to the one known location. There remains some doubt about the validity of this population as a distinct species, but current research indicates that it is valid.

range:
Microtus bavaricus is endemic to the Northeastern Alps. Previously it was known from only one location in the district of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria, Germany. The last record of the species at this site was in 1962. A population discovered in Northern Tyrol, Austria in 1976/1977 was much later (2000) assigned to Microtus bavaricus based on genetic and karyological analysis (Haring et al. 2000, Spitzenberger et al. 2000). This population was confirmed to exist there still in 2004. Genetic and karyological analyses of both captured individuals and museum specimens have confirmed that the Austrian population belongs to Microtus bavaricus (Haring et al. 2000, Spitzenberger et al. 2000, Martínkova et al. 2007). Intensive surveys in Germany have failed to find the species, and both of the former known sites have been lost (one as a result of urbanization, the other due to deforestation and the replacement of natural vegetation with fertilized pasture)(H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). The species is now known only from Rofan Mountain, Northern Tyrol, Austria where it occurs in altitudes between 730 and 1,100 metres a.s.l. Given the extensive surveys that have been carried out, the species is unlikely to be found elsewhere (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).

population:
Fewer than 50 individuals have been collected (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
The original site was in an area of Alpine meadows. However, the species was rediscovered in an open mixed forest dominated by spruce with abundant brooks (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).

threats:
Habitat at the type locality was lost following the construction of a hospital. The forests in which M. bavaricus lives in Northern Tyrol were used probably since medieval times as cattle pasture. This practice stopped in 2005, when in parts of the valleys the forest was replaced by fertilized and fenced cattle pastures. Through this M. bavaricus lost large parts of its known habitat. Habitat loss is expected to go on, as the open forests will become denser through lack of cattle browsing and intensification of forestry practices (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
The single site at which the species is known to occur is not protected, although the species has been legally protected under the local Tyrolean provincial law since 2006. There is no current national or EU legislation, but the species is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. There are currently no management plans in place (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Recommended conservation actions include the following: conduct surveys to determine the size and distribution of the rediscovered population; continue searching similar sites in the German and Austrian Alps to look for other populations; protect habitat at the rediscovery site.

redListAssessors:
Spitzenberger, F., Zima, J., Meinig, H. & Vohralík, V.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)An abundant species with no major threats. Classed as Least Concern.

range:
Distributed from eastern bank of the Volga river through the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan to Xinjiang (China).

population:
Common and relatively abundant throughout the range. In the Ural region the species is expanding its range to the north by occupying agricultural lands.

habitat:
Inhabits dry steppe and semi-deserts, but is occasionally found in agricultural fields and the surroundings of settlements. According to Vinogradov and Gromov (1952) it is found near human settlements in Siberia further north than its original distribution. In the northern part of the range it is also found in forest-steppe (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In the Pleistocene it also occurred west of the Volga (Don basin, Crimea: Nechay 2000). Does not hibernate, however daily activity is lower in winter. Feeds on vegetative parts and seeds of different wild and cultivated plants. Also eats insects and molluscs on a regular basis, there are record of feeding on lizards, voles, small birds' nestlings and young ground squirrels (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). Gives birth to 2-3 litters per year in northern parts of the range and 3-4 in southern. Litter size is 4-6 young.

threats:
There are no major threats to the species. Eversmann's hamster is a pest of cereal crops, melons and gourds.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures applied to this species.


taxonomicNotes:
The validity of this species needs to be confirmed (Wilson and Reeder 2005, G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
The distribution of this species is not well known, and there is continued work on its taxonomic validity. It is probably common and not declining, so there is no reason to think that with further information this species would qualify as threatened. Therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is known from southern Italy, Calabrian Peninsula, Camigliatello Silano (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Genetic data also indicates that the species occurs in Abruzzo region of central Italy (Castiglia et al. 2008; G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). The distribution limits between M. savii and M. brachycercus require clarification.

population:
Like Microtus savii, to which it it closely related (indeed perhaps conspecific), it is likely to be widespread and abundant within its range, with a stable population trend (G. Amori in litt. 2006).

habitat:
It is found in the majority of terrestrial habitat types, with the exception of high mountains, dense woodlands, and some very sandy, rocky or wet areas. It occurs in many anthropogenic habitats including pastures, arable land, gardens, and urban areas.

conservationAction:
The species is found in protected areas. Research is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Its phylogenetic position was studied by Jaarola et al. (2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species has an area of occupancy that is small and potentially in decline (Pita et al. 2007). If the area of occupancy is measured based on 2x2 km grid squares (as recommended in the Red List Guidelines), the area of occupancy is likely to exceed 2,000 km2, but potentially not by much. Assessed as Near Threatened under criterion B2.

range:
Microtus cabrerae is endemic to the Iberian peninsula (Portugal and Spain), where it has a fragmented range (Palomo 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from 0 to 1,500 m, although it is most common below 1,200 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, R. Pita unpublished data).In Spain, populations in the south have recently disappeared (Muñoz, L.J.P. pers. comm.2007).

population:
Many subpopulations are small, fragmented, and subject to major inter-annual fluctuations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Mira et al. 2005). Subfossil remains have been found outside the species' current distribution, suggesting a range contraction (Palomo 1999), and it is considered that the species occupies a relict distribution (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Population densities are moderate by comparison with other arvicoline rodents, typically varying between 17 and 350 individuals per hectare (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is often found in isolated patches inhabited by a few individuals, often an adult couple and its offspring.

habitat:
It occurs in pastures, fields and open clearings in woodland, tending to prefer damper areas than the common vole. It is often found in proximity to water (Palomo 1999) and on road verges (Santos et al. 2006, Pita et al. 2006). Meadows and perennial grassland communities are the most favourable microhabitats for this species (Santos et al. 2005).

threats:
Agricultural intensification, including overgrazing, has presumably contributed to range contractions and fragmentation over the last few decades (Palomo 1999). There is increased pressure on streams and other wetland areas the species occurs in. There is suspicion that interspecific competition with Arvicola sapidus may be a problem (Pita et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
The species occurs in protected areas in both Portugal and Spain. It is protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex II and Annex IV).


redListCategoryRationale:
A common species, which is considered an agricultural pest across its range.

range:
Endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in the Iberian Peninsula (everywhere except the north-west) and southern France (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,250 m (Palomo 1999).

population:
It is widely distributed throughout its geographic range, and can reach high enough densities in some areas to be considered an agricultural pest (particularly in orchards). Population densities of 400-600 individuals per ha exceptionally have been recorded, but lower densities are more typical (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).

habitat:
It occurs in open habitats with relatively deep, loose soil, where it constructs underground burrows (Palomo 1999). It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats, including pastures, arable land, and orchards. It is also found in shrubland (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).

threats:
Pest control can cause very significant local population declines (Palomo 1999). However, there is no evidence of global declines as a result of this.

conservationAction:
It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly considered a subspecies of Microtus savii, but now regarded as a separate species (Wilson and Reeder 2005)

redListCategoryRationale:
The species is endemic to the Mediterranean region and is restricted to a relatively small area. It is naturally rare, and there is some indications of shrinkage in the southern parts of its range; in Greece the species is certainly declining, perhaps by as much as 20-25% over the last ten years. However nothing is known of the status of populations in the northern parts of its range. There is a need for more information on the species' population, habitat requirements and ecology, therefore currently assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Microtus felteni occurs in southern Serbia, F. Y. R. Macedonia, Albania and northern Greece (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005), where it has been recorded from 360-2,050 m (Kryštufek 1999). The species occurs in a relatively narrow range.

population:
It is a little-known and rare species throughout its relatively small range. Population trends are not known. There is some evidence of range shrinkage in the south of its range indicating population declines (Greece) (C. Stamatopoulos unpublished data). The species has been rarely collected and is known from only around fifteen localities.

habitat:
It is primarily known from mountain forests, although it is very occasionally found on arable farmland at lower altitudes (Kryštufek 1999). This species is poorly known, but is likely to have a broad habitat tolerance (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).

threats:
No major threats are known. The species is not likely to be affected significantly by habitat loss (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
Some of the known records are from protected areas. Research on population status and trends, habitat requirements and ecology are required.


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors consider Microtus pyrenaicus a synonym of Microtus gerbei, although there is debate about which name is appropriate (Musser and Carleton 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
A common species within its range, particularly in western areas. No major threats.

range:
Microtus gerbei is endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in northern Spain and western and central France (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo 1999).

population:
It is locally abundant in at least parts of its range, reaching densities of up to 100 individuals per hectare (Palomo 1999). It is most abundant in western France (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
At lower altitudes, it is found in pastures and arable land, whereas in the mountains it inhabits grassland and rocky woodland edges. Relatively cool (15º - 16º annual medium temperature) and dry areas are preferred (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is a fossorial species, although it burrows less in mountainous areas (Palomo 1999).

conservationAction:
Occurs in some protected areas. No specific conservation measures required.


taxonomicNotes:
The only representative of the subgenus Stenocranius. Complex subspecies structure with 11-15 subspecies. Taking into consideration fragmented range and morphological variation, Microtus gregalis probably represents a complex of closely related species. Taxonomic revision is necessary.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widespread and abundant species with no major threats.

range:
Distributed in several separated regions: in tundra and forest-tundra from White Sea to Kolyma River; in Alaska peninsula; in steppes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgizia, SW Siberia, Yakutia, Mongolia and Northern China. It occurs at altitudes of up to 4,000 m.

population:
Populations undergo fluctuations in density; in mountainous areas populations are patchy and density varies.

habitat:
Inhabits tundra, plains and mountain steppes and meadows. In the forest zone (including mountain forests) and semideserts it occupies open grassy areas. It reaches maximum density in cereal and grass steppes, and alpine and water meadows. Lives in groups, during periods of high population density may form colonies. Feeds on various wild and cultivated plants, tends to prefer legumes. Reproductive period lasts throughout the warmer months of the year; in tundra zones reproduction often starts under snow cover (in Karsk tundra in February-March). Has up to 5 litters per year in southern parts of the range, and up to 4 in mountains and northern areas. Litter size is usually up to 12 young. Considerable pest of crops in Siberia and Kazakhstan and pastures in Central Asia. A natural carrier of several diseases including encephalitis, plague and rabbit fever.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and common species with no major threats. It is tolerant of a range of habitat types, both natural and man-made.

range:
Microtus guentheri is restricted to the south-east Balkans and Turkey and Northern Libya. Within Europe, it has a discontinuous range in southern Serbia (Serbia and Montenegro), F. Y. R. Macedonia, parts of southern and eastern Greece, southern Bulgaria, and Turkish Thrace, and has been recorded from 150 m to 500 m above sea level (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).

population:
In Europe, it occurs in scattered subpopulations which often undergo large fluctuations with steep declines. However, local extinctions have not been recorded. The species is considered locally common in parts of the Balkans. In Asiatic Turkey, very high population densities have been recorded in peak years (Kryštufek 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits dry grasslands with sparse vegetation on well drained soil. These include both natural and man-made habitats (e.g. dry meadows and pastures) (Kryštufek 1999).

conservationAction:
A lowland species, therefore across most of its range it does not occur in protected areas. In some parts, however, it does occur in protected areas (for example in Greece). No conservation measures are required - this species is considered an agricultural pest.


taxonomicNotes:
Synonyms include M. rossiaemeridionalis, M. subarvalis and M. epiroticus (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and common species, tolerant of a wide range of habitat types. No major threats are known. Consequently it is classed as Least Concern.

range:
Microtus levis has a large range extending from east and south-east Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to the Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. A lowland species, it is recorded from 60 m to 1,100 m (Petrov and Ružić 1982).

population:
It is a relatively common species. Population densities fluctuate on an annual basis, and peak densities of as high as 200,000 burrow openings per hectare have been recorded in F. Y. R. Macedonia (Zima 1999).

habitat:
It occurs in a range of habitats including farmland, meadows, and open woodland. In southern parts of its range it tends to occur in damp habitats in close proximity to rivers and lakes (Zima 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.

redListAssessors:
Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek


taxonomicNotes:
This species is closely related to Microtus multiplex, and has been previously considered synonymous (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is relatively widespread, with a presumed large population, no major threats, and no known declines. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Endemic to Europe, where it occurs in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia. In Austria, it is found in two isolated localities and also found along the Italian and Slovenian border (Spitzenberger 2002). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,700 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). One record for Serbia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007)

population:
It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline (Kryštufek 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine Pinus mugo, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Kryštufek 1999).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning.

conservationAction:
This species is found in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.

redListAssessors:
Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is relatively widespread, with a presumed large global population, no major threats, and no known declines. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Microtus lusitanicus is endemic to Europe, where it occurs in central and northern Portugal, northwest Spain, and in the extreme south west of France. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,050 m (Palomo 1999, Mira and Mathias in Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).

population:
It is very abundant, and is considered an agricultural pest in orchards in some parts of its range. Population densities appear relatively constant, with no cyclic fluctuations. In Spain, there have been no studies on population dynamics in natural habitats, but in orchards population densities of 100-200 individuals per hectare are typical (and exceptionally densities greater than 300 individuals per hectare have been recorded) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).

habitat:
It is found in a diverse range of habitat types, including natural habitats (borders of small rivers, chestnut and oak woodland) and agricultural areas (pastures, arable land, rice fields, and orchards). It requires soft and humid soils with dense vegetal cover, where it constructs its burrows. It is often found near to small stone walls (Palomo 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). There are 2.2 young per litter (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).

threats:
There are no major threats to the species. Pest control measures can cause local population declines (Palomo 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.

redListAssessors:
Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J.


taxonomicNotes:
This taxon is sometimes considered to include M. hyperboreus (Pavlinov et al. 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widespread and common species with no major threats. It is of marginal occurrence in Europe, and consequently is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Arctic and subarctic waterlogged tundra from the Ural Mountains to the Kolyma lowlands (Russian Federation).

population:
Data on population size are lacking, but as in most rodent species populations fluctuate. Severe springs may cause population reduction; heavy rains and floods cause short-distance migrations.

habitat:
Inhabits waterlogged tundra, sedge and Sphagnum marshes, waterlogged banks; avoids anthropogenic landscapes. Lives in colonies with shallow burrows in dry areas. Nest chambers are usually sited on hillocks, on the ground, or on shrub branches. The species feeds on sedges, leaves and stalks in summer and roots in winter. Reproduction occurs from May to August, in favourable years from March til October. Females that have overwintered give birth to up to 3 litters per year. In the Urals fecundity is lower than in Yakutia.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in several protected areas.


taxonomicNotes:
Eastern populations are now considered as a separate species, M. liechtensteini (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

range:
Microtus multiplex is endemic to Europe, where it occurs in the southern part of the Alps, from southeast France through Switzerland to northern Italy (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,800 m (Hausser 1995, Kryštufek 1999). Populations further east (e.g. in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia) are now referred to as a separate species, Microtus liechtensteini (Spitzenberger 2002, Wilson and Reeder 2005).

population:
It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline. The local abundance can be high, up to 100 individuals per hectare in southern France (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).

habitat:
It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine Pinus mugo, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs in dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Hausser 1995). The species eats roots and bulbs, and can feed on grasses (le Louarn and Quéré 2003). The number of young averages 2.7 in Switzerland (Salvioni 1986).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning (Kryštufek 1999).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.

redListAssessors:
Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P.


taxonomicNotes:
Small isolated subpopulations are considered separate subspecies (e.g. Netherlands and the Pannonian population).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Globally, the species is common and widespread and is not considered threatened. In southern parts of the species' range in Europe isolated populations are declining. The species is naturally fragmented. Population decline is due to habitat degradation and loss. In central Europe decline is considered serious, however in Baltic countries the population is increasing and expanding. Overall in Europe the species is not considered threatened. However, isolated subspecies (arenicola and mehelyi) are declining at a rate that may be high enough to merit a threatened assessment.

range:
Microtus oeconomus is a Holarctic species, with a wide range extending from north-west Europe in the west to Alaska in the East. In Europe, its main range extends from eastern Germany and northern Fennoscandia through Poland, Belarus, and northern and central European Russia. Isolated relict populations are found in the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, the Finnish coast, and Austria, Slovakia and Hungary (van Apeldoorn 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). A lowland species (occurs up to at least 1,300 m: EMA Workshop 2006).

population:
Range and population declines are evident in parts of Europe, although the species is stable or increasing in other areas. The species' range is contracting along its south-west edge in Poland, and relict populations in Hungary, Austria, Slovakia and the Netherlands are diminishing (van Apeldoorn 1999). In other areas, populations are stable (albeit with cyclic fluctuations in Fennoscandia and central Europe), and in Lithuania the population is increasing and expanding into new areas (van Apeldoorn 1999, L. Balciauskas and R. Juškaitis pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
It typically inhabits damp, densely-vegetated areas, in close proximity to water. Wet meadows, bogs, fens, riverbanks and flooded shores are all important habitats (Tast 1982, van Apeldoorn 1999).

threats:
In the Netherlands, population declines have been attributed to a combination of habitat degradation and competitive exclusion (van Apeldoorn 1999). The population in Slovakia has shown population declines which are attributed to habitat destruction caused by the construction of the Danube River Dam (EMA Workshop 2006). Degradation of wetlands due to agricultural expansion is a further threat.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies arenicola (from the Netherlands) is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and both M. oe. arenicola and M. oe. mehelyi (the latter from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia) are listed on Annex IV.  Recommended conservation measures include conducting surveys to determine the size and distribution of the isolated population, and defining management plans to maintain and improve the habitat (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006)

redListAssessors:
Rimvydas Juškaitis, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen


redListCategoryRationale:
A widespread and abundant species with no major threats. The population trend is stable. It therefore is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Microtus savii is endemic to Europe, where it is found throughout northern Italy (with the exception of the extreme north-east, but including Sicily). It occurs marginally in southern Switzerland. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m. Some southern Italian populations previously ascribed to this species have been described as a new species, Microtus brachycercus (Contoli 1999, Castiglia et al. 2008). The distribution limits between M. savii and M. brachycercus require clarification.

population:
It is a widespread and abundant species, dominating small mammal communities within its range, and providing a key food source for many predators. Periodic population booms occur in cultivated areas, and the species is considered an agricultural pest. The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Contoli 1999).

habitat:
It is found in the majority of terrestrial habitat types, with the exception of high mountains, dense woodlands, and some very sandy, rocky or wet areas. It occurs in many anthropogenic habitats including pastures, arable land, gardens, and urban areas (Contoli 1999).

conservationAction:
The species is found in protected areas. The Sicilian subspecies (nebrodensis) needs more genetic investigation to determine its taxonomic status.


taxonomicNotes:
Six or seven subspecies are recognized, some of those have isolated ranges and their taxonomic status might need revision.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widespread species with no major threats. However, several isolated populations in N Ossetia, Kalmykia and Astrakhan regions, Armenia, Syria and China might need special attention.

range:
"The species is distributed in plains and low mountain dry steppes from the Dnepr River and Crimea east to Lake Balkhash and NW Xinjiang in China, south through Caucasus and E half of Turkey (Kizilirmak River may be W boundary) to NW Syria, Lebanon (restricted to Mt Lebanon), N Iraq, and NW Iran" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented. All the isolated populations are represented by separate subspecies. In the European part of the range two subspecies are present: Microtus socialis nikolajevi Ognev, 1950 from left bank of Dnepr to the Crimea and SE Rostov district; Microtus socialis parvus Satunin, 1901 in cis-Caucasia, Stavropol region, Krasnodar Territory and Dagestan.

population:
It is a common species with relatively stable populations, with some population fluctuation from year to year. Considered as one of the main pests in agricultural landscapes. However high population densities are recorded only in long-fallow lands, winter crops and herbs, and in natural sites with dry-steppe vegetation. Population peaks tend to occur in years with humid summers and repeated warm winters (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).

habitat:
Lives in complex colonies formed by polygynic families. Burrowes are complex, but shallow, with a number of entrances and living and storage chambers. Above-ground activity is limited, especially in summer. This species mainly feeds on cereals and legumes. In autumn seeds predominate in the diet. May occasionally feed on insects and molluscs. Reproduction occurs year round, females produce up to five litters with 6-8 young in each.

threats:
Widespread and abundant in the most of the range. However, several isolated populations (e.g. M.s. gorensis and M.s. astrachanensis) are declining because of desertification and landscape degradation due to overgrazing (Shilova 1995). These changes can be reversed through steppe vegetation restoration (Kasatkin et al. 1998).

conservationAction:
There are no special conservation measures, however the species occurs in several protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and abundant species. It occupies a wide range of habitats, and faces no known major threats. The long-term population trend is thought to be stable. For these reasons it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microtus subterraneus occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).

population:
It is widespread and common throughout most of its range. Despite fluctuations, the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Kryštufek 1999).

habitat:
It is found in a broad range of habitats including broadleaf and coniferous woodlands, meadows and pastures, and rocky areas in the high mountains. It tolerates both dry and damp conditions (Kryštufek 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation measures are needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a restricted range (area of occupancy less than 2,000 km²), but there is no evidence of population or range decline and the core range is protected. Currently considered Least Concern. However, if new information suggests that population, range, or habitat quality is declining, uplisting to Near Threatened or Vulnerable should be considered.

range:
The Tatra vole is a European endemic. It is restricted to the Carpathian mountains of Slovakia, Poland, Romania and Ukraine, where it is found at altitudes of 650 to 2,350 m (Martínková and Dudich 2003, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Its extent of occurrence is 18,322 km², and its area of occupancy is approximately 840 km2 (Martínková and Dudich 2003).

population:
It is a rare species that occurs in isolated subpopulations. However, there is no evidence to suggest that range or numbers are decreasing at present. The total population has been estimated to number 200,000-250,000 individuals (Martínková and Dudich 2003), and is probably stable (N. Martínková pers. comm. 2006). There is very little information on the current status of subspecies M. t. zykovi in the Eastern and Southern Carpathians. Populations are severely fragmented. This is partly natural, as the species is restricted to an intrinsically fragmented habitat type (high mountains), but fragmentation may have been exacerbated by the loss of woodland in mountain valleys through human activities in historical times.

habitat:
The Tatra vole is found in two types of habitat: first, humid areas in climax upper montane forest (usually located in inverse valleys); and second, humid rocky meadows in the subalpine zone. The species is never found outside natural habitats (e.g. in agricultural land). No population fluctuations or population outbreaks are known (Jurdíková et al. 2000, Martínková et al. 2004).

threats:
There are not thought to be any major threats causing significant declines at present. The species requires old, mature forests below the timberline, hence any logging in those areas would be harmful. Its habitat in the subalpine zone, above the timberline should be safe in the near future. Much of its range in the Slovak and Polish mountains falls within protected areas, and there are not thought to be any major developments planned in this area in the near future. However, forest habitat is sometimes lost through natural events (e.g. in 2004 a big storm in the High Tatras destroyed a large 1-2 km wide belt of forest at about 1,000 m above sea level, within the range of the vole: N. Martínková pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. The core range of the species' range in Slovakia and Poland falls within protected areas. Habitat and population monitoring is required to ensure that the species is stable and not declining.


taxonomicNotes:
Sometimes considered as a subspecies of M. duodecimcostatus, but its specific status has been reconfirmed by analysis of karyotype, molecular genetics and molar pattern (Kryštufek 1999, Jaarola et al. 2004). A chromosomally polymorphic species; relationships are unknown (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
A common species within its range, with no major threats known. Appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance. Consequently it is assessed as Least Concern.If one of the races within this species is eventually raised to species level its restricted range may merit a threatened listing. However, more work is necessary to determine its taxonomic status.

range:
Microtus thomasi is endemic to the south-eastern Balkans, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, mainland Greece, and the island of Euboea (Greece) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Its occurrence in Albania has now been confirmed (E. Giagia pers comm. 2007). Occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.

population:
It is sporadic, but is considered locally common in at least parts of its range. Densities of 383 individuals per hectare have been recorded in Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina) (Kryštufek 1999). In some parts of its range it is considered a pest.

habitat:
It prefers open areas with deep soil, in which it digs extensive burrows. Recorded habitats include meadows and pastures on karst limestone, and high mountain pastures. It is also found on arable farmland (Kryštufek 1999).

conservationAction:
Not legally protected under international legislation. Known to occur in protected areas within Greece.


range:
The bank vole has a wide range in the Palaearctic which stretches from the British Isles through continental Europe and Russia to Lake Baikal. In the north, its range extends beyond the Arctic circle, and in the south it reaches northern Turkey and northern Kazakhstan (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is widespread in Europe, although it is absent from southern Iberia and the Mediterranean islands. It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Spitzenberger 1999).

population:
It is very common throughout much of its European range, with typical densities varying between approximately 6-12 individuals per hectare and 50-100 individuals per hectare (Spitzenberger 1999). Populations densities fluctuate from year to year. The long-term trend appears stable.

habitat:
It inhabits all kinds of woodland, preferring densely-vegetated clearings, woodland edge, and river and stream banks in forests. It is also found in scrub, parkland, and hedges (Viro and Niethammer 1982, Spitzenberger 1999).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species at present.

conservationAction:
It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.

redListAssessors:
Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Vladimir Vohralík, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Common and widespread with no major threats. Although there have been some declines in north-western parts of the range, it is not considered to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (30% over 10 years or 3 generations). Consequently assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The grey-sided vole has a large range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from northern Fennoscandia through northern Russia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Sakhalin, Hokkaido and Rishiri (Sulkava 1999). It ranges as far south as northern parts of Mongolia, China and the Korean peninsula (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from the coast to at least 1,170 m in northern Fennoscandia (Henttonen and Viitala 1982).

population:
It is a common species in northern Fennoscandia. The long-term trend is stable with cyclic fluctuations every 4-5 years (Sulkava 1999). In northern Fennoscandia (Fennoscandian taiga) and northern Russia it was previously common, but there have been declines since the mid-1980s (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
It inhabits coniferous forests and birch forests, where it tends to prefer rocky areas, and is also found in dry peat-bogs and subarctic dwarf shrub heathland. It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on vegetative parts of grasses, herbs and dwarf shrubs, and on berries (Henttonen and Viitala 1982, Sulkava 1999). The species can sometimes be found in high densities in clear-cut areas, and is often found on plains (B. Sheftel pers. comm. 2006).

threats:
There are not thought to be any major threats to this species at present. Declines in Fennoscandia may be linked to changes in forestry practices (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
It occurs in a number of protected areas within its wide range. The population trend should be monitored, particularly in the north-western part of the range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A common and widespread species. Although there may have been declines in some parts of its European range, it is not thought that these approach the thresholds for the IUCN Red List, even at the EU 25 level. Consequently it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Myodes rutilus has a northern Holarctic distribution. It occurs in northern Fennoscandia, European Russia, Siberia, Sakhalin and Hokkaido islands (Japan), Alaska (USA) and Canada, at latitudes of 43-73 degrees north (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).

population:
It is described as common in subarctic Fennoscandian birch woods. In northern parts of its European range, the long-term population trend is stable, with fluctuations on a 4-5 year cycle. In southern parts of its European range (e.g. in central Finland and Russian Karelia) the species is suspected to be declining (Sulkava 1999).

habitat:
It is found in the subarctic birch forest zone and in northern parts of the boreal forest zone. It is more abundant in productive (eutrophic or mesotrophic) forests, with a dense understorey of grasses, herbs (especially Scrophulariaceae), or moss. It prefers mature old-growth forests and, unlike other Myodes species, it is absent from clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants. In the autumn it stores seeds, especially of Scrophulariaceae (Sulkava 1999).

threats:
Suspected declines in southern parts of its European range have been attributed to increased clear-felling of old-growth spruce forest (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
It receives no legal protection under international legislation. Occurs in a number of protected areas in its wide global range, including some in northern Fennoscandia.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This species has a wide range. The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Although there may have been some population declines as a result of logging, it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.

range:
Myopus schisticolor has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, ranging from western Norway, through Sweden and Finland through northern and central Russia to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island (Russia) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs at altitudes from 600 to 2,450 m (Nowak 1999).

population:
Population densities in this species are typically very low, although infrequently there may be population irruptions and local migrations. Such events occured in northern Finland in 1910, 1957-58 and 1963 (Sulkava 1999). The sex ratio is female-biased (75% females : 25% males). In Fennoscandia local population declines may have occurred as a result of logging (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
The species's main habitat is old spruce forest, where breeding tends to occur in areas with a abundant mosses (Pleurozium, Dicranum, and Hylocomium spp.), which provide a critical winter food source. In the summer, marshy areas within forests and pine-bogs with a high dwarf shrub layer are used, and in years of high population density dry forests and even clear-cuts may be occupied (Sulkava 1999). The species is found in the taiga and not above the treeline.

threats:
There are no major threats. The species may be locally affected by logging of old-growth spruce forest, its main habitat (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
The species is found in protected areas.


taxonomicNotes:
Linnaeus' amphibius and terrestris, both proposed in 1758 on the same page, are now considered conspecific by most researchers, but which name should be properly used is still debated. Some authors split this taxon into two separate species: the aquatic A. amphibius and the fossorial A. scherman (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This species has a wide distribution, and both the fossorial and aquatic forms are considered pests in parts of the range. The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Although there are ongoing declines in some range states (such as Britain, Italy, and the Netherlands), the overall population trend is believed to be stable at the regional and global level. For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.

range:
Arvicola amphibius has a large range extending from Portugal and Great Britain in the west, through much of continental Europe and Russia, as far as the Lena Basin and Lake Baikal in Siberia (Russia). Its range extends north of the Arctic circle and south into Iran and the Near East (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, it is widespread in central and northern parts of the continent, but it is absent from southern Iberia and southern and western France, and occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. The species occurs as two distinct ecological forms: aquatic and fossorial (burrow-dwelling). Aquatic forms are widely distributed, whereas fossorial forms are restricted to mountainous areas in southern and central Europe (Saucy 1999). In the French Alps it occurs to 2,400 m (Reichstein 1982).

population:
Population declines in the aquatic form are evident in some European countries (e.g. Great Britain, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank), whereas fossorial forms may occur at such high densities that they become agricultural pests. Fossorial forms undergo pronounced cyclic population fluctuations every 5-8 years, with densities ranging between 0 and 1,000 individuals per hectare (Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species.

habitat:
Aquatic forms inhabit a variety of freshwater habitats in the lowlands and the mountains, including rivers, streams, lakes and marshes. In Fennoscandia, the aquatic form becomes fossorial during winter months. Steep riverbanks with lush grass and vegetation are preferred. Fossorial forms are restricted to the uplands, where they construct extensive underground burrows in grasslands (including pastures) or, less frequently, in woodlands. Both forms have a herbivorous diet, feeding predominantly on vegetation in the summer and on roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Reichstein 1982, Saucy 1999).

threats:
Declines in aquatic populations in parts of western Europe have been attributed to habitat loss, water pollution, predation by introduced American mink Neovison vison and competition by the introduced muskrat Ondatra zibethicus.

conservationAction:
Occurs in protected areas but is frequently considered a pest species. The UK is the only part of Europe where the species is currently protected under national legislation.

redListAssessors:
Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig


taxonomicNotes:
There are two subspecies of the water vole: Arvicola sapidus sapidus (Miller, 1908) and Arvicola sapidus tenebricus (Miller, 1908). A. s. sapidus is present in Portugal and southern Spain, while A. s. tenebricus occurs in France and northern Spain.  A. s. tenebricus is dark to reddish brown, while the coat of A. s. sapidus is generally lighter and more yellowish (Noblet 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
The water vole has undergone a marked reduction in both the absolute number of individuals and its subpopulations located throughout its traditional range in France, Spain and Portugal, and that this decline is continuing as a result of ongoing habitat modification/disturbance and competition with introduced species. Furthermore, the water vole is facing all the risks associated with geographically scattered and isolated subpopulations. It is suspected that the rate of population decline exceeds 30% over a 10-year period.

range:
The Southwestern Water Vole, Arvicola sapidus, occurs only in freshwater habitats in parts of France, Spain and Portugal, where it is found from sea level to a maximum of about 2,300 m in the Pyrenees (Le Louarn and Quéré, 2003).In France, the water vole remains relatively common in only three regions: Charente-Maritime, Brittany and southwest France (Pyrenees), though its distribution is still patchy in these areas. In the French départements of Drôme, Var, Alpes-Maritimes, Hautes-Alpes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Loire, Rhône and Ain, the water vole has become rare, with a maximum of only 10 locations per département.  In the Ain there is only one location, two in the Rhône and no more than 6 or 7 in the Hautes-Alpes.In Spain, the water vole is now restricted to the northern and eastern parts of the country, and has disappeared from central Spain, where it was formerly common. Locations of the water vole in Portugal are not well-documented but, as in other parts of its range, the water vole seems to be restricted to fairly isolated subpopulations in only a few parts of the country.

population:
The water vole is declining in most parts of its range. In France it is much less common than it was 10-15 years ago (S. Aulagnier, 2006), and in the Iberian Peninsula it is considered to be declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), although it is not currently classified as threatened in Portugal (Cabral, 2005). Several studies have shown that, in optimal habitat, water vole density can reach five individuals per 100 m of river bank, but that it is unlikely to exceed this figure (Saucy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Population fluctuations are not known (Saucy 1999).FranceA recurring problem with accurately determining the full extent of water vole population decline is that the species has been poorly documented in the past, with older information on water vole population being anecdotal and patchy. For example, an atlas of mammals of France (1984, Société Française de l’Etude et Protection des Mammifères - SFEPM) mentioned no threat to the water vole, and reported a nation-wide distribution of the species, with the exception of Corsica, the North, North-East and the Alps. There were no national surveys on the water vole and the vole was not even mentioned in the Action Programme for wild fauna and flora, a wide-ranging survey published in 1996 by the French Ministry for the Environment.  In contrast, over the last 10 years there has been increasing attention on the water vole, mainly owing to its apparent disappearance from many areas, a great cause for concern in a species with a normally high reproductive potential (3 to 4 litters per year, averaging 3.5 young per litter). These recent observations and studies all point to its rapid decline.SpainThe water vole has previously been little known and studied in Spain, yet it is probable that its numbers have suffered drastic declines in recent years, making it crucial to carry out further research and monitoring of the species (J. Román pers. comm., 2007).  Experts in Spain seem to agree that the water vole is facing similar threats in the Iberian Peninsula as those in France (M. Delibes pers. comm., 2007).  The water vole is not currently classified as a threatened species in any part of its range in the Iberian Peninsula, yet its subpopulations in this region exhibit a marked reduction, due to human-induced habitat degradation, destruction or modification, such as cementing over of riverbanks, canal-building, destruction of vegetation along waterways, draining of wetlands and water pollution (Álvarez, 1985; Garde, 1992).PortugalThe water vole faces a situation similar in Portugal to that confronting its subpopulations in France and Spain, though its status in this country is perhaps the least well-documented of the three.  Research conducted in several locations in Portugal where the water vole is present leads to the conclusion that it is scarce and under threat principally from habitat disturbance and predation, as well as isolation of subpopulations owing to the scattered nature of suitable habitat in Portugal.

habitat:
The water vole is almost always found near to water, preferring small (under 8 ha) freshwater lakes, ponds and slow-moving rivers and streams with dense riparian vegetation (Saucy 1999, Fedriani 2002). It sometimes occurs in drainage ditches and wet fields. Abundant hydrophilic vegetation and shorelines suitable for water vole burrowing activity seem to be essential characteristics of water vole habitat.  Its diet consists mainly of aquatic plants, grasses, and herbs, although small animal prey are occasionally taken (insects, fish, tadpoles, freshwater shrimp). The burrows of the water vole typically have two entrances – one primary entrance above water level and one underwater entrance. The water vole is mainly active during the day, with two peaks in activity in late morning and early afternoon, as well some nocturnal activity.  It is active throughout the year, with no period of hibernation.Reproduction occurs between March and October, with 3 to 4 litters of 2 to 8 young per litter, with the average reported as 3.5 to 6 young.  The gestation period is 3 weeks.  Sexual maturity is reached at 5 weeks old and the life span of the water vole varies from 2 to 4 years. The water vole lives in small family groups and, under optimal conditions, its density may reach 5 individuals for every 100 meters of riverbank (Saucy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). There have never been any records of damage to human activity or agriculture by the water vole.

threats:
Since the water vole is restricted to wetland areas, it faces all the usual threats associated with this habitat. The water vole only flourishes where the banks and vegetation have not been significantly altered by human activity. Consequently, habitat loss and degradation (as a result of drainage, dredging, canal-building, infrastructure development, intensive agriculture, and so on) are major threats. Competition with the introduced Coypu and Muskrat for food and dens is also a threat. In Spain, water vole decline is attributed primarily to anthropogenic habitat modification, but competition from the Norway rat may be an additional factor threatening the water vole (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Efforts to control invasive species by poisoning have resulted in accidental water vole deaths.In descending order of importance, the principal threats are:Secondary poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides (Bromadiolone and Chlorophacinone) intended for the Norway Rat, Coypu and Muskrat, Competition for habitat and food sources with the Muskrat and Coypu,Predation by the American Mink, Polecat and Norway Rat, as well as domestic dogs and cats,Trapping and shooting of “vermin”,Habitat modification, including draining of suitable wetlands, dredging, canal-building, disturbance by human activity and livestock, etc.,Drastic variations in water level caused by dams or seasonal droughts,Pollution and possibly disease and parasites.

conservationAction:
The water vole occurs in some protected areas within its range, although this does not particularly improve the status of this species (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006). As yet, the water vole receives no legal protection under EU legislation (Cabral et al. 2005), nor under national legislation in any of the three countries where it occurs. Further research and monitoring is urgently needed to supervise the population trend, and the aquatic habitats where the water vole occurs require protection.Nature et Humanisme and the SFEPM recommend the following methods for protecting the water vole (J.F. Noblet pers. comm.):-Prevention of the use of rodenticides in the habitats occupied by the water vole.Alternative methods of combating the proliferation of the Muskrat, Coypu and American Mink, by more selective means (live cage traps, etc.).-Forbidding the raising, import, transport or release of these three animals.-Legislative protection of the water vole, under Annexes I or II of the EU Habitats Directive, the Bern Convention, as well as in national legislation,Legislative protection of the water vole’s habitat. -Information campaigns directed at the concerned parties (local elected officials, waterway engineers, waterway management bodies, etc.).-Regulation of management techniques of water ways and their shores, such as forbidding dredging and paving of water vole habitat and destruction of riverside vegetation.-Forbidding destructive agricultural practices and associated water pollution.-International cooperation between France, Spain and Portugal in protecting the water vole and coordinating research in cross-border areas where the water vole may occur.-An ongoing research programme, in order to thoroughly map and monitor the remnant populations and their trends and to analyse the reasons for their ongoing decline.-A captive breeding programme and eventual reintroduction of the water vole in suitable protected habitat.

redListAssessors:
Rigaux, P., Vaslin, M., Noblet, J.F., Amori, G. & Palomo, L.J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A common and widespread species with no major threats.

range:
Chionomys nivalis has a global distribution extending from south-western Europe through south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Iran (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, it is restricted to mountainous and rocky areas, typically above 1,000 m and up to 4,700 m (Amori 1999). Its strongholds in Europe are in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. Of the islands, it is found only on Euboea (Amori 1999).

population:
It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and no declines have been recorded. Fluctuations in population density are not known to occur. Its distribution is naturally fragmented as subpopulations became isolated from each other when temperatures warmed at the end of the last ice age (Amori 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits open, rocky areas, typically above the tree-line (Amori 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on grasses, shrubs, and berries (Krapp 1982).

threats:
In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by enchroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs within many protected areas within its range. In the Ukraine, the species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine.


redListCategoryRationale:
European: Least Concern. The species has a large range in parts of eastern Europe and European Russia, within which it is widespread. The population size is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List. Although there have been some range contractions within this region, presumably with concomitant population declines, these are not thought to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List. EU 25: Not Applicable. In the EU, this species only occurs in Greece. Very little is known about the species' range and habitat requirements in this country, and there are no data on threats or population size. Only a very small proportion (less than 1%) of the grey hamster's range lies within the EU 25, thus it is classed as Not Applicable (NA) at the regional level.

range:
The present range of the grey hamster extends from eastern Europe through Russia and central Asia to Mongolia and western China. In the south, its distribution extends into Turkey, Israel, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Kashmir. In Europe, it is restricted to Greece, Turkish Thrace, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and European Russia. It is recorded from sea level to 4,300 m in the Pamir mountains of central Asia (Vohralík 1999).

population:
It is scarce and sporadic in the Balkans, although it may be more abundant elsewhere in its global range. Populations in Greece (very rare: known from less than ten collections), Bulgaria (very rare: only six records) and Turkish Thrace may be isolated (Nechay 2000). Its status is poorly known. There have been range contractions in some parts of Europe (EMA Workshop 2006).

habitat:
It originally occurred in dry grasslands, steppes and semideserts. Now, it also inhabits agricultural land and gardens, sometimes even living in houses. Arid areas with relatively sparse vegetation are preferred, and forests and damp habitats are avoided (Vohralík 1999). It typically feeds on roots, shoots and seeds.

threats:
The species is rare, especially in the Balkans, and its requirements are not well known. It is not known why the species is not more widespread within Europe, given that it can use a variety of habitats.

conservationAction:
Surveys are required to determine population status and trends, and research is needed to determine the species' requirements and investigate potential threats.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík


taxonomicNotes:
According to different views includes from 3 to 6 subspecies (Shenbrot 1991).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)The species is rapidly declining in northern parts of its European range, and has even recently gone extinct in some areas (e.g. Moscow district). Considered Vulnerable according to the Red Data Book of Ukraine. Overall it is suspected that population declines in the European part of the range approach (and perhaps even exceed) 30% over the last 10 years. Consequently the species is assessed as Near Threatened at the European regional level. Monitoring is required. It is not known if there would be a significant rescue effect from populations outside the region, so the regional assessment is not adjusted.

range:
Distributed from forest-steppes to northern parts of deserts from Ukraine and European Russia through Kazakhstan and N Uzbekistan to W Siberia and W Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot et al. 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).

population:
Widespread across most of its range, but distributed irregularly because of fragmentation of suitable habitats and human-caused landscape change. In Ukraine west of the Dnepr the species was common until the mid 1920s (Bilsky 1929), but there are no recent records of the species there (Shenbrot et al. 1995).

habitat:
One of the most ecologically plastic jerboa species. Inhabits various habitats; in the northern part of the range the main limiting factor is grass density, and the species is restricted to areas with sparse vegetation. In steppe zone often inhabits roadsides, field edges, pastures and flat slopes of ravines. In deserts and semideserts occurs in all habitats except moving sands. Prefers areas with loamy soils, with absinth and succulent vegetation. Feeds on underground and green parts of plants, also on seeds and occasionally on insect and molluscs. Has three types of burrows: permanent summer and winter, and temporary. Enters hibernation in autumn with the first frost. Exits hibernation in March-April. Reproductive period is prolonged. Pregnant females may be found from March to July. During the reproductive period females may have two litters. Litter size ranges from 1 to 8 young, usually 3-6.

threats:
Declining very rapidly in the northern part of its range. Has disappeared from Moscow, Kursk regions. The main threat is land use change. The species needs large continuous habitats and fragmentation has strong impact on populations. In the Moscow region, habitat destruction due to building of dachas has caused the species to disappear.

conservationAction:
The species is listed in the Moscow regional Red Data Book as Extinct in the Wild, but it is not listed in the Russian national Red Data Book due to abundance elsewhere in the range. In the Red Data Book of Ukraine it is listed as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population).


taxonomicNotes:
Dipus sagitta is only species in the genus Dipus. Eight subspecies are recognized; however there is a clear geographical cline in size and colouration from north to south.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)The species is common throughout most of the range and is a pioneer species that is expanding its range in the Aral Sea area. However, pervasive changes to desert habitats are a major threat in the European part of the range. Populations near the Don River are listed in the local Red Data Book because of fragmentation of habitats due to the nature of sand dunes. As the European range is less than 1% of the global range, this species as classed as Not Applicable at the European regional level.

range:
Distributed in deserts and partly in semi-deserts from Don River sands (Russian Federation) to cis-Caspian region, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and N Iran and through Kazakhstan to Irtysh River, Tuva, Mongolia and China (Shenbrot et al. 1995).

population:
A common species with weakly marked population fluctuations. In favourable years population density could reach 5-6 animals per hectare (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).

habitat:
Inhabits different types of sand, however avoids large expanses of open sand-dunes. Also found in sand-dunes covered with pine forest. Most abundant in hilly and ridge sands, including those used as pastures. Often found together with Allactaga spp. One of the pioneer species that is occupying new habitats that have emerged as the Aral Sea dries out. In northern parts of the range it hibernates, while in southern parts it remains active throughout the year with the exception of extremely cold winters. Lives in burrows with length of about 5-6 m and depths up to 3 m; can also occupy burrows of Meriones major. In spring feeds on vegetative parts of grasses and shrubs, also eats roots and bulbs. When seeds start to ripen it switches its diet to seeds. During the whole year it takes insects and larvae as a usual part of its diet. The length of the reproductive period differs in northern and southern parts of the range: from 2 to 2.5 months in north to 8-9 months in south. The number of litters per year differs correspondingly, from 1 to 4 in differents parts of the range.

threats:
The species is common throughout most of the range and is a pioneer species that occupies opening sands in the Aral Sea area. However, pervasive changes to desert habitats are a major threat in the European part of the range. It is listed as threatened in the Don River region's local Red Data Book because of the fragmentation of its preferred habitat (sand dunes).

conservationAction:
Populations near the Don river listed in the local Red Data Book. The species occurs in several protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)This species has a wide range. Population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), as the species is described as relatively abundant in at least parts of its range. Although some declines have been reported, it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern. Nevertheless, this species depends on a very specific habitat type that is under threat from human activities and global warming. Its status should be monitored.

range:
Distributed in southern part of steppe zone, semi-deserts and deserts from the Don River (Russia) through Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River, south to NE Iran; E to S Mongolia; China: W Nei Mongol, N Xinjiang Gansu, and Ningxia (Shenbrot et al. 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is consists of two large isolated parts, western and eastern (China and Mongolia) and several small isolated populations between those two parts and along the southern border of the range.

population:
In some parts of the range (including parts of the European range) the species is relatively abundant and population number is stable. However, the whole range is fragmented and all the isolated populations in the east and south of the range are slowly declining and potentially vulnerable owing to the species' highly specialised habitat requirements.

habitat:
Pygeretmus pumilio is a stenobiont species. It inhabits clay semi-deserts with rare vegetation which includes succulents of the family Haenopodiaceae (Salsola, Suaeda, Nanopphyton, Anabasis etc.). The clay proportion in the soil and type of vegetation determine species distribution (Shenbrot et al. 1995).

threats:
Populations are quite fragmented and its habitat is shrinking in parts of the range due to land use changes and climate change.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are known for this species. In the European part of the range occurs in several protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European: This species has a large range. The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is rare in parts of its range. Population trends are poorly known, but it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.EU 25: In the EU the species is apparently rare, but it may be more common than currently known because it is difficult to trap. In many parts of the range it is fragmented, with many isolated subpopulations. It is currently listed as Least Concern, as it is not considered to approach the thresholds for any of the IUCN Red List criteria, but population monitoring is required.

range:
Sicista betulina has a large range extending from Denmark, Norway and Austria in the west to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the east, and from the Arctic Circle south to the Carpathian Mountains (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Records from the Ussuri region of China are considered dubious (Pucek 1999). In Europe, isolated relict populations occur in the Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein (Germany), the Alps (Austria and Allgäu, Germany) and the Carpathians, but the main range extends east from Baltic Countries, Poland and the Czech Republic into European Russia (Pucek 1999, Syvertsen 2003). In Austria and adjacent Czech Republic (Bavarian-Bohemian forest) there is an isolated population. It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m in the eastern Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).

population:
In western parts of the range it is generally a rare species, although it may be locally quite frequent. In south-eastern and eastern parts of the range (e.g. Russia, Ukraine) the species is very common. In western parts of the range there are a number of very small and isolated subpopulations, some of which are considered to be evolutionarily significant units (Meinig 2004). No cyclic fluctuations have been recorded, and interannual variation in population density is less than tenfold (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the population is estimated at approximately 1,000 individuals, and Rodna National Park has a very stable population (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In Finland it is considerd to be increasing (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Population trends elsewhere are not known. The species may often go unrecorded, as it is cryptic and hard to trap (Pucek 1982, Spitzenberger 2002).

habitat:
The range of this birch mouse covers a variety of habitats including boreal and montane forests, subalpine meadows and tundra (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the species occurs in birch forest and pine forest with dense ground vegetation (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In Germany it occurs in alpine regions and forest bogs (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). It has been suggested that the species spends summer months in wet meadow habitat and moves to forests in winter (Nowak 1999). It hibernates in underground burrows for at least six months each year, losing up to half its weight during this time (Nowak 1999).

threats:
Agriculture may be a problem in the northern part of the species' range in Germany. In Romania, deforestation is the main threat. Elsewhere threats are not known.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species directive. It is legally protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Romania), and is included in national Red Lists of many range states (e.g. Germany, Denmark, Romania, Czech Republic, Lithuania). It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Monitoring of populations is needed, especially at the western edge of the species' range.

redListAssessors:
Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Jan Zima, Ioan Coroiu


taxonomicNotes:
Formerly considered as a subspecies of Sicista subtilis, but now recognized as a separate species primarily on the basis of karyotype (Wilson and Reeder 2005 and references therein).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is naturally scarce and has only a moderately large range, although its extent of occurrence does not approach the threshold for the range size criterion of the IUCN Red List. The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Population trends have not been quantified, but there is no evidence to suggest significant declines. For these reasons, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species occurs in SW Russia and Ukraine (Shenbrot et al. 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).

population:
There are no data on population size. The species is naturally not abundant, but there is no evidence of population decline.

habitat:
The species is poorly studied, has a scattered distribution, and is solitary and naturally scarce across the whole range. Distributed in steppe and forest-steppe zones and associated with meadows with high grasses. Feeds on seeds and insects. Reproduces once a year, after hibernation.

threats:
The most significant threat to the species is habitat destruction, as the soil in its preferred habitats tends to be very good for cultivation.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures apply to this species, however, it occurs in Tsentralno-Chernozemnyi State Reserve in Russia. Severtzov's birch mouse is listed in the Ukraine Red Data Book as a subspecies of Sicista subtilis under category III (rare but not threatened species).

redListAssessors:
Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European: This species is considered Near Threatened (approaching A2c) at the European regional level. Population declines have not been quantified, but are inferred to be taking place as a result of loss of steppe habitat, and are suspected to approach 30% over 10 years. Range contraction has been observed.EU 25: VU B1ab(iii) There are no direct data on recent population declines. However, densities are very low and the range is severely fragmented. Steppe habitat is continuing to decline, and population declines are inferred from this, but rate of decline over the last ten years is not known. There are serious concerns about the status of this very rare species within the EU countries. Extent of Occurrence (as calculated by the 50 km squares the species occurs in) is within the threshold for Vulnerable (17,500 km²). Area of Occupancy is much smaller, possibly less than 2,000 km². Populations outside the EU countries are not close enough to be able to naturally rescue the regional population, therefore the assessment remains VU B1ab(iii).

range:
Sicista subtilis has a continuous range extending from the Ukraine and the southern parts of Russia to the north western parts of China (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Isolated populations are found in Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria (a single locality only) and southeast Poland. It formerly occurred in Austria but is now regionally extinct (last recorded here in 1960: Spitzenberger 2002). In Serbia it is known from only one locality. Its altitude in Austria was recorded from <120 m (Spitzenberger 2002) to 1,680 m (Pucek 1982).

population:
In Europe it tends to be rare, although it is locally common in at least parts of its global range, accounting for 25% of all rodents caught in north Kazakhstan (Pucek 1999). Little is known about population trends in this species, but its extinction in Austria suggests that in Europe at least its range may be contracting. The species has disappeared from large tracts of its former range in Hungary (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In Romania, the population is estimated at 2,000 individuals (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005).

habitat:
It occurs in steppe, rough grassland and pasture, open woodlands, and in field margins and shelter belts on cultivated land (Pucek 1982, 1999). It tends to prefer more open habitats than the northern birch mouse Sicistica betulina.

threats:
The species is susceptible loss of steppe habitat. In Romania, habitat loss due to agriculture and indirect mortality through pesticide use are the major threats (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In Austria, Sicista subtilis occupied a very small and relict range. It went extinct as a result of the conversion of natural meadows adjacent to the reedbeds of Lake Neusiedl into improved grassland (Spitzenberger 2002).

conservationAction:
It is listed on the Romanian Red List, and protected by national legislation. It receives strict legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix II).

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori


taxonomicNotes:
Includes a number of subspecies distributed in a quite fragmented range. The last taxonomic revision was made by Shenbrot (1991).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A common species across most of the range, however in its European range (North Caspian region) the population is declining owing to transformation of semideserts into steppes. At present, it is not believed that the rate of decline approaches the threshold for Criterion A (30% over 10 years or 3 generations), and the European population and range remain large enough that Criteria B-D do not apply. However, the situation should be monitored and regional reassesment might be required in the near future.

range:
Distributed in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in SE Europe, N Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to S Siberia, to NE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and N Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes SW Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot et al. 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).

population:
A common and abundant species across most of the range. The isolated population in northern Caspian Sea region is currently declining due to rapid transformation of the species' habitats. Population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, so in favourable years the population may increase even though the overall trend is of decline in the northern Caspian Sea region. Population density may fluctuate ninefold between different years (Shenbrot et al. 1995).

habitat:
Inhabits various biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot et al. 1995). Feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. Solitary, active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. Reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-4 young per litter.

threats:
In the European part of the range it is not abundant and the population is declining due to rapid transformation of semideserts into steppes. Also land development reduces natural habitats and causes population decline.

conservationAction:
Up to now no special conservation measures have been taken, although the species occurs in several protected areas. The north Caspian population might need protection in the near future as natural habitats are declining.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)The European population of Sicista strandi is stable and quite widespread. Classed as Least Concern.

range:
Distributed in the area between Volga and Don Rivers, from Kursk District of S Russia to northern slopes of the Caucasus ridge (Shenbrot et al. 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The western limit of the range is not clear, but probably lies along the Dnepr River (Shenbrot et al. 1995, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).

population:
There are no data on population size. Widespread but not especially common.

habitat:
Inhabits floodplain meadows in the southern part of forest zone, steppes, and forest-steppes in mountain zone. Solitary, feeds on seeds, berries and insects; reproduces once a year after hibernation.

threats:
Habitat destruction and fragmentation are occurring and reducing usable habitat.

conservationAction:
No special conservation measures apply to the species, although it occurs in several protected areas.


taxonomicNotes:
Includes five subspecies, two of which are distributed in Europe: S.t. falz-feini Brauner, 1913 (lower reaches of left bank of Dnepr River) and S.t. turovi Heptner, 1934 (NE cis-Caucasia and lower Volga region).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)This species has a fairly large range in Europe (well above the Extent of Occurrence threshold for Criterion B). The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), as the species is described as abundant in at least parts of its range. Although there have been some population declines since the 1960s, it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern. However, population trends need to be monitored.Ukrainian subspecies S. t. falz-feini has a restricted range (Extent of Occurrence c.8,000 km2), and its Area of Occupancy is fragmented and declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation. Consequently it qualifies as Vulnerable B1ab(ii,iii).

range:
Distributed in steppes and desertified steppes in E Ukraine, N Caucasus, W Turkmenistan, W Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan; E to N Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot et al. 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented: besides the major part of the range from the Caspian Sea to China there are several isolated populations. The two isolated populations in the European part of the range are represented by two different subspecies, S. t. falz-feini and S. t. turovi.

population:
Ukrainian subspecies S. t. falz-feini is naturally rare. It has a restricted range (Extent of Occurrence c.8,000 km2), and its Area of Occupancy is fragmented and declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation. The other European subspecies S. t. turovi is relatively common, and despite population decline since the 1960s it remains abundant in some parts of the area, e.g. Tsimlyansk.

habitat:
Inhabits deserts and desertified steppes. In Europe it is usually distributed in hilly sands in river valleys, and arid areas, often with trees. Active at dusk and night. Enters hibernation with first frost. Lives in complex burrows, often occupies jird burrows. Feeds on seeds and partly on insects. Reproduction is once a year with litter size of 3-6 young.

threats:
Habitat loss due to ploughing and overgrazing, pesticides.

conservationAction:
S. t. falz-feini is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine under category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population). S. t. turovi is listed in the local Red Data Book in Russia (Rostov District) as Data Deficient. The species is found in several protected areas.


taxonomicNotes:
Was Myoxus glis but now transferred to Glis.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A common and widespread species. Declines are occurring in the northernmost part of the range, but in the southern part it is abundant and considered a pest species. Consequently it is classed as Least Concern.

range:
Glis glis has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to northern Iran and the Caucasus. In Europe, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kryštufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kryštufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.

population:
In northern parts of its range it is scarce and may be declining, whereas in southern parts of its range it is sufficiently abundant to be considered an agricultural pest in years of high population density. In central Europe, typical population densities may be c.5 individuals per hectare, although densities of 20-22 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Kryštufek 1999).

habitat:
It is typically found in mature deciduous and mixed woodland, where it frequents the canopy, although it also occurs in maquis and shrubland on rocky areas along the Mediterranean coast. Man-made habitats such as gardens and orchards are sometimes used, and the species often enters buildings (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Kryštufek 1999).

threats:
In parts of its range, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, there is a tradition of hunting this species. In the past, it was a source of meat, fat, and skins for subsistence and trade, but today it is hunted recreationally (Kryštufek 1999). The species is protected in Italy, but is sometimes illegally hunted (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In northeastern Europe, cutting of oak forests is a threat (Juškaitis 2003).

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appenix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas throught its range.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Rimvydas Juškaitis


redListCategoryRationale:
Populations in the east have decreased significantly over the last 20-30 years, and the species may have disappeared from as much as 50% of its former range during the last 30 years. However, there is little information on the current decline rate. Since the western populations remain stable, the overall reduction over the last 10 years is almost certainly less than 30% (the threshold for Vulnerable under criterion A). However, as the species is suffering significant ongoing decline, the cause of which is not understood, it is listed as Near Threatened. The species has declined more than almost any other rodent in Europe.

range:
Eliomys quercinus is endemic to Europe, where it was historically widespread from Portugal in the west to the Urals (Russia) in the east. It is now largely confined to western Europe, including numerous Mediterranean islands, with eastern populations having become scattered and fragmented. The focus of the species range in the region is in the west. It is a polytypic species, and some insular populations are distinctive forms (e.g., Balearic Islands). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,000 m.

population:
Population declines, range contractions and local extinctions have occurred in central, eastern and southern Europe over the last few decades. Some island populations are declining. The species is now rare in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (probably extinct: Juškaitis 2003), east Germany and the Czech Republic (Andera 1994) and adjacent Austria (Spitzenberger 2002), and has disappeared completely from the Slovakian part of the Carpathians and from the Croatian mainland. The last record in Romania is over 20 years old (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In the south of Spain, where it was formerly abundant and expanding, it is now rare (Ruiz and Roman 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal a decline in population is possible, although causes and magnitude of any such reduction are unknown (Cabral et al. 2005). Many of the declines were over the last 50 years or so, with some of the declines more recently recorded. The species may have been lost from over half of the range in the last 30 years (S. Bertolino pers. comm. 2006). In parts of its range where it is more abundant, population density is usually less than 10 individuals per hectare, though exceptionally densities of 30-50 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Filippucci 1999).

habitat:
Its main habitat is woodland (coniferous, deciduous, and mixed), although it is sometimes found in orchards and gardens. It is less arboreal than some other dormice, and is often found on the ground in rocky areas, cracks in stone walls, and even in houses (Le Louarn and Spitz 1974, Vaterlaus 1998, Filippucci 1999, Spitzenberger 2002, Bertolino 2006).

threats:
It has been suggested that it is threatened in some areas (especially Corsica) by direct competition with the brown rat Rattus norvegicus (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The populations from Germany eastwards are declining (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006), but the reasons are not well known, although thought to be related to habitat changes. In some areas of orchards, the species is considered a pest.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is found in many protected areas. There is a need to determine why the populations in the eastern part of the range are in decline, to monitor these populations, and to identify and implement appropriate conservation measures.

redListAssessors:
Bertolino, S., Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Zima, J., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Kryštufek, B.


taxonomicNotes:
The western subspecies intermedius is taxonomically not well defined, but occurs in the part of the range where the species is declining.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread species with a large global population. Population trends appear stable in most parts of its range, it has a broad habitat tolerance, and is found in many protected areas. Consequently it is classed as Least Concern.

range:
Dryomys nitedula is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China). In Europe, it occurs from eastern Switzerland through eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula to Latvia in the north and Russia in the east, with an isolated subpopulation in southern Italy (Kryštufek and Vohralik 1994). Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).

population:
In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kryštufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere as yet (Kryštufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).

habitat:
It occurs in a broad variety of habitats in Europe, including broad-leaved, mixed, and coniferous woodland (mainly at higher altitudes), dwarf pine Pinus mugo and rocky areas, evergreen Mediterranean shrubland, and wood-steppe (Kryštufek 1999). In the west, the species is found in moist areas next to streams (Austria, Switzerland, and Germany). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.

threats:
There are no major threats in most parts of its range (EMA Workshop 2006). Declines at the western edge of its range have been attributed to deforestation (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006)

conservationAction:
It is protected by international law under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV). The species is found in protected areas.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis


redListCategoryRationale:
European: This species is found in a restricted area, there have been no recent records from European Turkey, the vast majority of the habitat is converted to agriculture, and the remaining areas are severely fragmented and subject to ongoing decline. Consequently it is classed as Endangered at the European level. Further research may show that the species qualifies as Critically Endangered under criterion A and/or B. EU 25: The species may marginally occur easternmost Greece. As the world population of this species is small, any population in Greece might constitute a significant (>1%) proportion of the global population. The species is assessed as Data Deficient at the EU 25 level, as its occurrence in the region is uncertain, but if it is confirmed to occur in Greece it is likely to qualify as Critically Endangered under Criterion B. The population outside the EU is fragmented and declining, so no rescue effect would be expected.

range:
The mouse-tailed dormouse is found in Bulgaria and Turkey (both European and Asian Turkey). It may also occur in eastern Greece. It is mainly a lowland species.

population:
Little is known about this restricted-range species. In Turkish Thrace there are only definite records from a small number of sites, and none of these records are recent: despite intensive searches, the species has not been found during the last five years (Global Mammal Assessment SW Asia workshop 2005). Throughout its distribution the vast majority of suitable habitat has been converted to intensive agriculture, and the species' range is severely fragmented and subject to ongoing losses (Global Mammal Assessment SW Asia workshop 2005).

habitat:
It inhabits scrub and semi-open habitats with trees or bushes such as orchards, vineyards, hedgerows in arable land, and river banks. Although it is found in some extensively managed agricultural habitats, it is absent from intensively farmed areas. It is more terrestrial than other dormice, and its diet consists for the most part of seeds.

threats:
The range of this species is in decline. In European Turkey, most of its habitat has been transformed by agriculture. In spite of intensive searches the species has not been found over the last five years. It is clear that the range is shrinking.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention. Surveys are needed to determine if and where the species can still be found, and sites where the species is found should be strictly protected.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This is a relatively common and widespread species across its range. However, in parts of its northern range (e.g. UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Denmark) populations are declining and fragmented as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. In these areas there is cause for concern.

range:
The common dormouse occurs in Europe and northern Asia Minor (Turkey). In continental Europe, it is fairly widespread, although it is absent from Iberia, south-west France, and northern parts of Fennoscandia and Russia. It is also absent from eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Island populations occur in southern Britain and on Corfu and Sicily (Morris 1999, Rossolimo et al. (2001). In the Alps it occurs up to 1,920 m (Spitzenberger 2002).

population:
Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in some areas it is declining, in others it is considered stable. In parts of its northern range (e.g., UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Denmark) populations are declining and fragmented as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. However in Lithuania it is a common and widespread species, and no decline has been observed (Juškaitis 2003). Population densities may reach c.10 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat, but densities are significantly lower in less favourable habitats (Morris 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits deciduous woodland, favouring forest edge, secondary growth, coppices, and other wooded areas with a dense shrubby understorey. It is also found in hedgerows in farmland. It is an arboreal feeder, foraging on flowers, insects and fruit.

threats:
In north-western parts of the species' range, habitat fragmentation as a result of forestry, urbanisation and agriculture is a major threat. It was formerly a popular pet in some parts of its range, but this is now illegal in many countries (Morris 1999).

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In many countries this species is included on national Red Lists.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Rimvydas Juškaitis


redListCategoryRationale:
Globally this species is very widespread, although it is a favoured food item for humans in many parts of its range, and there should be some investigation into harvest levels in these areas (e.g. north and west Africa). In Europe, the species occurs only in Italy where it has a relatively large population and an expanding range. Consequently it is classed as Least Concern at the European and EU 25 levels.

range:
The crested porcupine is found in Italy, North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. In Europe, it is restricted to mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, where it occurs from sea level to over 1,500 m. It is sometimes asserted that the porcupine was introduced to Italy by the Romans, but fossil and subfossil remains indicate its presence in Europe in the Upper Pleistocene (Amori and Angelici 1999).

population:
In mainland Italy, population densities are increasing, and the species is expanding its range northwards. On Sicily, the porcupine is widespread, and the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Amori and Angelici 1999). Outside Europe, there is little published information on population trends, but there have been declines in at least some areas, probably as a result of persecution and exploitation for its meat and quills (Nowak 1999). The species may have been extirpated in Egypt since 1980, and has been extinct in heavily-settled parts of Uganda since the 1970s (Nowak 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits dry Mediterranean shrubland, maquis, abandoned farmland, and dry rocky areas. Its den is in a deep burrow or a cave. Its diet consists of roots and tubers (including cultivated crops), bark, and fallen fruit (Nowak 1999, S. Lovari in litt. 2006).

threats:
Despite being strictly protected under international and domestic legislation in Europe, the porcupine is still illegally hunted for meat (often with dogs). This occurs both in Europe and Africa (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In parts of the range it is considered a pest species and it is sometimes illegally controlled with poison baits because of the damage it may do to crops (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), a practice which continues (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). However, at present these are not thought to be major threats to the survival of the species in Europe.

conservationAction:
It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and has been protected under Italian national law since 1974.

redListAssessors:
Giovanni Amori, Sandro Bertolino, Sandro Lovari


taxonomicNotes:
A poorly defined species. Likely to be part of Acomys cahirinus but currently recognized as valid (see Barome et al. 2001, and Musser and Carleton 2005 for discussion).

redListCategoryRationale:
Data Deficient because of taxonomic issues. This taxon is likely to be conspecific with the widespread and common species Acomys cahirinus but more research is needed to confirm this. Even if this is a valid species, it is Least Concern on Crete because it is widespread there and not under threat at present.

range:
Acomys minous is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece, where it occurs from sea level to 1,000 m (P. Lymperakis unpublished data). More taxonomic research is required to clarify whether A. minous is a valid species, or whether it should be considered as part of A. cahirinus. There is no fossil or subfossil record of Acomys species on Crete (Dieterlen 1978), suggesting that this taxon is the result of a relatively recent human introduction.

population:
Little is known about the status and population trends of this species. It may be common in suitable habitats, and there are no reports of population declines (Zima 1999).

habitat:
It is found in arid areas, including scrubby hillsides and rocky slopes. It may be found in close proximity to human habitation, and sometimes enters houses, especially during the winter. Its diet is predominantly herbivorous, supplemented by some animal items (Zima 1999).

threats:
It is not believed to face any major threats at present (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
It occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is required to clarify its taxonomic status and determine population trends.


redListCategoryRationale:
Locally common within its range with no major threats.

range:
The Alpine mouse is endemic to the Alps (France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Austria), where it occurs from 550-2,100 m (Storch 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It probably occurs in suitable habitat throughout the Alps, although records are patchy.

population:
It is common in suitable habitats (Storch 1999).

habitat:
It typically occurs in montane woodland, where it favours areas with rocks and patches of grass (Storch 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs within protected areas in its range.

redListAssessors:
Bertolino, S., Meinig, H. & Spitzenberger, F.


taxonomicNotes:
A. mystacinus has been split into two separate species: A. mystacinus and A. epimelas (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

range:
Apodemus epimelas is endemic to the western and southern Balkans, where it is found in Croatia, west Bosnia and Herzegovina, south Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, west Bulgaria and Greece. It is also found on the Adriatic islands of Korčula and Mljet (Storch 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs at altitudes from sea level to at least 1,600 m (Storch 1999).

population:
It is abundant in suitable habitats, and European populations are presumably stable (Storch 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs (Storch 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs within protected areas within its range.

redListAssessors:
Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Mitsain, G.


taxonomicNotes:
It is very probable that Apodemus ponticus and A. flavicollis are conspecific, and that their recognition as different species arose because the Cold War prevented comparison of populations on either side of the Iron Curtain (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralik pers. comm. 2006). A. ponticus was reported by Russian authors from the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Authors who studied Apodemus from north-easternmost Turkey (close to the Georgian border) did not find any difference between these populations and other Turkish populations of A. flavicollis (Frynta et al. 2001, Macholan et al. 2001, B. Kryštufek unpubl. data). Individuals captured on the Turkey-Georgia border formed fertile hybrids with A. flavicollis from Austria (Steiner 1978). Thus, the range of ponticus is arbitrarily defined by political borders: populations from the extreme NE Turkey (close to Georgian border) are classified as flavicollis, those across the border as ponticus. If the Asiatic phylogroup of A. flavicollis is indeed an independent species, than arianus predates all other names, including ponticus (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This is a common and widespread species with no major threats affecting the population at a global or regional level.

range:
The yellow-necked mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found in parts of the Near and Middle East and the Caucasus (Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).

population:
It is a common species throughout much of its range. Populations appear generally stable (natural fluctuations occur). Densities of more than 100 individuals per hectare have been recorded in eastern Europe (Montgomery 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits a variety of woodland habitats. It tends to be a forest edge species, but in the Alps it lives within forests (F. Spitzenberger in litt. 2006). Its spatial distribution in large forest areas is related to the productivity and spatial distribution of forest trees with heavy seeds, mainly oak and hazel (Juškaitis 2002).

threats:
Globally there are no major threats. In the UK, the species occupied a wider distribution in historic times and has undergone a range contraction associated with the conversion of ancient woodland to agricultural land (Battersby 2005).

conservationAction:
It occurs in protected areas across its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.

redListAssessors:
Sandro Bertolino, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and abundant species within its global range. Although it has a restricted Extent of Occurrence in Europe (<20,000 km2), it is common in suitable habitats, with no evidence of decline and no major threats. For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.

range:
Apodemus mystacinus occurs on some Aegean and Ionian islands eastward through Turkey to Israel, Lebanon, north-west Jordan, Syria, and northern Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,700 m.

population:
It is abundant in suitable habitats. The population trend is stable (Storch 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits forest with rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs. Rocky areas are important for this species (Storch 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.


taxonomicNotes:
This taxon is often confused with A. sylvaticus. It may be more than one species.

range:
Apodemus uralensis occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mošansky 1962).

population:
Little is known about the status of this species. Its distribution is patchy in at least parts of its European range (Storch 1999).

habitat:
In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Juškaitis 2003). In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs in protected areas within its range.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Linas Balciauskas


range:
Distributed from cis-Caucasia through Kazakhstan to Tajikistan, Mongolia, and N Xinjiang and Nei Mongol regions of China (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).

population:
It is a common species within much of its range, although populations undergo fluctuations in density every 2-3 years. Usually does not form colonies, but in Kazakhstan density could reach 30-50 individuals per hectare. A considerable pest of grain-crops, melons and gourds. In Central Asia population density considerably increases during the time of year when cereals ripen. Like other gerbil species it is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases agents. Population size is under observation of plague control services.

habitat:
Inhabits shrubby thickets in flood-plains and forest belts (in Astrakhan semidesert); also oases and shrubby semi-deserts with some grass cover. In NW parts of the range it is expanding its range and occupying new lands that have appeared as the Caspian Sea has dried out; however, in the Aral Sea region the species's range has stayed the same despite the availability of new lands. Lives in family groups, occasionally forming small colonies without social structure. Besides seeds, a considerable proportion of its diet is made up of vegetative parts of plants. Reproduction starts in February to March (western parts of the range) or March to April (eastern parts of the range) and lasts for about six months. Breeding intensity decreases during hot months. Females that have overwintered usually give birth to three litters per year; young females generally start reproduction in June. Litter size is about 4-5 young.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in some protected areas.


range:
Occurs on the island of Kos (Greece); also in Asia Minor, the Middle East, Transcaucasia and northwestern Iran (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.

population:
One of the most common jirds throughout much of its global range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Both globally and within Europe, the species is widespread and common. Although wetland habitat destruction is occurring in many places throughout its range, the species is highly tolerant of disturbed habitats and is not considered threatened at present.

range:
The harvest mouse has a large range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, where it occurs from northern Spain and Great Britain through Europe, eastern Fennoscandia, and Russia to northern Mongolia, China, northeast India, Myanmar and Vietnam (Corbet 1978, Panteleyev 1998, Spitzenberger 1999). It is present in Japan and on the border between southern Sweden and south-east Norway, where it is regarded as possibly introduced (van der Kooij et al. 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005, van der Kooij et al. in litt. 2006). In Europe, it is largely absent from Iberia, the southern part of Italy and the Alps, and it occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. It is typically a lowland species, although it occurs at altutudes of up to 1,700 m in Europe (Spitzenberger 1999).

population:
Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Juškaitis, pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
It is found in wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003).

threats:
In Europe the species is common in wetlands (e.g. rice fields) and other habitats (e.g. abandoned agricultural land). There are no serious threats to the survival of the species here, although local population declines have occurred in some areas as a result of loss and degradation of wetland habitats (Spitzenberger 1999).

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Heikki Henttonen


taxonomicNotes:
"A new species of the genus Mus has been discovered on the island of Cyprus, namely Mus cypriacus. Molecular phylogeny of complete D-loop sequences, as well as that of a nuclear gene intron (ABP), evidence that this new taxa is not an island variant but deserves a species rank on its own, as a sister species of Mus macedonicus and Mus spicilegus, the two closest mainland relatives. Classical and geometric morphometry provide diagnostic morphological criteria separating Mus cypriacus from European species." (Cucchi et al. 2006). Genetic and archaeological evidence suggest that the common ancestor of M. cypriacus and M. macedonicus arrived on Cyprus during the Middle Pleistocene by a founder event on natural raft (Cucchi et al. 2006). This species is one of only three surviving endemic mammal species on Mediterranean islands that originate from ancient natural colonization events (Gippoliti and Amori 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
Little is known about the status and distribution of this recently-discovered species. However, it may be quite common in appropriate habitats, and no major threats are known. Consequently it is assessed as Least Concern. Its extent of occurrence is small (<10,000 km²), so if any evidence emerges to suggest that declines or extreme fluctuations are occurring, the species should be reassessed.

range:
The Cyprus mouse Mus cypriacus is endemic to the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean (Bonhomme et al. 2004, Cucchi et al. 2006). It may be quite widespread in upland areas, and is typically found at altitudes of 300-900 m, although there are some records from 100-150 m (Cucchi et al. 2006). Among the 15 trapping localities sampled in different biotopes on the southern part of the island, M. cypriacus was captured in eight of them (Cucchi et al. 2006). Further research is required in order to establish the range of this new species.

population:
Population status and trends are not known.

habitat:
The species has mainly been found in abandoned cultivation terraces at moderate altitudes (300-900 m), where the vegetation consists of a mosaic of open grassy areas, shrubs and small trees, and cultivated vines (Vitis vinifera).It can also be found in forested riverine areas at 100-150 m, where it is syntopic with the house mouse (M. m. domesticus). It is apparently absent from lowland (less than 100 m) areas with strong anthropogenic pressure, such as intensive arable farmland, human dwellings and farms, and orchards (orange groves), where the house mouse is almost exclusively dominant (Cucchi 2005).

threats:
It is not yet known if there are any major threats to this recently-discovered species. It is generally found in abandoned vineyards and terraced fields at moderate altitudes. This type of habitat has increased in Cyprus in the recent past, and is probably now more or less stable, although declines may potentially occur in the future as a result of changes in agricultural policy since Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, and as a result of housing and tourism development (Panayides 2004, M. Hellicar pers. comm. 2006). The use of rodenticides as pest control may cause mortality in populations that live close to human habitation.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are known. Surveys are required to determine the status and range of the species, and research is required to confirm or refute the existence of any major threats. The Cyprus mouse is of conservation interest as it is one of just three surviving palaeoendemic mammal species found on Mediterranean islands (the other two being the shrew species Crocidura sicula and C. zimmermanni) (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Most ancient endemic mammals of Mediterranean islands died out after the arrival of man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Mediterranean islands are also home to a number of taxa currently recognised as endemic species and subspecies that are the descendants of mainland taxa introduced by man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006).

redListAssessors:
Giovanni Amori and Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This species has a wide range. It is common with no major threats at present, and the population trend is believed to be stable. Consequently it is classed as Least Concern.

range:
Mus macedonicus occurs in the south Balkans, Asia Minor, the Caucasus (Transcaucasia), and the Middle East south to Israel and Jordan and east to Iran (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found from sea level to 500 m (Macholán 1999).

population:
It is common throughout its range (Macholán 1999).

habitat:
It occurs in a wide range of habitats including cultivated farmland, orchards, olive groves, road verges, sand dunes, arid Mediterranean shrubland, wadis, and densely-vegetated riverbanks. It is absent from dense forests, and avoids areas of human habitation (Macholán 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.


taxonomicNotes:
Includes domesticus as a subspecies (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and extremely abundant species that thrives in anthropogenic habitats. Classed as Least Concern.

range:
Originally a Palaearctic species; through its close association with humans it has been widely introduced and has become established in North and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, northern Australia, and many oceanic islands (Macholán 1999).

population:
A widespread and abundant species; common except in some extreme habitats (e.g. at high altitude) (Macholán 1999).

habitat:
House mice are typically commensal, and are found in a very wide range of man-made habitats including houses, farm outbuildings, other types of buildings, and even coal mines and frozen meat stores. Sometimes it is feral in areas where it has been introduced, and in some parts of its native range it maintains wild populations in outdoor habitats such as arable land, pastures, coastal sand dunes, salt marshes, and scrubby road verges (Macholán 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). House mice tend not to be found in forests and deserts (Macholán 1999).

conservationAction:
Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas. A highly successful colonist of artificial environments; no conservation measures are required.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A common and widespread species within its range, with no major threats.

range:
Mus spretus is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring in south-west Europe and North Africa from Morocco to Libya (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic islands (Spain), and southern France. Its vertical range is from sea level to 1,800 m (L.J. Palomo pers. comm. 2006).

population:
It is common throughout its range, and populations are presumably stable. Typical densities are in the region of 3-12 individuals per hectare (Macholán 1999).

habitat:
It is found in grasslands, dry shrubland, cereal fields and open woodland. It is absent from dense forest, and tends to avoid human settlements (Macholán 1999). Their limited water requirements (half that of the house mouse) allows them to inhabit drier areas than other mice (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).

conservationAction:
Occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific measures are recommended.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)A widespread and abundant species, often regarded as a pest. Although there have been population declines in parts of the European range, these are not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (30% over 10 years or 3 generations, whichever is longer). Classed as Least Concern.

range:
Originally an Indomalayan species; widely introduced across the globe as a result of human activities. In Europe, it has been present since ancient times, and is found in most countries, with the exception of Fennoscandia (where it has gone extinct, except for one site in Denmark). It has suffered declines and now has a very restricted range in the United Kingdom, appears to be confined to one island off the east coast of Ireland, and is probably extinct in Slovakia (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).

population:
A widespread and abundant species. It is very common in the Mediterranean. However, in some parts of its northern European range (e.g. United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria) large population declines and range contractions have occurred since c.1970 (Amori and Cristaldi 1999, Spitzenberger 2005). It has disappeared from Fennoscandia (with the exception of one site in Denmark) (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).

habitat:
Highly commensal in northern and central parts of Europe, where is is found in a variety of man-made habitats. Also lives outdoors in natural and semi-natural habitats in the Mediterranean (especially on Mediterranean islands) (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).

conservationAction:
Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)Assessed as Not Applicable as it was considered to be of marginal occurrence in the European Mammal Assessment region. The limits of its range are poorly known, especially in the south and east. It is typically widespread and abundant in appropriate habitat, and it may more appropriately be assessed as Least Concern when the EMA is next revised.

range:
Occurs on Rhodes (Greece) and in S Ukraine. Also in N and S Caucasus, Anatolian Turkish steppe, south to N Israel and NW Jordan; through C and N Iran to Kopet-Dag Mountains of SW Turkmenistan and WC Pakistan. Probably also occurs in Iraq and Afghanistan (Wilson and Reeder 2005).

habitat:
"Plains, mountain and plateau steppes, and highland semideserts" (Wilson and Reeder 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
M. spicilegus is widespread in its range and can be common in suitable habitat. It is declining in some parts of its range owing to habitat loss, but not at a rate that meets the threatened criteria. Likewise in parts of the Mediterranean there are local declines; it may be in direct competition with M. musculus. Currently assessed as Least Concern, but population declines should be monitored.

range:
Mus spicilegus is endemic to Europe, occurring from Lake Neusiedl on the Austro-Hungarian border through Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova, and Ukraine, extending eastwards to as far as Rostov in the extreme south-west of Russia. In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Serbia and Bulgaria, with an isolated subpopulation occurring in Montenegro, Greece and Albania. This subpopulation has a fragmented range within a very narrow strip of coastal habitat, and there are only three known localities (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It typically occurs from sea level to 200 m (Macholán 1999).

population:
It remains common in suitable habitats, but is suspected to be undergoing population decline in some areas. Densities of 1-20 mounds per hectare are typical, but densities of up to 60-100 mounds per hectare may be reached in particularly favourable habitat. On average, each mound is inhabited by five to six individuals (Macholán 1999). In Slovakia the range appears to be expanding.

habitat:
It occurs in a variety of open habitats including natural steppe grasslands, pastures and cereal fields, orchards, open woodland, woodland edges and clearings. It avoids forests and human settlements. It feeds on grain and seeds, which it hoards in the winter in a soil-covered mound built above its nest chamber; a single mound may be up to 400 cm in diameter (although 100-200 cm is more typical) and contain up to 10 kg of grain (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Sokolov et al. 1998). Groups of 4-14 mice cooperate to build these mounds (Sokolov et al. 1998).

threats:
It is feared that loss of steppe grassland and agricultural intensification may cause population declines (Macholán 1999). However, in Romania at least, this species is considered an agricultural pest (Popescu and Murariu 2001).

conservationAction:
It occurs in some protected area within its range. The population may be declining and this should be monitored.

redListAssessors:
Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V.


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of this species needs revision. Several subspecies are recognised. M. (P.) m. dahli Schidlovski, 1962 is currently listed as a subspecies, but is probably an independent species (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widespread species with no major threats. Assessed as Least Concern. Taxonomic revision is needed, and if Meriones (P.) meridianus dahli Schidlovski, 1962 from Transcaucasia is recognised as a separate species, the status of this form should be reassessed.

range:
Distributed in sand deserts in the western Caspian Sea region (Russian Federation), Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Iran, northern Afganistan, northern China and Mongolia.

population:
It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. Depending on winter weather conditions and the availability of essential fodder crops, density could fluctuate by ten times or more. Like other gerbil species, Meriones meridianus is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases. Population size in this species is monitored by plague control agencies.

habitat:
Distributed in sand deserts, including fragmented alluvial and deluvial sands. Most abundant in hilly deserts and sandy areas with shrub cover, including small sand tracts in the steppe zone in the western part of the range. In spring and summer it is nocturnal, but in autumn (while foraging for winter) it remains active all day. Burrows are usually excavated under the roots of shrubs. Congregates in large colonies with pronounced social structure. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes on insects. Breeding period differs in northern and southern parts of the range. In northern parts it lasts from April til September, with two peaks in spring and autumn. In southern parts the reproductive period occurs from February or March til beginning of October, and in favourable conditions it may last throughout the year. Females that are at least a year old usually give birth to three litters per year; young females give birth once, rarely twice a year. Litter size is about 6 young.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas in different parts of its range.


range:
The striped field mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva et al. 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrghyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia). The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, China, the Korean peninsula, and Taiwan. It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m in southern Europe (e.g. Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).

population:
A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
It is found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred.

conservationAction:
It occurs within protected areas throughout its range. It tends to be considered an agricultural pest species.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagarodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This species is widespread and abundant across its large range. There are no major threats and no suspicion of declines. Consequently it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The wood mouse has a large range that extends throughout Europe (with the exception of Finland and northern parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic and Russia) and parts of North Africa (Panteleyev 1998, Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is present on the majority of offshore islands including the British Isles and Iceland. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.

population:
It is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, and populations appear to be stable. Population density may fluctuate more than tenfold between years of maximum and minimum abundance, but there are no regular cycles (Montgomery 1999).

habitat:
It is a very adaptable species, inhabiting a wide variety of semi-natural habitats including all types of woodland, moorland, steppe, arid Mediterranean shrubland, and sand dunes. It is also found in many man-made habitats including suburban and urban parks, gardens and wasteland, pastures and arable fields, and forestry plantations. It has an omnivorous diet including seeds and invertebrates. Although it can cause occasional damage, it is not generally considered an agricultural pest (Montgomery 1999).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species, although pollution by lead and agrochemicals may have localized negative impacts.

conservationAction:
It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.

redListAssessors:
Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Linas Balciauskas


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widely distributed and abundant species with no major threats. Its range is currently expanding westwards in Europe. Classed as Least Concern.

range:
Most of the range is in Asia. N European and Siberian Russia to Sakhalin; S Kurile Isls (Russia); extreme E Kazakhstan to N Mongolia, China, Korea, and Hokkaido (Japan). Introduced into Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy (Amori 1999).

population:
This species is relatively abundant alcross its range. It is expanding in Europe in the boreal forest zone, and has reached Vodlo Lake (Karelia) (H. Henttonnen pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
Typically inhabits coniferous and mixed forests with a rich undergrowth of berry-bearing shrubs. In mountains occurs up to the tree line. Climbs trees, but lives in simple shallow burrows. Summer nests are in stumps, fallen trees, sometimes in low hollows. Usually burrows consist of two big chambers, nest and larder, and small chambers used as a lavatory. Complex voice communication is characteristic to the species. Hibernates in winter. Short and long distance migrations have been registered during years with a poor harvest of Siberan pine nuts. Feeds on various seeds, mainly on Siberian pine, but diet also includes seeds of other coniferous and deciduous trees and herbs. In spring and summer consumes herb shoots; sometimes can eat insects and molluscs. From August onward stores up food for winter, storage mass usually 3-4 kg. Reproduces after leaving hibernation, in April-May.


taxonomicNotes:
There are two chromosome races of this species: S. odessanus (36 chromosome) and S. suslicus sensu stricto (34 chromosomes). These are separated by the Dnieper River. The eastern Europe race is considered a separate species by many taxonomists. S. odessanus is declining more than S. suslicus sensu stricto.

redListCategoryRationale:
Globally, the population has shown serious declines over the last 50 years. However, over the last ten years the rate of decline has slowed (perhaps to ca. 20%, but no data are currently available to support this figure). Since the population is still declining, albeit at a slower rate, and habitat loss and fragmentation is continuing, the species is assessed as Near Threatened at the global level (approaching A2bc+3bc).

range:
The spotted souslik is endemic to eastern Europe, where it is found in south-eastern Poland, small areas in Belarus, the Ukraine, Moldova, and Russia eastwards to the river Volga. In Poland, the souslik occurs on the western edge of its range and it is known from one relic enclave located between the Wieprz and Bug rivers in the region of Zamosc (Glowacinski et al. 2001, Piskorski 2005). A lowland species, it occurs up to no more than 500 m (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).

population:
The spotted souslik has suffered marked declines in both population and range. Its extent of occurrence has contracted in both Poland and southern Russia, and the number of colonies in Poland and the Ukraine (where no more than 10% of the former range described in mid-twentieth century is left) has decreased markedly (Glowacinski et al. 2001, Piskorski 2005, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Populations in the southern and eastern parts of the range are more stable. Over the last ten years some populations have shown increases in population size. However, across the global range, the total population is declining, although the rate of decline over the last ten years is likely to be less than 30% (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). The Polish population of the spotted souslik has been estimated at c.20,000 individuals living in 7 compact and no more than 10 scattered colonies. The most numerous of these colonies, with 10,000-12,000 individuals, is found at Swidnik airport (near Lublin) and is the result of an unofficial introduction in the early 1980s. The present population of S. suslicus is one third of what it was in the 1960s, the number of localities has markedly decreased and the area occupied has shrunk by a half. If this trend continues the souslik will die out in Poland at the first decades of the 21th century (Glowacinski et al. 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
Like its congener the European souslik Spermophilus citellus, the spotted souslik prefers open areas with short grass (including steppes, pastures, and road verges). Unlike the European souslik, it can also sometimes be found on cultivated ground and can survive ploughing (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). It feeds chiefly on grasses and cereals, although arthropods and small vertebrates are also taken.

threats:
It is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of appropriate habitats. Causes of habitat loss include expansion of agriculture and forestry, urbanisation, reclamation of wasteland and industrial development (Glowacinski et al. 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006). More than 50% of the remaining Polish population is threatened by the expansion of Lublin airport (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In some areas, it is persecuted as an agricultural pest. Hybridisation with S. pygmaeus and S. citellus has been recorded, but is not likely to be a major threat. Currently all populations are declining and becoming more fragmented, which makes hybridisation less of a problem.

conservationAction:
It is legally protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. In Poland the souslik is strictly protected under national law, and five nature reserves have recently been created to protect the species. Development of the system of nature reserves and active protection (reintroduction and habitat management) are recommended (Glowacinski et al. 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006).

redListAssessors:
Zagorodnyuk, I., Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widespread and abundant species. Although population declines have been noted in some parts of the range, it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.

range:
Distributed in plains or foothills steppes and semi-deserts in the Dnepr Region (Ukraine), Lower Volga Region and cis-Caucasia (Dagestan, Russia). Most of the range is in Central Asia east to the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan). The range of the species has reduced over the last 20 years as a result of climate change (more wet weather and wet years in the region). The abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming), which is changing the habitat, may also have played a role. The species occurs at low altitudes (up to 400 or 500 m).

population:
Populations undergo periodical fluctuations. In the European part of the range over last 30 years, numbers have declined and some local populations have gone extinct.

habitat:
Inhabits absinth deserts and semi-deserts in virgin and long-fallow lands. Avoids sites with dense high grasses. Lives in colonies consisting mostly of non overlapping territories of adult females. Male territories covers several female territories. Each colony includes permanent (reproduction and hibernation) burrows and temporary shelter burrows. The little ground squirrel leaves hibernation in March-April; enters estivation in second part of June-July, sometimes, especially in dry years, goes straight from estivation to hibernation.

threats:
The main factors causing decline are natural climate dessication in the southern Volga Region, with a concurrent trend towards wetter weather at mid-latitudes. Neither of these changes in climate are favourable for the little ground squirrel. Additionally, human activities including pesticide use, irrigation, overgrazing and persecution have a negative impact on populations. Abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming) may be leading to unfavourable habitat change in some areas.

conservationAction:
Despite recorded population decline in the European part of the range, the species remains widespread and abundant. No specific conservation measures are known.


range:
Steppe between Volga and Irtysh rivers (Russia; N Kazakhstan). Formerly, steppe between Don and Volga rivers (Russia: Gromov et al. 1965). On the western bank of Volga River found in NW part of Volga Hills (Ermakov and Titov 2000). Reported from Xinjiang (Ma et al. 1987); but probably a misidentified S. brevicauda. Its range is increasing in the south and the west (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006). Occurs from sea level to 600 m.

population:
Populations undergo periodical fluctuations and consequently population size varies from year to year. Periods of mass reproduction give place to population depressions, during which only single individuals could be found in colonies that had formerly been large. The main factors that determine mortality include the soil freezing through during the species' hibernation period, late arrival of spring, human disturbance (including direct killing), predators and epizootics. The species has high reproductve capacity and ecological plasticity. However, a recent study found that populations in most parts of the range were declining, and some small populations had gone extinct (Ermakov and Titov 2000). At the same time, the species has been extending its range in some areas (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
Inhabits mixed grassy plains, and grain and feather-grass steppes. In the northern part of the range penetrates into forest-steppe and the southern part of forest zones. In the south it occurs in river meadows in semi-desert zones. The species is spreading as roads and development increase the number of channels containing water and long grasses. The species is able to cross the Volga due to the construction of dams in four different places. The dams contain ponds which keep ice over winter for longer, allowing the species to move. Another possible reason for observed range expansion is the release of individuals (along with marmots) by hunters. Lives in single burrows scattered over wide territories. In southern parts of the range where appropriate habitats are limited forms colonies. Adult males enter hibernation in mid-June; mass hibernation starts in August. Feeds on green parts and seeds of grasses and cereals.

threats:
The most significant threats are ploughing and direct killing by humans.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures for this species are known.


taxonomicNotes:
Five subspecies are recognised. Spermophilus fulvus hybridizes with S. major in areas where these two species overlap.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)A widespread and abundant species with no major threats. Although population declines have been noted in some parts of the range, it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as Least Concern.

range:
Russia and Kazakhstan, from the Caspian Sea and the Volga River to Lake Balkash; south through Uzbekistan, W Tajikistan and Turkmenistan to NE Iran, and N Afghanistan; W Xinjiang (China). The southern part of the range is fragmented.

population:
In some regions of Russia and Kazakhstan populations have declined as a result of commercial hunting, but the species remains common and abundant throughout most of its range.

habitat:
Inhabits sand, clay and loess deserts and semi-deserts. In the forest zone it lives on black absinth and saltwort alkali soils. Usually digs a single burrows on a large territory. Sometimes burrows of the great gerbil Rhombomys opimus are used. Migrates seasonally from sites flooded with water from melted snow, or in search for fresh vegetation. Hibernation is extended; the species exits hibernation in mid-May and after 3-4 months enters hibernation again. Feeds on overground parts of cereals, absinths and saltworts.

threats:
Although it is hunted commercially, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.

conservationAction:
No special conservation measures apply to this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Eight subspecies have been described, but their validity was not confirmed in a comprehensive review of the species (Kryštufek 1996, 1999).

redListCategoryRationale:
Declines across the species' range are occurring, particularly in the southern and northwestern and northern areas where declines are more serious. Overall, declines are suspected to be more than 30% over the last ten years. For this reason the species is assessed as Vulnerable.

range:
The European souslik is endemic to central and south-eastern Europe, where it occurs at altitudes of 0-2,500 m. Its range is divided in two by the Carpathian mountains. The north-western portion extends through the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Serbia and Montenegro, and western Romania, whilst the south-eastern portion extends from southern Serbia, Macedonia and Greece through Bulgaria and southern Romania to Turkish Thrace, Moldova and Ukraine (Panteleyev 1998, Kryštufek 1999).

population:
The European souslik is currently in serious decline. Its population has become fragmented, and extinctions have occurred in peripheral parts of its range in Germany (where it went extinct c.1985 because of forestry) and Poland (where the last definite autochthonous records date from the 1970s, although the species has recently been reintroduced (Kryštufek 1999, H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006, A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). Although there are still some large and apparently stable subpopulations, there have been many reports of declines, especially in the north-western part of its range; it is also declining in the southern part of the range. In optimal habitat, densities of 18-48 individuals per hectare have been recorded, although lower figures of 5-14 individuals per hectare are also reported (Kryštufek 1999). In Romania, the population has been estimated at c.15,000 (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In parts of Dobrudja (Romania and Bulgaria) populations may have stabilised and started to increase since 1989, as a result of abandonment of intensive agriculture following the fall of the communist regime (I. Coroiu and D. Murariu pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, populations of two subspecies macedonicus and graolojenici) have been lost (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). In the Czech Republic there were 83 known localities in 1995, but by 2000-2001 only 26 of them still existed (Cepáková and Hulová 2002). Since 2001, there has been regular monitoring of S. citellus. Five new sites have been found, six colonies have disappeared, one was re-established due to reintroduction and one site has been naturally colonized following conservation management. Fluctuation or stagnation of abundance has been observed at eleven sites, numbers of sousliks have steadily decreased at seven sites, and only in five colonies have populations increased. In 2006 the total number of S. citellus living in the Czech Republic was estimated at 2,750 (J. Mateju unpublished data).

habitat:
The European souslik has quite specific habitat requirements. It is restricted to short-grass steppe and similar artificial habitats (pastures, lawns, sports fields, golf courses) on light, well-drained soils, where it can excavate its burrows (Kryštufek 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It avoids cultivated land, with the exception of vineyards in some parts of its range (Spitzenberger 2002). It has an omnivorous diet including seeds, roots, shoots, flowers, and arthropods (Nowak 1999, Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).

threats:
The main threats to this species are the conversion of steppe-grassland and pasture to cultivated fields or forestry, and the abandonment of pasture and its subsequent reversion to tall-grass meadows or scrubby habitats which are not suitable for the souslik (Kryštufek 1999). In Austria it is therefore largely restricted to vineyards, airstrips, golflinks, sport- and camping grounds and other frequently mown lawns where it is completely dependent on the toleration of the owners (Spitzenberger 2002). Although not a major threat, some Gypsy communities in central and eastern Europe still catch sousliks for use as a traditional meal (J. Mateju pers. comm. 2006).

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures. In 2005, the species was reintroduced to Poland by the NGO Salamandra, and animals survived the first winter hibernation (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In 2006 a project was initiated to reintroduce the species to Germany (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006).

redListAssessors:
Coroiu, C., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Zagorodnyuk, I.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)This species is widespread and common throughout much of its range. In Italy and the UK there are serious declines owing to competition with the grey squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis. In the UK the species is also threatened by parapox virus transmitted from the grey squirrel. Although the grey squirrel occurs only in the UK and Italy at present, it is predicted that it will reach France and Switzerland during the next few decades. Given its current range, population, and population trends, the red squirrel is assessed as Least Concern. However, in the future its status in Europe is likely to worsen.

range:
The red squirrel has a large range in the Palaearctic, extending from Ireland, Spain and Portugal in the west, through continental Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and north-east China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Gurnell and Wauters 1999). It is also found on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan), and it has been introduced to the Caucasus. In Europe, it is widespread in most areas, with the exception of the Iberian peninsula (where it is absent from the south-west) and Britain (where it has almost completely disappeared from the south-east). It is absent from the majority of Mediterranean islands. In Portugal the range has expanded southwards. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).

population:
Although it is described as common throughout most of its range (Gurnell and Wauters 1999), there have been well-documented population declines and range contractions in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters et al. 1997, O'Teangana et al. 2000). Typical densities range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 individuals per hectare (Gurnell and Wauters 1999).

habitat:
It is most abundant in large tracts of coniferous forest and also occurs in deciduous woods, mixed forest, parks, gardens, and small stands of conifers. Its diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of seeds, acorns, fungus, bark, and sapwood, although it occasionally takes animal prey (young birds and eggs).

threats:
The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation and, in Britain and Italy, out-competition by the introduced grey squirrel Sciurus carolinensis (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters et al. 1997, Bertolino and Genovesi 2003). Now that the grey squirrel has become established on the continent, it can be expected that it may ultimately spread throughout much of the red squirrel's range. Grey squirrels not only out-compete the smaller red squirrels, but also carry parapox virus, which is highly pathogenic to red squirrels. Grey squirrels can carry the virus without being affected, and recent (2006) UK studies have shown that 61% of apparently healthy grey squirrels have been exposed to the virus and may be carriers (C. McInnes in litt. 2006). When the virus is present, the grey squirrel can replace the red squirrel 20 times faster than normal replacement rate (Rushton et al. 2006). The virus has not yet been recorded in Italy.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.

redListAssessors:
Sandro Bertolino, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig


range:
In Europe it is restricted to the area around Istanbul (where it was introduced in 1964), and to the islands of Lesbos (Greece) and Gökçeada (Turkey) (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999). Also occurs in "Turkey, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), N and W Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)EU 25 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)At the European level, there are insufficient data to estimate rate of population decline. The species is susceptible to habitat loss and fragmentation through forestry practices. Within the EU, the species occurs only in Finland, Estonia and Latvia, where it continues to decline in many parts of its range. Declines of 20-58% have been recorded in small-scale local studies in Finland over the last 10-20 years. There is not expected to be any rescue effect from outside the region (e.g. from Russian Karelia) as the species is facing similar threats in that area. Consequently the species is assessed at Data Deficient at the European level, and Near Threatened (A2bc) within the EU 25.

range:
The Siberian flying squirrel has a wide range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from Finland, Estonia and Latvia eastwards through Russia to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Sulkava 1999). It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan). It occurs from sea level to the tree line (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

population:
The species continues to decline in many parts of its range owing to loss of old-growth mixed forests. In Finland, it is still locally quite common but declining everywhere, with detailed local studies showing 20-58% declines over periods of 10-20 years (Hanski et al. 2001, Hanski 2006). Declines were noted in all parts of Finland; there were no areas where the population was stable or increasing, and declines are predicted to continue in the future (Hanski 2006) A three year census ending in 2005 estimated the Finnish population at 140,000 females (95% confidence limits 134,800-151,300: Hanski 2006). It has been found at c.50 sites in Estonia (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). In Russia, it is considered widespread but rare in Karelia, and in the Karelian isthmus its status is similar to that of the Finnish population (A. Tikhonov in litt. 2006).

habitat:
It prefers mature spruce-dominated forests with a significant proportion of deciduous trees, especially aspen Populus tremula, birch Betula sp. and alder Alnus sp. (Reunanen et al. 2000, 2002). Large deciduous trees are an important source of both food and nest-sites: the flying squirrel feeds primarily on alder and birch catkins in the winter and alder leaves in the summer, and nests in old woodpecker holes or natural cavities in decaying wood.

threats:
Modern intensive forestry and logging are the major threats to this species (Hanski et al. 2001). Fragmentation of forests is a particular problem for this species, as flying squirrels are reluctant to cross open areas on the ground. Managed forests also tend to have fewer deciduous trees (which are an essential winter food source), less decaying wood and fewer tree-holes (which are needed for nest-sites). In parts of Russia, it has been estimated that up to 50% of logging is illegal (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). Illegal logging is particularly destructive, as unsustainable practices such as high-grading or 'skimming' are used, meaning that for every ten trees felled only one or two high-quality logs will be used (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002).

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is considered Vulnerable at the national level in Finland (Rassi et al. 2001). The Finnish Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture and Ministry of the Environment have published detailed guidelines on how to deal with flying squirrels in forestry. Specific recommendations include protecting known feeding and nesting sites (usually this means that trees surrounding nesting tree will be protected within 30 m, and "corridors" will be saved so that nesting sites are not isolated) (Anon. 2002, 2003, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in a number of protected areas.

redListAssessors:
Heikki Henttonen, Tiit Maran, Ilpo Hanski


redListCategoryRationale:
The species is not threatened at present. Subspecies marmota is common within at least parts of its range and has no major threats. However, subspecies latirostris has a restricted range and small population, and should be monitored and protected.

range:
The Alpine marmot is endemic to Europe. Its core range extends through the Alps of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Isolated subpopulations are found in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Vosges, Black Forest, Appenines, High Tatras, and Romanian Carpathians. A number of these isolated subpopulations (those in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Vosges, Black Forest, and Appennines, and eastern Alps) are the result of introductions. The marmot has inhabited the Alps and High Tatras continuously since the end of the last Ice Age, and was reintroduced to the Romanian Carpathians (three attempts in 1973, the third attempt was successful) and Slovenia (in 1953). It occurs as two subspecies: M. m. marmota in the Alps (and most introduced subpopulations) and M. m. latirostris in the High Tatras. A hybrid population exists in the Low Tatras, the result of introductions of both subspecies. Likewise populations in the Appenines are hybrids of both subspecies. It occurs at altitudes of 600-3,200 m (Preleuthner 1999).

population:
M. m. marmota is abundant in at least parts of its core range in the Alps, although some subpopulations may be under threat (e.g. in the Jura and in Germany). Reported population densities for M. m. marmota range from 24-36 individuals per 100 hectares (Gran Paradiso, Italy) to 40-80 individuals per 100 hectares (Tessin, Switzerland). In Romanian Carpathians, the population is estimated at 1,500 individuals. It is known from three areas in Romania: Retezat, Fagaras and Rodna. In Retezat and Fagaras the populations are stable; in Rodna the population is very small and is threatened by poaching (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). The population is Slovenia is expanding (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). Subspecies M. m. latirostris has a restricted range (it occurs at higher elevations in a small region of the High Tatras) and is considered to be rare and threatened (Preleuthner 1999).

habitat:
It inhabits alpine meadows and high-altitude pastures, typically on south-facing slopes from 1,200-3,000 m (although it is occasionally found at lower altitudes). Colonies inhabit deep burrow systems in alluvial soil or rocky areas (Preleuthner 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, primarily composed of green parts of grasses, sedges, and herbs (Krapp 1978).

threats:
Marmots were previously hunted for meat, fur, and fat (which was used for cosmetics and medicines). Hunting continues today, but is primarily a leisure activity (Preleuthner 1999). In Slovenia and Austria, hunting levels are sustainable, but in Austria at least populations living below the timberline are threatened by loss of open habitats through abandonment of high-altitude cattle grazing (Spitzenberger 2002, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with introduced M. m. marmota is a potential future threat to remaining pure-bred populations of M. m. latirostris in the High Tatras.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in a number of national parks within its range. It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected under national law in a number of range states (e.g., Slovenia). Subspecies latirostris requires strict protection in Slovakia and Poland.


taxonomicNotes:
Includes three subspecies: M. b. bobak Muller, 1776 (Ukraine, European part of Russia); M. b. kozlovi Fokanov, 1966 (Volga River region, right bank around Saratov City); M. b. schaganensis Bazhanov, 1930 (the rest of the range).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)The population experienced severe decline in the past, but these declines ended well over 10 years (3 generations) ago. The species is now stable and abundant within its present range in Europe. Consequently it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
At the beginning of the 20th century the species was distributed along whole steppe zone from W Ukraine through Russia and Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River. However, in the first half of the 20th century hunting and habitat loss (ploughing of steppes and conversion to arable land) significantly reduced the range of bobak marmot in the European steppes. By the 1940s the European range of the bobak marmot had become fragmented into isolated populations in unused land and protected areas. Currently the majority of the range is in the Urals and N Kazakhstan.

population:
Formerly the species was common and abundant along the whole steppe zone from W Ukraine to the Irtysh River. By the 1940s the European population and range had declined dramatically, and the species was restricted to isolated fragments of habitat in uncultivated areas and nature reserves. In the 1960s in both Russia and Ukraine hunting was prohibited, and marmot populations in these countries subsequently increased and are now considered stable. In N Kazakhstan, by contrast, the population has not recovered and remains at low density, but in central Kazakhstan the population is increasing. The species was reintroduced to a number of locations in the early 1980s, and the species has also naturally recolonised many areas.

habitat:
It inhabits a variety of steppe habitats, including lowland, mixed grass, arid, and wormwood (Artemisia) steppes. Forms colonies consisting of several families. Burrows are complex, and may be up to 4-5 m in depth. There are summer and winter burrows, both with pronounced mounds. Does not stock up for winter; instead hibernates for at least six months a year. Enters hibernation at different times in differents parts of the range, leaves hibernation in late March-April. Feeds on green parts, bulbs, flowers and shoots of grasses. Sensitive to moisture in food and in overly dry conditions enters estivation. Reproduces once a year with litter size of 4 to 7 young.

threats:
Severe population and range reductions in the early to mid 20th century were caused by excessive hunting and habitat loss (cultivation of steppe grassland). Some illegal hunting continues.

conservationAction:
At present, there are no special conservation measures except hunting prohibition. In the early 1980s re-introductions were carried out in a number of locations. In the European part of the range the bobak marmot occurs in protected areas, where it survived during the period of severe population decline in the early to mid 20th century.


taxonomicNotes:
Includes Nannospalax leucodon as a synonym.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU 25 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)The taxonomy of this species is currently crude and in need of revision. Under its current taxonomy it is considered Least Concern, because it has a large range and although it is declining, this is not at a rate that approaches the threshold for criterion A. However, if after taxonomic revision the taxon is split into several different species, some of these may warrant listing as threatened.

range:
The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in north-west Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).

population:
It has undergone range contractions and population declines in Europe. However, there are still areas where it is locally quite abundant. Population densities typically fall in the range of 1-13 individuals per hectare, but values of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been reported (Kryštufek 1999). Spalax leucodon is regarded as a superspecies that contains a number of forms that are well-differentiated at both a genotypic and phenotypic level, although their taxonomy remains unresolved. Some of these forms have very restricted ranges, and presumably small populations (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).

habitat:
The mole rat inhabits steppe grassland, meadows and pastures, in areas with a deep layer of loose, freely-draining soil in which it digs its extensive burrows. It is absent from ploughed land and arable monocultures, although it may be found in agricultural lanscapes where there is a mixture of pastures, small crop-fields and orchards. It has a slow reproductive rate, raising litters of only 2-4 young (Kryštufek 1999). Mole-rats of the genus Spalax can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).

threats:
The mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss and land-use changes related to agricultural intensification and increased urbanisation and infrastructure development. It disappears when natural grasslands or pastures are ploughed up. When it was more common, it was an agricultural pest, and it is still persecuted as such in some areas (Kryštufek 1999).

conservationAction:
It occurs within protected areas within its range. Taxonomic research is required (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
Across most of its range it is abundant and common, and there is no evidence that it is declining at a rate approaching the threshold for consideration as threatened under criterion A. However, small and isolated populations in the northern part of the range could be threatened by habitat loss through ploughing.

range:
Distributed in steppes and forest-steppes in Ukraine and S Russia between Dnepr and Volga Rivers, north to Orel-Kursk line, and south to Ciscaucasia (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In Crimea most probably absent since the Pleistocene. During Holocene the northern border of the range has moved significantly southward, leaving behind isolated relict populations, for example in Samarskaya Luka (Samara District, Russia).

population:
A common species. In historical times in some parts of the range it became rare or even extinct, but elsewhere extended its extent of occurrence. In the northern part of the range and the Volga Region is occurs in small isolated populations and is considered rare. These populations are threatened by habitat loss (ploughing of major habitats). In the southern part of the range (Stavropol Region) in the 1950s, population and range declines occurred because of ploughing. Population density differs significantly in different parts of the range. Maximum densities are found in Central Black Earth Region (Russia) adjacent Ukrainian territories. Population density there is on average 3-10 individuals per hectare, however, locally it could reach up to 20. In the southern part of the range the density may be lower, as the arid climate of the steppes is less favourable. Populations are stable and do not undergone periodical fluctuations.

habitat:
Obligatory subterranean species. Inhabits steppes; prefers lowlands with black earth and avoids loamy and sandy soils. Inhabits crop fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards and forest belts. Feeds on underground parts of dandelion, cow parsnip, chicory and tree seedlings (oak, mulberry, acacia). Makes hoards for winter, sometimes up to 10-14 kg. Breeds once a year, females give birth in March to 2-5 young. During dispersal juveniles emerge above ground and often fall prey to carnivorous mammals and birds. A significant pest in southern parts of the range.

threats:
Ploughing of major habitats and use of toxic chemicals for pest control.

conservationAction:
Locally protected in a number of State Reserves and national parks.


taxonomicNotes:
Subspecies S. graecus istricus Mehely, 1909, is considered by some authors to be an independent species (see Wilson and Reeder 2005 for discussion).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is assessed as Near Threatened (approaching criterion B2) at the European level, as it occurs at not many more than five locations, and agricultural intensification might be expected to impact the whole population over a short time period in the near future. The area of occupancy (AOO) is suspected to be less than 500 km², although it has not been estimated. The population is fragmented, so if an estimate of AOO was available, the species might qualify as Endangered under Criterion B2. In Romania at least, the mole rat population appears to be stable at present, although agricultural intensification may potentially become a threat in the near future. Population decline and range reduction can be presumed to have occurred in the past in Ukraine, where the species has not been recorded in the last 20-40 years and may have gone extinct. In Moldova, there is no information about population size or trend. Population monitoring is urgently required, as is research to determine the extent to which agricultural intensification is a threat, and to determine the AOO.

range:
The Balkan mole rat is a European endemic, known only from a small number of sites in Romania (Suceava, Craiova, Transylvania, and the lower Danube), south-eastern Ukraine (Cernovcy), and Moldova (Panteleyev 1998, Kryštufek 1999). Its range is very fragmented. It occurs in lowland and upland areas. In the Ukraine, the species has not been recorded over the last 20-40 years and it may be severely reduced, or already extinct there (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).

population:
It has a small and fragmented range, within which it occurs at densities of ca.1-3 individuals per hectare (although densities of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been recorded) (Nowak 1999, Kryštufek 1999). The current population trend is unknown, although declines can be assumed to have occurred in Ukraine in the relatively recent past.

habitat:
It inhabits steppe grassland, pastures, small cultivated fields and orchards, often preferring northern exposures (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). Very arid areas are avoided (Nowak 1999). Individuals aggregate in winter but disperse in summer (Kryštufek 1999). The mole-rat is a fossorial species, digging extensive and elaborate tunnel systems with nesting chambers, storerooms and latrines (Nowak 1999). It feeds on bulbs, roots, tubers, and other underground parts of a range of plants (Nowak 1999). Mole-rats of the genus Spalax can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).

threats:
Its congener Spalax leucodon is threatened by agricultural intensification, as it cannot survive in intensively-farmed arable land. Spalax graecus may be similarly vulnerable to intensive agriculture. Subsistence agriculture continues in Transylvania, and the mole rat population appears to be stable there (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), at least for the time being. However, accession of Romania to the EU might be expected to result in agricultural intensification in the near future.

conservationAction:
It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on the Romanian and Ukrainian national Red Lists. A small reserve has been proposed in Transylvania to protect several species of plant and also, incidentally, Spalax (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures for this little-known species.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a restricted range (extent of occurrence ca. 50,000 km2), within which its distribution is sporadic and fragmented. It is estimated that its area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km2. It is almost extinct in Chechnya as a result of civil war, and it is threatened elsewhere in its range by habitat loss due to irrigation, soil salinization, overgrazing, and ploughing. There is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of this species' habitat. Therefore it is listed as Vulnerable.

range:
It occurs in CIS-Caucasia and southernmost Kalmykia (Russia). Within the range it is distributed very patchily, as separate settlements that often occur in sandy areas.

population:
It is declining in some parts of the range due to human impacts, although in other parts of the range populations are considered stable. Almost extinct in Chechen Republic (Russia) and parts of Dagestan (Russia). Does not undergo periodical fluctuations. Data on population size are limited and somewhat contradictory. According to data for the beginning of 1980s in Dagestan there were about 700-750 individuals (Red Data Book of Russian Federation 1983). However, a later aerial survey showed that the population was about 10,000 individuals.

habitat:
Inhabits loamy and sandy semi-deserts in NE CIS-Caucasia. Prefers moderately moist areas with light soils in river valleys, lake basins and lowlands with luxuriant vegetation. Also occurs in semi-deserts with shrubs and reed, herb-grasses and herb-absinth steppes. Also found in anthropogenic landscapes such as orchards and fields, where it may be a pest. Obligatory subterranean, feeds on subterranean plant parts. Active throughout the year. Generally monogamous. Heat occurs in December-January, females give birth to 2-3 young.

threats:
Habitat loss due to irrigation and subsequent soil salinization, overgrazing, and ploughing. Low reproductive potential is a further limiting factor.

conservationAction:
The species is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation in Category 3 (rare species). It occurs in reserves in Chechen Republic and Dagestan (Russia). Limitation of irrigation and grazing have been proposed as conservation measures.

redListAssessors:
Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)EU 25 regional assessment: Not Evaluated (NE)This species is endemic to Ukraine, where it has a very small range. The population is stable only in Black Sea State Reserve; outside the reserve is declining due to habitat loss and degradation. The species occurs at a small number of locations (<5), and the outside the Black Sea State Reserve its range is severely fragmented. Consequently it qualifies as Endangered.

range:
Endemic species of southern Ukraine, found only on the lower Dnepr sands. Its extent of occurrence is c. 2000 km2, and its area of accupancy is about 55 km2. The main part of the population lies within the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. Outside the reserve it occurs in fragments of poor quality habitat near the Lower Dnepr River sands. Those parts of the range are very fragmented.

population:
The population is stable only in Black Sea State Reserve. In other areas the population is declining because of afforestation of the sands (for stabilisation of the sands and wood production).

habitat:
Stenotopic, inhbits light, moderately wet sandy soils with low subterranean waters. Never occurs in moving sands, alkali soils and in dry feather-grass steppes. Preferres absinth-grass and absinth-spurge steppes with very sparse vegetation. Ecology is poorly studied. Solitary, individual range is more than 80 m2. Feeds on most plants that are abundant in its range (Eryngium campestre, Artemisia campestris, Tragopogon ucrainicum etc.). Reproduces once a year. Copulation occurs in March, birth in April-May. Lactation period is about a month.

threats:
Habitat loss due to afforestation of the sands.

conservationAction:
The species occurs within a protected area, but this does not cover all of the population. It is listed in Ukraine's Red Data Book as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population), and therefore it has legal protection at the national level.


range:
May occur on Lesbos (Greece) (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999), also occurs on east Aegean islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada (Turkey) (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Found throughout most of Anatolia, and in Armenia and Georgia. Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although the extent of occurrence of this species is relatively large (mapped as c.150,000 km2), it has an extremely patchy and severely fragmented distribution within that area, and its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km2. The area of occupancy and quality of habitat is declining continually. The species does not occur in protected areas, except perhaps Podolskiy Tovtry National Park. Assessed as Vulnerable.

range:
The species occurs in Ukraine, where it is found from near the Polish border in the east to the Dnepr River in Central Ukraine and south to the Moldovan border. Populations are fragmented in Ukraine, so the area of occupancy could be much lower than the range indicated on the map..

population:
There are no data on population size of the species. The range is highly fragmented and consists of isolated populations. Therefore although the species has relatively large extent of occurrence, the area of occupancy is low. Since the end of the 19th century the Podolsk mole rat has been considered a rare species across its whole range (Ognev 1947). Range contraction in historical time is probably due to shrinking of steppe habitats. Subfossil remains of the species were found on the left bank of Dnepr River in Kiev and Zhitomir regions. Therefore, losses of range in the south, north-west and north-east have a long history. Currently population density in optimal biotopes is about 1-8 individuals per hectare.

habitat:
The major habitat of this species is virgin steppes. It also occurs in side roads, forest belts, and agricultural fields, and was recently found in former military firing ranges (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Does not avoid sandy soils. An obligate underground species. Its feeding habits are poorly studied, but according to data from southern and south-eastern part of the range it feeds on underground parts of lucerne, chicory, bindweed, mallows and tree seedlings (oak, mulberry, acacia etc.). There are no data on breeding or ecology.

threats:
Habitat degradation and loss due to cultivation and development is a major threat.

conservationAction:
Not found in protected areas (except perhaps Podolskiy Tovtry National Park). Listed in Ukraine Red Data Book under category 3 (rare species with limited number of individuals and restricted range).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Chlopsis bicolor is widely distributed in the western and eastern Atlantic. In the region, this species occurs across the Mediterranean and has also been reported from the Azores. This species is rarely caught and population information is limited. There are no known major threats and it is not commercially utilized in the northeast Atlantic or in the Mediterranean. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Chlopsis bicolor is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean, where it is found along both coasts. In the northeastern Atlantic, C. bicolor is known primarily from the Mediterranean Sea, including from the Iberian coast (Lloris et al. 1984, Lloris and Rucabado 1998), Tyrrhenian Sea (Carpentieri et al. 2005), Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic et al. 2001), Turkish coast (Bilecenoglu 2002), Balearic Islands, Algerian coast (E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007) and in the Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). Two specimens have been reported from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997). It has a depth range of 140–400 m (Carpentieri 2007, Jukic-Peladic et al. 2001).

population:
There are very few Chlopsis bicolor and adults are very rare, while the larvae are common (in museum collections) (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011). Chlopsis bicolor has been found in limited numbers comprising 2.8% (96 specimens) of the catch during a nocturnal trawl survey (eight thirty-minute hauls for each survey in July, November, March and May) in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Carpentieri et al. 2005). This species was also taken near the Great Meteor Seamount, during a survey trawl, with a CPUE of 0.046 ind. m–1 h–1 (Fock et al. 2002).

habitat:
Chlopsis bicolor is a sub-tropical, demersal species, that is found on shelf break and muddy bottom areas in depths from 140–400 m (Jukic-Peladic 2001, Carpentieri et al. 2007). This is a cryptic, burrowing species with a maximum recorded length of 42 cm (Saldanha 1986). The size at maturity for C. bicolor is about 25.2 cm in the Mediterranean and is positively correlated to a shift in diet to larger prey items (Carpentieri et al. 2007).

threats:
Chlopsis bicolor is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean, and there are no specific threats to this species. Chlopsis bicolor may be generally threatened by pollution and anthropogenic activities in the Mediterranean as it is a coastal species (Goren 2014). 

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Chlopsis bicolor. This species occurs in some marine protected areas within its range (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Some research is needed on population status and threats. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chlopsis bicolor is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean. 


taxonomicNotes:
There may be distinct sub-populations in the western Atlantic, indicating that this may represent a species complex (Smith pers. comm. 2011).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Ariosoma balearicum occurs in the western and eastern Atlantic Ocean, throughout the Mediterranean, the Iberian coast and the Azores. This species is common throughout its range and no major threats have been identified. There are no species specific conservation efforts in place but the range of A. balearicum overlaps with marine protected areas. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, research should be conducted to determine the species' population size and trends.

range:
Ariosoma balearicum is widespread in the western and eastern Atlantic Ocean (Robins and Ray 1986) and has been reported from the Red Sea and Indian Ocean (Bauchot and Blache 1979). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, A. balearicum is found in the Azores (Porteiro et al. 2010), along the Iberian peninsula with a northern boundary of 48° N (Stenhlow et al. 1998), and into the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Busalacchi et al. 2010), Mediterranean Sea (Robins and Ray 1986), in the Adriatic Sea (Varezić et al. 2012), and in the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (IREPA 2003), but is not found in the Marmara Sea. Ariosoma balearicum can occur to 732 m depth (Smith 1990) but usually occurs in less than 100 m (Smith 1989). 

population:
Arisoma balearicum is very common and abundant throughout its range (Smith pers. comm. 2011). This species had a mean density of 14.9 N/km2, mean biomass index of 0.2 kg/km2 and a frequency of occurrence of 1.6% in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Busalacchi et al. 2010).

habitat:
Ariosoma balearicum is found on sandy and muddy bottoms (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986, Varezić et al. 2012) and reefs (Riede 2004). It has a maximum length of 34 cm and has a depth range of 20–100 m in the Adriatic Sea (Varezić et al. 2012) and 112–391 m in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Busalacchi et al. 2010). Ariosoma balearicum is leptocephalic 20–22 months before metamorphosis, which takes place around 20 cm length (Bauchot 1987). This species reaches a maximum length of 50 cm (Bauchot 1987). Ariosoma balearicum is benthopelagic and occurs over the shelf and upper continental slope. Ariosoma balearicum is a burrowing species and prefers clear water. This species is usually found to 35 cm and spawns during the warm season. The diet of this species is primarily comprised of soft bodied invertebrates (Smith 1989, 1990; Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). 

threats:
Ariosoma balearicum is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic and there are no major threats to this species. This species is caught as bycatch and may be threatened by pollution as it prefers to inhabit clear water (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013). 

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for A. balearicum. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). There is a need for additional research on the population size and trends for A. balearicum. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Ariosoma balearicum is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean Sea but is taken by artisanal fishing and bycatch using longlines and trawls (Bauchot 1987). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as it is a common and widespread species throughout its range. However, the species could be threatened by fisheries, as it is a highly appreciated targeted species by both commercial and recreational fisheries, with high vulnerability and very low resilience. Immature individuals are being fished in many countries, and decrease of landings are happening in some areas. These declines appear localized at this time, and there is no evidence that the population is declining at the regional level. Further research on the population trend of the species is encouraged.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway, Finland and Iceland southwards to Senegal. It is widespread in the whole Mediterranean Sea, including the Aegean Sea (Whitehead et al. 1984, Golani et al. 2006), the Marmara Sea and the western part of the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). It is present at depths ranging from zero to 1,171 metres.

population:
Conger conger is a common species, but its current population trend remains unknown. Ozaydin et al. (2007) mention that ten specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December of 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), ranging from 37.2 cm to 49.5 cm TL. Karakulak et al. (2006) mention that eight specimens, with lengths ranging from 20.9 to 62.5 cm TL, were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March of 2004 to February of 2005. Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) mention that 106 specimens were seasonally obtained during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece). According to FAO-GFCM, 8,210 kg were fished from Barcelona fleet in 2005. Filiz and Bilge (2004) mention that 22 specimens, with lengths ranging from 32.2 and 65.4 cm TL, were collected during March and July 2003 by commercial fisherman from the Sıgacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea) at depths between 70 and 378 m. Data on captures are available in Fishstat, for the period 1950 to 2011. The species is being fished both in Mediterranean and Atlantic waters, with a maximum of 16,729 tons registered in 1994, and an average of 15,055 tons during the 1990s and 14,346 tons during the period 2000 to 2011.

habitat:
Conger conger is a demersal species with a wide bathymetric range (zero to 1,200 m). Its depth ranges from zero to 800 m at European waters (Correia et al. 2011), but the species was collected during experimental hauls at deeper bottoms in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Ionian Sea), at depth ranges of  500-700, 700-900 and 900-1,171 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It is found on rocky and sandy bottoms (Göthel 1992). Young individuals stay near the coast and move toward deeper waters upon reaching adulthood (Maigret and Ly 1986). It is a nocturnal predator (Göthel 1992) and it feeds on fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). Its maximum size is 300 cm (TL). Like other species of this taxonomic group, it reproduces only once in its life (Maigret and Ly 1986). Individuals are sexually mature at an age from five to 15 years. They spawn during the summer in the Atlantic off Portugal and in the Mediterranean Sea. Females produce between three to eight million eggs (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Eggs are deposited in the open sea, at depths between 2,000-3,000 m (Göthel 1992).

threats:
This species is commercially fished. According to landing data from Europe (FAO Area 37 Mediterranean and Black Seas), Conger conger were caught mainly by hooks and lines, but also by trawls, trammel-nets and traps. This species can also be used in public aquariums. The following Conger conger annual landings in the Mediterranean Sea (between 1996 and 2005, in tons) were obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 2,610 (1996), 1,669 (1997), 1,572 (1998), 2,423 (1999), 2,303 (2000), 2,387 (2001), 21,136 (2002), 1,642 (2003), 1,755 (2004), 2,448 (2005). The species is considered by Fishbase (2014) as a high vulnerable species with a very low resilience (more than 14 years as minimum population doubling time). It is a targeted species by industrial and recreational fisheries, and it is caught by bottom trawl, long-line and hooks (Correia et al. 2012). Correia et al. (2012) also concluded that, despite being a targeted species, there is a lack of information on its biology and population trends (i.e spawning areas remains unknown).  Spanish and French fisheries in the Bay of Biscay (ICES 2008) strongly fished both in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and also highly appreciated by recreational fisheries. In Britain and Ireland the species landings have been decreasing since the 1960s (Molfese et al. 2014), so the species could be threatened in these areas, possibly by overfishing.

conservationAction:
The species is not included in any National Red List or Red Data Books of any European countries. It is present in protected areas throughout its range, such as the Natura 2000 sites El Cachucho (Spain), where it is common, and the four other sites in Italy, including Relitti di Posidonia presso  Grado (present), Trezze San Pietro e  Bardelli (common), Fondali Isola di Dino-Capo  Scalea (present) and Tegnue di Porto  Falconera (present). Future protected areas where the species is present include Chella Bank among many more others. Seamounts conservation and management are needed to preserve some of the habitats preferred by the species, such as rocky bottoms. Besides, due to the large size at first maturity, the small mesh size in many countries is a problem for the species, causing the capture of immature individuals. Further measures are to be taken in order to avoid this (FAO 1994). Research should also be conducted on the population trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
It is a targeted species by Spanish and French fisheries in the Bay of Biscay (ICES 2008), and it is also highly appreciated by recreational fisheries. The species is exploited by the Hake trawl fishery in the Mediterranean (GFCM 2011). Eurostat data on catches from 1993 to 2009 show a decrease of catches among 2001 and 2005. These catches vary from an average of 15,000 tons per year (1993-2000) to 7,000 tons per year (2001-2005) and back to 14,000 tons per year (2006-2009), so it may respond to natural fluctuations and not to over-exploitation, but more detailed data are needed. Data on captures are available in Fishstat, covering the period from 1950 to 2011. The species is being fished both in Mediterranean and Atlantic waters, with a maximum of 16,729 tons registered in 1994, an average of 15,055 tons during the 90s and 14,346 tons during the period 2000 to 2011. These data do not show general decline of the captures from NE Atlantic and Mediterranean waters, but it is happening in specific areas such as Britain and Ireland, where landings have declined since the 1960s (Molfese et al. 2014). In the Adriatic Sea, bottom longline fishery catches in 1992 were composed by an 11% of Conger conger (Ungaro et al. 2003).

redListContributors:
Blanco, J., Papakonstantinou, C., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as the species is only known from a handful of specimens on its type locality in the Meteor Seamount. Further research is needed on its distribution, population size and trend.

range:
This species is currently known only from the type locality on the Azorean slope (Meteor Seamount, 29°50.2'N, 28°23.8'W), in the northwestern Atlantic. Specimens were collected at depths of 300-304 m.

population:
There is no information available on the population size and trend of the species, as it is known only from a handful of specimens.

habitat:
This is a demersal species only known from the Meteor Seamount at 300 m depth. It is thought to prefer rocky structured habitats, and probably feeds on crustaceans and small fishes.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, and it is unknown whether it is found in protected areas. Further research is needed on the population size, trend and threats to the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gnathophis mystax is widespread in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the Canary Islands and the Azores. Gnathophis mystax is common throughout its range and is not commercially targeted. No major threats to this species have been identified. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Gnathophis mystax is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is distributed from southern Portugal, the Canary Islands (Bauchot 1987), and the Azores (Menezes et al. 2006) to Morocco (Bauchot 1987). This species also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, including the Gulf of Cadiz (Torres et al. 2012), Balearic Islands (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007), Ionian Sea (Granata et al. 2012), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988) and Tyrrhenian Sea (Busalacci et al. 2010). The depth range for G. mystax is 80–800 m (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986).

population:
Gnathophis mystax is commonly found in the northeastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean with 115 specimens being caught in a trawl survey in the Gulf of Cadiz (Torres et al. 2012), 306 specimens caught by trawl off the coast of western Italy with a catch per unit effort (CPUE) of 116 (n∙h-1) (Carpentieri et al. 2007), 0.3% relative abundance and 0.02 mean abundance (n/100 m^3) in the north Ionian Sea (Granata et al. 2012) and in the Tyrrhenian Sea a mean biomass index of 3.3, mean density index of 124.5 and a 4.4% frequency of occurrence (Busalacchi et al. 2010). Mytilineou et al. (2005) mentions that this species was collected in the northeastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 700–900 m (36 total hauls). Carpentieri et al. (2005) mentions that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (230 individuals/h), November 2001 (36 individuals/h), March 2002 (14 individuals/h) and May 2002 (26 individuals/h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24 hours period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30–40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end, respectively.

habitat:
Gnathophis mystax is a benthopelagic species found on sandy and muddy substrates on the continental slope in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea (Blache et al. 1979) and is probably most common between 80–400 m depth (Casadevall and Matallanas 1990). Gnathophis mystax spawns during the warm season throughout its range and has a larval period of 12 months. It is a burrowing species that feeds on benthic invertebrates and probably small fishes (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). The maximum recorded length for G. mystax is 60 cm TL (Bauchot 1987). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 50 cm TL and the length at maturity is 24.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
There are no major threats identified for Gnathophis mystax. However, this species is caught as bycatch and may also be impacted by eutrophication or other types of pollution (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013). Globally, it is a minor commercial species.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Gnathophis mystax. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Additional research is needed on the species' population size and trends.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gnathophis mystax is not a commercially fished species in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean; however, this species may be fished locally or caught as bycatch and could become a minor commercial species (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986, Busalacchi et al. 2010, Carpentieri et al. 2007, Granata et al. 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
The eastern and western Atlantic populations may represent two separate species (D. Smith pers. comm. 2012).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species has a wide range, there are not known major threats and it is likely found in marine protected areas in parts of its range. However, further research is needed on the distribution, population size and trend of the species, and to determine if the east and west populations in the Atlantic represent two different species.

range:
This species is distributed across the Atlantic Ocean. In European waters, it is known from Madeira and the Canary Islands (Saldanha et al. 1986, Brito et al. 2002). Its depth range is 10-50 m.

population:
There are no population data available for this species. In certain places in Madeira, density can be as high as six specimens per square metre (M. Biscoito pers. comm. 2015).

habitat:
This marine-reef associated species is found on sandy bottom substrates forming colonies at 10-50 m depth. During the day, the animals are primarily found with just their heads and part of their bodies protruding from burrows in colonies, where they retreat when frightened and at night (Brito et al. 2002). This species feeds on zooplankton and small benthic fauna, and spawns during warm months. The leptocephalus larvae have been taken in the waters off Bermuda (Tyler and Luckhurst 1995) and in the Gulf of Guinea. Its larval life is of six to eight months, having fast growth (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). Its maximum size is 51 cm (TL).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, but its distribution in Madeira overlaps with marine protected areas. Further research is needed on the taxonomy, population size and trend of the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size and trend of the species, which is only found in Madeira and the Azores Islands. Further research is needed to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
This species is found only in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from Madeira and the Azores. It has a depth range of 30-100 m (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986, Santos et al. 1997, Wirtz et al. 2008).

population:
There is no information on the population size and trend of the species.

habitat:
This is a demersal species that occurs on the shelf on sandy areas of rocky sublittoral zone. It burrows in the sediment during the day and swims actively at night in search of prey (fish and octopuses) (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986, Wirtz 1994). Its maximum size is 50 cm (TL).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, but it is present in protected areas throughout its range, such as Reserva Natural do Garajau in Madeira. Further research is needed on the population size and trend of the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information available on the population size, trend, ecology and likely threats to this deep water benthic species. Research should be conducted to establish the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
This species is found in the eastern Atlantic off Morocco, the Azores, the Canary Islands and probably Madeira. Its depth limits are 123 m and 1,647 m, but it occurs mainly between 650 m and 800 m (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986, Santos et al. 1997, Brito et al. 2002).

habitat:
This is a deep water benthic species found over muddy bottoms mainly at 650 m to 800 m depth. Its maximum size is 38.7 cm (TL).

threats:
There are no major threats known to the species.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, and it is unknown whether it is found in protected areas. Further research is needed on the population size, trend and ecology of the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Derichthys serpentinus is circumglobal in tropical and temperate waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, D. serpentinus is known from west of Ireland and the Azores. Though at the edge of the assessment region, D. serpentinus is very populous in the Sargasso Sea. There are no known major threats. Therefore, D. serpentinus is listed as Least Concern. Further research needs to be conducted to determine population status and threats to this species. 

range:
Derichthys serpentinus is circumglobal in tropical and temperate waters (Castle 1986, Smith 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, D. serpentinus is known from the Rockall Basin to 52oN (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013) and near the Azores (Karmovskaya 1985, Sutton et al. 2008). There are no known records of Derichthys serpentinus in the Mediterranean Sea. Derichthys serpentinus is typically found from 200 m to 700 m but has been recorded to a maximum depth of 2,000 m (Smith 1989, 1990)

population:
The species is pelagic and generally occurs outside of the European assessment zone; however, 16 individuals were caught near the Azores (Sutton et al. 2008) and one found in the Rockall Plateua off the coast of Ireland (Byrkjedal 2004).  Studies on the distribution of eel larvae in the western Sargasso Sea have reported the larvae D. serpentinus to be among the most abundant species (Castonguay and McCleave 1987).

habitat:
Derichthys serpentinus is a mesopelagic species that has a depth range from 200 m to 700 m but has been recorded to a maximum depth of 2,000 m (Smith 1989, 1990). It has also been taken above 360 m at night (T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008). Maximum length is 40 cm (Castle 1986). The pre-metamorphic larvae prefer waters of 1,000–2,000 m (Castle 1970). Individuals feed on small planktonic shrimp, amongst other prey (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). This species larvae and eggs are planktonic. In the North Atlantic, D. serpentinus spawns in the Sargasso Sea from April to August. This species feeds on crustaceans and small fish (Karmovskaya 1985, Smith 1989; 1990). The maximum length for this species is 40 cm (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013).

threats:
Derichthys serpentinus is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean and there are no specific threats to Derichthys serpentinus. A potential threat to this species is that of the deepwater trawling industry. However, this is a wide ranging species and deepwater species of eels are rarely seen in the bycatch of these trawls and so this threat is not considered to have a major impact upon this species at present.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for Derichthys serpentinus. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Derichthys serpentinus is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean. This species is caught as bycatch (Karmovskaya 1985; Smith 1989, 1990). 

redListContributors:
De Silva, R., Milligan, H., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC  Nessorhamphus ingolfianus is listed as Least Concern, as the species is not directly threatened and although it is found at the edge of its range in European waters, it is very populous in the Sargasso Sea. Further research should be conducted to determine threats to the species in the Azores and to determine the population size and status. It is a relatively deep dwelling species, found down to 2,000 m and is very abundant in its larval form in the Sargasso Sea thus, threats to this species are probably limited. However, there is a decline in other anguilliform species that spawn in the Sargasso Sea due to a number of changing oceanic conditions, which may impact N. ingolfianus in the future.

range:
Nessorhamphus ingolfianus is widely distributed throughout the world (Castle 1986) inhabiting tropical, temperate, and subtropical zones of all oceans (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013), to 60°N in the North Atlantic Ocean (Karmovskaya 1985). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species has been found from the Azores (Sutton et al. 2008) and as far north as the Rockall Trough area, west of Ireland (Byrkjedal et al. 2004) but there are no records of occurrence within the Mediterranean Sea. The depth range for this species is 0 to 1,800 m (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013) but it has been found at depths between 1,045 to 2,173 m (Merrett et al. 1985).

population:
Nessorhamphus ingolfianus is common throughout its range (Blache et al. 1973) and is considered common in the North Atlantic Ocean (Blache et al. 1973). Although there are no records of large catch sizes of this species per trawl, leptocephali of N. ingolfianus are abundant in the Sargasso Sea (Castonguay 1987), However, the location of its spawning has not been determined (Castonguay 1987, Merrett et al. 1985).

habitat:
Nessorhamphus ingolfianus is an epipelagic to mesopelagic eel (Blache 1973), found to depths of over 2,000 m with juveniles occurring in the upper 1,000 m. This species feeds on crustaceans (Merrett 1985) and the larvae and eggs are planktonic (Castonguay 1987). The maximum length for this species is 67.3 cm. Nessorhamphus ingolfianus spawns in the north Atlantic from April to December (Karmovskaya 1985; Smith 1989, 1990).

threats:
Nessorhamphus ingolfianus is not commercially targeted in the region and there are no specific threats to this species. However, there is a decline in other anguilliforms that spawn in the Sargasso Sea due to a number of changing ocean parameters and these conditions may also impact the recruitment of N. ingolfianus (Friedland 2007). This species is removed as bycatch in midwater trawls but the extent to which this affects N. ingolfianus is unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Nessorhamphus ingolfianus. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). 

useAndTrade:
Nessorhamphus ingolfianus is not commercially fished in the northeastern Atlantic or in the Mediterranean. However, N. ingolfianus is caught a bycatch (Karmovskaya 1985; Smith 1989, 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
Panturichthys fowleri is known only from the Mediterranean Sea. There are very few records, but it may be widespread across the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Few data are available about the population status or trends. It is not harvested for any known purpose, but other threats are unknown. Therefore, Panturichthys fowleri is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it was originally known from a holotype taken from Israel at a depth of 25–55 metres (Ben-Tuvia 1953) and a record from the north Aegean Sea (Economidis & Bauchot 1976). More recently, specimens have been collected on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Smith et al. 2012) and in the Levantine Sea (Goren 2004, Goren and Galil 2007). The depth distribution of P. fowleri is not well known; it may range from 25–55 m (Ben-Tuvia 1953) to 1000–1,500 m (Goren 2004, Goren and Galil 2007).

population:
There are only a few records of this species, but it may be under-reported as it would readily escape from nets because of its long, thin shape.

habitat:
This is a demersal species that likely spends most of its time burrowing into the muddy sediment of its habitat (Smith et al. 2012). A holotype was taken between 25 and 55 m depth (Ben-Tuvia 1953), and more recently specimens have been captured in a deep-sea survey at 1000-1500 m (Galil 2004, Goren and Galil 2007). The specimen collected by Smith et al. (2012) had a fish vertebral column in its stomach and had wrapped its body around the hooked bait, suggesting that the species may feed using rapid rotations of the body to rip apart prey items, similarly to other eel species. However, it possesses only molariform teeth.

threats:
This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Research is needed into possible threats that may exist to this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. It was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not taken for any known purpose and is rarely caught throughout its range.

redListContributors:
Papaconstantinou, C., Golani, D., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Cynoponticus ferox is listed as Data Deficient as it is a rarely captured in the northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean and has only been recorded from Italy and Gibraltar. Research needs to be conducted to determine the species' occurrence, population size and trends in the northeastern Atlantic.

range:
Cynoponticus ferox is widely distributed  in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Gibraltar to Angola. This species is rarely found in the western Mediterranean Sea and has only been recorded from Italy (Elba, Ischia, and Portoferraio) (Maurin et al. 1982, Blache et al. 1968). The depth range for this species is 10–100 m (Blache et al. 1968). 

population:
There are limited population data for Cynoponticus ferox.

habitat:
Cynoponticus ferox is a demersal species, inhabiting sandy to muddy bottoms near the continental shelf (Maurin et al. 1982, Blache et al. 1968). The maximum size recorded for this species is 20 cm TL (Smith 1990). Cynoponticus ferox  is a carnivorous species.

threats:
There are no known major threats to Cynoponticus ferox.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Cynoponticus ferox. There is a need for additional information about the biology and population of this species.  This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
This species is a synonym of Anarchias longicauda.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Anarchias longicauda is listed as Data Deficient. It has very few records from the northeastern Atlantic and is not often caught, however, is not commercially exploited and has no specific threats. Further research is required to determine the status of the species in the northeastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean. 

range:
Anarchias longicauda is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is distributed from Morocco south to the Gulf of Guinea, including the offshore islands (Smith 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic, A. longicauda is known from the the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014), Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), and the Canary Islands (Lloris 1991). This species has also been recorded once off Nice, France in the Mediterranean (Bauchot 1984). It is found from 10–100 m depth (Smith 1990).

population:
There is no population data available for Anarchial longicauda.

habitat:
Anarchias longicauda is a benthic species found on rough sand and rocks with a depth range of 10-100 m (Smith 1990).

threats:
Major threats to Anarchias longicauda have not been identified. 

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Anarchias longicauda. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
Anarchias longicauda is not utilized in the region. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Enchelycore anatina is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic including the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira and is also found in Mediterranean Sea. Although it is widespread, it appears to be relatively uncommon. No major threats have been identified for Enchelycore anatina and its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. Therefore, it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Enchelycore anatina is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. This species occurs from Portugal, Madeira and the Azores, and the Canary Islands, (Ben-Tuvia and Golani 1984, Lipej et al. 2011). Enchelycore anatina also occurs in the Mediterranean in the southern and eastern Adriatic Sea (Lipej et al. 2011), Hellenic Seas (Pancucci-Papadopoulou et al. 2005, Corsini-Foka 2010, Guidetti et al. 2012), the southern coast of Turkey, Syrian, Cyprus and the Levant Sea (Ben-Tuvia and Golani 1984). The depth range for this species is 0 to 60 m (Guidetti et al. 2012).

population:
Enchelycore anatina is a rare species. Although records are becoming more frequent (Golani et al. 2002), it is highly probable that Enchelycore anatina has been overlooked in all previous studies. Underwater observations from Turkey suggest that E. anatina can be widespread and locally abundant (Bilecenoglu 2010). It is thought to be introduced to Greece and therefore possibly the rest of the Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 2002)

habitat:
Enchelycore anatina is a demersal species found occasionally among rocks and rubble to about 60 m depth and feeds on other fish, molluscs and crustaceans (Maigret and Ly 1986, Guidetti et al. 2012). The maximum size for this species is 120 cm (Golani et al. 2002).

threats:
No major threats have been identified for Enchelycore anatina. However, coastal pollution is a potential threat.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Enchelycore anatina. This species is present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Enchelycore anatine is not a commercially fished species in the region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as the species is only known from three specimens. Further research should be conducted on its population size, trend, ecology and threats to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
This is an Eastern-central Atlantic species known in European waters from the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002) and Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008). It is also present in Cape Verde. It has a wide depth range, being present from 10 to 610 m.

population:
There is no information available on the population size and trend of the species, as it is only known from three specimens.

habitat:
This is a demersal species and all three specimens were taken over rocky bottom habitats between 10 and 610 metres. Its maximum size is 34.7 cm (TL).

threats:
The threats to the species are unknown, as its known range is limited and little information is available on the potential threats to the area.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, and it is unknown whether it is found in protected areas. Further research is needed on the population size, trend, ecology and threats to the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as this is a widespread and relatively common species in European waters. Although the species is commercially targeted, there are no separate statistics of its catches. Further research should be conducted on the population trends and threats to this demersal species.

range:
Gymnothorax maderensis is distributed across the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, it is known from Madeira, the Canary Islands and Benin (Smith and Böhlke 1990, Brito et al. 2002). The citation of this species from the Azores was not considered valid by Santos et al. (1997). The species was first recorded in Cape Verde islands by Menezes et al. (2004). In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Bermuda, North Carolina (USA), northwestern Cuba (Gulf of Mexico), and in the Caribbean from Puerto Rico to the Saba Bank and Curacao (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2014). The Sharktooth Moray is a demersal species with a depth range comprised between 80-200 m (Smith and Böhlke 1990), probably extending below this depth in Madeira (Delgado 2007) and the Canaries (Franquet and Brito 1985, Brito et al. 2002). Also, Menezes et al. (2004) recorded the capture in Cape Vert of a single individual below 200 m.

population:
In European waters, G. maderensis is considered a common species, both in the Canaries (Franquet and Brito 1995, Brito et al. 2002) and Madeira (Delgado 2007). Elsewhere, it is also common in Cape Verde (Menezes et al. 2004). The population trend of this species is unknown.

habitat:
This is a demersal species that occurs on shelf, rocks and deep coral zones in the neritic zone (Bauchot 1986). From samples collected off Madeira and Porto Santo in survey cruises, it was reported by Delgado (2007) to have a total length ranging between 84-92 cm, corresponding to a weight between 1.3-1.4 kg. Ferreira et al. (2008) estimated the parameter a (0.002) of the weight-length relationship, setting b = 3. Menezes et al (2004) reported the catch of specimens with sizes between 61-90 cm (TL) in Cape Verde. According to Smith and Böhlke (1990), the size of this species may reach to about 1 m TL.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, and it is unknown whether it occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted on the population trend and threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
There are no separate catch statistics for G. maderensis, but for multispecies fishery of demersal species off Madeira, therefore it is not possible to evaluate the yields and economic value of this species. Gymnothorax maderensis is caught off the Canaries with moray and fish traps, handlines and bottom longlines (Franquet and Brito 1995). In this archipelago, this species is valued but catches are scarce.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Gymnothorax polygonius is widespread, albeit uncommon. There is no information on the population size and trends of the species, therefore further research should be conducted to establish the status of the species through its range. It is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species has been recorded across the Atlantic Ocean. In the European Eastern Atlantic, it is known from Madeira Island and the Canary Islands (Bohlke et al. 1989). Its depth range is 10-600 m, but it is predominantly found around 100-300 m (Brito et al. 2002).

population:
Gymnothorax polygonius is a widespread but uncommon species through the eastern and western Atlantic, on deep rocky outcrops to 600 m. There is no information on the population size and trends of the species.

habitat:
This is a benthic species found in deep tropical water habitats, over rocky outcrops to 260 m. Its maximum size is 84 cm (TL).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, but it is found in protected areas throughout its range, such as Garajau Nature Reserve (Madeira). Further research is needed on the population size, trend and ecology to the species.

redListContributors:
McCosker, J., Smith, D.G., Harwell, H., Cox, N.A. & Hines, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Gymnothorax unicolor is widely distributed from the Canary Islands to the Levant Sea. Outside the assessment zone, G. unicolor is known from the Cape Verde islands. It is considered common throughout its range. While it is a commercially targeted fish, the extent of its targeting is of minor significance and its range overlaps several marine protected areas. It is listed as Least Concern, but further research should be conducted to determine the extent of exploitation.  

range:
Gymnothorax unicolor is restricted to the eastern Atlantic (Smith 2012). This species occurs from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997), Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008), the Canary Islands (Blache et al. 1973), the southern coast Portugal and Spain. This species is also found throughout Mediterranean Sea including the Balearic Islands (Smith 2012), Aegean and Levant Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Edelist and Spanier 2009) and the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). The depth range for this species is 0 to 20 m (Edwards 1990).

population:
Gymnothorax unicolor is a common species (Blache et al. 1973) but is very rare in the Adriatic Sea (Matic-Skoko et al. 2010). It has a biomass of 645.2 g/m2 in the Levant Sea on artificial reefs (Edelist and Spanier 2009) and in the Azores there is a relative abundance of 0.04%, frequency of observation of 2.94% and a mean density of 0.001 n/m2 (Bertoncini et al. 2010).

habitat:
Gymnothorax unicolor is a benthic, littoral species found along rocky coasts, rough sand, gravel, crevices, small caves and shadowed zones (Blache et al. 1973, Bauchot 1986). It is a carnivore, feeding on fish, small crabs and gastropods (Böhlke 1981, Edelist and Spanier 2009) and spawns in the warm season. The maximum length for this species is 100 cm (Reiner 1996). 

threats:
There are no major threats to Gymnothorax unicolor although it is of minor commercial importance (Çekiç et al. 2005, Matic-Skoko et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Gymnothorax unicolor. This species is present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Gymnothorax unicolor was assessed as Data Deficient in the Turkish checklist for marine fishes (Fricke et al. 2007). Research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of this species. This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gymnothorax unicolor is commercially fished in the Adriatic Sea, but is of minor commercial importance (Matic-Skoko et al. 2010). It is also a minor component of bycatch discards along the Turkish coast (Çekiç et al. 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as, in European waters, Gymnothorax vicinus is only known from six specimens that were collected at El Hierro (Canary Islands, Spain). There is no information on its population size, trend and ecology, therefore further research is needed to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
In European waters, Gymnothorax vicinus occurs only in the Canary Islands, where six specimens were collected at El Hierro Island. Previous records from Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008) and the Azores are misidentifications of G. polygonius (Brito et al. 2014). Elsewhere, in the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension Island, and the Sao Tome and Principe Islands (Smith and Bohlke 1990). Its depth range is zero to 150 m.

population:
There is no information on its population size and trends.

habitat:
Gymnothorax vicinus has been caught on rocky sub-tidal shores down to 40 m of depth. Its maximum size is 122 cm (TL), but details of his ecology and life history are lacking.

threats:
Gymnothorax vicinus is rarely caught in its European range. There are no major threats to the species.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action and it is not present in protected areas throughout its range. Further research is needed on the population size, trend and ecology of the species, as well as the monitoring of its population trends.

redListContributors:
Smith, D.G., McCosker, J., Cox, N.A., Harwell, H. & Hines, A.


taxonomicNotes:
The species was considered a synonym of M. helena (Wirtz and Biscoito 2008), but Jiménez et al. (2007) have confirmed the specific identity of M. augusti using morphological and genetic methods.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as this Macaronesian species is common in European waters and its populations are presumed to be stable. It is captured at a very small scale, and there are no major threats to the species. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas throughout its range.

range:
Muraena augusti is known from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from the Macaronesian Islands, being present in the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary Islands and Cape Verde (Nunes 1953, Franquet and Brito 1995, Santos et al. 1997, Brito et al. 2002). According to Brito et al. (2002), this benthonic species has a wide depth range (zero to 250 m), but it is more abundant above 50 m of depth.

population:
There is scarce information about the abundance of this species throughout its distribution range. Although it has been recorded from commercial landings in the Azores, no information is available on its population size, abundance and trends as there are no species-specific landing statistics (Santos et al. 1997). In Madeira, where this species endures a small scale fishery, the trends in landings of M. augusti are stable in the last decade, with 100 to 250 kg reported per year, although there is a high probability of misidentification of the species. There are specimens of this species stored in the collection of the Museu de História Natural do Funchal (Carneiro et al. 2014). Araújo et al. (2008) found the species very frequent in rocky habitats in the Marine eco-park of Funchal. Likewise, Brito et al. (2002) indicated this species to be common in rocky bottoms in the Canaries, being more abundant above 50 m deep. Overall, the species is presumed to be common and its trend stable.

habitat:
This is a nocturnal and territorial species. In Madeira and the Canaries, M. augusti  is captured specially in subtidal rocky bottoms to around 50 m of depth (Nunes 1953, Franquet and Brito 1995, Brito et al. 2002, Araújo et al. 2008).  In the Canary Islands, M. augusti inhabits rocky and stony bottoms, sometimes hiding under large rocks in tidal pools, from the shore to depths of 250 m, although it is more common at depths shallower than 50 m (Jiménez et al. 2007). Franquet and Brito (1995) indicate that the reproduction of this species occurs all year round in the Canaries, peaking in the months of June, August and December. In Madeira, Araújo et al. (2008) indicate that this species can be found under rocks in tide pools, although it is found more often in holes and crevices to a depth of 30 m. It feeds on fishes and crustaceans and presents ovoviviparous reproduction from May to October.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for the protection of this species. Its range overlaps with marine protected areas throughout its range, such as the Marine Eco-Park of Funchal. Research should be conducted on the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
This species is used for human consumption in the Azores, Madeira and the Canaries. Muraena augusti is captured in a very small scale and reported on commercial landings, with less than 200 kg per year in Madeira and achieving around one euro per kg.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Muraena helena is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic from Spain to the Cape Verde islands. In the northeastern Atlantic, M. helena is known from Spain to Madeira, including the Mediterranean. It is very abundant throughout its range. However, it is component of commercial and recreational fisheries. Though listed as vulnerable in Turkey, no major population declines have been recorded. Muraena helena is listed as Least Concern, but we recommend continued monitoring of its population status.

range:
Muraena helena is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from France to Senegal. In the northeastern Atlantic, M. helena ranges from northwestern Spain (Bañón et al. 2010) to Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008), Azores, and the Canary Islands (Bertoncini et al. 2010). It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Blache et al. 1973), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is also found as a vagrant species in the British Isles and North Sea (Jiming 1982). It has a depth range from 15 m (Göthel 1992) to 104 m (Busalacchi et al. 2010).

population:
Muraena helena is a very common species (Dooley et al. 1985, Matick-Skoko et al. 2010). It has a biomass of 645.2g/m2 in the Levant Sea (Edelist and Spanier 2009). In the Azores Islands it has a relative abundance of 0.04, a frequency of observation of 2.94 and a mean density of 0.001 m-2 (Bertoncini et al. 2010). This species occurs in the Berlengas Marine Protected Area (MPA) with a frequency of occurrence at 7.7% and 8.3% 2004 and 2005, respectively (Vasco-Rodrigues et al. 2011).

habitat:
Muraena helena is benthic on shelf and associated with rocky bottoms, and is commonly found in holes, and crevices among rock at depths of 15–104 m. It is a nocturnal and territorial species feeding on fish, crabs and squid (Göthel 1992).

threats:
No major threats have been identified for Muraena helena; however, potential threats to this species include commercial and recreational fishing in the Canary Islands and Majorca (Dooley et al. 1985, ICES 2009)

conservationAction:
In Turkey Muraena helena is listed as Vulnerable with a significant decline and a low priority for conservation; however, there was no specific reason for VU status (Fricke et al. 2007). There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). We recommend continued monitoring of its population status. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Muraena helena is a popular food fish (Dooley et al. 1985). This species is exploited by commercial fisheries and targeted by recreational fishermen; seldom by boat, but more commonly by shore fishing and is very commonly taken by spear fishermen in Majorca (ICES 2009). Globally, this species is of a minor commercial importance as food and is sometimes taken for public display aquariums. It may be utilized fresh, eaten broiled, boiled or baked while the skin can be used for leather (Frimodt 1995). This species is listed as bycatch in unspecified tuna fisheries in the Atlantic and Mediterranean (ICCAT 2007). In Turkey the species is discarded as bycatch (~15% of total) in longline fishing practices targeting Mustelus mustelus (Ceyhan et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA Avocettina infans is listed as Not Applicable as the species' presence in Europe does not constitute more than 1% of the species' global population.

range:
Avocettina infans is a circumglobal species that occurs in the tropical to temperate zones of all oceans except the Mediterranean and the northeast Pacific. In the northeast Atlantic this species is distributed from about 40°N to 10°S (Nielsen and Smith 1978, Karmovskaya 1982, Smith 1989) and from Portugal (Davies and Merrett 1998) and the Azores (Lloris et al. 1991, Santos et al. 1997). This species was recorded off the coast of the British Isles (Edwards and Davis 1997) and Greenland (Møller et al. 2010). Avocetta infans has a depth range from the surface to 2,000 m (Larsen 1973) and is found to depths of 4,580 m globally (Mundy 2005).

population:
There are no published population data on Avocettina infans, however, there are 674 specimens in museum records (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal, www.fishnet2.org, 2013-08-09).

habitat:
Avocettina infans is a semelparous species that exhibits strong sexual dimorphism. The diet of this species is primarily comprised for crustaceans, especially sergestids and euphasids. The maximum length for this species is 74.5 cm (Nielsen and Smith 1978, Karmovskaya 1982, Smith 1989).

threats:
Avocettina infans is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic and there are no major threats identified for this species; however, bycatch may be a potential threat (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013). 

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Avocettina infans. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). 

useAndTrade:
Avocettina infans is not a commercially fished species in European waters but it is caught as bycatch (Nielsen and Smith 1978, Karmovskaya 1982, Smith 1989).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs in Portugal, Madeira, the Azores and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is found in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), the Azores, Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and off mainland Portugal (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015). Globally, this species is found in both the eastern and western Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, however absent in the Caribbean Sea, and also found in the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific.  It has been collected at depths between zero and 4,400 m.

population:
This species is common and moderately abundant throughout its range.

habitat:
This is a bathypelagic species occurring at depths of 0-4,400 m. The wide depth range is attributed to the diurnal migrations that this species goes through (Hureau and Monod 1974).  During its nightly migration to the surface N. curvirostris feeds on crustaceans. It is a strongly sexually dimorphic species.

threats:
There are no major threats known to affect this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC ) Nemichthys scolopaceus is circumglobally distributed in tropical and temperate waters. It is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean. Although this species is uncommon, it is a deep-water species that is not targeted in commercial fisheries and is only rarely caught as bycatch. Due to its expansive range it is likely that several populations live within MPAs. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Nemichthys scolopaceus is a circumglobal species occurring in tropical and temperate seas. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species ranges from south of Iceland (Krefft 1976, Larsen 1979, Byrkjedal and Godø 2004), along the Iberian Coast (Monteiro et al. 2001, Serrano et al. 2011) to the Azores and Canary Islands (Menezes et al. 2012, Porteiro et al. 2010, Sutton et al. 2008). In the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), this species occurs in the southern Aegean Sea, particularly in Marmaris coast (Bilecenoglu et al. 2006). It is common in the Ligurian sea, off Algerian and north Sicilian coasts, in the Strait of Messina, in southern Sardinian waters and in the Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005) and the Antalya Bay in southern Turkey (Gökoglu et al. 2009, Filiz et al. 2007) Nemichthys scolopaceus is found at depths from the surface to depths of 2,000 m in the Mediterranean (Nielsen 1984) and 3,656 m in the Atlantic Ocean (Karmovskaya 1982, Smith 1989, Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Nemichthys scolopaceus is not a common species (Larsen 1979). In the eastern Ionian Sea Nemichthys scolopaceus has a frequency of occurrence of 7.7% out of 13 hauls and abundance of 0.1 (N/h) (Mytilineou et al. 2005), in south Sardinian waters it has a frequency of occurrence of 4% with an abundance of 0.02% (Follesa et al. 2011). This species is seldom collected in the Mediterranean, but as it is a deepwater species, it may be more common than the paucity of its records suggests.

habitat:
Nemichthys scolopaceus is a pelagic (Larsen 1973) to bathypelagic species (Coad and Reist 2004) with a depth range from the surface to 2,000 m in the Mediterranean (Nielsen 1984) and down to 3,656 m in the Atlantic (Coad and Resit 2004). Leptocephali (6-15 mm) are abundant between February and April and spawning occurs on both sides of thermal fronts throughout the west subtropical convergence zone of Sargasso Sea (Wippelhauser et al. 1996, Castonguay and McCleave 1987). Larger specimens, up to 8 cm, exhibit diurnal migration (Castonguay and McCleave 1987). Nemichthys scolopaceus probably spawns around New Caledonia (Castle 1966). Nemichthys scolopaceus is semelparous species and exhibits sexual dimorphism. The diet of N. scolopaceus primarily consists of crustaceans, especially decapods and euphasids  (Karmovskaya 1982, Smith 1989). The maximum length for this species is 130 cm (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

threats:
Nemichthys scolopaceus is not a commercially fished species in Europe and no major threats have been identified for this species. However, bycatch is a potential threat (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Nemichthys scolopaceus. In European waters, trawling is banned below 1,000 m which may afford some protection to N. scolopaceus. This species may be present in marine protected areas (MPAs) that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). In the Turkish checklist for marine fish this species was assessed as Data Deficient (Fricke et al. 2007). There is a need for further research about the biology and population trends of this species. 

useAndTrade:
Nemichthys scolopaceus is not a commercially exploited species in Europe; however, it is caught as bycatch (Karmovskaya 1982, Smith 1989).


taxonomicNotes:
This species is very similar to Nettastoma melanurum (Golani et al. 2006)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: DD Facciolella oxyrhyncha is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean to depths in excess of 700 m. Major threats to this species have not been identified. Additional information about the population trends and biology of this species is limited. It is therefore listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Facciolella oxyrhyncha is found in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea from Portugal to Angola (Blache et al. 1973, Edelist et al. 2010). In the Northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs off the coast of Portugal north to the Bay of Biscay in northern Spain (Serrano et al. 2011). It is also occurs off the Azores (Lloris et al. 1991), Madeira and Canary Islands (Golani et al. 2006, Wirtz et al. 2008). In the Mediterranean, it is found in the Aegean Sea (Leblebici et al. 2010), Antalya Bay, off the Turkish coast (Golani et al. 2006), off southern Spain [rare but present] (L. Gil de Sola unpublished data), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988, 1990; Kaspiris 1984; Kallianiotis et al. 2000), and off of the coast of Israel between Haifa and Hadera (Edelist et al. 2010). Facciolella oxyrhyncha has a depth range from 30 to 731 m (Smith 1990).

population:
There is no information on the population trend for this species although it is increasingly found in deep sea trawls across the Mediterranean Sea (Serrano et al. 2011). This species has been recorded in an increasing number of locations; however, this may be due to its superficial similarities with Nettastoma melanurum (Golani et al. 2008). This species is rarely caught in Portuguese crustacean trawls on the Algarve coast (Monteiro et al. 2001).

habitat:
Facciolella oxyrhyncha is a bathybenthic species found in depths ranging from 30–731 m (Smith 1990). The young are sometimes found in caves, larger specimens are caught in deeper water. Facciolella oxyrhyncha larvae are found around sea mount and the species is known to spawn near the Azores (Sobrinho-Gonçalves and Isidro 2001). The species feeds mainly on decapods (Saldanha 1986).

threats:
No major threats have been identified for Facciolella oxyrhyncha.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for Facciolella oxyrhyncha. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). There is a need for additional information about the biology and population trends of this species. Facciolella oxyrhyncha was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Facciolella oxyrhyncha is not a commercially exploited species in European waters or the Mediterranean. 


taxonomicNotes:
This species presents a superficial ressemblance to Facciolella oxyrhyncha.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern as Nettastoma melanurum is widely distributed across most of the European waters in abundance and is found in most benthic environments to depths of 1,647 m. It is not targeted commercially, yet is often caught as bycatch and has been know to accumulate toxins PCB and DDT.

range:
Nettastoma melanurum is widespread in the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean (Basusta et al. 2002, de Figueiredo et al. 2002). It may also be found in the west Pacific Ocean (Smith, 1990, Smith et al. 1981, Saldanha 1986). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, N. melanurum occurs from Rockall Trough west of Ireland (Bañón  et al. 1997) and south to the Canary Islands (Moyoano et al. 2009). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species ranges from the Ionian coast (Bañon et al. 1997), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Carpentieri et al. 2005, Merrett and Saldanha 1985, Ragonese et al. 2001, Stefanescu et al. 1994), and off of the Turkish coast (Başusta et al. 2001). Nettastoma melanurum has a depth range from 37–1647 m (Smith et al. 1981).

population:
Nettastoma melanurum is common throughout its range and is collected relatively often in the eastern North Atlantic (Merrett and Saldanha 1985). It is caught in 71% of red shrimp trawls in the Sicilian fisheries (Ragonese et al. 2002), in surveys of the south Sardinian waters N. melanurum was caught with 90% frequency of occurrence (Follesa et al. 2011) and in the eastern Ionian Sea with collected with 84.6% frequency at 500–700 m, 89.5 % frequency at 700–900 m, and 76.9% frequency at 900–1200 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

habitat:
Nettastoma melanurum is a benthic species found on muddy places on the continental shelf (Blache et al. 1973), primarily nocturnal, dwelling within caves during the day (Carpentieri et al. 2005). Found in depths ranging from 37–1647 m (Smith 1981) but is more commonly known from depths between 389 m and 860 m (Smith et al. 1981, Saldanha 1986, Smith 1990). This species exhibits a marked nycthemeral rhythm; it burrows in the sediment by day and emerges by night to become a dominant component of the nocturnal assemblage (Carpentieri et al. 2005). It feeds mainly on crustaceans (Saldanha 1986) and preys preferentially on decapods, siphonophores and pyrosomids (Carrassón and Cartes 2002). The maximum length for N. melanurum is 77.3 cm. In the Bay of Algeria, this species spawns from November to December. Egg diameter ranges from 2.4–3.0 mm and leptocephali lengths range from 1.7 cm to 12.1 cm (Smith et al. 1981, Saldanha 1986, Smith 1990).

threats:
Nemichthys scolopaceus is not a commercially fished species in Europe or the Mediterranean and major threats have not been identified. However, potential threats to this species include pollution and bycatch (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm 2013).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Nettastoma melanurum. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Nettastoma melanurum was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Nettastoma melanurum is not a commercially fished species in European waters or the Mediterranean Sea. However, this species is caught as bycatch (Smith et al. 1981, Saldanha 1986, Smith 1990). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Saurenchelys cancrivora is known from scattered records in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from one record in the Mediterranean, and larvae are thought to be present in the Aegean Sea. However, fua species with unconfirmed data in the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic waters.

range:
Saurenchelys cancrivora is a demersal species found from the continental slope to a depth of 700 m (Whitehead et al. 1984). It is known from scattered records in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. There is a single record in the Mediterranean Sea (Saldanha 1984, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), while it may have been a mistaken with Facciolella oxyrhyncha (Castle 1978, Saldanha 1984). Larvae have been observed in the southern Aegean Sea (C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2014). The exact distribution of this species in the northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean waters needs confirmation. 

habitat:
Saurenchelys cancrivora is a demersal species found on the continental shelf down to 700 m. The maximum recorded length for this species is 65 cm (Saldanha 1984).

threats:
Major threats to Saurenchelys cancrivora have not be identified.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.    Saurenchelys cancrivora was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Saurenchelys cancrivora is not a commercially fished species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean.


redListCategoryRationale:
European  Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern as Venefica proboscidea is a deep dwelling benthic fish that has a wide distribution but is not locally abundant or common. As it is a deep dwelling fish, population estimates may be underestimated. It is listed as bycatch in the crustacean trawl fisheries in Portugal, however is not specifically targeted by commercial fishermen and does not have any major threats. This species occurs at depths which may be less likely to be directly impacted by anthropogenic activity.

range:
Venefica probiscidea is a circumglobal species in tropical to temperate waters (Fricke 1999) except the eastern Pacific (Smith 1990, Karmovskaya 2004). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, V. proboscidea occurs from the Porcupine Sea Bight (Massuti et al. 2004, Priede et al. 2010) to the Canary Islands (Merrett and Saldanha 1985) and is also found off the coast of Portugal (Borges et al. 2003). It has a depth range from 1,654–3,109 m (Merrett and Saldanha 1985). Although rare, V. proboscidea is present in the Spanish Mediterranean Sea (L. Gil de Sola pers. obs. 2014).

population:
This species is uncommon (Blache et al. 1973). Data collected over 20 years of trawl sampling in the western Mediterranean revealed this species to occur with low frequency (Massuti et al. 2004).

habitat:
Venefica proboscidea is a benthic species that is found on the continental shelf (Blache et al. 1973). It preys on decapod crustaceans (Merrett and Saldanha 1985) and has a maximum recorded length of 100 cm (Smith 1990, Karmovskaya 2004)

threats:
Major threats to Venefica proboscidea  in European and Mediterranean waters have not been identified. However, potential threats to this species include pollution and bycatch (E. Karmovskaya pers. comm. 2013).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Venefica proboscidea.

useAndTrade:
Venefica proboscidea is not a commercially fished species in European waters or the Mediterranean but it is caught as bycatch (Smith 1990, Karmovskaya 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as Apterichtus anguiformis has a widespread range from Madeira to the eastern Mediterranean and no major threats have been identified. This is a deep waters species therefore, threats to this species are probably limited. This species is listed as Near Threatened in the Balearic Islands assessment and listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Mediterranean Assessment. However, further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends.

range:
Apterochtus anguiformis is a subtropical species that occurs in the eastern Atlantic from the Mediterranean to Cape Verde. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, this species occurs in the north-west Mediterranean near Medes Island (Isbert et al. 2011) and Balearic Islands (Mayol et al. 2000) to the eastern Mediterranean (Golani 1996, Golani et al. 2006). Its range also includes Madeira, however this is based on a photograph taken at night in 20 m of water and no physical specimen has been taken from Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008). The depth distribution of this species of 10 m to 250 m (McCosker et al. 1989, McCosker in press).

population:
Apterichtus anguiformis is not commonly found as it is nocturnal and consequently under-reported. Population information for this species in European and Mediterranean waters is extremely limited.

habitat:
Apterichtus anguiformis is a benthic species that burrows in sand or mud on the continental shelf (Leiby 1990). The depth range for this species in the Balearic Islands is 10–40 m and has a maximum length of 60 cm (Mayol et al. 2000). Apterichtus anguiformis has been found inside a Pagellus erythrinus body cavity and thought to be parasitic (Isbert et al. 2011).

threats:
Major threats to Apterichtus anguiformis have no been identified in European waters. However, A. anguiformis was assessed as Near Threatened in the Balearic Islands (Mayol et al. 2000) but the justification for this is unclear.

conservationAction:
Apterichtus anguiformis is listed as Near Threatened in the Balearic Islands (Mayol et al. 2000) and is listed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean. There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Apterichtus anguiformis was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Apterichtus anguiformis is not utilized in European or Mediterranean waters. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern as Apterichtus caecus is a widely distributed benthic species from the Azores to the Turkish coast with no major threats identified.

range:
Apterichtus caecus is widespread in the eastern Atlantic ranging from the Mediterranean to at least the Gulf of Guinea (Bauchot 1986), but perhaps to South Africa (Golani et al. 2006). This species is subtropical and it is found in the Azores (Porteiro et al. 2010), Madeira Islands (Wirtz et al. 2008), and the Mediterranean from the Balearic Islands (Mayol et al. 2000) to the coasts of Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007) and Israel (Golani et al. 2006). The depth distribution for this species is 1 m to 85 m (McCosker in press).

population:
Apterichtus caecus is fairly common in the western Mediterranean Sea and is more common than its congener A. anguiformis. Carlier et al. (2007) mention that two specimens were collected in the Bay of Banyuls-sur-Mer during March 2004 between 5–35 m depth collected using a trawl. There are records down to 150 m on the Iberian coast (Lloris and Rucabado 1998). Additional population information is limited for this species. 

habitat:
Apterichtus caecus is a benthic species that burrows in sand or mud on the continental shelf. Generally, the species has a depth range of 1m to 85 m (Leiby 1990). The maximum size for this species is 60 cm (FAO ECA Guide in prep McCosker).

threats:
Major threats to Apterichtus caecus in European waters have no been identified. However, in the Balearic Islands beach nourishment may impact benthic species. Beach replenishment (dredging sand from moderate depths to supplement sand on beach) may be a local threat (e.g. in the Balearic islands) (Mayol et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
Apterichtus caecus is listed as Near Threatened in the Balearic Islands, however the justification is unclear but may be due to beach nourishment practices in the area (Mayol et al. 2000). This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Apterichtus caecus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Apterichtus caecus is not utilized in European or Mediterranean waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC   Listed as Least Concern as Dalophis imberbis is a benthic, burrowing species that has a wide distribution. Major threats to this species have not been identified. 

range:
Dalophis imberbis occurs in the eastern Atlantic  from Spain to the west coast of Africa including the Mediterranean Sea (Blache et al. 1973). Dalophis imberbis occurs in the Mediterranean from the Balearic Islands (Lloris et al. 1984), Catalan coast (Sanchez et al. 2000), Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas (Biagi et al. 2002, Busalacchi et al. 2010) and to the eastern Levant Sea (Golani  et al. 1996). The depth range for this species is 55–115 m (Busalacchi et al. 2010).

population:
Dalophis imberbis occurred with 1.6% frequency of occurrence in the Balearic region of the western Mediterranean (Rodriguez et al. 2013) and 0.8% frequency of occurrence in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Busalacchi et al. 2010). This species is uncommon (Blache et al. 1973, Busalacchi et al. 2010, Rodriguez et al. 2013).

habitat:
Dalophis imberbis is a benthic species that occurs on the shelf, burrowing in sand and mud (Blache et al. 1973). The species spawns in the Bay of Algiers in August/September (Bauchot et al. 1986) and is sometimes found in brackish lakes (Toews 1988). The maximum length is 150 cm TL (Bauchot 1987).

threats:
No major threats have been identified for Dalophis imberbis. 

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Dalophis imberbis. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Dalophis imberbis was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Dalophis imberbis is not utilized in European or Mediterranean waters. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern as Echelus myrus is widespread in the Mediterranean and Northeastern Atlantic, occurring from the Bay of Biscay to the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean Sea. It is a benthic, burrowing species that can inhabit depths to over 1,000 m. It is also listed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Red List of Marine Fish.

range:
Echelus myrus is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from Spain to Congo, including the Mediterranean Sea (Leiby 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs in the Bay of Biscay southward to the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985, Leiby 1990). In the Mediterranean, this species is found from the Balearic Islands (Massuti and Renones 2005) to the Turkish coast (Sangun et al. 2007, Keskin et al. 2011), Tyrrhenian Sea (Cillari et al. 2012, Busalacchi et al. 2010) and the coast of Israel (Edelist 2012). This species has been recorded from  5–1,490 m (Gilat and Gelman 1984, Lloris and Rucabado 1998).

population:
Echelus myrus is common species (Cillari et al. 2012) and has been caught in the Baearic Islands at depths of 800 m with a frequency of occurrence of 2% (Massuti and Renones 2005). In the Tyrrhenian Sea it has a mean density of 36.9 kg/km2, biomass index of 4.2 N/km2 and a frequency of occurrence of 6.8% and found at depths of 33–121 m (Busalacchi et al. 2010).   Cicek et al. (2006) reported 310 specimens, with lengths ranging from 4.4–49.5 cm TL, that were collected in the Babadillimani Bight, located at the west entrance of Mersin Bay (Turkey, north-east Mediterranean Sea), from May 1999 to April 2000. Fish were caught at depths between 20–100 m, using a commercial bottom trawl net (6 mm cod-end mesh size - tow duration restricted to 1–36 hauls).

habitat:
Echelus myrus is a benthic species found burrowing in sand and mud on the continental shelf found mainly in estuaries and coastal lagoons. It burrows in sand with only the head protruding (Blache 1973, Schneider 1990). This species displays negative allometric growth (Cicek 2006). In Haifa and Cyprus this species has been observed at depths of 280–1,490 m (Gilat and Gelman 1984). The maximum recorded length for this species is 100 cm TL (Bauchot 1987). 

threats:
Echelus myrus is not a commercially fished species in the Northeastern Atlantic or Mediterranean and there are no major threats to Echelus myrus, however, has been shown to be subject of minor bycatch (Gurbet et al. 2013)

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Echelus myrus. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Regional Assessment.  Echelus myrus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Echelus myrus is not a commercially fished species in the Northeastern Atlantic or Mediterranean. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as this shallow species is widespread and presumed to be common. However, further research is needed on the population size and trend, ecology and threats to the species, as it can be impacted by several pressures and it could be in decline as a result of habitat loss and fishing.

range:
This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Canary Islands and Western Sahara to Annobon Island and São Tomé Islands (Afonso et al. 1999), the Gulf of Guinea, Annobon Island (Leiby 1990, González et al. 2014) and Cape Verde (Franca and Vasconcelos 1962, Brito et al. 2002). Information on its bathymetric distribution is scarce, although in the Canary Islands it has been traditionally found between three and 15 m, and recently between one and 25 m in sea grass meadows (Espino et al. 2007).

population:
Anecdotal observations in some places could suggest a decline in the species' population. However, there is no information available on the population size and trend of the species. It is not uncommon (McCosker pers. comm.) and it is a widespread species.

habitat:
Myrichthys pardalis is a tropical demersal burrowing species found in coarse sands along the rocky coast line in shallow waters. It inhabits soft bottoms, and in the Canary Islands, the species is strongly associated with seagrass meadows and macroalgae fields (Leiby 1990, Espino et al. 2007). It feeds primarily on invertebrates, particularly crabs. Its maximum size is 64.8 (TL). Anecdotal observations of specimens actively swimming at surface at night have been recorded, probably due to the large number of small organisms concentrated around vessels, attracted by their bright lights (González et al. 2014).

threats:
The decline of their associated marine vegetation (seagrass meadows and macroalgae fields) as a result of anthropogenic perturbations may negatively affect the population. Also, the species could be impacted by fishing and the lack of public knowledge regarding the species, as it can be mistaken as a snake.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red List or Red Data Book, and it is not target of specific conservation measures. It is likely to be present in several marine protected areas in the Canary Islands. Further research is needed on the population size and trend, life history and ecology and impacts of the threats that the species is suffering. Spreading awareness of this species should also be encouraged.

useAndTrade:
This species is taken in small volumes and consumed locally, being rarely sold in the aquarium trade.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as this species is only known from Sicily, in the Mediterranean. This species was described in 1810 and there are no other records known. The taxonomic validity of this species is questionable.

range:
Ophichthus maculatus is known only from Sicily, in the Mediterranean, where it was described in 1810; however, there are no current types known. The depth distribution of O. maculatus is unknown; however, congeners are found to depths of greater than 1,000 m, although most live shallower than 200 m (McCosker in press). It is inferred that this species could be found to depths of 200 m.

population:
There are no population data available for this species as there are no known type specimens, nor are there any other collection records since its description in 1810.

habitat:
There are no data available for this species concerning its habitats or ecology.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Ophichthus rufus is a widespread, common species endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. Data on population size and trends are limited. There are no major threats, and although it has been caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries, the effect of this on the population is unknown. Therefore, Ophichthus rufus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ophichthus rufus is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is widespread (including the Balearic Islands: Lloris et al. 1984).

population:
This is a very common species in the Mediterranean Sea. It was the most commonly observed feeding on fishery discards in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea (Bozzano and Sarda 2002).

habitat:
This is a demersal and nocturnal species. It can be found on the shelf, on mud bottoms (Bauchot 1987). Its eyes are well adapted to low-light conditions and it is the only deep-water benthic fish species with multiple specialized areas on its retinas, thought to be used for locating burrows in mud (Bozzano 2003). Juveniles and adult males feed on a variety of fishes and benthic creatures while adult females are more specialized ichthyophages (Casadevall et al. 1994). At small sizes, males dominate the sex ratio, but when considering all sizes, males only make up 15% of the population (Casadevall et al. 2001). Spawning takes place in August and fecundity is strongly correlated with body length and weight (Casadevall et al. 2001).

threats:
This species is not commercially exploited and no major threats are known. The species have been observed as one of the most abundant species attracted to fishing bait in a study on fishery discard consumption by scavengers (Bozzano and Sarda 2002), and 679 specimens were caught by professional trawlers in the Catalan Sea between 1985 and 1987 (Casadevall et al. 2001) . The effects of fishery bycatch on the species are unknown.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Research is needed into the effects of fishery bycatch on the species before conservation efforts can be assigned. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Ophichthus rufus was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Papaconstantinou, C., Pollard, D., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


taxonomicNotes:
It was previously though that his taxon was likely to include two separate species with widely disjunct distributions - one in the Atlantic/Mediterranean Sea and the other in the west Pacific. However, it is now clear that this species is only present in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (R. Bañón pers. comm. 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as it is widespread and presumably fairly common, and there appear to be no major threats to the species. However, research should be conducted to establish the status of the species throughout its range, and to determine the population size, trends, ecology and threats to the species.

range:
Ophisurus serpens is widespread through the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, but it is not present in the eastern Pacific or the western Atlantic (Eschmeyer 2015).  In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is distributed mainly in western and central Mediterranean but is very rare in the eastern part, in the Aegean and Marmara Seas (Fricke et al. 2007), maybe due to changing conditions (Ulaand Akyol 2015). In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Bay of Biscay to South Africa, including the north coast of Iberian peninsula, Madeira and the Canary Islands (Cappetta et al. 1985, Bañón et al. 2011). The species is also present in the Gulf of Cádiz and seamounts as Sabinar, Palos and Chella Banks (Aguilar et al. 2008, Aguilar 2010, Marín et al. 2011). Two specimens were also caught in 2010 during trawl activity at 191 m of depth off the Galician coast, and this confirmed the first record of the species in Galician waters, recorded in 1866 but with no data (Bañón et al. 2011). The species' depth range varies from 30 to 444 m.

population:
Ophisurus serpens is a fairly common cryptic species. However, its population trend is unknown. Karakulak et al. (2006) mention that two specimens, with lengths of 15.8-16.9 cm TL, were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. There is no further information on the population size of the species, as only occasional sightings have been recorded.

habitat:
Ophisurus serpens is a burrowing species present in soft bottoms of the shelf and upper slope and estuaries (Ulas and Akyol 2014).  The species is presentin sandy, detritic and muddy bottoms of several seamounts, such as Sabinar, Palos and Chella Banks (Aguilar et al. 2008, Aguilar 2010, Marín et al. 2011). Its maximum size is 250 cm (TL).

threats:
While the species shares habitat with species of commercial value, it is poorly known if it is being caught as by-catch and/or discarded. However, it is known to be discarded in crustacean fisheries in the Algarve targeting Parapenaeus longirostris, Aristeus antennatus or Nephrops norvegicus (Monteiro et al. 2001). One of the few records available shows that 41 specimens were reported as by-catch in Turkish waters, among minor catches by other fishing gears (Ulas and Akyol 2015).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, but it is present in Chella Bank, a future Site of Community Importance in the Alborán Sea. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends, ecology and threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
This species is rarely present in markets (Fischer et al. 1987).

redListContributors:
Blanco, J., Papakonstantinou, C., Pollard, D.A., Massuti, E., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


taxonomicNotes:
This species will be referred to a new unique genus (McCosker and Anderson in press).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC  Listed as Least Concern as Pisodonophis semicinctus is found in the region from the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean, although it is considered an invasive species in the Mediterranean. Major threats to this species have not been identified and it is not utilized in the region. 

range:
Pisodonophis semicinctus is widespread in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea (Leiby 1990). This species is found from the Bay of Biscay south to Angola (Quéro et al. 1996) including waters off of the western Spain (Bañón et al. 2002). It has also been found in Mediterranean waters with the first report being in 1957 (Dieuzeide et al. 1953) and has subsequently been reported in over ten locations spread across the Mediterranean (Bodilis et al. 2012). In the Mediterranean, this species is reported from the Strait of Sicily, off the northern coast of Tunisia (Ragonese and Giusto 2000) and Turkey (Bilencenoglu et al. 2009). Pisodonophis semicinctus has a depth range of 10–50 m (Quéro 2009).

population:
Pisodonophis semicinctus is common in intertropical waters (Blache et al. 1973). Additional population information is not available. 

habitat:
Pisodonophis semicinctus is a benthic species and it can be found burrowing in sand and mud on the continental shelf (Blache et al. 1973, Leiby 1990). It feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Bauchot 1986). This species can attain 80 cm TL in length (Lieby 1990).

threats:
Major threats to Pisodonophis semicinctus have not been identified. 

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in Pisodonophis semicinctus. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Pisodonophis semicinctus is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Serrivomer beanii occurs to 56°N in the northeastern Atlantic. Although this species is caught a bycatch,  there are no major threats. Therefore, S. beanii is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Serrivomer beanii occurs in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species is found from Iceland to the Canary Islands, including Madeira and the Azores, the Bay of Biscay and Galacian waters (Sutton et al. 2008, Bañón et al. 2010, Spitz et al. 2010). Serrivomer beanii has a depth range of 0–5,998 m (Coad and Reist 2004) but is more commonly found between 150–3,000 m (Bauchot 1986, Saldanha and Karmovskaya 1990).

population:
Serrivomer beanii had a frequency of occurrence of 21.4% in the Bay of Biscay based on epi- and mesopelagic trawl surveys (Spitz et al. 2010). It comprised 8% of the total biomass of the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the mid-water zone (Cook et al. 2013).

habitat:
Serrivomer beanii is a deepwater meso- and bathypelagic fish that displays diurnal vertical migrations (Bauchot 1986, Saldanha and Karmovskaya 1990) with daytime depths of 200–2,900 m and nighttime depths from 0–700 m (Cook et al. 2013). It feeds on crustaceans and fishes (Coad and Reist 2004) usually living in solitary. The maximum length for this species is 78 cm (Castle 1986). The hatching area in the Atlantic is 25° to 28° N, 46° to 55°W, with preferential dispersion to the west (Saldanha and Karmovskaya 1990).

threats:
Serrivomer beanii is caught at bycatch (Bauchot 1986, Saldanha and Karmovskaya 1990). However, there are no major threats to this species.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Serrivomer beanii. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Serrivomer beanii is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Serrivomer lanceolatoides occurs to at least 42°N and inhabits waters to 1,000 m depth. This species is not utilized and major threats to this species have not been identified. Serrivomer lanceolatoides is assessed as Least Concern. However, further research on the ecology and distribution of this species is recommended.

range:
Serrivomer lanceolatoides occurs on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and in the Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to at least 42°N including the Azores and the Canary Islands (Tighe 1989, Santos et al. 1997, Sutton et al. 2008), as well as Madeira Island (Bauchot 1986), Portugal, and Spain (Bauchot 1986, Saldanha and Karmovskaya 1990). The depth range for this species is 500–1,000 m (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).  Outside of Europe, it is found around the Bahamas and Bermuda in the western central Atlantic. It has also been found in the north-western Pacific (Karmovskaya 1996).

population:
Serrivomer lanceolatoides comprised 10.4% of the biomass in the 0–750 m pelagic range in the Azores (Sutton et al. 2008). Additional population information is not available.

habitat:
Serrivomer lanceolatoides is a bathypelagic species found to 1,000 m (Tighe 1989). The maximum recorded size for this species is 65 cm L (Coad and Resit 2004).

threats:
There are no major threats to Serrivomer lanceolatoides.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Serrivomer lanceolatoides. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Serrivomer lanceolatoides is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic. 

redListContributors:
De Silva, R., Milligan, H., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P., Smith, J. and Livingston, F.


taxonomicNotes:
This taxon has a curious, disjunct global distribution, recorded from the Mediterranean Sea, Florida and Hawaii. Taxonomic research is needed.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Dysomma brevirostre occurs off Portugal, Madeira and throughout the Mediterranean. This species occurs to 650 m depth and is not utilized in the region. There are no major threats to D. brevirostre, although it is a minor bycatch component of the Sicilian red shrimp fishery. Dysomma brevirostre is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Dysomma brevirostre occurs on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and off the Hawaiian Islands. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from the southern coast of Portugal (Marques and Saldanha 1998) to the Madeira Islands (Lloris et al. 1991) and the Mediterranean (Smith and Castle 1990). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species has been recorded from the Balearic Islands, Catalonian Sea, Ligurian Sea (Sion et al. 2008), Algerian Basin (Massutí et al. 2004), Messina coast, Strait of Sicily, western Ionian Sea (along the coast of Italy) (Sion et al. 2008), Aegean Sea (Izmir Bay) (Aydin et al. 2009) and the coast of Israel (Golani 1996). This species has a depth range of 200–650 m (Saldanha and Bauchot 1986), although it has been found at depths to 1,000 m outside the region (Mundy 2005).

population:
Dysomma brevirostre does not appear to be abundant in the Mediterranean basin, based on low frequencies of occurrence (Massuti et al. 2004). The occasional records of this species may be due to the ability of this species to escape from the sampling gear such as trawl nets and dredges, as well as to its naturally low population density (Sion et al. 2008); however, globally, this species is common and widespread but rare in collections (i.e., in localities sampled, individual counts of species) (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011).

habitat:
Dysomma brevirostre is a benthopelagic that inhabits the upper-continental shelf (Smith and Castle 1990) over soft substrate (Mundy 2005) and muddy bottoms (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011). The maximum size is 26.5 cm TL (Saldanha and Bauchot 1986).

threats:
There are no major threats to Dysomma brevirostre; however, this species is caught as minor bycatch in the Sicilian red shrimp fishery (Ragonese et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Dysomma brevirostre. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). This species is listed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean and Global IUCN Red List assessments.Dysomma brevirostre was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Dysomma brevirostre is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


taxonomicNotes:
The synonym Leptocephalus proboscideus is based on an original description of a larva collected from the north Atlantic Ocean (34 59 N, 33 01 W); however, the genus Leptocephalus has often been used to refer to larval eels, and its validity is uncertain. It represents either a highly variable species or a complex of several closely related species. The Ilyophinae is not well known, and the variety of leptocephali of the L. proboscideus type is greater than had been suspected. Leptocephalus proboscideus may be the leptocephalus of Dysommina or something similar to Dysommina (Smith 1989). We follow the former assumption here.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Little is known of the fish, and it is considered Data Deficient. The fish (as the larval synonym, Leptocephalus proboscideus) was described based on an original description of a larva collected from the North Atlantic Ocean and is currently known only from larval specimens. The validity of the genus Leptocephalus is uncertain, as it has been used to refer to larval eels in general; it is suspected that this species should be placed in the genus Dysommina or something similar to Dysommina. The variety of leptocephali of the L. proboscideus type is greater than had been suspected, suggesting that it represents either a highly variable species or a complex of several closely related species. The Ilyophinae is not well known in general, and data on the distribution, population status, habitats and ecology of this species are lacking. It is therefore listed as Data Deficient. We recommend further research on its taxonomic standing, life history and population status.

range:
The species, or species complex, is known from the western north Atlantic Ocean from the Gulf Stream and various locations including the Straits of Florida, the West Indies, the central Caribbean Sea, and from the central Atlantic Ocean from Bermuda to the Azores (Fahay 2006, Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Smith 1989).

population:
No information available on population size or trends. The original description was based on a single larval specimen (Smith 1989).

habitat:
Ilyophines exhibit burrowing characteristic or may inhabit surface of muddy bottoms (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011).         There is very limited information available on this species' life history characteristics and specific habitat requirements. Found at depths from 0 to 150 m in the EU Caribbean.

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research required.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Histiobranchus bathybius is circumglobally distributed in the northern hemisphere. In the northeastern Atlantic, it ranges from about 54°N to 17°N. There are no major threats to H. bathybius and it is not utilized in the region. Histiobranchus bathybius is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Histiobranchus bathybius is a circumglobal species in the northern hemisphere (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to about 54°N from the Rockall Trough, south to the Madeira Islands at about 17°N and is not found within the Mediterranean Sea. It has a depth range of 730–5,440 m (Karmovskaya and Merrett 1998).

population:
Histiobranchus bathybius in the Northeastern Atlantic is the ninth most abundant species (mean relative density 0·05 fish 1,000 m-2) in the Porcupine Seabight area at lower slope and abyssal soundings (Merrett et al. 1991). In the Porcupine Seabight it is found with a 20% frequency at depths of 1,790–1,975 m (Massutí et al. 2004). This species is more common at the deeper end of its depth range. Its population appears to be centered on the continental rise with a peak value of 0·3 fish 1,000 m-2 at 2,420 m (Karmovskaya and Merrett 1998). At Rockall Trough, this species is abundant at abyssal depths despite intensive commercial exploitation of many deep-water species using various gears (Gordon 2003).

habitat:
Histiobranchus bathybius is a benthopelagic species that is most abundant at continental rise depths and it also occurs in the abyss at a very wide sounding range. the maximum recorded length for this species is 137 cm TL (Karmovskaya and Merrett 1998). Histiobranchus bathybius is an iteroparous species that breeds towards to end of the year feeding primarily on fish, squid and crustaceans (Karmovskaya and Merrett 1998).

threats:
There are no major threats to Histiobranchus bathybius; however, this species is caught as bycatch in some parts of its range (Karmovskaya and Merrett 1998).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for Histiobranchus bathybius.

useAndTrade:
Histiobranchus bathybius is not a utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Ilyophis arx is found in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, Ilyophis arx is known only from two specimens collected from the Porcupine Seabight. Although there are no known major threats to I. arx at this time, very little data about the population and biology are available in the assessment zone. Ilyophis arx is therefore listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Ilyophis arx occurs in Atlantic and Pacific waters (Robins and Robins 1989, Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997, Karmovskaya and Parin 1999). Two specimens of Ilyophis arx have been collected from the northeastern Atlantic, both from the Porcupine Seabight in depths between 1,785–2,000 m (Merrett and Saldanha 1985).

population:
Ilyophis arx is known only from seven specimens, with three of which are from the Porcupine Seabight (Robins and Robins 1989). This species appears to be rare in museum collections (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011).

habitat:
Ilyophis arx is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range from 1,785–2,000, with bottom temperatures ranging from 3.8°–4.5°C (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). The maximum length for this species is 44.7 cm (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997, Karmovskaya and Parin 1999, Robins and Robins 1989).

threats:
There are no known major threats to Ilyophis arx.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Ilyophis arx.

useAndTrade:
Ilyophis arx is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Ilyophis blachei is known from widely distributed localities in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from the Rockall Trough, Bay of Biscay and the Azores. Ilyophis blachei is a deep water, benthic species that is not utilized. Threats to this species have not been identified. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Ilyophis blachei is known from scattered localities in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is found from Rockall Trough (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997, Massutí 2007) south to the Bay of Biscay and the Azores (Saldanha and Bauchot 1986, Santos et al. 1997). It has a depth range of 580–2,023 m (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).

population:
Ilyophis blachei has a mean percentage of occurrence from the slope of 0.21%  between 1,195–789 m in the Porcupine Sea Bight (Priede et al. 1994). This species occurred with 50% frequency within the depth range of 1,192–1,135 in the Rockall Trough region of the eastern North Atlantic (Massutí et al. 2004) so appears common in this region. Rarely, more than one individual of this species is captured at a time as it is found in a region of high biodiversity (Saldanha and Merrett 1982).  Globally, Ilyophis blachei is known from a few specimens and appears to be rare in museum collections (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011).

habitat:
Ilyophis blachei is found on deep continental slopes and has been collected over a variety of bottom substrates. While few specimens have been collected, Ilyophis blachei has been found to feed on crustaceans. Spawning occurs in June/July. The maximum recorded length for this species is 79.2 cm TL (Saldanha and Merrett 1982).

threats:
There are no major threats to Ilyophis blachei. 

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Ilyophis blachei. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Ilyophis blachei is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Ilyophis brunneus is circumglobally distributed. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from the Porcupine Seabight to the Canary Islands. This species is benthopelagic and can occur to over 3,000 m depth. This species that is not utilized in the region and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Ilyophis brunneus is distributed from about 51°N to 42°S occurring in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from the Porcupine Seabight to the Canary Islands but is not found within the Mediterranean Sea. It has a depth range from 450–3,120 m (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).

population:
Ilyophis brunneus has a frequency of occurrence of 0.08% at a depths of 1,533–2,785 m in Porcupine Seabight (Priede et al. 1994). Additional population information is not available for the region. Globally, I. brunneus is common and locally abundant (K. Tighe pers comm. 2011).

habitat:
Ilyophic brunneus is a benthopelagic species that occurs from bathyal to abyssal depths. Females mature around 13 cm with smaller sizes occurring closer to 30°N (Merrett and Saldanha 1985). It feeds on annelids and galatheid crustaceans. It can be found at densities higher than those expected from the ordinary deep-sea floor at comparable depths near hydrothermal vents, due to the proximity of prey (Ohta and Kim 2001). The maximum size for this species is 58 cm (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).

threats:
There are no major threats to Ilyophis brunneus; however, this species  is caught a bycatch (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Ilyophic brunneus. 

useAndTrade:
Ilyophic brunneus is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Simenchelys parasitica is a circumglobal cosmopolitan species. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from Rockall Trough to the Canary Islands. This species is locally abundant and can occur to 3,000 m depth. There are no major threats and it is not utilized in the region. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Simenchelys parasitica is a circumglobal cosmopolitan species with a broad range in the eastern Atlantic from 15° to 46°N (Blache et al. 1973). In the northeastern Atlantic, S. parasitica is found from the Rockall Trough (Neat et al. 2008), the Bay of Biscay (Guennegan and Rannou 1979) to the Canary Islands (Pajuelo et al. 2010), and the Azores Islands (King et al. 2006). It is found at depths ranging from 136–3,000 m (Saldanha and Bauchot 1986, Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).

population:
Simenchelys parasitica is locally abundant in some parts of its range (Blache et al. 1973). Additional population information from the region is not available.

habitat:
Simenchelys parasitica is benthopelagic on continental slope and upper abyssal depths (Saldanha and Bauchot 1986). Primarily inhabits the middle to lower slope between 500–1,800 m with a temperature range of 3.5°–5.2°C (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). Simenchelys parasitica was thought of as partially parasitic; however, is more likely to be a scavenger that burrows into carcasses or weakened fishes and feeding by rasping and twisting into food sources eventually eating a path into the carcass. Local abundance tends to be near dead or weakened fishes or other food sources available for scavenging (Robins and Robins 1989). This species feeds on invertebrates including epibenthic copepods and amphipods, and fish. It may also be parasitic to other fish specie (Smith and Castle 1990). The maximum recorded length for this species is 61 cm TL (Masuda et al. 1984).

threats:
There are no major threats to Simenchelys parasitica; however, it is minor component of the bycatch in the Canary Islands (Pajuelo et al. 2010). 

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Simenchelys parasitica.

useAndTrade:
Simenchelys parasitica is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, the Grey Cutthroat Eel is known from Madeira, the Azores and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, the Grey Cutthroat Eel is known from Madeira, the Azores and off mainland Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, the Grey Cutthroat Eel is found in all oceans. In the eastern Atlantic this species is distributed from Liberia to South Africa, and in the western Atlantic this species is known from Cuba and Trinidad and Tobago. In the Indian Ocean it has been recorded from Madagascar, the Comoros and Reunion. In the Pacific, this species is known from Hawaii, Japan, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and Chile.

habitat:
This bathydemersal species is found on the upper continental slope, at a depth range of 290-2,400 m.  This species spends much of its time over rocky substrata.

threats:
Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species. This species is not likely to be taken as by-catch in significant quantities as it most often found over rocky substrata at bathyl depths, a habitat that is not favourable for trawling.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for the Grey Cutthroat Eel.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs only in the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs only in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, this species is circumtropical, but is not found in the northeast Pacific (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). In the Indo-Pacific it has been reported from Zanzibar and Maldives, Japan and Australia (Paxton et al. 1989). In the Western Central Atlantic it is known from the Gulf of Mexico and off Suriname (Uyeno et al. 1983) and Brazil (Melo et al. 2009) eastward to the Azores (Almeida and Biscoito 2007). It is more limited to the outer slopes of the continental shelf (K. Tighe pers. comm. 2011). Most individuals are found between 1,000-2,500 m (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).

population:
This species is well represented in museum collection records.

habitat:
This is a benthopelagic species found on the continental slope (Paxton et al. 1989). In addition to scavenging, this species feeds on Teleosts, decapods and cephalopods (Crabtree et al. 1991). This species is generally larger at greater depth (Yeh and Drazen 2009). This is relatively common in deep water eels (K. Tighe pers. comm. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is only known from leptocephali.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is known from southwest of the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is known from southwest of the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, this species occurs in the North Atlantic and is known from the type localities: southwest of the Azores, Gulf Stream south of the Grand Banks, and the northern Bahamas (Smith 1989).

population:
Synaphobranchus dolichorhynchus is known only from four leptocephali specimens collected from three localities.

habitat:
It is pelagic.                 There is very limited information available on this species' life history characteristics and specific habitat requirements.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.

useAndTrade:
There is no use or trade information regarding this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Synaphobranchus kaupii is widely distributed throughout all oceans except for the eastern Pacific Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs from Iceland to the Canary Islands in the Northeastern Atlantic. This species inhabits deep water down to 2,500 m depth. Synaphobranchus kaupii is considered a common and abundant species throughout much of the assessment zone. Localized declines as a result of bycatch (e.g., in the Porcupine Seabight) have been reported, but do not reach the thresholds for a threatened category at this time. Therefore, S. kaupii is assessed as Least Concern. Additional population status and trend data are needed for this species. 

range:
Synaphobranchus kaupii is circumglobal species with the exception of the eastern Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species and has a wide distribution that ranges from Iceland (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997), the Azores (Almeida et al. 2010) to Madeira and Canary Islands (Pajuelo et al. 2010), including Cape Verde (Pereria et al. 2012). It is absent from the Mediterranean Sea (Robins and Robins 1989). It is found at depths ranging from 120–2,500 m (Robins and Robins 1989, Preide et al. 2010).

population:
Synaphobranchus kaupii is considered common and abundant (Bache et al. 1973) and a dominant species in parts of its range (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). Along the Porcupine Bank or the Irish Continental Slope, S. kaupii was found to be the second most abundant species at two sites, the Twin Mounds and Giant Mounds with 23.05% and 25.49% species abundance, respectively (Söffker et al. 2011). In the Northeastern Atlantic, this species is the most abundant fish on the upper slope with an abundance of 2,110 specimens per km2 (Priede et al. 2011). This species can comprised  >50% of the total catch at some depth zones in the Rockall Trough in a fine mesh trawl survey (Gordon et al. 1996). Some evidence suggests that the stock off of the western coast of Ireland, has been reduced by half due to fishing activity; however, it still remains abundant (I.G. Priede pers. comm. 2007).

habitat:
Synaphobranchus kaupii is a benthic species on the continental shelf and found in deep abyssal waters (Blache et al. 1973); however, is most common at depths ranging from 400–2,000 m . It has a diverse diet that consists of fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (Sulak and Shcherbachex 1997). The maximum recorded length for this species is 100 cm TL (Reiner 1996).

threats:
On the Porcupine Seabight, the abundance of Synaphobranchus kaupii was reduced by about half, from 4,099 specimens per km2 in the late 1970s to 2,110 specimens per km2 in the early 2000s, as a result of commercial bottom trawl fisheries targeting other species (Priede et al. 2011). However due to the broad distribution and reported abundance of this species, fishing is not considered a major threat at this time.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for Synaphobranchus kaupii. Additional information about the population status and trends of this species is required.

useAndTrade:
Synaphobranchus kaupii is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Guentherus altivela is a widespread but uncommon species that is found from Portugal to southern Africa. It occurs at depths ranging from 180 to 900 m. Its diet consists of mostly other fishes and benthic invertebrates. Although it may sometimes be included in deep-sea trawl bycatch, major threats to this species are unknown. Therefore G. altivela is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Guentherus altivelas inhabits upper continental slopes (Bianchi et al. 1999) in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to South Africa, the eastern central Pacific at Cabo Blanco and Quepos, Costa Rica and near Punta Jaqué, Panama (Bussing 1995), and the Galápagos Islands (McCosker and  Humann 1996). The species can be found at depths from 180 to 915 m (Paxton 1986).

population:
Guentherus altivela is widespread across the eastern Atlantic and the Pacific (Bussing 1995, McCosker and Humann 1996). There are very limited data concerning the population trends or trends for this species.

habitat:
Guentherus altivela is a bathydemersal species (Costa and Quero 1990). The maximum recorded length of Guentherus altivela is 200 cm total length (TL) (Smith and Heemstra 1986). This species feeds on fishes and benthic invertebrates such as echinoderms and decapods, as well as other fishes (Moore in press, Bianchi et al. 1999a) and occupies deep benthic, muddy habitats. The spawning, fecundity, and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species, but it is sometimes caught in bottom trawls off of Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1999).

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species, and none is likely needed due to its widespread range. This species may occur in marine protected areas that exist throughout its range. Research into the population size and trends, ecology and early life history traits, as well as potential threats is needed for this species.

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized by humans. This species is sometimes caught as bycatch in bottom trawls off of Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Atherina hepsetus is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It is common and abundant throughout much of its range. Although it is of high commercial importance, fishing pressure appears to be relatively low and there is no evidence of significant declines in population. Therefore, A. hepsetus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Atherina hepsetus is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, off the coasts of Spain and Morocco, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is also found in the Mediterranean and Black seas (Mauge 1990). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present from the Spanish coasts (Garcia-Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, Dempster et al. 2002, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2004), Balearic Islands (Riera et al. 1995), south of France (Dumay et al. 2004, Mouillot et al. 2007), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2005, Tunesi and Molinari 2005), south Tyrrhenian Sea (Sinopoli et al. 2004), north Adriatic Sea (Lipej et al. 2003, Bonaca and Lipej 2005), central east Adriatic Sea (Pallaoro et al. 2007, Dulcic et al. 1997, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006, Santic et al. 2003) and Aegean Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Canli and Atli 2003, Karakulak et al. 2006). It is also present in the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). This species is also found in northern Israel (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).  It is usually associated with very shallow depths and mostly stays close to the surface, most often between the depths of 5 and 20 m (Pallaoro et al. 2007, Bariche 2012).

population:
Atherina hepsetus is commonly found in many parts of its range. Off the coast of Croatia, mussel farmers determined that A. hepsetus is one of the most abundant of fishes in the shallow waters in the Aegean Seas coastal areas (Segvic-Bubic et al. 2011a). In a separate study concerning fish assemblages around and near an Atlantic Bluefin tuna farm indicated that A. hepsetus is amongst the most abundant of fishes near the tuna farm (Segvic-Bubic et al. 2011b). Also, A. hepsetus was among the most abundant and one of the most frequently occurring of fishes in a seine net survey conducted in the north-central part of the Mediterranean [avg. # of indiv. per haul = 168.2 and the the avg. weight in kg per haul was 1.2] (Cetinic et al. 2011). Combined catch statistics for Atherinidae in the Mediterranean and Black Seas show no evidence of population decline (Food and Agriculture Organization Fishstat). Atherina hepsetus has been recorded frequently in the Mediterranean. Pallaoro et al. (2007) reported that 1,547 females and 1,258 males with lengths ranging from 3.8 to 8.9 cm TL were caught in the middle east Adriatic Sea during reproductive period (Feb-Apr 2002) using small beach seines. According to Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003), 54 specimens with length ranging from 4.3 to 11.0 cm TL, were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (north-east Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990. Dulcic et al. (1997) mentioned that 18,435 specimens were collected using a 50 m long beach seine, from January to December 1992 from Kornati Archipelago. According to Karakulak et al. (2006), one sample (11.6 cm TL) was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) reported that 396 specimens with lengths ranging from 4.0 and 9.4 cm TL, were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).

habitat:
This is a pelagic, littoral/nearshore species. It is a gregarious species, occurring in large schools. It sometimes occurs in marine lagoons (France) and estuaries (Portugal). It feeds on pelagic copepods and benthic crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is a prey species for young Trachurus thynnus (Sinopoli et al. 2004) and T. trachurus (Santic et al. 2003). Atherina hepsetus is a gregarious species of fish, inhabiting the littoral zones of areas near the shore (Mauge 1990). It often occurs in large schools (Bariche 2012). It is often found in marine lagoons (France) and in estuaries (Portugal) in the central and western portions of the Mediterranean Sea (Mauge 1990). As a carnivorous species, it feeds on zooplankton (copepods, fish larvae) and small bottom-living animals (benthic crustaceans) (Mauge 1990).. There are generally more females than males [1.23:1] (Pallaoro et al. 2007).. Reproduction takes place during the winter and spring months: from January to April in Adriatic Sea (Grubisic 1988), from December to May in the Mediterranean Sea [France, Italy] (Mauge 1990) and from April to July in the Black Sea (Svetovidov, 1964). The length at first maturity is 9.7 cm. Atherina hepsetus has an average lifespan of 3 to 4 years (Pallaoro et al. 2007).

threats:
This is a species with high commercial importance. As a coastal species, it may be vulnerable to various anthropogenic activities that may affect its habitat. Atherina hepsetus is a greatly valued and sought after fish species. However, because it prefers brackish waters, such as lagoons and estuaries, landings of this species do not seem to be summarily reported. In a study published in 2011, large numbers of individuals were taken in seine nets and not a single individual was discarded, regardless of length. In fact, the average length of an A. hepsetus individual taken in the study was 5.5 to 13.5 cm, while the length at first maturity is 9.7 cm. The percentage of immature specimens taken was 17.3 (Cetinic et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Atherina hepsetus has high commercial importance because of its abundance and relative ease of catch. Nevertheless, the fishing mortality (0.50 year-1) estimate and exploitation rate (E=0.35) indicates that fishing pressure is not very high in the study area (Pallaoro et al. 2007). However, the only landing statistic reported to the FAO for A. hepsetus was from Croatia in 2011, at 13 tonnes (FishStatJ).  However, in a report recently compiled by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, A. hepsetus is among the most sought after and landed fish in lagoons in Albania. An estimated 200 tonnes of fishes were harvested from Albania's lagoons, but the landings were not separated by species (Mitchell et al. 2010). In the Adriatic Sea, A. hepsetus annual catch can reach 160 tonnes (Jardas 1996).  Its average price on the Croatian (Split) fish market is approximately 6.5€ (50 HRK) per kilo. The major small-scale fishing gear for exploitation of this species in Croatian waters are coastal beach seines, small mesh size (10 and 12 mm) gillnets and liftnets (Pallaoro et al. 2007).

redListAssessors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Carpenter, K.E., de Morais, L., Knudsen, S. & Harold, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Atherina presbyter is a widely distributed coastal species in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It appears to have a patchy distribution in European and adjacent waters, but catches of atherinid species are often not separated by species. There are local fisheries for this species in some regions (e.g., the Canary Islands), but this is not considered to be a major threat at this time. There are no other known major threats at this time. Therefore, A. presbyter is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Atherina presbyter is distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It is known from Kattegat (rare) and British Isles to Canary Islands, Madeira, Mauritania and Cape Verde (Quignard and Pras 1986, Mauge 1990, Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1999, Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2001). Atherina presbyter is rare in the western Mediterranean Sea (Pinnegar and Polunin 2004, Lloris et al. 1984) and is not known from the Baltic Sea.  This species is typically found in the littoral zone, but was collected to depths of at least 4.5 m in Portugal (Pombo et al. 2005).

population:
Atherina presbyter is very common in some parts of its range (Turnpenny et al. 1981, Riley et al. 2011), and is considered rare in others. Atherina presbyter has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean Sea where there are only occasional records. However, this species probably remains unidentified in mixed atherinid catches when it does occur, and thus may be more abundant in the Mediterranean Sea than records may indicate. Atherina presbyter shows a modest frequency of occurrence in the Berlenga Natural Reserve in Portugal between 2004 and 2005 with 7.7 and 8.3%, consecutively (Vasco-Rodrigues et al. 2011). In the Canary Islands, catches of this species have been declining and the fishing effort on it has been increasing in the Canary Islands (Pajuero and Lorenzo 2000).

habitat:
Atherina presbyter is a small pelagic, oceanodromous species that can be found in coastal areas and estuaries. It is a schooling species and has seasonal migrations in the Atlantic. It feeds on carnivorous small crustaceans and fish larvae (Quignard and Pras 1986). It reproduces in spring and summer (Billard 1997). Spawning occurs in midsummer in English Channel and North Sea. Atherina presbyter is described as a marine juvenile migrant species, which uses estuaries and coastal lagoons primarily as a nursery ground. Much of its adult life is spent at sea, but it often returns seasonally to the estuary (Elliott and Dewailly 1995).  The information about this species is scarce and mainly focuses on biological aspects such as age, growth and mortality (Pombo et al. 2005). A. boyer, A. hepsetus and A. presbyter are sympatric species that might occur at the same space and in the same time so fisheries data might be mixed. In some regions this species is used as bait in tuna fisheries. Atherina presbyter is a small pelagic fish that inhabits coastal areas and estuaries. It is a gregarious species, commonly found in river mouths, harbours and saltings of estuarine marshes, apparently attracted by water of low salinity (Turnpenny et al. 1981).  It is a schooling fish with seasonal migrations in the Atlantic. It feeds on carnivorous small crustaceans and fish larvae (Quignard and Pras 1986). crustaceans found in stomachs of fish is a reflection of the preponderance of this  taxon in the plankton. The progression to natant macrofauna in the diet occurs as  the fish become large enough to prey actively upon larger animals moving in the water body, principally amphipodsm (Turnpenny et al. 1981).Its reproduction time is in spring and summer (Billard 1997), with the main spawning period in May and June and a secondary spawning period in September (Turnpenny et al. 1981). The majority of Atherina presbyter were mature at the end of their first year.  Amongst the I+ group females, 73% of those examined contained ripe eggs during  the spawning season. All fish were mature by the second year (i.e. II+ group and older) and continued to spawn thereafter. Age specific fecundities for I+, 11+ and III+ group fish were 1394 (s.D. & 43), 2807 (s.D. k 8 1) and 6872 (s.D. k 233) eggs per female respectively (Turnpenny et al. 1981).

threats:
This is a commercially exploited species in the Atlantic, but not a target species in the Mediterranean Sea. In the long term, climate change could be a problem for this temperate Atlantic species. In the Canary Islands, A. presbyter is of a great interest both as commercial target and as bait in the seasonal live-bait tuna fishery. This species is captured near surface in the littoral zone, mainly with beach seines and liftnets. It is caught consistently year-round without significant seasonal differences in landings (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2000). FAO landings are not species specific for smelts, but the Russian Federation reported landing double the tonnage of smelts in 2011 (7709 t) from just 3935 tonnes in 2006 (FishStatJ). The United States reported a insignificant landing of 200 tonnes in 2011.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are known for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. Atherina presbyter has been assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This is a commercially exploited species in the Atlantic, but not a target species in the Mediterranean Sea.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment : Not Applicable (NA) Within Europe, Alepisaurus brevirostris is only known from the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as the species has a marginal occurrence in Europe and the regional population is less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species has an almost circumglobal distribution, being found in warm and tropical waters in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The species has a marginal distribution in European waters, being recorded from the Azores.

population:
The population size and trend is unknown, but the species has only a marginal occurrence in Europe.

habitat:
Found at depths from 40-1,000 m below the surface. This species tends to inhabit temperate and tropical regions, with some records in colder areas. Preys on a variety of crustaceans and fishes (Russell FAO ECA Guide in prep.). More common around seamounts (Morato et al. 2010). Members of family Alepisauridae are generally hermaphroditic (Mead et al. 1964). Can reach up to 1 m total length (Russell FAO ECA Guide in prep.).

threats:
This species has no known major threats; it is unlikely to be impacted by human activity due to the depths it inhabits.

conservationAction:
This species has no specific protections, but it may enter various protected areas due to its large distribution.

useAndTrade:
This species may be caught on long fishing lines, but not known to be utilized (Russell FAO ECA Guide in prep.).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., de Bruyne, G. & de Morais, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Alepisaurus ferox is a widely distributed species, and is found from Greenland to the Mediterranean Sea and to the Azores in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Little is known about its population structure. Despite being taken as by-catch by the tuna longline fisheries, it is not targeted directly by any fishery. Due to the deep-water nature of this species it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch by many other fisheries, and is unlikely to be impacted by any other human or climatic threats. Therefore, A. ferox is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Alepisaurus ferox is widely distributed in subtropical and tropical waters and has been found in the eastern Pacific from the Aleutian Islands to Chile and in the western Pacific, from Japan to Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia (C. Roberts pers. comm. 2009). It also occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean off Natal, South Africa, and possibly the Maldives. In the northeast Atlantic, A. ferox is known from Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, the British Isles, Spain, the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the Mediterranean Sea. This species can reach depths of 2,700 m (Minchin and Wheeler 1988, Møller et al. 2010). It is typically found at depths of 0 to 1,850 m (Fedorov et al. 2003).

habitat:
Alepisaurus ferox can be found in the epipelagic zone, down to the bathypelagic. It is distributed through mostly tropical and subtropical waters, though adults migrate to the subarctic to feed. Alepisaurus ferox has a large, distendable stomach which allows it to feed on moderately large prey (Minchin and Wheeler 1988), including fish, cephalopods, tunicates and crustaceans (Post 1984), though diet can vary according to region. Cannibalism has also been seen within this species (Potier et al. 2007). Adolescents are synchronous hermaphrodites (Smith and Atz 1973), but there is no evidence that this species is a function hermaphrodite (Post 1984). Alepisaurus ferox can attain sizes approaching 2 m in length (Post 1984).

threats:
This species is frequently taken as bycatch by the long-line tuna fisheries. Although sometimes eaten, A. ferox is not a commercial species as it is not considered to be a favourable food fish. At present, the harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat as it is not targeted directly by the fishing industry, and lives at great depths.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for Alepisaurus ferox. This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Alepisaurus ferox is of little commercial importance. The only country with reported landings is Spain which reported for two years (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed March 2014). This species is occasionally caught as long-line bycatch and is discarded in mainland Portugal (ICES WGDEEP 2009).

redListContributors:
Paxton, J.R., De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Anotophterus pharao is a widely distributed, bathypelagic species. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from France to Madeira. Population information is relatively unknown, due to its rarity, although it appears to have a large distribution. It is not known to be used commercially, but it may be occasionally caught as bycatch. Therefore, A. pharao is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Anotopterus pharao is an antitropical species found in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (Post 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Iceland to the Azores and Madeira (Hubbs et al. 1953, Post 1984). It is typically found at depths from 500 to more than 2000 m (Post 1984); however, it can be found from 0-5100 m Bogutskaya 2007). .

population:
Population information for this species is limited, though it appears to be widespread (FishNet2, Hubbs et al. 1953, Radchenko and Semenchenko 1996).

habitat:
This marine species is bathypelagic, living at depths from 500 to 2000 m (Post 1984). It is a carnivore (Radchenko and Semenchenko 1996), and is a considered a key predator of Pacific salmon (Beamish et al. 1999, Radchenko and Semenchenko 1996). The average length is about 85 cm, with a reported maximum of 146 cm (Beamish et al. 1999). In waters off Madeira, sexual maturity, accompanied by tooth loss, may be reached after 8 to 9 years of age, and spawning probably occurs in deep water (Maul 1971).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. Although it may be caught as bycatch, this is not thought to be a major threat at present.

conservationAction:
It is possible that this species occurs in a marine protected area throughout its range of distribution.

useAndTrade:
Anotopterus pharao is not used commercially, due to its rarity. However, it may be caught as bycatch from deep water trawls (Iwami and Takahashi 1992).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as it is a mainly deepwater species that is widespread through its distribution. It is relatively uncommon and it is not a targeted species, although it is caught mainly incidentally at several places in the Atlantic and not regarded as an important commercial species. However, research is needed to determine the ecology, population size and trends of the species, especially considering that it is poorly known and may be affected by potential threats such as trawling and pollution.

range:
The species is found through the west central Atlantic Ocean, the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. In the west central Atlantic, it is present in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean (Robins et al. 1991) to Brazil (Carvalho-Filho et al. 2010).  As for the eastern Atlantic Ocean, this species is present from the Canary Islands (Sulak 1984, Lloris 1992, Rodriguez et al. 2001, Aguilar et al. 2010), Azores (Borges et al. 2010), Madeira (Sulak 1984), Josephine Seamount and Great Meteor Tablemount (Shcherbachev et al. 1985, Fock et al. 2002), Irving, Plato and Meteor Seamounts (Pakhorukov 2008) and the Seine Seamount (Hirch and Christiansen 2010), southwards to Cape Verde and Senegal.  Within the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present along the northwestern and northern African coasts (Bauchot 1987, Papakonstantinou et al. 2011), including Tunisia, Algeria, off Egypt, off Libya, Turkey and in the eastern Levantine Basin (Massutí et al. 2003, 2004, Souissi et al. 2010 and references therein, Romdhani et al. 2011), in Israel (Galil 2011), Syria (Saad 2005) and Cyprus (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987). One specimen was captured in Croatia (Fishbase 2014). The species is also present through the Alborán Sea (Aguilar et al. 2008a, unpublished data, Oceana pers. comm. 2014), Palos Seamount (Marín et al. 2011a), Mallorca Channel Seamounts and Cabrera Archipelago (Aguilar et al. 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Marín et al., 2011b), Emile Baudot Escarpment (Oceana pers. comm. 2014) and the Spanish, French and Italian Mediterranean coasts (Sulak 1984, Bo et al. 2011, D'Onghia et al. 2010, 2011), the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic 2006), the Ligurian Sea (Serracca et al. 2013), Greece (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987) and the Aegean Sea (Vassilopoulou et al. 1998, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Nurettin et al. 2007, Kalatzis 2013).  Its depth lower limit is 1,000 metres below sea level, while its upper limit is 50 metres below sea level.

population:
Aulopus filamentosus is considered highly abundant and very common in the Great Meteor Tablemount (Fock et al. 2002). Nevertheless, in Italy this species is quite rare, except in the areas of Livorno and Messina where captures are more common (Costa 1991). Although it is generally scarce, it is known to fishermen. There is no information available for the population size and trends of this species, although at Great Meteor Tablemount, the species has shown a moderate increase in abundance, attributed to net effects (Fock et al. 2002).  Its resilience is estimated as medium, and minimum populations can double their size within 1.4 to 4.4 years (FishBase 2011).

habitat:
It is a demersal fish that can be found on continental shelves and upper slopes (Sulak 1984). It occurs from 100 to 1,000 m, typically between 106 and 424 metres (D. Lloris pers. obs. 2014). The species can be found in all types of bottoms, from muddy to detritic, sandy and rocky bottoms or maërl and coral framework areas, although it presents preference for sedimentary bottoms (Romdhani et al. 2011). Their presence is common in seamounts and knolls (Stocks 2009, Oceana pers. obs. 2014). Aulopus filamentosus is considered a carnivorous species (Andaloro 2011) and feeds on cephalopods, fish and benthic crustaceans (Costa 1991). Its maximum size is 44 cm (SL).

threats:
Aulopus filamentosus may be affected by potential threats, such as pollution and bottom trawling. While it is not important to the fishing industry, it may be occasionally caught and discarded by bottom-trawlers. Specifically in the Eastern Central Atlantic Ocean, the species is caught by offshore trawlers, but there are no separate statistics to evaluate its status (Fisher et al. 1981).  The species is commonly caught in several fishing areas in the Atlantic Ocean (Souissi et al. 2010 and references therein), including the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, but its distribution overlaps within marine protected areas throughout its range. Josephine Seamount is under the OSPAR network of marine protected areas, and other Portuguese Seamounts (Irving, Seine, Plato, Meteor) are to be protected by the Portuguese Government (in project). Likewise, Chella Bank (in the Alborán Sea) will be protected during 2014 and a management plan will be developed in the upcoming six years. Consequently, potential threats to the species such as bottom trawling and pollution will be addressed.Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species, and statistics on by-catch, discards and market presence are also needed.

useAndTrade:
In Andalucía (southern coast of Spain), the species is not well known by fishermen, and it was recorded only in one fish market of many visited (17 ports in the Mediterranean side of the Andalucian coast and 18 in the Atlantic Ocean one) (ICTIOTERM 2013). Nevertheless, in Greece, A. filamentosus is a local commercial species, and while it is present in some fish markets (Serracca 2013), it is not of commercial importance in the Aegean Sea (Andaloro et al. 2011).  The species is commonly caught in several fishing areas in the Atlantic Ocean (Souissi et al. 2010 and references therein), including the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira.

redListContributors:
Blanco, J., Papakonstantinou, C., Keskin, Ç., Massuti, E. & Palmeri, A.


