# European_Red_List_2017_December

population:
The European population is estimated at 331,000-896,000 pairs, which equates to 662,000-1,790,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 87,700-165,000 pairs, which equates to 175,000-330,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occurs in open lowlands and hills in steppe and forest-steppe and Mediterranean zones. Suitable breeding habitats in Europe include orchards, groves, parks, woodland edges and overgrown ditches even if close to human settlement or cultivation (Tucker and Heath 1994). Tall trees are necessary for nesting. It is found up to 700 m, rarely to 900 m in central Europe and to 1,500 m in Russia. It arrives at its breeding grounds from late-April to mid-May and egg-laying occurs May to early June. 

The nest is built by both sexes. It is a well-made structure with a loose foundation of twigs, grass, rootlets, string, etc., often with high proportion of green plants and lined with rootlets, feathers and hair but occasionally it is unlined. Clutch size can be from three to seven eggs but usually five or six. It is a specialized insectivore, although it also feeds on spiders and very rarely vertebrates (Yosef et al. 2008). Prey is taken from the ground and air, although the species requires few perches and often hovers. Unlike other shrikes food hoarding is rare (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is a long distance migrant and spends less than four months on its breeding grounds. European birds depart in the autumn and overwinter in southern Africa before beginning to return in late February or early March (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Agricultural intensification and an increase in monocultures have driven declines in western and central Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994). Heavy use of fertilizers since the middle of the 20th century has led to an increase in vegetation cover, causing wetter and colder micro-climates close to the soil, this, in turn, has negative effects on the large arthropod fauna on which this species relies (Yosef and International Shrike Working Group 2008). The use of insecticides has also contributed to a decline in prey for this species.  Climatic fluctuations, causing wetter conditions in some areas of Europe and drier in others, are also thought to be a serious threat. The species suffers high losses due to predation by natural predators and human disturbance and in central Europe it is persecuted as a predator of song birds (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. A conservation programme in Spain has shown some success through monitoring, habitat management and the release of captive bred birds (Martínez 2011). Agri-environment schemes have been implemented successfully as seen in France, in Languedoc-Roussillon where in 1996 as special wine was even produced and sold with some of the proceeds going to habitat management for this species (LeFranc and Worfolk 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from a decrease in use of agricultural pesticides and from the maintenance of traditional, mosaic farming methods, with old orchards (Tucker and Heath 1994, Yosef and International Shrike Working Group 2008), the development of protected areas in suitable habitats and favourable habitat management (LeFranc and Worfolk 1997). Studies should be undertaken into the influence of predators such as corvids on nesting success and post-fledgling survival and censuses and monitoring should be improved in eastern and south-east Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 36,300-105,000 pairs, which equates to 72,600-209,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,000-14,200 pairs, which equates to 12,000-28,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in areas with a warm Mediterranean climate (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997) and favours natural open woodland with bushes and glades or big isolated trees. It nests in a variety of light deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests or in maquis and maquis-like vegetation. It is normally  absent from open areas or those near human habitation, but occurs locally in cultivated land dotted with old trees, citrus and olive (Olea) groves, orchards, small fields with tall hedges and many trees, vineyards, gardens, and poplar (Populus) plantations. It is monogamous and both sexes build the nest. Egg-laying occurs from April to mid-June. The nest is relatively small, open, very carefully constructed from rootlets, twigs, plant down, plant stems and moss, lined with wool, hair or man-made materials, decorated externally with lichen (more or less camouflaged), in a fork or on a lateral branch of a tree, or sometimes in dense (often thorny) bush. Clutches are typically four to six eggs (Yosef et al. 2008). Grasshoppers and beetles make up the majority of the diet but it also feeds on other insects and small vertebrates such as lizards and small passerines (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997). The species is migratory and most birds winter in sub-Saharan Africa (Yosef et al. 2008).

threats:
In Europe the main likely cause of population decline is degradation of favoured diverse habitats (Yosef et al. 2008), through drainage, afforestation, burning, mature woodland clearance and use of pesticides (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). During migration it suffers from shooting in Turkey and is locally persecuted in Greece as it is considered a bird of ill omen (Yosef et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. In most countries in its range the species is protected and is listed as "rare" in some national species Red Lists (Yosef et al. 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Recently the species has started to occupy plantations, which have replaced natural woodland, and this adaptation may be of long-term conservation benefit to this species (Yosef et al. 2008). Traditional farmland, managed at low intensity should be maintained within diverse landscapes and old trees and small groves should be preserved. Legal protection from shooting is required and such legislation should be enforced. Population assessments for the species should be conducted throughout its range to help ascertain its conservation needs (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,930,000-3,110,000 pairs, which equates to 3,870,000-6,230,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,880,000-2,960,000 pairs, which equates to 3,760,000-5,920,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species requires shrub-like or arboreal cover, open ground offering rich supply of large insects, and perches with commanding view of area. It is commonly found in semi-open areas with bushes and well-spaced trees, such as open woodland, old orchards, olive (Olea) groves, gardens, and parks or hedgerows with large thorny bushes; in Greece it prefers open pine (Pinus) forest. In many areas it occurs in cultivated country with trees; and in the north of its range it is a typical bird of old traditional orchards, particularly when sheep or cattle present (Yosef et al. 2013). Egg-laying occurs from the end of April through to July, although in Europe second clutches are rare. The nest site is chosen by the male and both sexes build the nest (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997), which is a compact open cup made from twigs and roots and other plant material, lined with rootlets, hair, wool, moss, lichen and spider web. It is generally placed on a lateral branch of a tree, often fruit tree or oak, pine or poplar or in the Mediterranean area, in low dense brush. Clutches are four to eight eggs (Yosef et al. 2013). It feeds principally on insects but other invertebrates, voles, mice, lizards, frogs and occasionally plant material such as berries are also taken (Lefranc and Worfolk 1997). The species is migratory, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa, north of the equator (Yosef et al. 2013).

threats:
Loss and degradation of habitat through agricultural intensification, afforestation, and large fires are the main threats to this species (Yosef et al. 2013). The abandonment of traditional charcoal-making, the canalization of rivers and heavy use of herbicides and insecticides are also threats (Tucker and Heath 1994). Long-term climatic changes resulting in wetter springs have caused the range of the species to contract southwards (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It is hunted around ponds in summer and on migration in Italy. In addition, drought in the Sahel and changes to agricultural practices in its wintering grounds may lead to long term population declines (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is legally protected in most countries; in some listed as "highly endangered", in others regarded as "vulnerable" or "endangered" on national Red Lists (Yosef et al. 2013)

Conservation Actions Proposed
Traditional management of pastoral woodland (Yosef et al. 2013) and livestock-rearing (Tucker and Heath 1994), old orchards and Mediterranean scrub and the prevention of hunting would benefit this species (Yosef et al. 2013). The use of herbicides and insecticides should be controlled, soil-rotation practices used and unploughed field margins with boundaries of trees, shrubs and herbaceous vegetation should be maintained. In addition the diversification of monoculture crops and the maintenance of woodland at roadsides in rural areas and in irrigated cereal cultivation would benefit the species. Restrictions on hunting should be enforced (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 30,000-150,000 pairs, which equates to 60,000-300,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is found in the Canary Islands and Madeira where it is sedentary (Tucker and Heath 1994). Birds are found from sea level to over 2,000 m in all habitats except dense woodland and wetter areas. In the eastern Canaries it uses dry, sparsely vegetated semi-desert areas of volcanic rock and other open habitats such as tracks. In the western Canaries it is found in mountainous areas and on rocky hillsides. In Madeira it is most frequently found in the high sierras but can also be found on cliffs and fields near the sea.

It breeds from late January to August probably producing two broods of two to five eggs. The nest of dry grass and roots lined with hair, wool or feathers is built in the shelter of a small bush or stone. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates but also consumes seeds (Tyler 2004).

threats:
There are currently no known threats to this species, however future large-scale developments may impinge on its habitats (Tyler 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There have been studies on aspects of the species such as breeding ecology, population history and prevalence of disease (Garcia-del-Rey and Creswell 2007, Illera et al. 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Key sites should be identified and legal protection from development ensured. Populations should be monitored and research continued.


population:
The European population is estimated at 909,000-1,720,000 pairs, which equates to 1,820,000-3,440,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 539,000-967,000 pairs, which equates to 1,080,000-1,930,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in open dry habitats, from sand dunes, sandy heaths, dry grassland and clear-felled areas to artificial habitats such as gravel pits, favouring areas with dwarf shrubs and low-growing trees for songposts. The breeding season is from mid-April to mid-August; although it is later in northern Europe, beginning in mid-June in Sweden.

It is monogamous and the nest is a cup of grass stems, leaves and roots, lined with finer plant material and hair and built in a scrape or a hollow on the ground or in a tuft of grass. Usually four to five eggs are laid. The diet is mainly insects, although other invertebrates and seeds are also taken, as well as rarely small vertebrates (Tyler and Christie 2012). The species is essentially migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In western and central Europe the species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of afforestation of open habitats, scrub encroachment, intensification of agriculture (Tyler and Christie 2012) and eutrophication of cultivated land (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). In addition the use of pesticides may also be a threat through the reduction of food availability (Tucker and Heath 1994). Climate change may also have an impact on this species (Tyler and Christie 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. In Sweden, a national species action plan was published in 2001 (Löfgren and Elfström 2001).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Low-intensity grazing practices should be maintained in order to restrict the development of dense vegetation cover which is unsuitable for this species. In addition the abandonment of marginal crops in flat areas and the conversion of these sites to sheep grazing could benefit this species. Conversion of such areas to forestry plantation should be avoided. Research should be undertaken on the causes of declines in areas where habitat loss is not a significant threat (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,010,000-3,020,000 pairs, which equates to 2,020,000-6,040,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,100-2,600 pairs, which equates to 2,200-5,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in the arctic tundra. It favours willow (Salix) mires with small creeks, sedge (Carex) marshes and peat mounds, both above the treeline and in the mountain birch (Betula) forest (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It arrives at its breeding grounds in late May and egg-laying occurs early to mid-June. The nest is built by the female, although the initial hollow is made by the male and both sexes bring material. It is a cup of grass leaves and stems, some moss and dead leaves at the base, lined with finer grass, hair and feathers and sited on the ground on a hummock or bank. It is also sometimes at end of short tunnel. Clutches can be between two and seven eggs but usually five or six. It forages on the ground and its prey is mainly insects but also other invertebrates, and some vegetable matter (Tyler 2004). The species is migratory and European populations mostly winter in sub-Saharan Africa but scattered wintering sites exist in south-east Italy, Turkey and North Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The reasons for Finnish decline unknown (Tyler 2004). The species is vulnerable to future climate change (Virkkala et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Studies are needed on the ecology, reproductive biology and food, with particular focus on causes of decline and species conservation. Identification and protection of key areas should also be undertaken.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large global range which only barely extends into northeasternmost Europe. The population size within the region is very small and the population trend is unknown, but there is no evidence of a decline. The species therefore meets the thresholds for classification as Endangered, but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted one category to Vulnerable (VU°).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
This species breeds in Siberia, with its range extending just west of the Urals into northern European Russia (Tyler 2004).

population:
The European population is estimated at 10-100 pairs, which equates to 20-200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the breeding season this species inhabits bushy tundra and taiga swamps with tall dense sedges, reeds, shrubs and even trees, in the zone between tundra to the north (inhabited by Anthus cervinus) and taiga forest to  the south (inhabited by Anthus hodgsoni). It breeds from late June to July in Siberia. The nest is a cup of grass and other leaves, lined with finer material and built on the ground in low vegetation or in the shelter of a tuft of grass. Clutches are generally four to five eggs (Tyler 2004). It feeds mainly on invertebrates. The species is migratory and the wintering range is poorly known (Tyler 2004).

threats:
The size of the European population does make it vulnerable to the risks faced by small populations; however it is marginal to a much larger population (Birdlife International 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
As little is known about this species’s requirements and populations status, it would benefit from more research, surveying and monitoring.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 the bird is considered vagrant throughout its range and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA).

population:
The European population is estimated at 45,000-60,000 pairs, which equates to 90,000-120,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds on the edge of taiga, on grassy and bracken-covered slopes, rocky ground and in glades in open forest of oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), alder (Alnus), fir (Abies) or pine (Pinus). It is also found in secondary growth and wooded or abandoned cultivation and scrub with isolated trees, and on barren lava areas and around marshes. Also frequents dwarf juniper (Juniperus) or other scrub above the timber-line. In Europe it breeds from June to August. The nest is a cup of moss and dry grass, lined with finer grass and a few hairs and sited on the ground under a tuft of grass or a rock, or in a shallow depression.  Clutches are usually from three to five eggs (Tyler 2004). It feeds on mostly insects in the summer and seeds in the winter.  The species is a long-distance migrant (Snow and Perrins 1998).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 164,000-281,000 pairs, which equates to 329,000-562,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 62,200-77,000 pairs, which equates to 124,000-154,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies exposed rocky sea coasts and islands with low vegetation. It occasionally breeds away from coast, such as on St. Kilda (western Scotland), or on islands in large inland lakes, such as in southern Sweden. It can also occur inland along estuaries and at various wetlands or along less rocky coasts, during migration and in winter. Breeding occurs from mid-March to August and varies with latitude. The nest is built by the female in a crevice in a cliff, in a small cavity on a bank or grassy slope, or under a rock or clump of vegetation. It is as a bulky cup of grass stems, leaves and seaweed and rather flimsily lined with finer material. Clutches are four to six eggs. It feeds primarily on invertebrates but will also take seeds. The species is resident and migratory: the nominate race is largely resident, with some short-distance dispersal; kleinschmidti may move short distances inland to rivers and lakes or to sandy shores; littoralis is migratory (Tyler 2004).

threats:
There are few threats to this species’s habitat. Locally, oil pollution  on rocky shores can have an adverse, although generally temporary, effect  on this species’s invertebrate prey (Tyler 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Locally, the enforcement of stricter legislation on oil transportation would be beneficial to this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This pipit has undergone a moderately rapid population decline in Europe, and is classified as Near Threatened. Within the EU27 declines have been more rapid, resulting in its classification as Vulnerable (A2abc+3bc+4abc).

range:
This species is widespread across Europe. Its range extends from eastern Greenland in the west, across northern Europe to the central and southern high mountains and to the River Ob, east of the Urals. Small isolated populations are also found in the central Appennines in Italy and in the mountains along the border of Georgia and Armenia (Hagemijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 9,670,000-15,000,000 pairs, which equates to 19,300,000-30,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,250,000-7,200,000 pairs, which equates to 8,500,000-14,400,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in a wide range of open habitats, such as tundra, moorland and heathland, bogs, saltmarshes, dunes, coastal meadows, hillsides, forest clearings, fallow land and occasionally in arable land. In northern Europe peatland is a preferred habitat, while in the British uplands it favours a mosaic of heather (Calluna), bog and grassland. In the winter it is also found along seashores. It breeds from late March to August. The nest is a neat cup of grass, lined with finer grass and hair and is concealed amongst vegetation on the ground. Clutches range from two to seven eggs and clutch size increases with latitude (Tyler 2004). It feeds mainly on invertebrates but does consume some plant seeds in the autumn and winter (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is mainly resident or a partial migrant in western Europe. Birds from Greenland and Iceland migrate to western Europe. Northern and eastern populations are generally medium-distance migrants (Tyler 2004).

threats:
The main cause of declines is thought to be agricultural intensification (Tyler 2004). Populations undergo large annual fluctuations dependent on the severity of the weather on migration and in its wintering areas (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The maintenance and promotion of low-intensity farming methods may benefit this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,620,000-3,160,000 pairs, which equates to 3,230,000-6,320,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 392,000-704,000 pairs, which equates to 783,000-1,410,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on alpine pastures and high-lying mountain meadows with short grassland and scattered rocks, bushes or trees, usually with some wet areas and often on mountain slopes. In the winter it is found on coastal saltings, lagoons, marshes, grassy edges of lakes and rivers, sewage farms, watercress farms, rice fields and other irrigated cultivation. In Europe, egg-laying occurs from the end of April to early June. The nest is a cup made of grass stems and leaves with some moss incorporated and lined with finer material and some hairs. It is sited on the ground in the side of a bank or hollow, usually well concealed by vegetation or sometimes at the end of a tunnel. Normally four to six eggs are laid. It feeds mainly on invertebrates but also takes some plant material. The species is chiefly a short-distance or altitudinal migrant (Tyler 2004).

threats:
In some areas, grazing animals have been shown to have a significant negative impact on the nesting success of this species (Pavel 2004). It is also thought to be threatened by climate change (Ebenhoh 2003, Melendez and Laiolo 2014). In addition, the spread of ski pistes has also been shown to be detrimental to this species (Caprio et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
In some areas, low-intensity grazing should be promoted. Important areas should also be protected from disturbance from skiing activities.


population:
The European population is estimated at 26,900,000-38,100,000 pairs, which equates to 53,800,000-76,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,990,000-11,500,000 pairs, which equates to 14,000,000-23,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in woodland edges, open woodland, cleared woodland and young conifer plantations, often with isolated remaining tall trees. It also uses heathland or grassland with developing scrub and trees. The breeding season occurs from April to August in north-west Europe. The species is mainly monogamous, however polygamy does occasionally occur. The nest is built in a depression in the ground and is a substantial cup of dry grass, often with moss foundation, lined with finer grasses. Normally four to six eggs are laid. The diet includes a variety of invertebrates but is mostly insects. Some plant material is also taken during the winter. The species is a long-distance migrant (Tyler 2004).

threats:
Local declines have been attributed to the changing nature of its habitats, such as in northern and central Europe where aging plantations become increasingly unsuitable for the species but it will quickly recolonize when mature stands are felled (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).


taxonomicNotes:
Motacilla alba and M. lugens (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) have been lumped into M. alba following AOU (2005). Motacilla alba (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split by Sangster et al. (1998) into M. alba, M. alboides, M. baicalensis, M. leucopsis, M. o

population:
The European population is estimated at 16,900,000-27,600,000 pairs, which equates to 33,900,000-55,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,910,000-11,100,000 pairs, which equates to 13,800,000-22,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a very wide variety of non-forested wet and dry habitats, including seashores, rocky or sandy upland rivers and slow-moving lowland rivers, lakeshores, farmland, gardens, parks, short grassland such as that found in vicinity of factories in towns and cities. It is also often found in towns and villages. In southern and south-eastern Europe, it breeds from late April to mid-July. It is monogamous and both sexes build the nest which is a rough cup of twigs, grass stems, leaves, rootlets and mosses, lined with hair, wool or feathers and placed in a hole or crevice in a riverbank, wall or bridge. It also often nests in buildings or even machinery. Clutches are three to eight eggs. It feeds on a wide range of small terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, as well as fish fry, crumbs and other household scraps. In western and southern Europe some populations of the nominate race and of yarrellii are resident but northern populations of the latter are partial migrants (Tyler 2004).

threats:
Climate change is thought to affect the timing of migration for this species (Ahas and Aasa 2006, Sokolov and Gordienko 2008, Kulberg et al. 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Further research into the effects of climate change on this species should be undertaken.


population:
The European population is estimated at 689,000-1,980,000 pairs, which equates to 1,380,000-3,960,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 520,000-1,340,000 pairs, which equates to 1,040,000-2,670,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits fast-flowing mountain streams and rivers with riffles and exposed rocks or shoals, often in forested areas. It is also found in more lowland watercourses, even canals, where there are artificial waterfalls, weirs, millraces or lock gates. Outside of the breeding season it occupies a wider variety of habitats, including farmyards, sewage farms, forest tracks and even town centres (Tyler 2004). The breeding season is from the end of March to Early August, however in Europe, most eggs are laid from April to May (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is monogamous and both sexes build the nest which is a typical platform and cup of coarser material, lined with finer grasses, root fibres and often horse hair. It is generally sited on a rock ledge, in a crevice in a riverbank, or often on a ledge in a wall, under a bridge or in a drainpipe. Clutches can be from three to seven eggs. It feeds mainly on insects but also takes freshwater shrimps (Gammarus), terrestrial snails (Mollusca) and spiders (Araneae) (Tyler 2004). The species is mainly a partial migrant in central and Atlantic regions of Europe, a full migrant in northern and eastern Europe and resident or locally dispersive in Britain, Ireland, Belgium, France, Iberia and the Mediterranean (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The species is vulnerable to severe winters which may produce significant although short term declines (Hagemeijer and Bair 1997, Tyler 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
Motacilla citreola (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split by Pavlova et al. (2003) into two separate species M. citreola and M. werae, nested within M. flava.

The BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group find this treatment counter-intuitive and follow the tre

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC°°)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species extends into the EU27 only in small numbers in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Finland and Slovakia. The population size within the EU27 meets the threshold for Vulnerable, but given the increasing population within the region and the large, increasing neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted to Least Concern (LC°°) in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 162,000-373,000 pairs, which equates to 323,000-746,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 250-500 pairs, which equates to 490-1,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies marshes, the edges of lakes, willow (Salix) thickets and wet rough grassland in tundra, also areas of willow bushes on mountain meadows and sometimes in fields near villages. It breeds from April to June with breeding beginning later in the north. The nest is a cup of moss and plant leaves and stems, lined with hair, wool and feathers and sited on the ground in grassy vegetation. Typically it lays three to six eggs. The diet includes a wide variety of invertebrates, often aquatic, and their larvae. The species is migratory, wintering in the Indian subcontinent (Tyler and Kirwan 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Further research focusing on the status and threats to the European populations would help inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Motacilla flava (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into M. flava and M. tschutschensis by AOU (2004), but this treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group owing to the unresolved relationships of several other subspecies in the

population:
The European population is estimated at 9,630,000-16,000,000 pairs, which equates to 19,300,000-32,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,830,000-8,370,000 pairs, which equates to 9,650,000-16,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies a range of damp or wet habitats with low vegetation, from damp meadows, marshes, waterside pastures, sewage farms and bogs to damp steppe and grassy tundra. In the north of its range it is also found in large forest clearings. It breeds from April to August, although this varies with latitude. The nest is a grass cup lined with hair and placed on or close to the ground in a shallow scrape. Normally it lays four to six eggs. It feeds on a wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates as well as some plant material, particularly seeds. The species is migratory with European populations wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Tyler and Christie 2012).

threats:
Declines in some countries have been linked to agricultural intensification, especially wetland drainage and the replacement of grasslands with cereals. In addition the use of pesticides and the dumping of manure may also be a threat (Tyler and Christie 2012). Populations breeding in southern Europe are likely to be adversely affected by degradation of the Sahel (Wood 1992).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the promotion of traditional, low-intensity farming and a reduction in the use of pesticides and fertiliser. Further research on the effects of threats in the wintering grounds on European populations would also help inform future conservation.


taxonomicNotes:
Erithacus rubecula (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into E. rubecula and E. superbus following Bergmann and Schottler (2001), but this treatment has not been adopted by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working because it considers the levels of morphologica

population:
The European population is estimated at 58,700,000-90,500,000 pairs, which equates to 117,000,000-181,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 38,400,000-61,200,000 pairs, which equates to 76,700,000-122,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in forest undergrowth and edge, preferring conifer tracts in some parts of its range and deciduous woodland in others. It uses copses and adjacent open land, farmland woodlots, thickets along watercourses, hedgerows with some tall trees, orchards, gardens and parks and is also found in urban areas in parts of Europe. It requires cool shade, medium-height cover with perches, and patches of bare ground. Breeding occurs from mid-March to August, however timing varies with population across Europe.

The nest is a cup of moss, grass, leaves and twigs and lined with fine grass and hair. It is placed on a bulky mat of leaves and is always sited in a recess, usually in low undergrowth, a hedge, grass bank, wall, rock face, tree cavity, tree roots or nestbox. Typically lays four to seven eggs. The diet is mainly invertebrates, fruits and seeds but it will also take very small vertebrates, carrion, left-overs and bird table foods. Migration in this species is poorly understood but in general it is thought eastern populations are migratory while more western populations are resident or partially migratory (Collar 2005).

threats:
The species is subject to hunting for food around the Mediterranean basin (Collar 2005). Population fluctuations are normally driven by severe, hard winters (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II.. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 230,000-623,000 pairs, which equates to 460,000-1,250,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 204,000-541,000 pairs, which equates to 407,000-1,080,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In Europe the species breeds mainly in artificial habitats such as olive and almond groves, vineyards, young pine (Pinus) plantations, citrus plantations, parks and orchards. On migration and in winter it is found in similar habitats, often around human settlements. The species breeds in Europe from mid-May to June and pairs in Spain are commonly double-brooded.

The nest is a loose flat cup of dry grass stems, rootlets, twigs, bark and leaves, often incorporating shed snakeskin and lined with fine fibres, hair and feathers. It is built in dense vegetation, often spiny, in a reed clump, small tree (commonlyOlea europaea or Pinus halepensis in SE Spain), shrub or grapevine or in a crevice in a building. When nesting on rubbish tips it shows a preference for human artefacts (e.g. oil drum, breeze blocks) over bushes. Clutches are three to six eggs (mean in SE Spain 3.6). It forages mainly on the ground, feeding on insects, spiders centipedes, millipedes and earthworms as well as fruit, berries and seeds (Collar 2005). The subspecies found in Europe are migratory, occupying their breeding grounds between April and September and wintering in central, eastern and sub-Saharan Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The population is modest in Armenia and semi-desert habitats there are under threat of agricultural and urban development (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation of suitable habitat for this species should be developed. Research into the species's ecology and monitoring programmes should be developed. Threat assessments in other European countries should be undertaken to help develop conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,530,000-3,090,000 pairs, which equates to 3,060,000-6,190,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 735,000-1,970,000 pairs, which equates to 1,470,000-3,940,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits open forest, forest edges, moist woodland, open country with scattered trees, and well-timbered parks and avenues. It is also found secondarily in gardens and orchards, which it vacates to return to woods immediately after breeding. It requires old trees offering nest-holes high enough above ground and prefers deciduous woodland. Egg-laying occurs from mid-April to early July in central Europe and from late April in Ukraine. The nest is a cup of dry grass, leaves and stalks, lined with fine grass and placed 3-32 m (usually 10-15 m) above ground in a hole in a tree, wall or building. Clutches can be from one to nine eggs but typically five to seven. The diet is mostly flying insects and other arthropods but it also takes some seeds and fruits of currant (Ribes), rowan (Sorbus) and elder (Sambucus). The species is migratory but migration routes and wintering areas are poorly known (Taylor 2006).

threats:
This species is known to hybridize with Ficedula hypoleuca (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Action Proposed
The provision of nestboxes has been shown to increase populations (Taylor 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
Ficedula hypoleuca (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split by Sætre et al. (2001) into F. hypoleuca and F. speculigera but this treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group because Sætre et al. (2001) fail to compare speculigera with

population:
The European population is estimated at 12,500,000-19,400,000 pairs, which equates to 25,000,000-38,800,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,330,000-4,300,000 pairs, which equates to 4,660,000-8,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in most well-wooded and forest habitats, so long as suitable cavities for nest-sites are present. It prefers deciduous forests (which contain more natural cavities) over coniferous forest. In Europe, its typical habitat is deciduous and mixed, sunny, open mature woodland, supplemented by orchards, avenues, parks, and even gardens in low-density human settlements. Breeding occurs from late April to the end of June. The nest is a loose cup of dead leaves, plant stems and moss, which is lined with rootlets, fine grasses, hair and (sometimes) feathers. It is sited 1.8-10 m above the ground in a hole in a tree, wall or building. In western Europe it mainly uses nestboxes. Clutches can be from three to ten eggs but usually four to eight. The diet is mostly insects, both flying and non-flying, but it will take other invertebrates and some fruit and seeds. The species is migratory, wintering in west Africa (Taylor and Christie 2013).

threats:
The species is threatened earlier peaks of invertebrate populations resulting in a mismatch with breeding as a result of climate change (Both et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The provision of nestboxes can assist in significantly increasing population densities (Taylor and Christie 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
Ficedula parva (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into F. parva and F. albicilla following Svensson et al. (2005).

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,290,000-5,090,000 pairs, which equates to 6,570,000-10,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 259,000-625,000 pairs, which equates to 519,000-1,250,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in forest and woodland, mainly mixed deciduous stands, especially with beech (Fagus), but also in oak (Quercus) forest; also in spruce (Picea) forest in the north of its range. It favours tall trees with much undergrowth, light canopy, and an open zone with perching twigs between canopy and undergrowth layer as well as glades, clearings and areas near water. It also occurs in orchards and vineyards. In central and eastern Europe it nests from mid-May to the end of June. The nest is a cup of moss, dry grass stalks and leaves, root fibres and hair, lined with hair and sometimes with lichen woven into the outside. It is normally placed in a hole in a tree or wall, among the side shoots of a trunk, sometimes on a branch close to the trunk, or even in a fork in the branches. Nestboxes are also accepted. Clutches are typically five or six eggs. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates (Taylor 2006).

threats:
As the species relies on old, diversified forests it is vulnerable to modern forestry practices in Europe, such as shorter rotations and the felling of old trees. As a result it may face a shortage of nesting sites in the future (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not currently threatened it may benefit from the maintenance of low-intensity forestry practices and the provision of nestboxes in the future.


taxonomicNotes:
The Semi-collared Flycatcher Ficedula semitorquata is a monotypic species with scattered distribution across its range. In the past the species was wrongly regarded as subspecies of the Collared Flycatcher F. albicollis but recent genetic studies confirme

population:
The European population is estimated at 21,400-87,300 pairs, which equates to 42,700-175,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,500-7,500 pairs, which equates to 7,000-15,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Within its breeding range it favours forest belts mainly on mountain slopes up to about 2,000 m, occupied by mature deciduous trees (notably oak Quercus and hornbeam Carpinus) as well as temperate riverine and swamp forests of Fraxinus oxycarpa; and in plane (Platanus orientalis) galleries (Handrinos, 1997). Occasionally the species breeds in old or abandoned orchards, groves and tree plantations, urban parks and large gardens or forested peripheral parts of towns, villages and industrial sites (Iankov, 2007). Breeding takes place from mid-April to mid-July. The female builds the nest; a cup of dead leaves, dead plant stems, lichens and moss, lined with fine rootlets, grasses or bark fibre, sometimes hair, feathers or plant down, placed in a hole in a tree, commonly an old woodpecker hole. Clutches are normally five to six eggs. The diet consists mainly of flying insects as well as spiders and snails (Taylor and Christie 2013). This species is migratory, although its movements are poorly understood. It moves south in the autumn to its main wintering area in south and central Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997)

threats:
The species suffers from habitat destruction in some areas, which is likely to be responsible for recent declines. Lowland oak (Quercus spp.) forests in Bulgaria (its favoured habitat in this country) have been overexploited for timber, and riparian forests have been cleared for riverbed corrections. In eastern Turkey, its riparian forest habitat is threatened by ongoing dam projects and the rapid loss of other Quercus forests may also be having a negative impact (S. Isfendiyaroglu in litt. 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. A European Union Species Action Plan was published in 2009 (Georgiev and Iankov 2009). It is listed as Vulnerable in the National Red Books of Bulgaria and Turkey and it is legally protected in Bulgaria and Greece but there are no national species action plans (Georgiev and Iankov 2009). BirdLife International project mapping Biologically Important Forests in Bulgaria and Romania. Similar project implemented in Greece in 2008.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Develop a monitoring programme to assess population size and trends. Assess threats to the species and develop appropriate responses. Ensure forest management practices within the distribution area of the species take into account the habitat requirements of the species. Ensure Natura 2000 sites and protected areas that include the species are protected from damage and have management plans under implementation.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region. In the EU27 region, the bird occurs as a vagrant on Lesvos, Greece, where it may breed irregularly.

population:
The European population is estimated at 406,000-917,000 pairs, which equates to 811,000-1,830,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species occupies semi-desert, mountain steppe, stony arid hillsides with scrub patches, scrubby valleys, ravines with mountain streams, narrow stony gullies, subalpine vegetation including juniper (Juniperus), Zygophyllum, bushes and tall weed. It is usually found at 1,000–2,200 m. In the Caucasus, breeding occurs from May to June. The nest is a flat cup of twigs and cereal stalks, lined with feathers and/or hair and set low down (average 0.5 m up) in a tree cavity, bush or on a stump or log. Clutches are four to six eggs (Collar 2005). The diet is mainly insects in the breeding season and fruit is also taken in the autumn. The species is migratory, wintering in a rather restricted area of east Africa (Snow and Perrins 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,000-1,200 pairs, which equates to 2,000-2,400 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found in lowland taiga and subalpine shrubbery, clearings in forests by meadows and rivers, windfall gaps, regenerating burns with tall grass and bushes, birch coppices, clumps and stands of willow and aspen in bogs, patches of montane dwarf pine, krummholz above tree-line, overgrown forest edges and tangled thickets near mountain streams. It favours areas with fallen trees, dense bushes and stands of bird cherry (Prunus padus) and dog rose (Rosa canina), usually near fir (Abies) and spruce (Picea) stands and riverine meadows. In Russia it breeds from May to July and possibly August. The nest is a loose cup or dome made of fine grasses and roots, usually lightly lined with hair and plant down, placed on the ground in the shelter of a bush or dense tuft of herbage. Clutches are four to six eggs. It is insectivorous, taking flies and their larvae, ants, wasps and beetles and also some plant material. The species is migratory, wintering in south-east Asia (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,780,000-6,360,000 pairs, which equates to 7,550,000-12,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 681,000-1,150,000 pairs, which equates to 1,360,000-2,310,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies lowland river valleys with deciduous and mixed woodland bordering waterbodies, beech (Fagus) and hornbeam (Carpinus) forest, small woodlots of young deciduous trees, dense thickets in forest edges, regenerating forest on clear-cut land, wet willow (Salix) thickets, alder (Alnus) carrs, lowland orchards, river gorges, urban scrub, parks and cemeteries. It requires deep soft humus with some leaf litter, tall, dense, patchy herbage, and thickets of brambles, bushes, shrubs and low trees typically along riverbanks, near standing water or in damp depressions. Breeding occurs from mid-May to early July. The nest is a loose bulky cup of leaves and grass, lined with fine stems and hair, placed on ground in sheltered position among dead branches, roots or thick leaf litter. Clutches are four or five eggs. The diet is mainly invertebrates with some fruit. The species is migratory, wintering in Africa (Collar 2005).

threats:
Fluctuations within populations of the species’s appear to correlate with changes in habitat composition and climate amelioration. During the 1900s, numbers fell with the decline of slash-and-burn cultivation which produced its preferred young deciduous woodlands (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).


population:
The European population is estimated at 10,700,000-20,300,000 pairs, which equates to 21,500,000-40,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,860,000-16,100,000 pairs, which equates to 17,700,000-32,300,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies two main habitat types in Europe: lowland open woodland with thickets and dense patches of vegetation of coppice stands, nettles and brambles, bordering waterbodies; and the edges and glades of broadleaf woodland, undergrowth-rich pinewoods and dry maquis, garrigue and shrubbery on sand and chalk (i.e. with no surface water). It is also found in various mixtures of the two, such as cultivated land with mature hedgerows and untended bush-rich suburban gardens and parks with leaf litter. It breeds from late April to mid July. The nest is an occasionally domed bulky cup of dead leaves and grass, lined with fine grasses, feathers and hair. It is sited on or very close to the ground (most are below 0.5 m) in the base of a thicket or in low herbage. Clutches are four to five eggs. It feeds principally on invertebrates but takes berries and seeds in the late summer and autumn (Collar and Christie 2013). The species is migratory, wintering in the Afrotropics (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Declines in the west of its range have been driven since the 1950s by modern agricultural development and an increasing tendency for 'tidying' of gardens and woodland. Nesting habitat along streams and rivers is being lost in Spain (Collar and Christie 2013). The species is also sensitive to climatic variations (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). In the U.K., it is thought that habitat modification as a result of grazing by deer may be a threat to this species (Newson et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
In the UK, deer management plans, including the integrated exclusion and culling of deer, should be coordinated on a large scale and target areas of importance for the species. Further research on the relationship between deer abundance and habitat quality should also be undertaken (Newson et al. 2011). The species would also likely benefit from the maintenance of low-intensity farming practices and areas of woodland and thickets.


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,460,000-7,760,000 pairs, which equates to 8,930,000-15,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 220,000-461,000 pairs, which equates to 440,000-922,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
For breeding, this species appears to require copious low dense vegetation with patches of open ground. It breeds in ecotone habitats between forest and plain or open areas at tree-line, including wooded tundra, mountain steppe, subalpine scrub, marshland with low woody cover, clumps of willow (Salix), alder (Alnus) and birch (Betula) on floodplains, riverbank thickets, reedy and shrub-dominated lakeshores, bushy sites near water. The breeding season is from late April to July in central Europe, from late May in Scandinavia and early April to June in Armenia. The nest is a deep cup of leaves, small twigs, dry grass, rootlets, plant down and moss, which is occasionally lined with animal hair. It is placed among grass and scrub on wet ground and is commonly associated with topographic features such as a hummock, gulley, lip of a bank, or tussock. Clutches are four to seven eggs. The diet is principally invertebrates, particularly insects but it does take some seeds and fruit in the autumn (Collar 2005). The species is mainly migratory, with west Palearctic populations wintering in patches across the Mediterranean Basin and the northern Afrotropics and eastern populations in the Indian subcontinent (Snow and Perris 1998).

threats:
In Europe, this species experiences pronounced but largely unexplained population fluctuations (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Collar 2005). Some negative trends appear to be explained by natural succession in marshland, drainage and management practices such as reed-cutting, seedling removal and cattle grazing (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), but recovery has taken place without the reversal of these circumstances. In Spain, during the 1990s it may have suffered from degradation of habitat through grazing and in Austria, significant losses have occurred during the 19th century due to drainage and it now faces threats there due to stabilization of lake levels, successional loss of reed-belt, and occupation of secondary habitats on arable land (where nest predation elevated) (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
In Bavaria, growing numbers may collapse unless succession is contained through habitat management (Collar 2005). This species would benefit from further research on the causes of population fluctuations.


population:
The European population is estimated at 88,900-283,000 pairs, which equates to 178,000-566,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 20,100-33,400 pairs, which equates to 40,200-66,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds on wild rocky mountain slopes and stony hills up to 3,800 m near patches of herbs or small shrubs which are used as foraging sites (Tucker and Heath 1994). In Europe it breeds from May to June. It is territorial and the male performs display-flights over its territory. The nest is a neat flat cup of coarse grass, rootlets and moss, lined with moss and fine rootlets. Normally it is placed under a rock overhang or in a horizontal rock crevice, wall or ruin, sometimes under a boulder on steep hillside and occasionally in a tree hole. Nest sites are often used successively, including from year to year. Clutches are typically four to six eggs. It feeds principally on insects but also fruit and berries (Collar and Bonan 2013). Typically it forages by surveying from a perch then flying to the ground to take prey (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is a nocturnal trans-Saharan migrant (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). European birds begin to leave their breeding grounds from August to September. Aside from a small number wintering in the southern Arabian Peninsula, the entire species overwinters in Africa (Collar and Bonan 2013).

threats:
Declines in Europe may be owing to habitat loss in both summer and winter quarters through afforestation and tourism development, as well as succession following pastoral abandonment in Europe. The proportion of upland pasture (i.e. overgrazed, barren hill country) in Franconia fell from 20% in 1850 to 1% in 1995 (Collar and Bonan 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The protection of its mountainous breeding grounds should be ensured by preventing afforestation, regulating tourism and preserving pastoral practices. Monitoring programmes and research into species's ecology will help develop future conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 110,000-237,000 pairs, which equates to 219,000-474,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 35,200-73,400 pairs, which equates to 70,500-147,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found on precipitous cliffs, in steep rocky valleys and defiles, ravines and gorges, on crags, outcrops, arid boulder-strewn slopes, sea cliffs and headlands, rocky coasts, ruins, quarries and open mines, isolated stone buildings, churches in rural valleys. In areas of southern Europe where Turdus merula is absent it frequents the roofs of houses, churches, castles and monuments and will occasionally invades urban environments. The key habitat features for this species appear to be vertical faces (cliffs, buildings) and diverse vegetation over 20-80% of area. In Europe, during the winter it may occupy habitats rarely used for breeding, such as olive orchards. In Iberia breeding occurs from the end April to mid-July. The nest is a shallow cup or rough pad of coarse dry grass, rootlets, moss and leaves, loosely constructed and lined with fine soft grass, rootlets and occasional feathers and plant down. It is generally sited under a rock overhang, in a crevice of cliff, rock, bank, cave or building and sometimes in a tree hole, generally two to five metres above ground. Clutches are three to six eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, small vertebrates and fruit. In Europe the species is sedentary and a partial migrant (Collar 2005).

threats:
From 1970 to 1990 the species suffered declines in Spain and Italy as a result of new coastal tourist developments, flooding of canyons and gorges for reservoirs, renovation of old towers and churches, and afforestation and regrowth of matorral following pastoral abandonment. However in Spain these pressures do not explain declines in all areas (Collar 2005). In Malta the species has been driven to occupy inaccessible coastal areas by persecution, such as nest robbing and catching of birds, and human disturbance (Tucker and Heath 1994, Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conservation measures for this species should include the protection of habitat in coastal regions and long inland river systems. Basic information on population numbers should be obtained through census and monitoring work, especially in Portugal, Italy, Turkey and Greece. Research is needed to investigate reasons for declines in areas where the causes are not apparent (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 14,900,000-22,700,000 pairs, which equates to 29,700,000-45,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,660,000-8,180,000 pairs, which equates to 9,310,000-16,400,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits almost any open woodland or timbered area with raised perches providing an open view. During the breeding season it favours well-spaced mature trees to younger trees and bushes, and thus has adapted well to avenues, parks, gardens, orchards and other man-made habitats, as well as occupying many types of deciduous or coniferous woodland. It is also found at woodland edges, in forest glades, clearings and burnt patches, and in trees along streams, rivers and edges of standing water. The breeding season in Europe is from mid-May to mid-August. The nest is a bulky cup of loosely piled fine twigs, rootlets, dead leaves, pieces of decaying bark, moss, dry grass, lichens and fibres, bound with hair and lined with hair, feathers and finer material. It is sited above the ground on a natural or artificial ledge, in a niche, at the base of a basket-shaped tuft of twigs against a tree trunk, in a hole in a tree, branch or stump, in creeper against a tree or wall, or on top of a flat branch. Clutches are two to seven eggs, but most commonly four to six. It is insectivorous, feeding mainly on flying insects, especially flies (Diptera) and hymenopterans but will also take other invertebrates and some fruits. The species is migratory, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Taylor 2006).

threats:
In north-west Europe, it is thought that declines may be due to a long sequence of  generally cooler summers, or adverse factors such as biocide-induced reductions or contamination of insect populations, removal of old trees and general habitat deterioration (Taylor 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
As the causes of declines are uncertain, further research is needed to investigate possible factors. The species would also benefit from the protection of its favoured mature woodland habitats, a reduced use of broad-spectrum insecticides and the maintenance of mature trees in farmland, parks and gardens (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Oenanthe xanthoprymna (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into O. xanthoprymna and O. chrysopygia following AERC TAC (2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species breeds in central Asia, extending into Europe only in extremely small numbers in Armenia. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Critically Endangered under the small population criterion, with an unknown population trend but no evidence of a decline. The species could therefore be listed as Critically Endangered but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted by one category to Endangered (EN° D).

The species does not occur within the EU27.

range:
This species breeds in north-east Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan (Collar 2005). It is known to breed in the Araks Valley in the extreme south of Armenia and Azerbaijan (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), as well as the mountains of the Nakhichevan region (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 20-30 pairs, which equates to 40-60 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species inhabits gently angled to steep arid rocky and stony slopes and screes with scattered boulders, stony mountain ridges and ravines, and dry fallow fields in remote valleys and sometimes on level boulder fields. It is commonly found near small or large perennial streams and favours sparse dwarf montane shrubs. It breeds from April to June in the Caucasus (Collar 2005). The nest is a loosely constructed, shallow cup of dry grass and coarser plant fibres, lined with finer fibres stripped from plant stems and sometimes placed on a thick base of debris. It is set in a hole in rocks, among stones, or in the wall of a build and occasionally in the burrow of a Bee-eater (Snow and Perrins 1998). The diet is mainly invertebrates, principally ants and beetles but also takes some plant matter (Collar 2005). The species is migratory, wintering in eastern Africa and south-west Asia (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The size of the European population renders it susceptible to the risks affecting small populations; however it is adjacent to a much larger non-European population.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are thought to be needed for this species


population:
The European population is estimated at 40,000-100,000 pairs, which equates to 80,000-200,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a wide range of habitats, including mountain pine forest clearings, hills and mountains with rough open ground and scattered trees, broken rocky ground, open natural and farmed lowlands, woodland and plantations, gardens, industrial and suburban areas and house compounds. The breeding season is from April to July. The nest is a loose bulky cup of grass and roots, placed low down in a hole in an earth bank, stone or mud wall, terrace, roadside, tree, behind loose eucalypt bark or under a stone. It can also be set in a cave or an artificial site, such as a metal pipe, empty can, flowerpot, shed shelves or nestbox. Clutches are four to five eggs (Collar 2005). The diet is almost entirely insects, especially ants beetles and grasshoppers but will also take berries and has been recorded taking a lizard. The species is migratory, wintering mostly in Sudan and Ethiopia (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The only known threat to this species in Cyprus is from bird-catchers using lime-sticks and mist-nets and also from shooting at migration times (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The implementation and enforcement of existing laws against trapping is urgently required. Controls are needed on the use of lime-sticks and on the import, sale and use of mist-nets as well as on the trafficking and sale of birds as food in restaurants. In addition a wider, more systematic system of monitoring the situation and the species's population (Tucker and Heath 1994, Collar 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species extends into Europe only in very small numbers in Azerbaijan and Turkey-in-Asia. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Vulnerable under the small population criterion, with an unknown population trend but no evidence of a decline. The species could therefore be listed as Vulnerable but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted one category to Near Threatened (NT°).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
Its European range accounts for a small proportion of its global breeding range. It is known to breed in Azerbaijan and Turkey and most likely in Armenia as well (Snow and Perrins 1998, Collar 2005). Also it is thought to have bred in Georgia in the past (Snow and Perrins 1998).

population:
The European population is estimated at 110-1,100 pairs, which equates to 220-2,200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies dry steppes, dry sparsely bushed riverbeds, wadis, ruins and stony and gravel flatlands. The time of breeding is not recorded but in Israel this species breeds from early April to mid-July. The nest is a rather bulky construction, made of grass and root fibres and lined with finer grass, wool, hair or feathers. It is set in a hole in a roadside or riverbank, rock face, wall, bridge or other building, under a stone, bush or pile of stones, amid exposed roots or down old rodent burrow. Clutches are three to six eggs. The diet is principally invertebrates but will also occasionally take seeds (Collar 2005). The species is migratory, although some populations are only partially migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are thought to be needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species is Not Evaluated (NE) for the EU27 region as winter (non-breeding season) data were not available.

population:
The European population is estimated at 102,000-312,000 pairs, which equates to 204,000-624,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in rocky sloping country, and particularly limestone canyons and ravines, in and at bases of foothills and low mountains in sparsely vegetated scrubby semi-desert, dry boulder-strewn slopes with outcrops and clefts, screes, talus mounds, empty gulleys and ravines and adjacent dry fields. In the winter it favours more open plains areas. Breeding occurs from April in the west of its range until to July in Armenia and from May to June in the Caucasus. The nest is a shallow cup of twigs and plant stems, lined with grass and hair and set in a shallow ground depression among rocks or under a heap of stones. Clutches are four to six eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, especially ants and beetles, but also takes seeds and other vegetable material. The species is a migrant or partial migrant and, in the south of its breeding range, it is probably sedentary or makes short-distance vertical movements (Collar 2005).


taxonomicNotes:
Oenanthe hispanica (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into O. hispanica and O. melanoleuca by Sangster et al. (1999) but this treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxnomic Working Group because both forms hybridise and intergrade into each othe

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,280,000-3,680,000 pairs, which equates to 2,560,000-7,350,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 430,000-1,180,000 pairs, which equates to 861,000-2,360,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in warm climatic zones in stony, scrubby, often broken terrain (slopes and foothills) around open woodland of alerce (Tetraclinis), juniper (Juniperus) or oak (Quercus), amid Olea and Pistacia scrub, olive trees, cactus groves, and in fallowland, vineyards, dry maquis steppe and shrub-covered limestone hills. Breeding begins from late April in Spain and from early May in Greece and Armenia. The nest is a rather flat cup of stems, moss and fibres, lined with hair or down and set on the ground under a stone, rocky overhang or tussock, among scree, in burrow or hole in ruin or wadi bank. Clutches are typically four of five eggs. The diet is made up of invertebrates, berries and seeds. The species is migratory and travels on a broad front across the Mediterranean and Sahara to winter in the African Sahel (Collar 2005).

threats:
Since 1970 the species has declined in western Europe, most likely due to drought in its wintering quarters and agricultural intensification, as well as afforestation (Collar 2005). It may also be threatened locally by predation from foxes (Vulpes) and feral dogs (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. In Spain the species is nationally red-listed as “Near-threatened” (Collar 2005). Increases in sheep grazing within Iberia have been favourable to this species (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Action Proposed
Areas of sheep grazing need to be conserved through support for traditional pastoral farming methods (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,060,000-6,230,000 pairs, which equates to 4,130,000-12,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 7,100-25,200 pairs, which equates to 14,100-50,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in arid, open, sparsely vegetated country, including dry plains, mountain and lowland steppes, semi-desert, wadis and desert margins, commonly where burrowing rodents, such as gerbil (Rhombomys opimus), occur. In Armenia, it is found in rolling semi-desert with Tamarix, Artemisia, Euphorbia, Alhagi, Atraphaxis and Gypsophila, and in usually on south-facing mountain steppe with Astragalus. Breeding occurs from March to June in Armenia and from March to July in southern Russia. The nest is a shallow, bulky cup of dried grass, roots and hair, lined with hair, wool and feathers. It is set deep in a rodent burrow or burrow of a similar mammal and less often in and old bee-eater (Meropidae) hole or occasionally in a natural hole or crevice. Clutches are four to seven eggs. The diet is mainly invertebrates, particularly insects such as beetles and ants and vegetable matter. The species is migratory (Collar 2005).

threats:
The species is linked to some extent to populations of burrow-nesting rodents, which supply nest-holes. As a result, declines in these species, such as falls in gerbil numbers due to ploughing, may impact this species (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are thought to be needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This wheatear is undergoing rapid population declines in Spain, which holds the vast majority of the population within Europe and the EU27. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is resident in eastern Portugal, Spain and the extreme south of France (Collar 2005).

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,500-6,900 pairs, which equates to 13,100-13,900 mature individuals.The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits steep rocky arid landscapes with rock walls, scattered boulders, bare ground and sparse scrub, avoiding flat terrain. It inhabits gorges, ravines, steep-sided wadis, hillsides, screes, scarps, outcrops, sea cliffs, ancient hilltop settlements, ruins and old deserted houses, in wooded, semi-wooded, semi-desert and bare areas. In southern Spain, nest-building begins mid-February and in the Pyrenees from mid-April. The nest is a bulky cup of grass and rootlets, lined with hair and feathers and sited under a rock or tussock, or up in hole in rock, wadi bank or wall. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, small lizards and plant matter. The species is largely or strictly sedentary, but movements are variable and may be complex (Collar 2005).

threats:
Declines in Iberia have been attributed to severe winters and afforestation as well as the disappearance of derelict buildings and man-made caves (Collar 2005). Nests in man-made structures are safer from predators, which may also be a threat (Tucker and Heath 1994)

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Suitable habitat such as arid stony plateaus, canyons and gullies should be protected from afforestation. In addition abandoned buildings and man-made caves should be preserved (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 5,280,000-15,800,000 pairs, which equates to 10,600,000-31,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,960,000-3,820,000 pairs, which equates to 3,920,000-7,640,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species occupies open ground including open stony estuarine plains with sparse clumps of vegetation, sand dunes, shingle stretches, clifftops, coastal islands, heavily grazed heathland and downland, moors, meadows, walled fields, stone-studded bogs, open submontane shrubland, rocky alpine meadows, streamside bluffs, lowland and montane tundra above tree-line. Breeding occurs from early May to June in central and southern Europe, early/mid-April to the end of July or early August in north-west Europe, late May and June in Iceland, and early or mid-May to early July in Scandinavia. The nest is an unlined cup of leaves, stems, moss, lichen, feathers and hair bedded on a cradle and foundation of dried stems and grasses and set in a well-sheltered rock cavity, narrow crevice, rodent burrow, hole in a wall or under stones. Clutches are four to eight eggs. It feeds on arthropods, particularly insects. The species is a long-distance migrant (Collar and de Juana 2013).

threats:
In many western and central European countries it has declined due to habitat change through agricultural intensification and urbanization. In some countries a reduction in sheep-farming has reduced the amount of short-grass habitat much favoured by species. In the past droughts in the Sahel wintering quarters may also have caused declines. In Europe, it used to be trapped for food and is still taken in large numbers in parts of Mediterranean Basin and northern Africa (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. In Russia and most European countries the species is protected and in some parts of it range, such as in the UK, artificial nesting sites have been created leading to an increase in the number of breeding birds in these areas (Kren and Zoerb 1997).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research has proposed that landscape management for a mixture of short and tall vegetation would allow the dispersal of arthropods and be beneficial for this species (Oosten et al. 2014). It is also suggested the multi-site studies should be undertaken to determine appropriate conservations actions locally and in the short-term (Oosten et al. 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 23,700-107,000 pairs, which equates to 47,500-215,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 600-1,200 pairs, which equates to 1,200-2,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species typically occupies arid rocky desolate semi-desert, stony slopes, rocky outcrops, lightly wooded slopes, hilly pastures and fallow fields in flat and undulating steppe country as well as riverbanks, gulleys, crags and cliffs. Breeding is from early May in the Ukraine. The nest is a loose flat cup of coarse plant stems and rootlets, lined with fine stems, animal hair and wool and typically with a base and/or entrance platform of small twigs. It is set in a small cavity under a stone, or in the wall of a gulley, bank or building. Clutches are four to six eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, especially ants and beetles but supplements with fruit in the autumn (Collar 2005). The species is migratory, wintering in eastern Africa and south-west Arabia (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In Bulgaria, the species is known to hybridize with Oenanthe oenanthe where their ranges overlap, but this is not thought to be a serious threat (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 600-2,000 pairs, which equates to 1,200-4,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found on dry rocky mountain slopes and in valley bottoms where patches of dwarf shrubs and herbs (e.g., Ferula) are interspersed with bare rocks, scattered boulders or stunted trees. In eastern Turkey, nests with young have been recorded in mid-June and early August. The nest is unreported but is presumably similar in type and placement to that of Oenanthe chrysopygia. The diet includes ants, beetles, termites, caterpillars and many other insect species and occasionally small lizards, seeds and fruit. The species is migratory, wintering in Africa (Collar and de Juana 2005).


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,200-6,100 pairs, which equates to 4,500-12,100 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in alpine zones (above upper tree-line and dwarf-scrub zone) near permanent snows, in dry streambeds, boulder-strewn alpine meadows, stonefields and screes with some trees and herbs, flat parts of high passes and mountain gorges. It winters in rocky, scrubby hillsides near streams and riverbeds, rocky moraines, and thickets in valley bottoms. Breeding occurs in June and July in the Caucasus. The nest is a bulky cup of grass and wool, lined with animal hair and feathers and set well inside a crevice in cliff or deep under rocks, amid screes and often adjacent to moraine sediment and near the permanent snow-line. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds entirely on invertebrates, especially insects and spiders in the summer but in winter berries are the main food (Collar 2005). The species is mainly a short-distance altitudinal migrant (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In Europe, the main threat to this species is the loss of Hippophae rhamnoides as a result of building development (Collar 2005). In addition local people collect large amounts of berries for food, often removing whole twigs rather than just the berries, which damages the bushes (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation of the species?s wintering ground and conservation of Hippophae rhamnoides bushes and berries is of the utmost importance, particularly in the upper Terek basin, where much of the population in the Caucasus winter (Tucker and Heath 1994, Collar 2005).


population:
The European population is estimated at 5,760,000-10,000,000 pairs, which equates to 11,500,000-20,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,600,000-7,460,000 pairs, which equates to 9,200,000-14,900,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in sparsely vegetated rocky areas, including stony slopes with xerophytic vegetation, crags and gullies in high river valleys and rocky mountain tops up to snow-line as well as villages, towns and cities. In Carpathians, it is mainly found on mountain slopes covered with juniper (Juniperus), scree and boulders. The breeding season runs from mid-April to mid-July in western Europe but can be up to two weeks later in eastern Europe.

The nest is a loose cup of grass, moss, hair, wool and feathers, which is set in a crevice of a wall or rock, or in an earth bank, pile of stones or on the ground. Clutches are four to six eggs. The diet consists of invertebrates and berries. The species is resident, partially migrant, a vertical migrant and fully migrant (Collar 2005) in different parts of its range and the main wintering area for west Palearctic breeders is the Mediterranean basin (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
It is thought large scale redevelopment and regeneration of city centre sites is causing the loss of suitable breeding habitat for the species. In addition nest sites are vulnerable to accidental removal or disturbance as they also nest in railway-sidings, lorry parks and similar locations (Wildlife Trust 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. The species is a 'Species of Conservation Concern' in the U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan and subject to several local species action plans.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conservation measures should aim to maintain existing breeding populations and to establish population trends and its conservation status. Public awareness of the species should also be raised (Wildlife 2015).


population:
The European population is estimated at 9,630,000-15,000,000 pairs, which equates to 19,300,000-29,900,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,250,000-4,200,000 pairs, which equates to 4,500,000-8,400,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits open forest and woodland, including old parkland and park-like gardens, forest clearings and margins, preferably with semi-open undergrowth or herbage. In northern Europe, it occupies subarctic mountain birch and barren pine forests and in central and southern Europe it uses broadleaf forest, as well as many intermediate habitats such as heaths and commons with scattered mature trees, pollard willows (Salix) along streams and ditches, open hilly country with old stone walls and buildings. In Russia, it generally prefers broadleaf and mixed forest, less often pinewoods. The breeding season is from the end of April to mid-July but up to two weeks earlier in southern Europe. The nest is a cup of grass, roots and moss, lined with hair and feathers and usually set one to six metres up in a hole in a tree, wall or old stump, or in a nestbox, commonly with one side with open terrain. Clutches are five to seven eggs. The diet is made up of fruits and berries. The species is migratory (Collar and Christie 2013).

threats:
Severe declines in central Europe have been attributed to rainfall patterns in the Sahel combined with intensified modern forestry practices (reducing availability of nest holes) and interspecific nest-site competition. However the evidence for these is not strong and a partial recovery in Britain can not be explained by changes in these factors (Collar and Christie 2013). The species may be subject to habitat degradation from pollution effects on forests in this region (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). There is also evidence that in north-west Europe the species is subject to deliberate killing (Collar and Christie 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the conservation of mature, fairly open deciduous and mixed forests and mature trees in secondary habitats. Locally, in suitable habitat, population numbers would benefit from the provision of nest boxes (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is recommended that both traditionally managed orchards with tall trees with cavities and areas with sparse vegetation should be preserved. For this management should preserve patches of sparse vegetation and create new patches close to potential breeding sites. These practices should be promoted though agri-environment schemes. In addition small patches of dense meadow should be mowed throughout the breeding season to maintain suitable foraging areas (Martinez et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This species, endemic to Europe and the EU27, has a moderately small population which approaches the threshold for classification as Vulnerable. It also has a very small range, which is in decline owing to ongoing habitat loss and degradation; however, its population is not severely fragmented, nor is it restricted to ten locations or fewer. For these reasons it is listed as Near Threatened in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain, where it breeds only on Fuerteventura (with occasional records from southern Lanzarote) (Martín and Lorenzo 2001). The subspecies murielae formerly occurred on the islands of Alegranza (where it was fairly common) and Montaña Clara, but these it went extinct in the first half of the 20th century due to a combination of natural factors and predation by introduced mammals (Bibby and Hill 1987, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Illera et al. 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 13,400-15,500 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found on rocky hillsides and "barranco" (= ravine) habitats with shrubby vegetation cover (Illera 2001), typically of aulaga (Launaea arborescens), saltwort (Salsola vermiculata) and box-thorn (Lycium intricatum). These habitats support a high abundance of invertebrates, and provide suitable nesting sites and perches from which the species can forage for arthropods (Illera 2001). It also occurs on the edge of vegetated "malpaíses" (= lava flows), dry and flowing watercourses, cultivated areas and gardens (Martín and Lorenzo 2001). Individuals appear to show strong site fidelity, potentially as a consequence of low spatial variance in the habitat characteristics determining reproductive success (Illera and Díaz 2008).

The breeding season is typically from mid- February to late March but is linked to the timing and extent of winter rains so can be as early as January. The nest is a firm cup of plant stems and roots, incorporating much Salsola and lined with goat hair. Generally placed on the (usually sloping) ground among stones and rocks, in cactus thickets, under shrubs (L. intricatum) or bushy grass clumps, or low down (below 0·5 m) in a wall or side of barranco and often sheltered by an overhanging stone or bush. Clutch size can be two to five but usually four eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, including caterpillars, ants, ichneumon flies, flies, centipedes, beetles and spiders. The species is sedentary although there have been reports of birds possibly dispersing to other islands in the past (Collar 2005).

threats:
Recent rapid increases in infrastructural development, such as tourist and residential centres, road building, industrial plants, mineral operations and golf courses are destroying the habitat of this species (particularly on the Jandía peninsula in the south of Fuerteventura) (Illera 2004). Additional threats include excessive and increasing livestock grazing (A. Iñigo in litt. 2011), including cattle and extensively-ranched, semi-feral "coastal" goats (which accelerates desertification and reduces vegetation cover and food availability (Illera and Díaz 2006)), and nest predation by feral cats (Felis catus) (Medina and Nogales 2009) and other introduced mammals such as rats Rattus spp. (Illera 2004, Illera and Díaz 2006). High fidelity to particular sites may exacerbate the problem of the destruction and degradation of optimal habitats (Illera and Díaz 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. An action plan was produced in 1999 (Illera 1999) and partially updated in 2002 (Illera 2002). Various studies of the species's habitat usage (Illera 2001, Illera et al. 2006), breeding biology (Illera and Díaz 2006) and dispersal (Illera and Díaz 2008) have been undertaken since 1998. 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Develop, approve and implement a national Conservation Plan for the species (Illera 2004). Conduct a complete population census and remap the species's distribution (Illera 1999, 2004). Develop a monitoring programme (Illera 1999, 2004). Identify and protect key areas of optimal habitat for the species, and reduce the number of "coastal goats" in these areas (Illera 1999, 2001, 2004). Raise awareness of the species among the resident and tourist populations, particularly the threat from off-road driving and introduced mammals (Illera 1999, 2004). Attempt to control predators at key sites where their impact on breeding success is particularly severe (Illera 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 6,470,000-10,700,000 pairs, which equates to 12,900,000-21,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,750,000-4,670,000 pairs, which equates to 5,510,000-9,340,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in wet meadows, pastures, bogs, upland grassland, bracken-covered hillsides, heath, dry or wet open scrub and the fringes of reedbeds. It generally requires scattered shrubs, bushes, trees or man-made perches for songposts and foraging vantages, and low herb cover and bare ground in which to forage (shrubs and herb layer also needed for nesting). In north-west Europe, breeding occurs from mid-April to early August. The nest is a cup of grass stems, leaves and moss, lined with fine stems and hair and placed in a low bush or tussock. Clutches are four to seven eggs. The diet is mainly invertebrates, with fruits and seeds also taken in the autumn. The species is migratory, wintering in tropical Africa (Collar 2005).

threats:
The species has declined due to the intensification of agriculture and the advancing of harvesting dates (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conservation measures for this species should encourage the postponement of mowing to reduce nest losses and promote low-intensity grassland farming (Britschgi et al. 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002b).

The number of studies of this taxon is high and the number of conclusions reached varies with each study (see table in Zinket al. 2009: 770). We propose to retain a single continental s

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,790,000-9,310,000 pairs, which equates to 11,600,000-18,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,330,000-8,380,000 pairs, which equates to 10,700,000-16,800,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in a variety of essentially open, usually rather barren landscapes. In Europe, it occupies open scrubby country where bushes and shrubs of different height, and/or low man-made structures such as stone walls, fence lines, telephone wires and field posts, sit within or adjacent to flat or rolling terrain with uneven herb-rich substrate. It also inhabits alpine moorland, heathland, grassy hillsides, dry plains, bush-studded pastures, woodland edge, sandy forest clearings, field margins and fallows, wide shrubby riverbeds, open garrigue with Cistus, unkempt marshy areas, swamp fringes, roadsides and railway margins and vineyards.

The breeding season is from March to mid-August in north-west Europe and from the end of April to late July in east Europe. The nest is a loose deep cup of rootlets, grass, leaves and plant stems, lined with finer rootlets and sometimes hair, wool and feathers. It is set on the ground or in a low bank, well hidden at base of tuft of herbage or in the bottom of or under a small bush. Clutches are usually four to six eggs. The diet is primarily invertebrates, mainly small or medium-sized insects and their larvae but it occasionally takes small vertebrates, seeds and fruit (Collar 2005). The species varies from migratory to resident in different parts of its range, being sensitive to cold weather (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Declines in Europe since the 1950s have been driven by a loss of breeding habitats due to agricultural intensification (Collar 2005), including the creation of large open fields, destruction of bushes and hedges, transformation of pastures to arable fields, the afforestation of fallow and moorland and the destruction of structurally diverse vegetation by uncontrolled fire and human disturbance (Tucker and Heath 1994). It has also suffered from the withdrawal of grazing from littoral heaths (Collar 2005). Severe winters have also caused populations to fluctuate (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. In Switzerland, the species has benefited from the creation of strips of wild flowers for Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix).

Conservation Actions Proposed
In Europe this species requires wide-scale conservation measures to preserve habitat through promotion of non-intensive farming practices. These include retaining scattered trees, bushes and hedges in fields, prohibition of afforestation schemes on moorland and heath, and retention of strips of old grass (mown every 3–4 years only) in intensively managed areas (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC°°)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species extends into the EU27 only in small numbers in Finland and Sweden. The population size within the EU27 meets the threshold for Vulnerable, but given the increasing population within the region and the large, increasing neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted by two categories to Least Concern (LC°°) in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 20,200-56,500 pairs, which equates to 40,300-113,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 150-6,500 pairs, which equates to 300-13,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in Siberian taiga forest, with a preference for old-growth mossy moist spruce (Picea) tracts with fallen trees and sparse undergrowth, often on hilly slopes, but also pine (Pinus) and mixed forests with birch (Betula) and rhododendron. In Russia, breeding occurs from May to August and it lays three to seven eggs. The nest is a cup of grass, moss, ferns, twigs and roots, which is lined with hair, feathers, fine grass and sometimes pine needles. It is set in the hollow of a tree, among tree roots, under a rotten log or in a hole in a bank or steep slope. The diet is not well studied but is thought to be mostly invertebrates, especially insects as well as fruits and seeds when it is not breeding. In Europe the species is a long-distance migrant (Collar and de Juana 2013).


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,370,000-8,020,000 pairs, which equates to 8,740,000-16,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,010,000-3,530,000 pairs, which equates to 4,010,000-7,050,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In western Europe the species is usually found in semi-open, mixed broadleaf woodlands and plantations, riverine forests with tall willows (Salix) and poplars (Populus), forested steppes, groves, copses, orchards, parks, large gardens, windbreaks, avenue trees, and other tree clumps in cultivated areas. It also occurs in larger and more continuous deciduous, coniferous or mixed forests in eastern Europe. Eggs are laid mainly in May and June and the nest is built by the female only, although the male may collect some material. The nest is a shallow to deep open-cup structure woven from grass, sedges, reeds, leaves, twigs, cloth, string, paper and plastic strips, strips of bark and other plant fibres and then lined with fine fibres, roots and grasses, feathers, cocoons, cobweb, down, cotton, fur, wool, moss, lichens, straw and small pieces of paper. It is suspended hammock-like in thin, horizontal forked branch, typically high in outer edge of well-foliaged tree canopy. Clutches are usually three to five eggs. Its diet is mainly small invertebrates and fruits but it occasionally consumes seeds, nectar, pollen and rarely, small lizards, small mammals, eggs and nestlings (Walther and Jones 2008). The species is migratory, wintering in the climatically temperate, equatorial African high woodlands and moist montane forests of East Africa (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Brood size can be severely affected by the weather conditions which may cause large, short-term fluctuations in the population at regional or supra-regional level. The species is persecuted in Greece (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), as they consume large quantities of fruit and are thus considered a pest by some fruit-farmers (Walther and Jones 2008). In the UK, the loss of large poplar plantations has led to the decline of the species there (Holling et al. 2007). In addition, climate change may pose a threat in the future (Mason and Allsop 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its breeding range (Walther and Jones 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
In U.K., the restoration of areas of poplar woodland of at least 30 ha with plenty of woodland edges is recommended for the conservation of this species (Milwright 1998). The impact of persecution should be assessed and legislation introduced to minimise this.


taxonomicNotes:
Parus ater (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) and P. melanolophus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) have been lumped following Eck and Martens (2006) because they interbreed with and share morphological features with intergrade subspecies P. a. martensi.

The Bi

population:
The European population is estimated at 15,900,000-28,800,000 pairs, which equates to 31,800,000-57,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 11,700,000-20,200,000 pairs, which equates to 23,400,000-40,300,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies conifer forests of various compositions and structure (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). In Europe it is often found in conifer plantations and in urban and suburban areas with small numbers of conifers. Outside of the breeding season it uses similar habitats, but is also more frequently found in deciduous woodland, parks and gardens. The breeding season is from the end of March to late July and it breeds later in the north of its range than in the south. The nest is cup-shaped and made almost entirely of moss, some animal hair and wool with some feathers incorporated. It is placed in a hole or cavity in a tree trunk or old stump, but sometimes it also uses a hole or crevice in a wall or rocks, in the ground under stones or a nestbox. Clutches are five to thirteen eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and sap and will visit bird tables and feeders. It has also learnt to pierce or open milk-bottle tops to take cream. The species is resident (Gosler and Clement 2007).

threats:
Declines in central Europe are due to large-scale reductions in arthropods caused by industrial pollution and acid rain (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Gosler and Clement 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. SubspeciesParus ater cypriotes is listed under Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species would benefit from a reduction in industrial emissions.


population:
The European population is estimated at 29,300,000-50,600,000 pairs, which equates to 58,600,000-101,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 25,300,000-43,200,000 pairs, which equates to 50,700,000-86,300,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits broad-leaved woodland, as well as coppices, parks and gardens. In the Canary Islands it also frequents montane conifer woodland. Provided suitable nest-holes are present this species will even occur in inner cities. Egg-laying begins late April to early May (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is built by the female and is mostly a cup of moss, dried grass, fine bark strips, plant fibres, leaves, animal hair and feathers, placed in a hole or a cleft in a tree or post or other artificial site. Nestboxes are widely used. In Europe clutches are generally seven to thirteen eggs (Gosler et al. 2013). It feeds primarily on insects and spiders, as well as fruits, seeds, nectar and pollen. The diet varies with seasonal and other changes in food abundance. The species is essentially resident though in the centre and north of its range it makes irregular eruptive movements (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
The species is subject to high annual and local fluctuations driven by habitat carrying capacity, breeding success, winter mortality (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and competition from Parus major (Gosler et al. 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
All Parus species (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) are retained in the genus Parus contra AOU who place all North American Parus species in the genus Poecile including the holarctic P. cinctus.

The BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group is aware that phylogeneti

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable. Since the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species is resident through the boreal zone of Europe, occurring as far north as the northern forest limit (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Two subspecies are present in Europe; lapponicus is found in central and northern Fennoscandia and northern European Russia, while cinctus inhabits northeastern European Russia (Gosler and Clement 2007).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,170,000-1,950,000 pairs, which equates to 2,340,000-3,890,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 70,000-144,000 pairs, which equates to 140,000-288,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is restricted to northern boreal areas where it occurs as far north as the northern forest limit (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It is found in areas of lowland conifer forest, which is mostly of old-growth spruce (Picea) but also larch (Larix) and pine (Pinus), especially in areas with dead or decaying trees. The species breeds from May to July and is monogamous. The nest is a platform of decaying wood, moss, grass stems and animal hair or fur, in a hole in a rotting tree trunk or stump; however it will use nestboxes as well. Clutches can be from four to eleven eggs. The diet is made up mainly of small invertebrates, but it will also consume seeds and scraps from bird tables or refuse scraps. The species is sedentary, remaining within territories all year; juveniles are more nomadic (Gosler and Clement 2007).

threats:
The species declined in Finland and probably Sweden too due to large-scale clearfelling during World War II and has suffered from fragmentation its habitat. Modern forestry practices remove dead and dying trees and the species suffers poor nesting success in heavily managed forests (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Climatic changes may also negatively affect its habitat. In severe winters it is often entirely reliant on food provided at human settlements (Gosler and Clement 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Forest management practices should be encouraged to leave dead and dying trees. Restoration of suitable forest would also minimize fragmentation.


population:
The European population is estimated at 5,450,000-9,810,000 pairs, which equates to 10,900,000-19,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,400,000-6,480,000 pairs, which equates to 6,790,000-13,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds predominately in coniferous woods. In Fennoscandia and western and central Europe it is found in forests of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) or Norway Spruce (Picea abies). In southern Europe it uses mixed-conifer montane forests (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It breeds from March to June and is monogamous, forming a lifelong pair bond. The nest is a cup of moss, lichens, animal hair, wool, feathers and gossamer, in a hole in a dead or decaying tree trunk, branch or stump, occasionally in a living tree. Occasionally uses a hole in a fence post or in the ground and nestboxes are also regularly used. It usually lays five to eleven eggs. It feeds mainly on small invertebrates and their larvae and outside the breeding season it will also consume seeds and some fruits. The species is mostly resident but is nomadic in the winter (Gosler and Clement 2007).

threats:
Populations of this species fluctuate in response to severe winter weather. The modernization of forestry practices has resulted in declines in Sweden and Czech Republic. In Scotland it suffered during 18th century from the destruction of its native Caledonian pine forest (Gosler and Clement 2007). In central Europe, atmospheric pollution has also lead to declines in this species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species would benefit from a reduction in industrial permissions. Management practices for forestry should be encouraged to leave dead or dying trees. In addition, the erection of nest boxes in plantations may be beneficial to this species (Maı́cas and Haeger 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
Parus cyanus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) and P. flavipectus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) have been lumped into P. cyanus following Eck and Martens (2006). The authors molecular analysis is supported by a lack of significant differences between plumag

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,900-15,800 pairs, which equates to 7,800-31,700 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a wide variety of lowland forested habitats, including light deciduous and mixed woodlands with shrubby underlayer, also riverine thickets of willow (Salix), birch (Betula) or poplar (Populus). It is also found in trees along ditches at edges of cultivation, orchards, marshland edges and bushy or shrubby areas. In more upland areas it breeds in birch forest with willow and larch (Larix) thickets and stands of spruce (Picea) or juniper (Juniperus) (Gosler et al. 2007). In European Russia, eggs are laid from mid-May (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is monogamous and the female builds the nest, which is mostly a cup of dry grasses, moss, plant down, animal fur and wool, in a hole or cavity in a tree, sometimes among rocks or in a hole in building, occasionally in a pole. Clutches are usually seven to eleven eggs (Gosler et al. 2007). It mainly feeds on invertebrates, including adults, pupae, larvae and eggs, as well as spiders, seeds and fruit. The species is resident over much of its range (Snow and Perrins 1998).


population:
The European population is estimated at 453,000-1,320,000 pairs, which equates to 905,000-2,650,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 23,000-65,000 pairs, which equates to 46,000-130,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits dry maquis areas of scattered trees and bushes, including olive (Olea) groves, wild plum (Prunus) orchards and other fruit trees and vineyards. It also uses parkland areas of open oak (Quercus) forests including scrub oak, beech (Fagus), willows (Salix) and poplars (Populus) and conifers, particularly spruce (Picea) and cedars (Cedrus), especially in areas of rocky limestone hills. It breeds from March to early August and is monogamous. The nest is a cup of wool, plant material, bark strips, animal hair and feathers, placed in a hole in a tree, often in rotting wood in a fruit tree but also among rocks on banks and will use nestboxes. Normally lays five to seven eggs. The diet is principally insects although it does consume seeds as well.  The species is resident (Gosler and Clement 2007).

threats:
In Armenia, the species is threatened by an increasing number of wild fires and the use of toxic agricultural chemicals (Aghasyan and Kalashyan 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not currently threatened monitoring should be implemented to detect population changes and research undertaken to inform future conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Parus major (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split by Päckert et al. (2005) into P. major, P. minor and P. cinereus who also transferred P. bokharensis (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) into P. major. The BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group supports the autho

population:
The European population is estimated at 65,100,000-106,000,000 pairs, which equates to 130,000,000-211,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 41,700,000-69,100,000 pairs, which equates to 83,400,000-138,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies mostly open deciduous and mixed forests and edges and clearings in dense forest, including conifer forests and boreal taiga. It is also found more widely in plantations, hedgerows, orchards, parks, gardens, the edges of cultivation, olive groves and almost any group of trees or bushes. In Europe shows preference for oaks (Quercus) (Gosler et al. 2013). Egg-laying begins in March to April in southern lowlands and in May in the north but over most of Europe it begins in April (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is built by the female, mostly of plant fibres, grasses, moss, animal hair, wool and feathers, placed at variable height in a hole or a cavity in a tree, occasionally in a wall, rock face or building. Frequently uses nestboxes (Gosler et al. 2013). Clutches are usually six to eleven eggs in Europe. It feeds on a wide variety of insects, as well as spiders, seeds and fruit (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is generally resident but does undertake seasonal altitudinal movements and is partially eruptive (Gosler et al. 2013).

threats:
Increased spring temperatures are resulting in a mismatch between food availability and offspring requirements leading to lowered reproductive success in at least some populations (Visser et al. 1998, Visser et al. 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
Parus montanus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split by Eck and Martens (2006) into P. montanus and P. weigoldicus based on morphological and vocal evidence, but this treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group owing to considerab

range:
The species is a widespread resident across much of Europe, lying between the 12°C and 21–23°C July isotherms. It is normally found between 50° and 63°N, however in Europe its southernmost limit is 38°N (Greece) (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 30,500,000-44,200,000 pairs, which equates to 61,100,000-88,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,340,000-4,330,000 pairs, which equates to 4,690,000-8,660,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits lowland, submontane and montane forests and woodlands, principally coniferous forests of pine (Pinus), larch (Larix) and spruce (Picea), and in Siberian taiga it is most frequently in steppe-forest of Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica). It is also often in dense and damp areas, especially Sphagnum bogs and areas of willows (Salix) or alders (Alnus) and on tundra edge. In Europe also occurs in willows, alders and more shrubby vegetation, including elder (Sambucus) patches, edges of woods, copses, and hedges, especially along rivers and beside lakes. It occurs from sea-level to tree-line up to c. 2,000 m. It breeds from April to July and is monogamous, forming a pair-bond for life. The female builds the nest which is constructed mostly of bark or wood strips, grass, plant fibres, animal hair and feathers (rarely, moss included). It is placed in a hole or crevice up to 3 m (often less than 1 m, exceptionally to 10 m) from the ground in a rotting tree trunk or old stump. The hole is excavated by both sexes or may be adapted from an existing one. Clutch size is five to nine eggs. It feeds mostly on invertebrates and larvae but also vegetable matter. It also stores food behind loose bark, under branches, in bud capsules or in lichen and rarely in the ground in a steep bank. In Norway most food is cached between August and September (Gosler and Clement 2007). The species is highly sedentary and most movements, which are generally less than 5 km, are considered post-fledging dispersal (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Habitat loss and degradation are implicated in the decline and there is also recent evidence that increased competition from other parids, which evict this species from nest-holes, and increased nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpeckers (Dendrocopos major) are also important factors, exacerbated by the low dispersability of the species that makes recolonisation difficult after local extinction (Gosler et al. 2013). The species may also be threatened by future climate change (Harrison et al. 2003, Siriwardena 2011).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. In the U.K. the species is Red listed and is a U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) priority bird species and several local BAPs have been developed.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research into habitat loss and pressures from other species to determine their impact should be undertaken. Ensure existing populations are adequately protected.


taxonomicNotes:
Parus palustris (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into P. palustris and P. hypermelaenus following Eck and Martens (2006) owing to apparent morphological, vocal, genetic and ecological differences between the two taxa. Further confirmation of

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,910,000-5,740,000 pairs, which equates to 5,830,000-11,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,160,000-4,080,000 pairs, which equates to 4,310,000-8,160,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits lowland to submontane and montane mature deciduous woodland and forest with relatively high proportion of dead or rotting trees and open undergrowth. It is often found in large areas of oak (Quercus) and beech (Fagus), also mixed forest, riverine alder (Alnus) carr, and forests of poplar (Populus), birch (Betula), willow (Salix) and bird cherry (Prunus padus) and is also occasionally seen in wooded edges of cultivation, orchards, parks and large gardens. It breeds from late March to June and is monogamous, pairing for life. The nest is a cup or pad of moss, plant material, animal hair and feathers, in a hole in a tree or stump or among upturned tree roots. It also less frequently uses a cavity in a wall or a hole in the the ground. Clutches are generally five to ten eggs. It feeds chiefly on small invertebrates as well as vegetable matter, including fruits and seeds. The species is mostly resident, although juveniles undertake short-distance post-breeding dispersal (Gosler et al. 2013).

threats:
The species suffers from habitat loss and fragmentation through urbanisation, agricultural intensification and the replacement of deciduous forest with coniferous. Sever winters cause mortality and are a particular threat to small isolated populations. The species’s extremely low colonization rate means although suitable habitat areas may exist, they may not be colonized for a long time (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Increased predator pressure (Siriwardena 2006) and competition from other parids may affect the species (Perrins 2003).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. Research has focused on the causes of declines despite high breeding success and apparent improvements in habitat quality (Broughton and Hinsley 2015).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conservation measures should aim to expand woodland cover to secure and link existing populations and where possible woods should be allowed to reach a natural climax stage. Hedgerows should be conserved and more planted to facilitate dispersal; it is suggested that local measures should ensure gaps of 100 m or more be closed up with new hedgerows or ‘stepping stone’ patches of hedge. Large numbers of nestboxes in a wood may do more to encourage populations of other parids to the detriment of this species. Translocations may be a potential future tool to enable colonisation (Broughton and Hinsley 2015).


population:
The European population is estimated at 129,000-568,000 pairs, which equates to 258,000-1,140,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 16,900-29,900 pairs, which equates to 33,900-59,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies barren rocky ground with cliffs, as well as meadows above the tree-line and up to the snow-line. It is frequently found near buildings where these are present at high altitudes (Summers-Smith and Bonan 2013). Breeding occurs from May to June. The nest is placed in a crevice or cavity in a rock face, boulder scree, earth bank or similar and is a bulky but neat construction of dry grass with roots, plant stalks, moss and lichen, lined with fine plant material, feathers wool and hair. Clutches are four or five eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds mainly on seeds in the winter and insects at other times of the year. It also takes scraps at ski resorts. The species is manly resident but descends to lower altitudes in winter (Summers-Smith and Bonan 2013).

threats:
This species is threatened by the future effects of climate change (Smith et al. 2009, Maggini et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known specific conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The habitat of this species should be preserved and protected from human disturbance. The current network of protected sites should be reviewed to ensure suitable habitat is contained within these areas now and in the future (Magginiet al. 2014). Little research has been done on this species (Strinella et al. 2009) and more studies would help inform future conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 134,000,000-196,000,000 pairs, which equates to 269,000,000-392,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 109,000,000-148,000,000 pairs, which equates to 218,000,000-297,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is often associated with man, living around buildings from isolated farms to urban centres and showing a preference for suburbs. In the south of its range it is more frequently found in open country, and has been recorded as breeding in small isolated colonies away from humans. It breeds from February to September, although timing varies with latitude. It breeds in loose colonies and nests are constructed mainly of plant stems, lined with feathers or other soft material. Its preferred site is a hole in a building, cliff or tree. Clutches are two to five eggs. The diet is mainly vegetable material, particularly seeds of grasses, cultivated cereals and low herbs, but also buds, berries and wide range of household scraps. It does take some animal matter (c. 10% of the diet in summer months). The species is mostly resident (Summers-Smith et al. 2013).

threats:
Declines in western Europe have been attributed to a decrease in availability of suitable invertebrate food necessary for rearing young as well as possible reduced fitness of those young that fledge successfully (Summers-Smith et al. 2013). This may be as a result of changes in agricultural practices such as the increased use of pesticides and herbicides and the autumn sowing of cereals which have lead to decreases in food for this species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species was Red-listed in the U.K. in 2002 and listed as Near-threatened in Germany as a result of declines (Summers-Smith et al. 2013).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation and habitat enhancement of even the smallest parks and gardens may be key in addressing the decline of this species in many cities (Summers-Smith et al. 2013).


population:
The European population is estimated at 6,110,000-13,200,000 pairs, which equates to 12,200,000-26,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,400,000-9,370,000 pairs, which equates to 8,810,000-18,700,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found mainly in moist, humid areas near water with trees and shrubs and is normally associated with cultivation, extending in places into more arid steppe and semi-desert and penetrating urban areas where Passer domesticus is lacking. Breeding occurs mainly from April to August in the west of its range and it breeds colonially. The nest is a loosely woven, roughly spherical structure 15–30 cm in diameter and made of grass and other plant stems, lined with finer grasses and feathers. It is firmly attached to branches of a tree, in the lower part of large nest of bird of prey, crow (Corvidae) or heron (Ardeidae), or on a pylon. It is rarely in a hole in a wall or building. Clutches are two to six eggs. It feeds mostly on vegetable matter, especially seeds of grasses, cultivated crops and low herbs, but it also takes invertebrates throughout year. The species is variously resident, nomadic and migratory (Summers-Smith 2009).

threats:
On Madeira, the species has declined almost to extinction as a result of the wide-spread use of pesticides (Summers-Smith 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Locally, this species would benefit from the ban on the indiscriminate use of pesticides.


taxonomicNotes:
Passer moabiticus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into P. moabiticus and P. yatii by Kirwan (2004) but this treatment has not been adopted by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group because its assessment of the character differences led it to concl

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a small, declining population in Europe and is therefore classified as Vulnerable (C1).

The bird is considered vagrant (Cyprus) in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
Only a small proportion of this species's range occurs in Europe, where it breeds in Turkey and Cyprus (Summers-Smith 2009).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,000-3,000 pairs, which equates to 2,000-6,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits riverine or lacustrine areas with trees or scrub, and irrigated semi-desert with flushes of annual grasses. Outside breeding season in cultivated land. Unusually for the genus, it has no association with built-up areas or habitations. It breeds from March to July. The nest is a large ovoid structure, domed and with an entrance spiralling down from top. It is strongly constructed from dead twigs, lined with feathers and plant down and built openly in the branches of a tree, often a dead tree standing in water. Clutches are three to five eggs. The diet is primarily seeds and it specializes on the smaller seeds of grasses, rushes and sedges, shrubs and trees. The species is migratory and partially migratory (Summers-Smith 2009).

threats:
The size of the European population could render it susceptible to the risks affecting small populations; however it is adjacent to a much larger non-European population (Birdlife International 2004). Habitat degradation from factors such as irrigation, overgrazing and erosion as well as  are recorded in areas where the species in present (Ozturk et al. 2012) and may be a threat to this species. The use of pesticides may also be a problem (Ozturk et al. 2012). In Cyprus, a local extinction occurred at a lake near Akrotiri in the 1980s when the lake dried out (Summers-Smith 2009).


population:
The European population is estimated at 24,000,000-38,200,000 pairs, which equates to 47,900,000-76,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,890,000-17,400,000 pairs, which equates to 19,800,000-34,900,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the west of its range this species is found mainly in cultivated areas with hedgerow trees, orchards, gardens and farmyards and less commonly in light woodland. In the east it is found increasingly not only in built-up areas, but also in open arid country. In the north of its range the breeding season begins from April or May. It breeds in loose colonies. The nest is constructed of dried grass and rootlets, lined with feathers and animal fur and is domed (even when in a hole), with as entrance on the side. It is mostly sited in a hole in a tree, earth bank, cliff or artificial structure, sometimes in the base of a large nest of heron (Ardeidae), crow (Corvidae) or bird of prey. Occasionally it is a free-standing nest in a tree, but then usually hidden in thick conifer or creepers.  Clutches are two to seven eggs. The diet is mainly seeds and it prefers smaller seeds of low herbs and grasses, including cultivated cereals but it also takes a significant proportion of animal food (Summers-Smith 2009). In Europe the species is largely sedentary (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
Declines in this species may be a result of changes in agricultural practices such as the increased use of pesticides and herbicides and the autumn sowing of cereals which have lead to decreases in food for this species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
In 1996 the species was placed on the U.K. Red List of Species of National Conservation Concern (Summers-Smith 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Management should create invertebrate-rich habitats, such as small-scale wetlands, and aim to increase heterogeneity in landuse type in order to to provide the range of invertebrates at the required abundance for this species (Field et al. 2004).


population:
The European population is estimated at 6,000-18,300 pairs, which equates to 11,900-36,500 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in arid regions with sparse bushy vegetation, often in sparsely grassed hilly and mountainous areas, and rocky ravines. In the north of its range, breeding occurs in July. It nests in loose colonies and the nest is an open, bulky, untidy hemisphere of thorny twigs, plant stems and grass, lined with plant down and animal hair. It is set in a bush or sometimes in a crevice in a rock or a hole in a building. Clutches are three to six eggs. This diet is mostly plant matter, mainly seeds, including cultivated cereals and the green parts of plants but is also known to take insects in the breeding season. The species is migratory, wintering mainly in western Saudi Arabia and north-east Africa (Summers-Smith 2013).


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,140,000-4,620,000 pairs, which equates to 4,290,000-9,230,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,330,000-2,170,000 pairs, which equates to 2,660,000-4,330,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species is normally found in bare treeless country, ranging from flat desert steppe to rocky slopes and ravines. In Spain, it is common in open woodland or parkland, such as of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster). It also often forages in large open areas of cultivation, vineyards, olive groves, near old buildings and even penetrates into human settlements. It breeds from March to August in loose colonies or isolated pairs. The nest is an untidy structure, sometimes domed and made from grass, lined with feathers, animal hair and wool. It is set in a crack or crevice in a rock or tree, or in a wall or roof of an isolated and ruined building or occasionally in an occupied building.  Clutches are four to seven eggs. The diet is mostly seeds of low herbs and grasses, as well as small berries and it also takes animal matter in the breeding season, such as termites (Isoptera) and beetles (Coleoptera). The species is resident and a partial migrant, with some post-breeding dispersal and descent to lower altitudes in the winter (Summers-Smith 2009).

threats:
Declines in the Canary Islands are considered due to competition from the introduced Passer hispaniolensis (Summers-Smith 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not known to occur in the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 500-2,000 pairs, which equates to 1,000-4,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in open country and low hills with trees and river bottoms with trees, as well as cultivated areas with scattered trees or hedgerows, villages and inhabited areas with gardens (Summers-Smith 2009). The time of breeding in Europe is not recorded but breeds from late April to late July in Iraq (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest ranges from being a small pad of hair, feathers and grass to being an untidy mass of dry grass, wool and hair, lined with feathers, that fills the cavity in which it is placed. It is usually sited in a covered site, including a crevice in tree or a hole in a wall or building and also in the old nest of other species. Clutches are generally three to four eggs. It feeds on plant matter, mainly seeds, including those of cultivated cereals, as well as small berries and nectar. In the breeding season it also takes insects (Summers-Smith 2009). The species is migratory in the western Palearctic (Snow and Perrins 1998).


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,500-2,100 pairs, which equates to 3,000-4,200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species favours low, thick, thorny scrub and avoids open habitats. It is found in clumps of stunted spruce (Picea) in subalpine zone in Urals (Hatchwell and de Juana 2014) as well as in mountain larch (Larix) forests and willow Salix bushes (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It breeds from May to August and is thought to be monogamous. The nest is a bulky cup of moss, twigs, grasses and stems, lined with fine grass and hairs and placed in a tree or a shrub, most often in spruce or juniper. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds mainly on insects and other small arthropods, worms and snails. The species is migratory (Hatchwell and de Juana 2014).

threats:
The species’s habitat is not threatened and the species is not currently threatened (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. In Russia, its forests are protected by law. The Yugyd Va National Park and the Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve lie within this species’s range (Tucker and Heath 1994).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Further research on its breeding and wintering ecology are needed in order to clarify the species’s population status, to assess threats and to identify further necessary conservation measures. Future exploitation in the Urals should be monitored (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 77,900-149,000 pairs, which equates to 156,000-298,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 40,300-80,400 pairs, which equates to 80,600-161,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found principally in areas with low cliffs, screes, rocky mountain slopes and alpine meadows above tree-line and up to snow-line often close to snow patches. It breeds almost exclusively in mountain ranges; at 1,800–3,000 m in Switzerland, Caucasus and Pyrenees. Outside the breeding season, it usually occurs at lower elevations in rocky and scrubby habitats, often close to human habitation in villages and near livestock, including woodland edges, roadsides, gardens and farms. It breeds from May to August and is polygynandrous. The nest is a cup made from grass, moss and plant stems, lined with hair and feathers and sited in a rock crevice or beneath a rock or grass tussock on a cliff or shallower slope. It lays three to four eggs. It feeds mainly on insects as well as spiders, small snails, earthworms and some vegetable matter. The species is resident or an altitudinal migrant, on local scale but in some areas it migrates over a considerable distance (Hatchell and Christie 2013).

threats:
Populations vary greatly annually, most likely as a result of differences in weather conditions and snow cover. Locally, outside the breeding season, predation by cats and other predators is thought to be behind declines (Hatchell and Christie 2013). The species is also threatened by disturbance from recreational activities and development (Cichocki 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Local control of predators may be necessary in some areas. Important breeding areas should be protected from development and restrictions on access implemented.


population:
The European population is estimated at 12,700,000-21,800,000 pairs, which equates to 25,400,000-43,500,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 9,540,000-16,400,000 pairs, which equates to 19,100,000-32,800,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in a wide variety of habitats across its range. It breeds in scrubby habitats, extensive marshlands and in the Mediterranean area, lowlands and semi-arid plains. It is typically a woodland species in much of Europe but in the North Sea countries it is most common in farmland, favouring hedges, scattered bushes and farmsteads  and suburban areas, where it is common in cemeteries, parks, orchards and gardens (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It breeds from March to July across Europe except in Russia where breeding is from May to August. The nest is a cup of twigs, stems, roots, grass and moss, lined with hair, wool and sometimes feathers, located above the ground in a bush, hedge or tree. It lays three to six eggs. It feeds mainly on arthropods but supplements its diet with seeds in the winter (Hatchwell 2005). In western Europe the species is resident; in western-central Europe it is partially migratory, making altitudinal movements in montane areas; in Fennoscandia and central Europe it is fully migratory (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

threats:
The decline in the U.K. is thought to be due to changing farming practices which has allowed other passerines to force this species into more marginal sites (Hagemeijer and Blair). However no specific factor has been found for these local declines (Hatchwell 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. The species has been listed as ‘amber’ on the U.K. national red list (Hatchwell 2005).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research should look into the threats in areas where the species is declining and assess their impact.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large global range which only barely extends into northeasternmost Europe. The population size within the region meets the threshold for classification as Vulnerable under the small population criterion, with an unknown population trend but no evidence of a decline. The species could therefore be listed as Vulnerable but given the large, apparently stable neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted by one category to Near Threatened (NT°).

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

range:
The species breeds in the extreme north-east of Europe, inhabiting the west-facing slopes of the Ural Mountains from the northern end south to Tel'posiz Peak, the foot of Pavdinsky Stone Peak and the Bassegy Range. It also breeds in Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra, the More-Yu River basin and the Chornaya basin and occurs as far west as Inta, Komi Republic (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 100-500 pairs, which equates to 200-1,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in the boreal and subarctic, principally along the northern limits of coniferous and deciduous forests, in valleys, often close to riverbanks in dense tangles of bushes and trees such as willow (Salix). It is also found in spruce (Picea) taiga, and on mountains to the tree-line in sparse spruce and birch (Betula) woodland. The breeding season is from June to August. The nest is a compact cup of twigs, moss, leaves and plant stems, lined with fine grasses and hairs and built in the fork of a low tree or in a thick shrub. It lays four to six eggs. The diet consists mostly of insects, on which the young are fed on as well. The species is migratory (Hatchwell 2005).

threats:
There are currently no known significant threats to this species, however due to the size of the European population it is susceptible to the risks affecting small populations (Birdlife International 2004). As a northern breeding species it is likely vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring of this species should be implemented to detect any population changes.


population:
The European population is estimated at 11,100-33,200 pairs, which equates to 22,100-66,500 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species breeds in rocky pastureland with scattered barberry (Berberis) bushes, in Turkey. In Transcaucasia, it breeds on rocky mountain slopes with scrubby juniper (Juniperus), cedar (Cedrus) and other vegetation and in the winter, it is also found in shrubby areas adjacent to mountain streams. Its breeding habits are not well documented. Nests have been found between June and August and they are a cup of twigs, leaves and stems, lined with hair, wool, grass and moss, placed low down in low bush. Clutches are three to four eggs. The diet includes insects and seeds. The species is most likely resident with altitudinal movement and some short-distance migration (Hatchwell 2005).

threats:
The main threat to this species is thought to be due to habitat degradation in lower-lying non-breeding areas (Hatchwell 2005) from intensive pastoral farming and the associated increases in burning and cutting of bushes, which serve as the only secure nesting places for the species. Intensive cattle-grazing also increases the risk of nest predation by weasels (Mustela nivalis) and corvids such as Magpies (Pica pica) (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Patches of suitable breeding habitat (in particular scattered clumps ofJuniperus or Berberis bushes) in low-intensity traditionally managed montane pastures. The species should be monitored and research into potential threats undertaken (Tucker and Heath 1994).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 6,000-18,000 pairs, which equates to 12,000-36,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies a wide range of well-vegetated areas with low trees and bushes, in both natural vegetation and cultivation, including open pine (Pinus) woods, juniper (Juniperus) forest, Ceratonia scrub, oases, orchards, groves, fields, gardens and villages. The species breeds from the end of March to August and is monogamous. The nest is a cup or small basket of thin twigs, grass stems, moss and leaves with the base constructed of broad leaves (sometimes with newspaper, strips of plastic or cotton wool) and the structure is held together by cobwebs and cotton threads, lined after a fashion with hair, shredded bark and rootlets, apparently sometimes unlined. Clutches are two to four eggs. It feeds mostly on fruit, as well as seeds and invertebrates and less frequently, nectar, leaves and flowers. The species is mainly resident, although some local movements occur in search of fruit sources and altitudinal migration may occur in Turkey (Fishpool and Tobias 2005).

threats:
The species is considered an agricultural pest in some places; however this has not impacted population numbers (Fishpool and Tobias 2005).


taxonomicNotes:
Regulus ignicapillus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into R. ignicapilla and R. madeirensis in line with AERC TAC (2003).  Gender agreement of R. ignicapilla follows David and Gosselin (2002a).

population:
The European population is estimated at 4,180,000-7,110,000 pairs, which equates to 8,360,000-14,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,800,000-6,550,000 pairs, which equates to 7,610,000-13,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in coniferous forest with spruce (Picea) and fir (Abies) and is fairly common in mixed forest, as well as in deciduous stands with only a few mature conifers interspersed. In the Mediterranean region it uses cork oak (Quercus suber) and holly oak (Quercus ilex) stands. Breeding begins in April and continue until August. The nest is a typical regulid cup of three layers, made of moss, lichen, feathers and spider web, inner cushion layer with fewer and larger feathers and outer covering of lichens. It is suspended 9–18 m above the ground in the vertical twigs of a conifer or, if no conifers are present, in a climbing plant or in deciduous tree, especially oak. Clutches are six to thirteen eggs. It feeds on arthropods, such as moths and caterpillars (Lepidoptera), aphids (Aphidoidea) and spiders (Araneae). The species is primarily migratory (Martens and Päckert 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 50,000-100,000 pairs, which equates to 100,000-200,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in laurel (Laurus) forest with large tree-heath (Erica arborea), as well as mixed forests of oak (Quercus) and juniper (Juniperus), and mountain shrub vegetation of low tree-heath, Vaccinium and Genista. Most records of nests occur in June and July. The nest is a typical regulid cup made of mosses, lichens and spider webs and suspended in the twigs of large tree-heath. The clutch size is not known. It feeds on arthropods and favours large-sized prey such as moths and caterpillars (Lepidoptera). The species is resident but does make post-breeding descents to lower areas (Martens and Päckert 2006).

threats:
This species is not currently threatened, however indigenous laurel forest vegetation is being replaced with introduced eucalyptus plantations, which is a matter of conservation concern (Martens and Päckert 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The introduction of non-native plantations should be monitored to ensure this does not become a conservation concern. In the future, it may be necessary to implement protection of areas of native vegetation to conserve this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Regulus regulus and R. teneriffae (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1998) are lumped into R. regulus in line with AERC TAC (2003).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species has undergone moderately rapid declines and is therefore classified as Near Threatened.

range:
The species breeds across much of Europe. Major populations are present in Russia, Fennoscandia and Germany but breeding occurs in all European countries except Iceland and becoming rarer and more localized further south. In the winter its range extends to drier regions in southern and Mediterranean Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) but only the northern Fennoscandian breeding grounds are vacated (Martens and Päckert 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 20,000,000-37,000,000 pairs, which equates to 40,100,000-74,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,170,000-16,800,000 pairs, which equates to 16,300,000-33,500,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in boreal forests dominated by Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and fir (Abies). On Atlantic islands it uses laurel (Laurus) forest or pine (Pinus) stands with well-developed undergrowth of tree-heath (Erica), but also conifer stands of indigenous short-leaved juniper (Juniperus brevifolia) or introduced Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica). Outside breeding season, and especially during migration, it will use mixed and deciduous forests, shrub vegetation and gardens and parks. Nesting begins the end of March and both sexes build the nest (Martens and Päckert 2006), which is an almost spherical cup of moss, lichens, cobwebs, feathers, and hair, in three distinct layers and with a small entrance at the top. Clutches are typically nine to eleven eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds mainly on arthropods and is generally adapted to small-sized prey. The species is mostly migratory (Martens and Päckert 2006).

threats:
Severe winter conditions, particularly if they persist for lengthy periods over wide areas of the non-breeding range, can significantly reduce population levels, however it is capable of rapid recovery (Martens and Päckert 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
As this species is thought to be declining in Europe (Birdlife International 2015), research may be needed to determine it causes and potential conservation measures.


taxonomicNotes:
Remiz pendulinus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into R. pendulinus and R. macronyx following Harrap and Quinn (1996) who recognises four species of Remiz: pendulinus, macronyx, coronatus and consobrinus. Eck and Martens (2006) lump macronyx

population:
The European population is estimated at 219,000-443,000 pairs, which equates to 437,000-886,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 122,000-210,000 pairs, which equates to 244,000-420,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours lakeside and riverine swampy vegetation and a good mixture of emergent vegetation, including reeds (Phragmites), with reedmace (Typha), poplars (Populus) and willows (Salix). It can be monogamous, but is often polygamous or polyandrous and egg-laying begins in late April and continues to the beginning of July (Madge 2008). The nest is a large, free-hanging domed pouch-like structure, with a short downward-projecting entrance tube near the top. It is made of plant fibres mixed with plant down and animal hair and lined with plant down and occasionally feathers. Clutches are generally six to eight eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds on small invertebrates, particularly the larvae of small insects and will also consume seeds. Northern populations of this species are highly migratory while southern populations are generally resident (Madge 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Currently no conservation measures are needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 10,700,000-21,400,000 pairs, which equates to 21,400,000-42,800,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,010,000-11,300,000 pairs, which equates to 12,000,000-22,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits mature forest with large old trees and a well-developed canopy providing extensive foraging areas, as well as nesting cavities. In much of Europe it prefers deciduous and mixed forest, especially oak (Quercus), but is also found in riverine woodland, parkland, old orchards, cemeteries, and sometimes large gardens and locally occupies in old spruce (Picea) and pine (Pinus) forests, especially in the mountains. Egg-laying occurs mainly from late-April to May but varies with latitude and altitude. The nest is a foundation of wood chips surmounted by bark flakes and rarely incorporating dry leaves, lichen, conifer ­needles and the like. It is sited in the hole in a tree, which is either natural or, more often an abandoned woodpecker hole. On occasion it will use a nestbox or a wall cavity, hole in a rock face or building or crevice between tree roots. Clutches are typically five to nine eggs. It feeds on insects but in the autumn and winter it takes seeds, nuts and sometimes flower buds and sap. It will readily visit birdtables in the winter. The species is generally sedentary, but juveniles may disperse over short distances in late summer and autumn; occasionally these movements become irruptive (Harrap 2008).

threats:
The main threat to this species is forest destruction and fragmentation, which has lead to local declines and extinctions throughout its range. It is generally rare or absent from small forest fragments and the species does not inhabit areas without mature trees (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Harrap 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Locally, this species would benefit from protection of its forest habitat and management should ensure that large, mature trees remain.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The small population size in the EU27 approaches the threshold for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<1,000 mature individuals), so it is classified as Near Threatened. There is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the region, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe, where it is found in southernmost European Russia, Georgia, Turkey and the Greek island of Lesbos (Harrap 2008).

population:
The European population is estimated at 121,000-451,000 pairs, which equates to 241,000-901,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 550-680 pairs, which equates to 1,100-1,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits temperate coniferous forest, from sea-level up to c. 2,400 m. In Turkey, it occurs mostly between 1,000–1,600 m, mainly in forests of black pine (Pinus nigra), fir (Abies cilicica), cedar (Cedrus libani), red pine (Pinus brutia) and juniper (Juniperus spp.) (Albayrak et al. 2006, T. Albayrak in litt. 2007). In the Caucasus, it occurs mainly in the zone of spruce (Picea) forests between 1,000 and 2,000 m, mostly in old stands of Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana), but also in pine (Pinus) forest. The breeding season is from early April to mid-May (depending on altitude and locality) on Lesbos and in Turkey and April to May in Caucasus. The nest is built largely by the female and is a foundation of coarse bark chips, rotten wood and cone scales, lined with a pad of moss, bark fibres, hair, wool, fur and feathers. Nests are built up to 24 m above ground in tree holes although eggs are sometimes laid on top of a stump or even in pile of twigs in a fork (perhaps only when holes not available). It feeds largely on insects and spiders in the breeding season and chicks are fed entirely on animal material. In autumn and winter it feeds on the seeds of coniferous trees and will cache food for times of poor weather (Harrap 2008). The species is primarily sedentary but some altitudinal movement occurs in the winter (Tucker and Heath 1994).

threats:
In Turkey, forestry is placing considerable pressure on the species's mature coniferous forest habitats (T. Albayrak in litt. 2007). Development for tourism is also a threat, particularly in coastal areas where the species was once numerous (S. Isfendiyaroglu in litt. 2005). A law for the promotion of tourism came into force in Turkey in 2003, further exacerbating the threat from habitat loss (S. Isfendiyaroglu in litt. 2005). Urbanisation and the construction of summer houses is also a growing problem in the Mediterranean part of its range (S. Isfendiyaroglu in litt. 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II.  Studies of  various aspects of the species such as its breeding ecology, habitat requirements and population structure have taken place (Albayrak and Erdogan 2006, Thibault et al. 2006, Albayrak et al. 2011).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Develop a Species Action Plan. Develop a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Assess threats to the species and develop appropriate responses. Follow up on ongoing research work and adopt recommendations as appropriate.


population:
The European population is estimated at 1,030,000-5,080,000 pairs, which equates to 2,060,000-10,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 10,200-30,500 pairs, which equates to 20,400-61,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies barren regions and areas with low shrubs, herbs and grasses, and is occasionally found in woodland with scattered rocks. It chooses sites with bare rocks, typically rocky slopes, cliffs and gorges in dry or arid regions, including walls, old buildings and ancient ruins. The breeding season is from late March to April or May. The nest is built mainly by the male and is a remarkable flask-shaped structure, with an entrance tunnel up to 10 cm long and is sited on a rock face, usually under a slight overhang or sometimes on a building or other man-made structure. It is built of mud, animal dung, hair, feathers, beetle wings and similar materials. The chamber is lined with hair, wool, feathers and grass. The surrounding area is sometimes decorated with various objects, both natural and man-made. Clutches are four to ten eggs (Harrap 2008). In the summer it feeds mainly on insects and in the autumn and winter mostly on seeds, although snails are also important (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is sedentary, showing limited post-breeding dispersal (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


population:
The European population is estimated at 16,600-53,500 pairs, which equates to 33,200-107,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a species of rocky mountain slopes and valleys, cliffs, ravines and gorges. It may favour streams, and its distribution is closely correlated to a milk-vetch-wormwood-Rosaceae (Astragalus-Artemesia-Rosaceae) vegetation community, including almonds (Prunus dulcis) and pistachios (Pistacia vera). In the Transcaucasus area breeding begins from late March or April. Both sexes build the nest, which is a flask-shaped structure built usually over a crack, cavity or hole in rock face, tree, riverbank or building. The hole may be a natural one, excavated by birds themselves, or the abandoned hole another species. The entrance is walled up with a mixture of mud, saliva, excrement, resin, feathers, hair, cloth, insect fragments and even sweet papers, leaving a small hole or short conical entrance tunnel. The nest may be reused over several years. Clutches are typically five to seven eggs. In the summer it feeds mainly on insects and snails (Gastropoda) and from autumn to early spring it takes mostly seeds, such as those of apricot (Prunus armeniaca), cherry (Prunus) and wild almond. The species is resident with some post-breeding dispersal (Harrap 2008).

threats:
The species may suffer the effects of future climate change (Menon et al. 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This species is endemic to Europe and the EU27, where it is listed as Vulnerable because its small population has declined in the last decade due to logging and fires, reducing the amount of large, mature Corsican pine Pinus nigra laricio available. Although some forests are regenerating, the slow maturation time of the pine means that potential new habitat does not compensate for the loss of mature pines elsewhere, therefore it is assumed that the population will continue to decline.

range:
This species is endemic to Corsica, France. It has a limited and fragmented breeding range which follows the distribution of Corsican pine Pinus nigra laricio, occurring on inland mountain ridges from Tartagine south to Ospedale and Mt Cagna, with the main populations focussed around the mountains of Cinto, Rotondo, Renoso and Incudine (Harrap and de Juana 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,500-2,200 pairs, which equates to 3,000-4,400 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Optimal habitat for this species is mature stands of Corsican pine with abundant dead and rotting trunks for nest sites, at elevations of 1,000-1,500 m (Harrap and de Juana 2013). Densities vary between 0.2–3.8 pairs/10 ha, and correlate with tree height, vegetation density and dead tree distribution (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999). Suboptimal habitats include forests where Corsican pine is associated with cluster pine (Pinus pinaster), balsam fir (Abies alba) or beech (Fagus sylvatica), and younger, exploited stands of Corsican pine at elevations of 600–1,700 m. Dispersing birds may be found in holm oak (Quercus ilex) and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) forests, gardens and orchards (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999, Harrap and de Juana 2013). Its breeding season stretches from April to May, laying a clutch of five to six eggs, with mated partners remaining on their territory all year. It feeds largely on insects and spiders during May-August, switching to seeds, especially those of the Corsican pine, during the rest of the year. It forages singly or in pairs, though may join mixed-species flocks outside the breeding season. Seeds are cached from late autumn to early spring during periods of sunny weather (when the cones are open) and retrieved during wet or cold weather (Harrap and de Juana 2013). It is generally sedentary except for some dispersal of immature and unmated birds to lower altitudes in winter (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999).

threats:
Forest fires and logging of mature Corsican pine stands appear to be the primary threats to this species. Large trees suitable for the species are also favoured by the logging industry and since the 1970s local foresters have attempted to rejuvenate the pine forest by shortening the logging rotation, reducing the size of trees available for the species (Bourcet 1996). It has been estimated that 78-122 territories have been destroyed by logging since 1998, and that a further 50-63 territories were lost during the large forest fires of 2000 and 2003, which severely affected another 47-80 territories (Thibault et al. 2004, 2010). It has been predicted that whenever an area 2 ha is logged in a forest stand suitable for the species, a potential territory is likely to disappear for more than a century due to the slow growth of Corsican Pine (Thibault et al. 2010). This species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (affecting Corsican pine distribution), however this is not expected to be a serious direct threat (Barbet-Massin and Jiguet 2011, BirdLife International unpublished data). Climate change may also cause an increase in fire frequency and intensity and so could be a serious future threat to the species (J.Baudat-Franceschi in litt. 2010, Barbet-Massin and Jiguet 2011). Climate change may increase interspecific competition between Corsican pine and Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) as well as Mediterranean shrub species which in turn could have a negative effect on the species's range (Thibault et al. 2010, J. Baudat-Franceschi in litt. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex I. No conservation action is known, though its national status of Near Threatened in France may afford some protection (IUCN 2008). Almost the entire global population occurs within the Natural Regional Park of Corse (Harrap and de Juana 2013). Work is being conducted by forest managers to evaluate the carrying capacity of Corsican pine forests for the species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research the minimum size of a Corsican pine stand required to support a viable population. Prevent the logging of mature Corsican pine. Develop a plan to prevent forest fires. Prevent the clearance of dead and rotting trunks in managed forests.


population:
The European population is estimated at 29,000-69,700 pairs, which equates to 57,900-139,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,900-21,800 pairs, which equates to 25,700-43,500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a range of rocky regions, typically including steep, rugged cliffs, boulder-strewn slopes, and damp, shady gorges in mountainous areas, with holes and crevices for nesting and roosting. Grassy ledges generally intersperse the rocks and other vegetation including herbaceous plants, moss, shrubs and trees, and running water are often present. For foraging areas of mixed sunlight and shade are important. In the winter, similar rocky habitats are favoured. In Europe, the breeding season is from April and May to July and August, depending on altitude. The nest is made of moss, plant fibres, rootlets and grass, with hair, wool and feathers densely matted together, sometimes as a lining for insulation. It is sited in a cleft in a rock, between or behind rocks or boulders and sometimes on or inside a building. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds principally on small and some larger insects, including adults, larvae and eggs, as well as spiders (Araneae) and some other invertebrates. Through most of its range the species is a short-distance and altitudinal migrant (Löhrl and Wilson 2008).

threats:
The species is under threat from the development of mountain regions (Löhrl and Wilson 2008), such as dam building (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and a considerable increase in human leisure activities, especially rock-climbing, which cause disturbance and threaten habitat in breeding and wintering areas (Löhrl and Wilson 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
It is protected in most European countries. The species is listed as “critically endangered” in Poland, “vulnerable” in Liechtenstein and “near-threatened” in Slovakia and is also red-listed in Germany (Löhrl and Wilson 2008).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Important areas of habitat for this species should be identified and protected from development as well as restrictions on access put in place.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 61,300-230,000 pairs, which equates to 123,000-459,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 260-32,300 pairs, which equates to 520-64,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found on open steppes where orthopterans (locusts and other grasshoppers) are abundant. Colonies are normally found near water, often in valleys but after breeding it moves to more wooded areas. The breeding season is short, running from May to July and is closely tied to the availability of food. It is monogamous and breeds in large colonies often from hundreds to several thousand nests. Both sexes build the nest, which is made from grasses and twigs, lined with finer grasses and feathers and the cup may include aromatic plants such as wormwood (Artemisia), giant fennel (Ferula) and the poaceous grass (Aeluropus). It is sited in a hole, most frequently between stones on scree slope and sometimes in a crack in a rock or cliff, among stones on a railway embankment or quarry, in a hole or crevice in a building. Clutches are from three to six eggs. It feeds on insects during the breeding season, mostly locusts and other grasshoppers but more fruit is taken after breeding, and in winter it consumes insects, fruit, seeds and nectar. The species is migratory and also undertakes nomadic post-breeding dispersal (Craig et al. 2013).

threats:
The species may be threatened by habitat modification (Birdlife International 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
As the population status is not currently known due to uncertainties over the impacts of habitat modification on population sizes (Birdlife International 2015), the species would benefit from increased monitoring efforts and research.


population:
The European population is estimated at 23,900,000-30,600,000 pairs, which equates to 47,800,000-61,300,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in open woodland with expanses of short grass, often in association with grazing mammals as well as in farmland, parks, gardens and cities. Breeding occurs from April to mid-July and it is a colonial nester. Both sexes build the nest, mainly from dry grass and it is lined with grass, roots, leaves and feathers. Often yellow flowers are included in the structure, as well as fresh green leaves. It is placed in a natural hole or an old woodpecker hole, or in the disused burrow of European Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) or Collared Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) and artificial structures and nestboxes are widely used. Clutches are four to five eggs in Spain. It is omnivorous; it takes mainly animal matter in the spring and summer and fruit and seeds in the autumn and winter. The species is mostly sedentary (Craig et al. 2014).

threats:
Interbreeding between this species and Sturnus vulgaris has been observed in areas where it is sympatric (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), although this is not known to be a serious threat.


population:
The European population is estimated at 28,800,000-52,400,000 pairs, which equates to 57,700,000-105,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 18,300,000-33,500,000 pairs, which equates to 36,600,000-67,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species occupies open country, including modified habitats, with access to suitable nesting and roosting sites. It requires cavity nest-sites, typically in woodland or on man-made structures, close to open areas of short grassland for foraging. At other times it exploits a wide range of habitats, including moorland, saltmarshes, seashore and tidal flats, stubble fields, orchards, refuse dumps and sewage-treatment works. It roosts in reedbeds, scrub and trees, as well as bridges and buildings and even in town centres. Breeding occurs mostly between March and July. The nest is a bulky structure of dry grass, conifer needles, twigs, string and other materials and the cup is lined with softer materials such as grass, feathers, moss, wool, hair and paper, fresh green leaves and flowers. It is typically built in a hole in a tree, cliff, building or other structure and nestboxes are also readily used. Clutches are normally four to six eggs (Craig and Feare 2009). It omnivorous, taking animal and plant material all year round but during the spring animal food predominates and is fed almost exclusively to nestlings (Snow and Perrins 1998). In the northern and eastern populations are migratory where as southern and western populations as well as those in urban areas tend to be resident (Craig and Feare 2009).

threats:
The species is thought to be declining in some areas owing to the intensification and specialization of agriculture and consequent changes in rural habitats (Craig and Feare 2009), such as decreases in fallow and grassland and increases in autumn-sown arable crops (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Declines have coincided with a reduction in cattle farming. In some European countries it was formerly a regular food source and was also kept as a cagebird (Craig and Feare 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. In parts of its natural Eurasian range, this species is encouraged through provision of nestboxes, as claimed to reduce some insect pests (Craig and Feare 2009).

Conservation Actions Proposed
The promotion and expansion of low-intensity agriculture would benefit this species.


taxonomicNotes:
Acrocephalus agricola (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into A. agricola and A. tangorum contra Alstrom et al. (1991) but following Helbig and Seibold (1999).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 200,000-396,000 pairs, which equates to 400,000-792,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,100-20,200 pairs, which equates to 6,200-40,400 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in reeds (Phragmites), chiefly low-growing and open, as well as reedmace (Typha) and neighbouring bushes or tamarisks (Tamarix), often on the landward edges of lakes and in river valleys. Around the Black Sea, breeding begins in mid-May. Three to six eggs are laid in a cylindrical, rather tall and deep nest, which is loosely constructed from reed and grass stems and leaves and reed inflorescences, woven around vertical stems of water plants and lined with finer grasses, reed flowers and occasionally plant down. It is suspended over land or water, 10–200 cm up among vertical stems of emergent aquatic or semi-aquatic vegetation (Dyrcz 2006). It feeds mainly on insects (Snow and Perrins 1998) but also takes spiders (Araneae) and earthworms (Dyrcz 2006). The species is migratory, wintering in the Indian subcontinent (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In Bulgaria this species has been adversely affected by large-scale reed-cutting and burning (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Important areas of habitat should be protected and maintained from habitat alteration and disturbance.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,600,000-4,680,000 pairs, which equates to 5,190,000-9,360,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,030,000-1,590,000 pairs, which equates to 2,060,000-3,180,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds mainly in beds of reed (Phragmites), locally in stands of reedmace (Typha), growing in fresh or brackish water and rarely, in willow bushes (Salix). It shows a preference for tall reeds with thick stems, especially next to open water. In western and central Europe, egg-laying occurs from mid-May to July but begins earlier in southern Europe from early May. It lays three to six eggs in a nest, which is a deep, cylindrical cup of coarsely woven grass, reed and other plants stems and leaves, some plant down, spider webs and reed flowers and lined with finer plant material, sometimes also hair and feathers. It is built 10–200 cm above water and attached to several reed stems. The diet is mainly insects but also includes spiders (Araneae), some snails and small vertebrates. Outside the breeding season it also rarely takes fruit and berries. The species is migratory, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Dyrcz 2006).

threats:
The reasons of declines in Europe are not clear but may be due to climate change and habitat loss. Drainage and irrigation, decreasing reed quality, lower arthropod densities (Dyrcz 2006), land reclamation, eutrophication and reedbed die-back may be causes (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Habitat may be managed for the species through the restoration of natural water level fluctuations, restoration of early successional wetland stages and the reduction of water nutrient loads (Graveland 1998).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,180,000-4,780,000 pairs, which equates to 4,360,000-9,560,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 76,600-180,000 pairs, which equates to 153,000-360,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species has adapted to varied habitats and is not necessarily found close to water; it is more arboreal than most members of the genus (Dyrcz 2006). It breeds in a wide range of shrubby growth with tall herbage, young forests, overgrown clearings, birch (Betula) and willow (Salix) scrub in floodland groves, forest steppes, bush-encroached farmland and swamp and other waterside margins (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The breeding season is from the end of May to July. It lays three to six eggs is a nest, which is a neat and compact cup of dry grass stalks and leaves, rootlets, plant fibres, spider web, lined with finer stems and hair and suspended 10–150 cm above ground in a dense herbaceous layer, or sometimes in a shrub or small tree. It feeds mainly on insects but also consumes spiders (Araneae), harvestmen (Opiliones), snails and occasionally seeds. The species is migratory and the entire population winters in the Indian Subcontinent (Dyrcz 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 76,100-124,000 pairs, which equates to 152,000-249,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 15,000-30,200 pairs, which equates to 30,000-60,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies low aquatic vegetation, especially reedbeds, but also rush stands, sedges, reedmace (Typha) and others, often with admixture of bushes or tamarisks (Tamarix). Its optimal habitat appears to be old reedbeds containing a high proportion of dead material and a complex lower stratum, with tall reeds above. In addition it is found along lake margins, ditches, beside freshwater and brackish marshes, and in very small reed marshes in steppe zone. In Europe, egg-laying begins in late March and continues to mid-June. The nest is a deep cup, sometimes with a partial roof and is made of loosely woven leaves and stems of aquatic plants, lined with fine plant material and some feathers. It is suspended 30–130 cm above water from several vertical plant stems. Clutches are usually from three to six eggs. The diet is almost entirely small arthropods, especially small beetles but the fruits of cherry (Prunus) and elder (Sambucus) are also taken. The species is sedentary, partially migratory and migratory in Europe (Dyrcz 2006).

threats:
This species is threatened locally by fires caused by humans. Although burnt reedbeds are quickly recolonized, the complex lower stratum that this species favours is lost (Dyrcz 2006). The modification of wetland habitats, water abstraction (Martí del Mora 2003, Madroño et al. 2005) and the mowing and cutting of reeds (Flitti et al. 2009) also pose a risk to this species.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The following actions have been proposed for Spanish populations: Measures should be taken maintain the water level of wetlands where this species breeds. In addition these areas should be protected from disturbance, particularly from fire, which should only be used as a means of management under very controlled conditions. Water quality should be maintained and improved and eutrophication avoided and vegetation should be managed to promote diversity. Populations should also be regularly monitored (Madroñoet al. 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has undergone rapid population declines, as a result of the destruction of its habitat, which qualify it as Vulnerable. In the EU27 region it has a small, declining population within a small breeding range, and it also qualifies as Vulnerable. The decline in the central-European core population has recently been stopped owing to intensive management and conservation projects, but the population is still widely conservation-dependent. The genetically distinct and isolated Pomeranian population is still declining and at a critical level, while the population in Hungary recently declined to extinction, and that in Lithuania continues to decline.

range:
The species breeds across a highly fragmented range at fewer than 50 regular breeding sites in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Germany and Lithuania (M. Flade and L. Lachmann in litt. 2007, U. Malashevich in litt. 2012). On migration, it has been recorded in c.15 European countries, mainly in the west and southwest of the continent (U. Malashevich in litt. 2012). It winters in the Sahelian belt of sub-Saharan West Africa, mainly along the lower Senegal River (Bargain et al. 2008, Flade 2008, U. Malashevich in litt. 2012). The Hungarian population has collapsed and the tiny West Siberian population has probably already disappeared, in which case the species has become a European endemic breeder (M. Flade and L. Lachmann in litt. 2007).

population:
The European population is estimated at 9,000-13,800 calling or lekking males, which equates to 18,000-27,600 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,300-3,400 calling or lekking males, which equates to 6,600-6,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in large open lowland marsh habitats with low grassy vegetation (mostly sedge fen mires) with water mostly less than 10 cm deep (Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999). On migration, it favours coastal habitats with low stands of sedge and reed near open water (Flade et al. 2011). The species has an unusual reproductive system close to promiscuity, the female raising young without male help. This strategy is possibly explained and facilitated by high density of potential prey (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Nests are often concentrated in loose clusters at places where food resources are rich. The nest is a cup constructed of grass, plant stems and leaves, spider webs and plant down and lined with finer material, placed 3–30 cm above swampy ground or water, often under roof of dead sedges. Clutch size ranges from three to six eggs. In studies in north-east Poland, the earliest clutch started 9th May and the mean first-egg date in consecutive years was between 15th and 22nd May. Second broods are less synchronous. It feeds on a wide variety of species of spiders and insects as well as small water snails (Dyrcz et al. 2013). The species is migratory. Central European populations migrate south-west in the autumn to wintering grounds in western Sahelian wetlands, from Senegal and Mali to Ghana, but extent of wintering area poorly known (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Departure from breeding grounds begins in Poland in late July and continues during August (Dyrcz et al. 2013).

threats:
The most important threats are loss of breeding habitat owing to drainage for agriculture and peat extraction, damming of floodplains, unfavourable water management and the canalisation of rivers. Habitat degradation is widespread where traditional fen management has ceased allowing succession to unsuitable overgrown reedbed, scrub or woodland (Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999). Commercial reed cutting can maintain suitable breeding habitat for the species in central Europe, but this is threatened by changes that are likely to occur along with the implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (Tanneberger et al. 2009). Uncontrolled fires in spring and summer pose a direct threat to birds and nests, and can burn out the upper peat layer of fens (Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999). In the wintering grounds, agricultural cultivation and irrigation, drought, wetland drainage, intensive grazing, succession to scrub, desertification and salinisation of irrigated soils are all potential threats (Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999, M. Flade and L. Lachmann in litt. 2007).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. It is legally protected in all countries of its breeding range except Ukraine and Russia (U. Malashevich in litt. 2012). All key breeding sites in Belarus, Germany, Hungary and Poland are located within protected areas (Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999, U. Malashevich in litt. 2012). Habitat is actively managed in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, Hungary and Germany. All breeding range states but Russia have monitoring programmes (Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999, M. Flade and L. Lachmann in litt. 2007). Studies on halting succession have been conducted in Belarus, Poland and Ukraine (M. Kalyakin in litt. 1999). A European action plan was published in 1996 and updated in 1998, 2003 and 2008 (Flade and Lachmann 2008). The species was put into the agenda of the Conference of Parties for the CMS in November 2011, where a special resolution on African-Eurasian landbirds was adopted, which applies to Aquatic Warbler (U. Malashevich in litt. 2011).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Implement a monitoring programme in Russia. Protect key breeding sites and develop management plans. Promote protection of the species along the migration route. Ensure full legal protection.


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,170,000-7,560,000 pairs, which equates to 8,330,000-15,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,210,000-3,430,000 pairs, which equates to 4,420,000-6,850,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours rank, tufty and fairly tall herbage, especially nettles (Urtica), meadowsweet (Filipendula), brambles (Rubus fruticosus) and others, often in the vicinity of taller bushes or trees. It also occurs in corn fields and other agricultural land surrounded with a belt of low bushes or hedgerows as well as in wasteland with tall grass, herbs and small bushes, in tall herbaceous vegetation along ditches, in marsh vegetation at edges of swamps, in reeds on dry ground and even in gardens. In western and central Europe, breeding occurs from the second half of May to July. It lays three to six eggs in a nest which is a deep, cylindrical cup of leaves and stems of nettles, grass and other plants, lined with finer plant fibres, plant down and hair. The structure is supported on two to five plant stems, usually 30–70 cm high (Dyrcz 2006). It feeds mainly on insects and arachnids, with some snails and occasionally berries in late summer and autumn (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory, wintering in south-east Africa (Dyrcz 2006).

threats:
In the U.K., declines during the 1950s and 1960s may have been due to climate change and habitat loss as a result of activities such as bank tidying (Batten et al. 1989). The species is likely still affected by climate change (Both et al. 2010).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Sites should be protected and managed and in Britain the control of birdwatchers to reduce disturbance may be necessary (Battenet al. 1989).


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,830,000-6,440,000 pairs, which equates to 7,650,000-12,900,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,680,000-2,680,000 pairs, which equates to 3,360,000-5,360,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found in a variety of low dense vegetation, often near water or in moist depressions, including shore vegetation around freshwater pools, along rivers and canals, and lowland swamps and marshes with reed and bush thickets. It can also breed in dry situations offering suitable cover, such as neglected orchards, hedgerows, nettlebeds, dense scrub, crop fields. In western Europe egg-laying occurs mainly from the end of April, from early May in central Europe and from mid-May in Finland.  Clutches are from four to seven eggs and are laid in a rather deep cup with a loosely woven outer structure of grass, plant stems and leaves, moss and sedges, often with spider webs and a thick inner layer of finer leaves and stems, lined with reed flowers, hair and plant down. It is generally placed low over marshy ground (rarely above water) among grasses and tall weeds or in low bush. The diet is mainly insects and their larvae but it also takes spiders (Araneae), harvestmen (Opiliones), small slugs and snails. The species is migratory, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Dyrcz 2006).

threats:
Declines in this species in Europe have been attributed to severe droughts in the west African wintering quarters (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Dyrcz 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Important areas of habitat should be protected and maintained for this species in order to help mitigate declines from natural causes.


taxonomicNotes:
Acrocephalus scirpaceus and A. baeticatus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) have been lumped into A. scirpaceus following Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,120,000-3,880,000 pairs, which equates to 4,240,000-7,760,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,490,000-2,660,000 pairs, which equates to 2,990,000-5,320,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds mainly in mature beds of reed (Phragmites) on the shores of lakes and fish ponds, and along rivers and ditches and locally, breeds in willow bushes in marshland, in reeds on edges of brackish lakes, exceptionally in corn fields. It also forages in adjacent herbaceous vegetation, scrub and low trees, such as willows (Salix). In western and central Europe, breeding occurs from May to July or August. The nest is a deep cup neatly woven from split reed blades, reed inflorescences, plant down and grass stems and lined with finer material. It is suspended from two to eight vertical reed stems, usually 15–200 cm over shallow water. Clutches can be three to five eggs but are most commonly four. The diet is mainly insects and their larvae, spiders (Araneae) and occasionally fruit, seeds and flowers. The species is entirely migratory, wintering in Africa south of the Sahara (Dyrcz et al. 2015).

threats:
The species has declined in some areas due to habitat destruction and the phenomenon of reedbed die-back, caused partly by over-eutrophication (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Reclamation of marshland has contributed to local declines (Dyrcz et al. 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not currently threatened it would benefit from the conservation and maintenance of wetlands.


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,020,000-3,190,000 pairs, which equates to 4,050,000-6,380,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,770,000-2,620,000 pairs, which equates to 3,530,000-5,240,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours swampy lowland areas with thick cover of reeds and sparse bushes (rarely in uniform reedbeds standing in water), willows (Salix), and brambles (Rubus) or blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). It is also found in overgrown ditches and streams with thick tangles of cover, areas of damp meadows, tall grass stands, hedgerows and overgrown orchards. In non-breeding areas, occurs in variably wet or dry scrub of plains, foothills, valley bottoms, bramble patches, overgrown orchards, and dense cover near water, marshes, swamps and reeds (Clement 2006). Breeding occurs mainly from mid-April to June (Snow and Perrins 1998) and it lays two to four eggs. The nest is a large untidy cup of leaves, dry grass, plant fibres, feathers, animal hair and reed mace (Typha). It can be sited up to two metres from the ground in a thick tangle of vegetation, among the twigs or thin branches of a bush or stems of reeds or nettles (Urtica) (Clement 2006). It feeds mainly on insects but also takes other invertebrates. The species varies from sedentary to migratory in different parts of its range (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Particularly in the north-west of its range, it is susceptible to severe cold winters (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Robinson et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC°°)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The species extends into the EU27 only in small numbers in Latvia, Estonia and Finland. The population size within the EU27 meets the threshold for Vulnerable, with an unknown population trend but no evidence of a decline; given the large, increasing neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted to Least Concern (LC°°) in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 70,100-150,000 pairs, which equates to 140,000-301,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 60-350 pairs, which equates to 110-700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in steppe with low scrub of spirea (Spiraea), pea species (Pisum) and similar species. In the temperate zone it occurs in overgrown pastureland and meadows with dense bushes and weeds (Svensson 2006). Breeding occurs from May to early July. The nest is a well-built cup of twigs, roots, stems and leaves, lined with finer material including feathers, hair and plant down (Snow and Perrins 1998) and placed on or near ground, or up to 1m above it, in dense undergrowth. It feeds principally on insects and other invertebrates. The species is a long-distance migrant, wintering in India (Svensson 2006).

threats:
In some areas of Russia, nest predation by predators such as Common Viper (Vipera berus), Harriers and Corvids has a variable annual pressure but may have a significant impact locally (Shitikov et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened, further research into the impacts of predators may help inform future conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,720,000-6,500,000 pairs, which equates to 7,440,000-13,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,030,000-1,520,000 pairs, which equates to 2,070,000-3,030,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits tall-grown woods of oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), beech (Fagus sylvatica), alder (Alnus) and other deciduous trees, but it is also found in larger parks and gardens, and in stands of young pines (Pinus) if mixed with broadleaf trees. It favours open forest, or dense woods with intermixed glades and undergrowth. Breeding occurs from the end of May to June and clutches are four to five. The nest is a strong cup of grasses, plant stems, moss and soft twigs, often covered with pieces of birch bark, lichens, flowers and similar, partly attached with cobwebs and lined with fine fibres, roots, fur and similar soft material. It is placed in the fork of a tree branch. The diet is mostly insects and other invertebrates but in the summer it also takes fruits and berries. The species is migratory, wintering in Africa, south of the equator (Svensson 2006).

threats:
Decreases in the west and south-west of it range may be in part due to competition from Hippolais polyglotta, which has spread north and east to become marginally sympatric (Svensson 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region, where it is only known from Cyprus.

population:
The European population is estimated at 13,500-36,600 pairs, which equates to 27,000-73,200 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours trees and tall bushes in variety of habitats: orchards, plantations, maquis on mountain slopes, scattered trees at desert edge, riverine forest in valleys. It is often associated with elevated ground, in mountains and on arid, rocky slopes with sufficient taller vegetation and nearness of water. Breeding occurs from April to July and clutches are three to five eggs. The nest is a strong, neat cup of grasses, plant stems and soft twigs, often covered with cobwebs, lined with fine fibres, plant down, fur and similar soft material and placed in fork of branch. It is thought to feed mainly on insects and other invertebrates. The species is migratory and winters in east Africa (Svensson 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 10,800-25,000 pairs, which equates to 21,500-50,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,000-9,000 pairs, which equates to 8,000-18,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits orchards of almond (Prunus dulcis), olive (Olea) and pistachio (Pistacia vera), open oak (Quercus) woods, maquis on mountain slopes, savanna-like open woods and sparse trees on grassland, and similar. The presence of some taller trees is preferred. Breeding occurs from May to June. The nest is a well-built, deep cup of grasses, plant stems and soft twigs, often covered with cobwebs and lined with fine fibres, plant down, fur and similar soft material. It is sited in the fork of a branch of a tree. Clutches are three or four eggs. It is thought to mainly feed on insects and other invertebrates, and in the summer it also takes fruits and berries, including figs (Ficus). The species is migratory, wintering in southern Africa (Svensson 2006).

threats:
The ecology of this species is not well known, however it may be threatened by changes in habitat structure, especially from clearance and thinning of woodland and agricultural intensification in olive-groves and fruit plantations. Agricultural pesticide use may decrease insect prey numbers. In addition, bird trapping in Greece may impact the species (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Due to economic and cultural factors, the habitat of this species is likely to remain non-threatened, although it is essential that funding to assist olive production should favour old traditional plantations and management. Studies should look at the impact of the intensification of agriculture and forestry and the use of broad spectrum pesticides should be avoided. A survey of the species’s population status is needed, as well as research on its ecological requirements (Tucker and Heath 1994).


taxonomicNotes:
Hippolais pallida (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into H. pallida and H. opaca following Ottosson et al. (2005).

range:
This species breeds in Spain and north-west Africa; it winters in West Africa.

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,200 pairs, which equates to 10,400 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species favours trees and tall bushes in many different habitats: dense gardens, parks, riverine forest, dense tall bushes or trees at lakesides, orchards and plantations, maquis, and similar. It requires open areas or patchy, broken-up woods with glades and much undergrowth but does not enter closed forest. Breeding occurs from late April to June and it lays three to four eggs. The nest is a strong cup of plant stems and soft twigs placed in the fork of a branch, often at one to four metres above ground. It feeds mainly on insects and spider but will also take fruit in the late summer. The species is migratory, wintering in west Africa (Svensson and Christie 2013).

threats:
The species is mainly threatened by habitat loss and degradation. It suffers from: the elimination of gallery forests, inadequate reforestation and intensive commercial forestry; the intensification of agriculture with changes in crop species, irrigation and crop species; modification and destruction of water courses; industrial and urban development; and finally fires (Madroño et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this specifically for this species, however it is likely to benefit from protected areas (Madroñoet al. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conservation and habitat protection are needed in order to maintain an adequate network of favorable sites. The generic protection tarajales (Tamarix)  near water bodies would be advisable, given their importance to this and other species. Further research should be undertaken on habitat selection in order to assist in identifying priority sites for protection and to guide management practices. A detailed survey of the population and the severity of threats is also needed (Madroño et al. 2004).


range:
This species breeds in North Africa, south-east Europe, parts of the Arabian Peninsula and central Asia; it winters south of the Sahara to East Africa.

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,260,000-6,560,000 pairs, which equates to 6,510,000-13,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 96,800-186,000 pairs, which equates to 204,000-381,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers trees and tall bushes in variety of habitats: dense gardens, parks, riverine forest, often of poplars (Populus), also dense tall bushes or trees at lakesides, orchards and plantations, including young pine trees (Pinus). It is also found in maquis of oak (Quercus), roses (Rosa), low pines, brooms (Cytisus) and similar. Breeding occurs from May to June and clutches are three to five eggs. The nest is a strong cup of plant stems and soft twigs, lined with plant down fur and placed in fork of branch, commonly of tamarisk (Svensson 2006). The diet comprises mainly of invertebrates but also some fruit in the late summer. In Europe the species is migratory and winters mainly in the dry areas of Africa north of the equator (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Widespread destruction of its habitat threatens this species in some areas. The clearance and burning of bushes, groves and hedges, and the drainage of of land for agricultural expansion has intensified. Pesticide use may also adversely affect populations. Factors in the wintering quarters including droughts and pesticide use may be responsible for the annual fluctuations of populations in Greece (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Traditional, low-intensity farming should be maintained and the retention of a high groundwater-table along river valleys and around lakes along with the conservation of moist scrub habitats in plains is essential. A programme of census and monitoring studies should be undertaken for this species (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 2,330,000-3,750,000 pairs, which equates to 4,670,000-7,490,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,320,000-3,730,000 pairs, which equates to 4,650,000-7,450,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in maquis, orchards, large and ill-kept gardens, oak (Quercus) scrub, dense thorny bushes in meadows, thickets in forest glades or at forest edges, overgrown pastureland and riverine forest. It breeds from March to July. The nest is a well-built cup of grasses, plant stems and soft twigs, often covered with pieces of bark and lichens, attached with cobwebs. It is lined with fine fibres, roots, fur and similar materials and placed in the fork of a branch in a tree. Clutches are four to five eggs. The diet is mainly insects and other invertebrates but it also takes some fruits and berries in the summer. The species is migratory, wintering in west Africa (Svensson and Christie 2013).

threats:
This species is threatened by the effects of climate change, which  may reduce its range (Engler et al. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

Although this species may have a small range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is considered vagrant (United Kingdom) in the EU27 and is assessed as Not Applicable (NA) for this region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 1,000-10,000 pairs, which equates to 2,000-20,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in sand or clay semi-deserts with scattered vegetation at least two metres tall, preferably taller, such as saxaul (Haloxylon), tamarisk (Tamarix) and willow (Salix). The breeding season is from April to June or July. The nest is a strong cup made of plant stems, roots and soft twigs and lined with plant down and fur. It is set in the fork of a branch or in dense undergrowth, often at 0.3–2 m. Clutches are typically four to six eggs. The diet is mostly insects and spiders (Araneae). The species is migratory, wintering in India, Pakistan, southern Iran and southern Arabia (Svensson and Kirwan 2015).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the species is undergoing rapid declines, and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abc+3bc+4abc). Since the population in the wider European population is also decreasing, there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27 and the final category is unchanged.

range:
Since the 1950s this species range has spread west in central and northern Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998), where it breeds  from Germany and former Yugoslavia to western Russia and from the Black Sea to southern Finland (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,330,000-5,360,000 pairs, which equates to 4,650,000-10,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 178,000-356,000 pairs, which equates to 356,000-712,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found in dense low vegetation, grass thickets, nettles (Urtica) and tangled herbage in meadows, moist woodland, damp forest clearings and sedge marshes. It is also uses riverbanks and abandoned cultivation. Egg laying begins from end of May and continues to mid-July in east Europe. The nest is a loose cup of grass stems and leaves, lined with finer grasses and hair. It is built in thick vegetation or at the base of a bush, on or very close to the ground and commonly has an approach “run” or corridor. Clutches are typically four to six eggs. It feeds mainly on insects but also takes spiders (Araneae), small ticks (Acarina), millipedes (Diplopoda) and small molluscs. The species is a long-distance migrant, wintering in eastern and southern Africa (Pearson 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research to identify causes of population declines and appropriate conservation measures.


population:
The European population is estimated at 30,000-60,000 pairs, which equates to 60,000-120,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits damp valleys, especially by streams and on lake and marsh edges, open meadows with scattered bushes, damp woodland clearings and forest-edge scrub. It is also found in clearings in open birch (Betula) and larch (Larix) forest with patches of scrub and scattered bushes Pearson 2006). Egg-laying begins in mid-June and clutches are three to five eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a deep thick-walled cup of dry grass, leaves and moss, which is lined with finer grass. It is typically built in a shallow hollow beneath a grass clump and hidden by grasses and leaves. The diet is mainly adult and larval insects, especially beetles (Coleoptera) and ants (Hymenoptera) but it also takes spiders (Araneae) and seeds. The species is a long distance migrant, wintering in south-east Asia (Pearson 2006).

threats:
There are not thought to be any current significant threats to this species (Pearson 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 281,000-474,000 pairs, which equates to 561,000-949,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 155,000-261,000 pairs, which equates to 310,000-522,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits marshes, fens, lake edges and reedbeds over shallow water. In Russia, it also occupies tall grass and bushes along riverbanks, and reedy canals within sparse forest. Generally it is found in lowlands up to c. 630 m in central Europe (Pearson 2006). Egg-laying begins from late April in western and central Europe and from mid-April in southern Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a deep cup, loosely built from dead water-plant leaves and grass stems and lined with finer leaves and plant fibres. It is well concealed less than 50 cm above water or swampy ground in aquatic vegetation. Clutches are two to six eggs. It feeds principally on insects but also takes spiders (Araneae) and small molluscs. The species is migratory; the whole population migrates to Africa (Pearson 2006).

threats:
The species is well-known for short term population fluctuations. These probably result from habitat changes such as drainage and natural changes in water level as well as weather conditions in its African winter quarters (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The species may also be vulnerable to future climate change (Maggini et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Due to the likely increase in dry periods as a result of climate change, wetland habitats need to be specifically conserved and their water balance should be managed appropriately (Magginiet al. 2014).


population:
The European population is estimated at 916,000-1,620,000 pairs, which equates to 1,830,000-3,240,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 393,000-770,000 pairs, which equates to 785,000-1,540,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds at the edges of open woodland, in damp grazing land, in rank grasses, beds of nettle (Urtica) and brambles (Rubus fruticosus), scrubby sedge or reed marshes, at field edges and on upland moorland with willow (Salix) and birch (Betula) scrub. Egg-laying occurs from late April to mid-July in western Europe and clutches are typically five to six eggs. The nest is a thick cup of grass, stems and leaves built on a base of dried leaves and lined with finer material, such as feathers or hair. It is usually placed on or near the ground in thick vegetation, often in a grass tussock, bramble or sedge. The diet is mostly insects but spiders (Araneae) and some small molluscs are also taken. The species is a long distance migrant, passing through the Iberian Peninsula to winter in west Africa (Pearson 2006).

threats:
This species suffers from changing land-use practices, such as the intensification of agriculture, leading to the destruction of grassland (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), wetland drainage and scrub clearance (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Pearson 2006). The species is also likely to be affected by future climate change (Huntley et al. 2008).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the preservation and promotion of low-intensity farming methods, which provide much suitable habitat (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).


taxonomicNotes:
Phylloscopus bonelli (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into P. bonelli and P. orientalis by AERC TAC (2003) (Sangster et al. 2002), but this treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group, because although Sangster et al. (2002)

population:
The European population is estimated at 2,130,000-3,020,000 pairs, which equates to 4,260,000-6,040,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,100,000-2,920,000 pairs, which equates to 4,190,000-5,840,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species inhabits warm deciduous woodland comprising oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), beech (Fagus) and sweet chestnut (Castanea), together with a mixture of other deciduous trees as well as pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea) or larch (Larix), and with a good ground layer of vegetation. It is also common in cork oak (Quercus suber) and cedar woodland around the Mediterranean. In the west of its range it breeds in pine and oak scrub with undergrowth of bramble (Rubus fruticosus), barberry (Berberis) or juniper (Juniperus). Breeding occurs from the end of April to August.  The nest is a dome-shaped ball made mostly of grasses, with some leaves, moss and hair. It is well concealed on the ground, usually on a bank and beneath overhanging vegetation, fallen tree or branches. Clutches are four to six eggs. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates. The species is migratory, wintering in a narrow belt along the southern edge of Sahara (Clement and Christie 2013).

threats:
This species is likely to be negatively affected by intensive management and overexploitation of woodlands (Correia et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Increases in tree diversity can improve habitat suitability for this species (Pereiraet al. 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence<20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU27 the small, declining population qualifies as Vulnerable, and there is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the EU27, so the final category is unchanged.

range:
The species breeds in the boreal and subarctic zones (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) of northern and eastern Fennoscandia and northern Russia as far as the Ural Mountains and beyond (Clement 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 3,700,000-7,000,000 pairs, which equates to 7,400,000-14,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 560-2,100 pairs, which equates to 1,100-4,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found in thick undergrowth, such as dwarf willow (Salix) clumps in damp valleys and riverine thickets, and in forests, principally of birch (Betula), willow, poplar (Populus) and pine (Pinus) forests with occasional spruce (Picea). At higher altitudes, it is also found in rhododendron (Rhododendron) thickets and in montane scrub above the tree-line. In Siberian taiga it frequently uses Alnaster fruticosus thickets. Breeding occurs from June to August. The nest is made mostly of grass stalks, bits of reeds, moss, plant fibres and horsetail (Equisetum) shoots and is placed on the ground in vegetation among tree roots, grass or reed clumps, tussocks or hummocks. Clutches are five or six eggs. It feeds mostly on small insects and other invertebrates. The species is migratory and winters in south-east Asia (Clement 2006).

threats:
The species is threatened by future climate change (Heikkinen 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research into causes of declines in Europe and into appropriate measures for mitigating climate change threat.


taxonomicNotes:
Phylloscopus collybita (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into P. collybita, P. canariensis, P. ibericus and P. sindianus following AERC TAC (2003) (see Sangster et al. 2002). P. sindianus now includes P. lorenzii previously treated as distinct

range:
Phylloscopus canariensis is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain. There have been no recent records of the Lanzarote subspeciesexsul, which is likely to be extinct (del Hoyoet al. 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 20,000-100,000 pairs, which equates to 40,000-200,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits gardens, bushes, the edges of cultivation, scrub, pine (Pinus) forest and mixed woodland, from sea-level to tree-line. Race exsul is also found in cultivation, euphorbias, cactus scrub, fig trees (Ficus) and shrubs.

The bird breeds from the end of January until June. The nest is made mostly from grasses, flower petals, dry leaves, plant fibres, animal hair and feathers. It is normally placed in a tree or palm, in a tall bush such as laurel (Laurus) or in creepers but sometimes in a hole, including under the eaves of a house and, very rarely on ground. Clutches are four eggs. The diet is poorly known but is most likely similar to that of Phylloscopus collybita. The species is sedentary (Clement 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 41,000,000-59,500,000 pairs, which equates to 81,900,000-119,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 19,200,000-32,000,000 pairs, which equates to 38,400,000-64,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occupies lowland deciduous forest and woodland with low undergrowth, as well as parks, hedgerows, shelterbelts, overgrown cemeteries, large gardens and reedbeds. In the east of its it is found in a range in spruce (Picea) and pine (Pinus) forests of Siberian taiga. Frequently, it inhabits damp alder (Alnus) and willow (Salix) woodland and river valleys and in the south of its range it prefers habitats with at least some tall trees but, exceptionally, breeds in coastal scrub lacking tall trees. It breeds from April to early August and lays five to six eggs. The nest is a ball of dry grasses, leaves, moss, plant fibres and feathers, normally placed on the ground and well concealed in a bramble bush (Rubus fruticosus), a patch of nettles (Urtica), grass or other thick vegetation. The diet is mostly insects and their eggs and larvae but also includes other arthropods, small molluscs (Gastropoda), seeds and berries (Clement 2006). Most populations of the species are migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Fluctuations in the British population are believed to be likely due to droughts in the non-breeding quarters in the west African Sahel (Clement 2006). In Finland, the species suffers from habitat fragmentation, interspecific competition from Willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus) and Goldcrest (Regulus regulus) and climate change (Lampila et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not threatened locally it may benefit from protection and restoration of its habitat. Monitoring should be implemented to detect population changes.


population:
The European population is estimated at 463,000-767,000 pairs, which equates to 926,000-1,530,000 mature individuals. TThe entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the breeding season this species is normally found in hilly areas in Mediterranean scrub with kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) and Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), and in open forest of mixed oaks and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) with a well-developed layer of cistus scrub. Above the tree-line, it is found in mixed scrub and open heath and may also breed at lower levels in riverine woodland with willow (Salix). Egg-laying occurs from mid-April to the end of May and it normally lays four to five eggs. Little is known about its breeding and foraging habitats but they are most likely similar to Phylloscopus collybita. The species is migratory (Clement 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
Phylloscopus inornatus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into P. inornatus and P. humei following AERC TAC (2003) (see Sangster et al. 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

population:
The European population is estimated at 5,000-20,000 pairs, which equates to 10,000-40,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in a variety of broadleaf woodlands, including birch (Betula), willow (Salix) and poplar (Populus) groves and the edges of conifer forests, particularly in silver fir (Abies). In the south of its range it is found in mixed birch and larch (Larix), spruce (Picea), stunted cedar (Cedrus), juniper (Juniperus) and rhododendrons (Rhododendron), alders (Alnus) and other shrubs. After breeding it may occur in dwarf birch and stunted bushes above the tree-line. It breeds in June and July and lays two to four eggs. The nest consists of dry grasses, pine needles, moss, strips of rotting wood, fine plant fibres and animal hair and is placed on the ground under the roots of a tree, a fallen branch, against a decaying tree stump or under a bush. It feeds mainly on small invertebrates but may also take some small seeds. The species is migratory, wintering in south-east Asia (Clement 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 7,060,000-11,100,000 pairs, which equates to 14,100,000-22,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,890,000-6,180,000 pairs, which equates to 7,780,000-12,400,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in lowlands, in moist and shady deciduous woods, typically beech (Fagus), mixed oak (Quercus), hornbeam (Carpinus) and sweet chestnut (Castanea), with closed canopy and sparse undergrowth. It is also found in mixed stands of spruce (Picea), alder (Alnus), birch (Betula), pine (Pinus) or occasionally ash (Fraxinus).The optimal breeding areas are mixed stands with trees of mixed ages spaced well apart. It breeds from May to July and normally lays five to seven eggs. The female chooses the nest site and builds the nest which is a ball of dry grasses, leaves, plant stems and fibres, bark strips and animal hair. It is usually built on the ground but occasionally found under a fallen tree or roots (Clement 2006). The diet is mainly insects and other invertebrates, with some fruit taken in the autumn. The species is migratory and winters in sub-Saharan Africa (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In some areas changing forestry management practices have caused declines in this species (Mallord et al. 2012).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Habitat quality should be restored through appropriate management, including the introduction of a moderate grazing regime (Mallordet al. 2012).


population:
The European population is estimated at 82,000-320,000 pairs, which equates to 164,000-640,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season it occupies pine (Pinus) and birch (Betula) forests, willow (Salix) swamps, reedbeds, poplar (Populus) groves, and alders (Alnus) along streams, as well as gardens, orchards, sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), Myricaria elegans bushes and Caucasian rhododendron (Rhododendron) thickets, and on hillsides covered with juniper (Juniperus) in semi-arid mountain and in patches of dwarf birch along tree-line. Breeding occurs from May to early August and clutches are two to five eggs. The nest is a ball of coarse grass stems and dry leaves, plant fibres, animal hair and feathers, well concealed on ground, or up to four metres above it in low thorn-scrub or bush. The diet is poorly known but includes small insects and spiders (Araneae) and probably some small berries in autumn. The species is migratory (Clement 2006).


taxonomicNotes:
Phylloscopus nitidus Cramp (1992), Sibley and Monroe (1990), is included as a subspecies of P. trochiloides following Sibley and Monroe (1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 14,400,000-19,700,000 pairs, which equates to 28,900,000-39,400,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 16,600-86,000 pairs, which equates to 33,200-172,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in lowland and montane mixed birch (Betula) and conifer forests, also in broadleaf woods of beech (Fagus), maple (Acer) and lime (Tilia) interspersed with birch and pine (Pinus). It is also found in parks, gardens, riverine thickets and swamp-woodland with willows (Salix) and poplars (Populus). The breeding season is from May to mid-August (Clement 2006). The nest is a large, domed structure with a side entrance and is made from grasses, plant fibres, moss, rootlets and leaves and is lined with finer material such as hair, fur, down and feathers. It is sited on the ground in tall vegetation or low scrub, under stones, windfall or tree roots and sometimes in a crevice in a bank, old wall or tree stump. Clutches are three to seven eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). The diet is mostly small invertebrates but also takes fruits of elder (Sambucus) and some seeds. The species is migratory (Clement 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 62,200,000-97,100,000 pairs, which equates to 124,000,000-194,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 24,900,000-43,700,000 pairs, which equates to 49,700,000-87,500,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species inhabits deciduous and mixed forests in which birch (Betula) largely predominates, but also birches and willow (Salix) thickets and scrub on arctic tundra. In central areas it is found in temperate heathland, forest clearings, damp areas with alders (Alnus) and willows as well as secondary growth, scrub and shrubby areas away from trees. It generally uses a wide selection of locations, including large overgrown gardens, orchards, hedges, railway embankments, and rough pastures with tussock grassland. It breeds from April to July and lays four to eight eggs. The nest is a ball of dry grasses, leaves, plant fibres, moss, strips of bark, animal hair and feathers and is placed on the ground, usually well concealed in vegetation. It feeds mainly on insects and their eggs and larvae and some plant material. The species is migratory and winters in Africa, south of the Sahara (Clement 2006).

threats:
The species is affected by drought conditions in its wintering quarters and habitat alterations due to human population expansion (Thingstad et al. 2014). In the southern U.K., habitat loss linked to modern forest management techniques that alter the woodland vegetation structure is likely to have caused declines (Stostad and Menéndez 2014). In addition, declining oak tree health may have impacted the species as oak is typically a major source of invertebrates (Peach et al. 1995).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit the preservation and restoration of its woodland habitat, including the maintenance of traditional management techniques.


population:
The European population is estimated at 40,500,000-64,500,000 pairs, which equates to 81,000,000-129,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 26,800,000-46,300,000 pairs, which equates to 53,700,000-92,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in almost any kind of forested area. It prefers broadleaf deciduous forest and mixed woodland, either mature or more open and with denser understorey. In addition it occupies riparian forest, parks and gardens with trees, fruit-tree plantations, orchards, and evergreen woodland. In the winter , it uses more with bushy areas rich in berries and other fruits, such as maquis and garrigue, olive groves and urban gardens. 

Breeding mainly occurs from mid-April to August and it lays two to seven eggs. The nest is a finely structured cup with rather thin walls and bottom, made of grasses and herbs and some twigs and rootlets and lined with finer grass, hair and roots. It is normally built low in broadleaf deciduous vegetation, especially in dense foliage of a shrub or bush or the branches of a small tree but also in tall herbaceous vegetation. The diet consists chiefly of insects in the breeding season and mainly fruit the rest of the year. On Atlantic and Mediterranean islands the species is sedentary, in the Mediterranean Basin and in parts of western Europe it is partially migratory and it is a long-distance migrant in northern and eastern parts of its range (Aymíet al. 2013).

threats:
In England, browsing deer (Cervidae) in young woodland can adversely alter habitat quality for understorey-dependent species such as this warbler (Holt et al. 2013). The species is trapped in some parts of its range.


population:
The European population is estimated at 16,700,000-26,900,000 pairs, which equates to 33,300,000-53,800,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,340,000-8,790,000 pairs, which equates to 10,700,000-17,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season it inhabits dense bushes, woodland fringes and riparian forest with abundant undergrowth. It favours shady zones with herbaceous vegetation and broadleaf scrub and also often bushes close to reedbeds. In the Alps it occurs in stands of green alder (Alnus viridis) and birch (Betula) and various willows (Salix). In central Europe it prefers the presence of hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and in Finland is associated with raspberry (Rubus idaeus). In Britain it is abundant in areas of sessile oak (Quercus petraea).

Breeding occurs from April to July. The nest is a cup constructed from plant material such as grass, leaves and roots and lined with fine grass and hairs. It is usually placed low down, hidden in tree or bush or among tall plants. Clutches are four or five eggs. The diet is mostly insects throughout the year, especially during the breeding season, when some fruits and plant material are also taken. Through the rest of the year it is mostly frugivorous. The species is a long-distance migrant (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
The spread of exotic Reynoutria spp. has been shown to reduce numbers of this species where it occurs (Hajzlerová and Reif 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
In areas where it is a problem, management actions should be developed that counter-act the invasion of Reynoutria spp. (Hajzlerová and Reif 2014).


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,390,000-5,360,000 pairs, which equates to 6,780,000-10,700,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,860,000-4,270,000 pairs, which equates to 5,730,000-8,530,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species prefers tall and dense heterogeneous maquis with sparse tree cover in dry Mediterranean areas, particularly maquis of holm oak (Quercus ilex) and those dominated by strawberry tree (Arbutus) and tree-heath (Erica). It is also frequently found in young cork oak (Quercus suber) forest and in dense but treeless bushy areas. It uses bushy formations dominated by brambles (Rubus fruticosus) along sunny ravines and valley bottoms and prefers the intermediate stages of post-wildfire succession. Breeding occurs from late March to late June and the species is monogamous. The male constructs several ‘cock nests’ but the both sexes build the breeding nest which is a deep, robust cup of grasses, thin roots and leaves and lined with finer grasses, rootlets and hair. It is placed in low scrub, bush or a small tree, c. 30–130 cm above the ground. Clutches are three to five eggs. The diet is mostly small insects and their larvae but outside of the breeding season berries and fruits are also taken. The species is a long distance migrant, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Aymí et al. 2013).


population:
The European population is estimated at 17,300,000-27,800,000 pairs, which equates to 34,600,000-55,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 8,700,000-14,200,000 pairs, which equates to 17,400,000-28,400,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies open country in wide variety of landscapes, mostly sunlit areas with scattered bushes and shrubs close to grassy patches. It breeds in plantation clearings, orchards, hedgerows along roads or railway lines, shrubs near watercourses, pastures with junipers (Juniperus) and in steppes. It is also found in hedges around field crops, especially those of appropriate height such as cereals or lucerne (Medicago). It breeds mostly from April to July and generally lays four to five eggs. The nest is a fairly deep cup constructed from grass, leaves, rootlets, spider cocoons and hair and is concealed low down in a bush or tall grass (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). During the breeding season it feeds mainly on insects but in the late summer the proportion of fruit taken increases and in autumn and winter it feeds primarily on berries (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory and winters in sub-Saharan Africa (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
In the past, central and western populations have declined due to drought in the Sahel zone of west Africa from 1968–1975. In Europe, suitable breeding habitat has been lost to changes in land use through the intensification of agriculture, combined with the destruction of hedgerows and bushes (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). The species is also sensitive to severe winters, such as that of 1968-1969 (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The maintenance or increase of structural heterogeneity of linear habitats may be beneficial for this species (Szymański and Antczak 2013).


population:
The European population is estimated at 166,000-450,000 pairs, which equates to 332,000-901,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 165,000-449,000 pairs, which equates to 331,000-899,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is often found in very low scrubland in mostly dry warm Mediterranean areas and it favours the lowest and sparser scrubby areas characteristic of less developed garrigue, saltflats and semi-desert. It inhabits the first stages of post-wildfire succession, and can recolonize habitat one year after a fire. On Atlantic islands, race orbitalis occupies wider range of habitats, from scrub to cultivated or semi-cultivated areas. It breeds from February to June across most of its range; however race orbitalis breeds in most months except for June and July. The male sometimes builds “cock nests” but both sexes build the breeding nest, which is a deep cup loosely built from grasses, stems and leaves and lined with soft plant down, thin roots and some hair. It is sited in low scrub or bush, usually from ground level to c.60 cm. Clutches are three to five eggs. The diet is mostly small arthropods and insect larvae and eggs but also takes berries and occasionally nectar, mostly outside the breeding season. The species is resident and migratory; race orbitalis is mostly sedentary, most south-west European populations are migratory and those from Malta, southern Sicily, Cyprus and parts of Levant and southeast Spain are partially migratory (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
Local declines are thought to be due to urbanization, the conversion of steppes into irrigated lands, and afforestation. Those populations that are resident are also sensitive to severe cold winter weather (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would likely benefit from the protection of key areas and restoration of habitat in areas where it is declining.


taxonomicNotes:
Sylvia curruca, S. althaea and S. minula (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993), cross-regional species, are retained as separate species contra AERC TAC (2003) who include althaea and minula as subspecies of S. curruca.

population:
The European population is estimated at 4,800,000-7,990,000 pairs, which equates to 9,600,000-16,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,350,000-4,280,000 pairs, which equates to 4,690,000-8,570,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in open country or near forests in a wide range of habitats rich in dense cover and lower-level foliage, such as shrubland, hedgerows and plantations with small trees. It is also found in gardens, parks, cemeteries, orchards, young conifer plantations and forest edges. Breeding occurs from late April to early August and normally three to seven eggs are laid. The nest is a deep cup of grass made of rootlets and small twigs, moss and spider webs and cocoons and usually lined with hair. It is placed in a thorny bush or shrub, or in small tree and occasionally in herbal vegetation. The diet is made up of mostly insects in the breeding season and fruits at other times of the year, although it is generally considered less frugivorous than many congeners. The species is a long-distance migrant (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
The intensification of modern agricultural techniques has driven habitat loss and declines in this species in western Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would benefit from the maintenance and promotion of low-intensity, traditional farming techniques.


taxonomicNotes:
Sylvia hortensis has been split into S. crassirostris and S. hortensis on the basis of differences in coloration, biometrics and mt-DNA (Shirihai et al. 2001), to which Baerlein et al. (2006), although they did not accept the split, added moult pattern.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 274,000-592,000 pairs, which equates to 549,000-1,180,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 125,000-251,000 pairs, which equates to 249,000-502,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in various types of open or semi-open woodland with variable bushy cover, such as maquis with cork oak (Quercus suber) and holm oak (Quercus ilex), dehesa-like forest of Argania spinosa, olive groves and park-like pine (Pinus) forest. It is also found in abandoned orchards, suburban gardens, and forested margins of vineyards and ravines. In southern Europe, breeding occurs from mid-April to July. It is monogamous and both sexes build the nest which is a rather robust cup of grass and plant material with vegetable down, moss and cobwebs, lined with finer grasses and fibres. It is placed c. 0·5–3·5 m above the ground in a bush or tree; frequently close to nest of Woodchat Shrike (Lanius senator). Clutches are typically three to five eggs. The diet is mainly arthropods, especially insects and their larvae but it also takes berries outside the breeding season. The species is a medium-distance to long-distance migrant (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
Habitat loss and deterioration of its woodland habitat have been caused mainly by agricultural intensification and decreased grazing. Wildfires can have adverse effect in the short term but may be beneficial by helping to open up forested areas (Tucker and Heath 1994, Aymí and Gargallo 2006). The species is also likely to suffer negative impacts from climate change (Doswald et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Low-intensity land-use practices and traditional management of olives, fruit trees and orchard should be maintained. Research should focus on the species’s habitat requirements to help ascertain causes of decline and to inform suitable future conservation measures (Tucker and Heath 1994).


range:
Sylvia melanocephala ranges throughout the Mediterranean region, occurring in Portugal, Spain, Andorra, France, Italy, Switzerland, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Albania, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Western Sahara, Lebanon, Israel and Egypt.

The racenorrisae of the Fayyum area in central Egypt has not been seen since 1939, and is now extinct (del Hoyoet al. 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 7,650,000-16,100,000 pairs, which equates to 15,300,000-32,100,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,730,000-13,400,000 pairs, which equates to 13,500,000-26,900,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
As probably one of the most generalist of the Mediterranean warblers, this species is present in all types of warm habitat at low altitudes, and up to c. 1200–1300 m. It is found in maquis, garrigue, dry coastal habitats, urban and suburban environments, abandoned farmland and dry coast sites. It will also inhabit Mediterranean cultures such as olives, almonds, orchards, citrus groves, vineyards, but favours mosaic landscapes with hedgerows, bushes and stands of pine. It is also frequently found in holm oak (Quercus ilex) forests. Breeding occurs mainly from March to June. The nest is a grass cup placed usually 30–60 cm above ground in scrub or bush or, less frequently, among dense herbs or in a small tree. Most nests in Spain are in kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) at low height. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds mostly on arthropods but also takes a significant amount of fruit in the autumn and winter. Island and coastal populations appear to be mostly sedentary but the proportion of migrants increases inland and to the north, especially in the east (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
Particularly in the north of its range, extremely harsh winters can affect the survival of this species, in some cases with declines in breeding numbers of up to 50%. While it is thought global climatic warming could benefit this species in Europe, there is evidence it has caused decline in body mass and body conditions outside of Europe (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring of this species should be carried out along with more detailed ecological studies (Pomeroy and Walsh 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, athough this species may have a small range it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 70,000-140,000 pairs, which equates to 140,000-280,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in rather wide range of scrub and maquis, favouring medium-height maquis, such as that formed by Cistus, Pistacia lentiscus, juniper (Juniperus) and cypress (Cupressus); It is also found in more sparse and lower scrubby vegetation, as well as openings in woodland, bushy areas with sparse tree cover, and open pine (Pinus) woodland with considerable amount of undergrowth. It will use rocky hillsides and agricultural areas, so long as there is enough bush cover present. Breeding occurs from late March to June. The nest is a strong cup of grass and stems bound with cobwebs, lined with finer grass, cobwebs and hair and often with juniper bark in the outer wall. Normally it is placed c. 30–120 cm above the ground, inside a low bush. Clutches are typically four to five eggs. It is thought to feed mainly on invertebrates but the diet is poorly known and it may take berries outside the breeding season. The species is a partial migrant, with most birds migrating to north-east Africa (Aymí et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is threatened by the abandonment of traditional grazing practices, the intensification of agriculture, homogenization of farmland and coastal and urban development (Ieronymidou et al. 2012). In addition the over use of pesticides could also be a potential threat. It is also subject to pressure from liming, netting and shooting (Tucker and Heath 1994).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring of this species should be carried out along with more detailed ecological studies (Pomeroy and Walsh 2002). Farmland management needs carful targeting and the development of appropriate prescriptions, including incentives to preserve scrub vegetation and boundary features and to support extensive grazing (Ieronymidouet al. 2012). Legislation on hunting of the species should be enforced properly. The development of tourism should be strictly monitored and environmental impact assessments carried out for any new tourist or industrial project (Tucker and Heath 1994).


population:
The European population is estimated at 43,000-125,000 pairs, which equates to 86,000-250,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species occupies arid or semi-arid areas dominated by scrub and bush. It prefers treeless scrub covering valley bottoms and dry mountain slopes, and bushy tamarisk (Tamarix) formations along riverbanks. It is also found in scrub in sparsely wooded areas, and in more anthropogenic landscapes such as palm groves, gardens and orchards. The breeding season is from early April to July and the species is monogamous. Both sexes build the nest, which is a deep cup made of twigs, stems and grasses and lined with down and hair. It is usually sited in low grass, scrub, small bushes or young trees, from ground level to c. 70–90 cm. Normally four to six eggs are laid.  It feeds mainly on small arthropods, especially insects and their larvae and eggs but outside the breeding season it also takes various berries and fruits (mostly autumn) and seeds (winter) (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). The species is migratory, wintering in north-east Africa, Arabia and southern Iran (Snow and Perrins 1998).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Regionally Extinct (RE)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species was formerly estimated to number 1,000-5,000 pairs within the region, all in European Russia, but it apparently disappeared from the region during the 1990s or early 2000s. It is therefore classified as Regionally Extinct.

The bird was not recorded from the EU27 region.

range:
The species has a predominantly North African and Central Asian breeding distribution, which just extends into Europe in south-western Russia. The population is small and is situated around the Caspian Sea (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

habitat:
This species inhabits steppe-desert and semi-desert areas covered with Artemisia, low scrub and grasses and is usually found in sandy terrain but less frequently on stony soils. Egg-laying occurs in the nominate race from late April and clutches are usually four to six eggs (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). The nest is a strong, thick-walled cup made of twigs, grass stems, leaves, plant down and cobwebs, lined with finer grasses and fibres and usually down. It is built in low scrub up to 110 cm above the ground (Snow and Perrins 1998). The diet is thought to be mostly small insects with some seeds and berries taken as well. In Europe the species was a long distance migrant (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
The species is affected by habitat loss driven by overgrazing and agricultural intensification (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The restoration of suitable habitat is needed for this species. Traditional low-intensity farming and grazing methods should be restored and promoted.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 506,000-968,000 pairs, which equates to 1,010,000-1,940,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 296,000-586,000 pairs, which equates to 593,000-1,170,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This is a forest species but can occur in open woodland with variety of structured vegetation: woodland margins, dense thorny bushes, clearings with rich undergrowth, isolated tree stands, young plantations, riverine thickets, hedgerows at railsides and roadsides, pastures, meadows, parks and orchards. Breeding occurs from May to July. The nest is an open elaborate cup-shaped structure coated externally with spider webs and the silk of caterpillar cocoons. It is usually hidden in dense thorny bush such as Rubus, rose (Rosa) or hawthorn (Crataegus), occasionally in juniper (Juniperus), c. 30–200 cm above ground. Clutches are three to six eggs. The diet is mainly made up of insects during the breeding season but fruits become steadily more important once breeding has finished and just before and during migration. The species is migratory, wintering in east Africa (Aymí et al. 2015).

threats:
In eastern Germany, the intensification of agriculture, ploughing of grassland and disappearance of large areas of low-intensity pastures and unproductive grassland have driven habitat loss. Fluctuations of populations and range may have climatic causes, as the species does not tolerate damp, cool, early-summer weather.  The disappearance of Lanius collurio may have also caused declines through the interdependence of both species (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Habitat management for this species should include extensive grazing as this keeps vegetation varied and well structured and thus suitable for this species (Aymíet al. 2015).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 103,000-510,000 pairs, which equates to 206,000-1,020,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,000-10,000 pairs, which equates to 6,000-20,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in dry and warm rocky areas and hillsides covered with scrub and maquis. It is found in a broad spectrum of dry Mediterranean habitats, from forested areas with sufficient undergrowth to maquis with sparse tree cover, such as open bushy woods of oak (Quercus) and cypress (Cupressus) and grassy and rocky terrain with rather dense to sparse scrub cover. In Greece, egg-laying is from mid-April to mid-May and clutches are usually four or five eggs (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). The nest is a strong cup of grass leaves and stems and some vegetable down, lined with finer materials and sited in thick, often thorny scrub, 45–75 cm above ground (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is thought to feed on adult and larval insects, although it is likely other arthropods are also taken and it also consumes berries outside the breeding season. The species is a long distance migrant (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
This species may be threatened by the future effects of climate change (Doswald et al. 2009).


taxonomicNotes:
Sylvia balearica has been split from S. sarda on the basis of size, shape (structure), coloration, song, calls, migratory behaviour and mitochondrial DNA (Shirihai et al. 2001, Baerlein et al. 2006).

However, the size and structural differences are negli

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales, although this species may have a restricted range at both it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

population:
The European population is estimated at 39,000-55,000 pairs, which equates to 78,000-110,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occupies uniform, low Mediterranean scrubland, such as Cistus garrigue and low to medium-height maquis of tree-heath (Erica arborea), strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) and Pistacia lentiscus. It is also found in more sparse scrubby grassland and degraded garrigue, as well as in areas of the very first stages of wildfire succession. Breeding occurs mostly from March to July and the species is monogamous. The male constructs several “cock nests” but both sexes build the breeding nest, which is a strong deep cup with a broadened rim, made from grasses, stems and leaves and lined with finer grass, hair and roots. It is normally placed in low bush or dense scrub, 60–140 cm above ground. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds mainly on spiders (Araneae) and small insects and their larvae. The species is mostly resident (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)

This warbler is undergoing rapid population declines in Spain, which holds c.69% of the European and EU27 populations, but apparent increases in the second largest population, in Portugal, mean that overall declines have been moderately rapid. It is therefore classified as Near Threatened in both Europe and the EU27.

range:
The species is restricted to southern and western Europe, where it is patchily distributed but locally common to very common in Spain (including Balearic Islands), Portugal, Andorra, France (including Corsica), United Kingdom and Italy (including Sardinia) (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 646,000-1,480,000 pairs, which equates to 1,290,000-2,970,000 mature individuals. The entire population is found in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
It favours dense, homogeneous scrub, garrigue and low maquis c. 0.5–1.5 m in height and dominated by species such as Ulex, Erica, Rosmarinus, Genista, Cistus and Quercus coccifera. It is primarily a lowland species in the north of its range but occurs to 1,800–2,000 m in the Pyrenees. It breeds mostly from mid-March to August with time of egg-laying getting later further north. It usually has two broods, however in England it sometimes has up to three (rarely four) and is apparently single-brooded in Sardinia and parts of southern France. Male builds flimsy “cock nests”, one of which sometimes completed by female for breeding, but generally breeding nest constructed by both sexes. The nest is a deep cup of grass, vegetable down and cobwebs, lined with finer rootlets and hair, placed c. 0·25–0·5 m above ground in low dense scrub or bush. Clutches are three to six eggs, normally four or five. It feeds mostly on arthropods, which are the sole food fed to nestlings. Fruits taken in late summer and winter include those of genera Rubus, Daphne, Myrtus, Rhamnus, Myoporum, Pistacia, Vaccinium, Phyllirea and Phytolacca. It is largely sedentary but undertakes some short-distance dispersive movements and some European birds spend the non-breeding season in north-west Africa (Aymí and Gargallo 2006).

threats:
Reasons for the recent Spanish decline are still unclear. It is vulnerable to severe winters, particularly in the northern part of its range (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). Cold spells in December 2001 and the winter of 2004-2005 caused high mortality in Spain (J. J. R. Encalado in litt. 2007), while the U.K. population was reduced to 11 pairs after the severe winter of 1962-1963 (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). Increasing densities of cattle on the Spanish dehesa are causing severe habitat degradation through overgrazing (J. J. R. Encalado in litt. 2007), which may be affecting the species. Afforestation has decreased the amount of suitable habitat in parts of France and Iberia (Shirihai et al. 2001). Changes in the pattern and frequency of wildfires may be a threat, although the species often colonises early successional habitat created by such fires (Aymí and Gargallo 2006). Post-fire forest management can negatively affect the species through the removal of burnt trees as the species has been shown to favour a moderate coverage of logging remnants after fires (Herrando et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. CMS Appendix II. Population trends are monitored in parts of the species's range and it occurs in a number of protected areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
In fire-prone, abandoned Mediterranean landscapes, conservation plans must integrate fire management programmes in order to preserve sparsely forested and early-succession habitats for this species (Regos et al. 2015). Other actions include carrying out specific research on drivers of declines, particularly the link with habitats. Also the research of trends elsewhere within its range is needed, particularly in France. Programmes which subsidise farming practices which promote healthy populations of the species should be developed.


population:
The European population is estimated at 232,000-437,000 pairs, which equates to 464,000-875,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 104,000-155,000 pairs, which equates to 209,000-309,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in extensive reedbeds (Phragmites) and is associated with dense non-woody vegetation in and beside fresh and brackish water, or immediately adjoining marshes and swamps. It also uses the tussocky edges of reedbeds, stands of reeds and bulrushes (Typha) in marshes and shores of lakes and rivers. In the western Palearctic it breeds from late March to early September. Both sexes build the nest which is a deep cup-shaped structure of dead reed blades and other marsh-plant leaves, lined with flowering reed-heads and often also feathers and occasionally mammal hair. It is nearly always roofed by sheltering vegetation and is sited amongst close-growing and typically more or less vertical stems of reeds, sedges and other marsh vegetation. Clutches are most commonly four to eight eggs. The diet is mostly invertebrates and their larvae in the summer and vegetable matter in the late autumn and winter. Populations in Europe are mainly fairly sedentary, but are subject to eruptive post-breeding and wintering movements (Robson 2007).

threats:
Populations have always been subject to regular annual population fluctuations. However in some areas such as Turkey, the breeding population is thought to be decreasing owing to the drainage of marshland habitat (Robson 2007). Declines have also been reported in the Netherlands as a result of habitat loss (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), which may also occur due to reedcutting (Burton and Burton 2002). The species is also noted for its sensitivity to severe cold winters (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997) and it has been exploited by the cage-bird trade in the past (Burton and Burton 2002).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species will use nestboxes, particularly when nest sites are in short supply (Wilson 2005). The maintenance of reedbeds large enough to sustain populations of this species is necessary and new reedbeds should be created (Bibby and Lunn 1982).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT°°)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This species has a large global range in Iran, Iraq and Syria which just extends into southeastern-most Europe in Turkey-in-Asia. The population size within the region is very small but the population trend is increasing. The species therefore meets the thresholds for classification as Endangered, but given the large, apparently increasing neighbouring population there is significant potential for rescue from outside the region and the final category is downlisted two categories to Near Threatened (NT°°).

The species does not occur within the EU27.

range:
The species has a predominantly Middle Eastern range, which just extends into southern Turkey along the River Euphrates in the area of Birecik (Collar and Robson 2007).

habitat:
This species occurs in the reedbeds of the Mesopotamian marshes, and is also found in rural habitats along rivers and irrigation canals (Stattersfield et al. 1998). It prefers dense reedbeds, palm groves, date gardens and poplar trees (Populus euphratica) lining waterways, adjacent cultivated fields and thickets. In Europe, it breeds from May and is monogamous, with occasional cooperative breeding. The nest is a rather untidy deep cup of stems, lined with grass, dead leaves, rootlets, fibres, reeds and feathers. It is set in a leaf-sheltered fork of a tree (poplar, tamarisk) or in reeds. Clutches are three or four eggs. It feeds on invertebrates, mostly insects and spiders (Araneae). The species is resident (Collar and Robson 2007).

threats:
There has been considerable loss of wetlands within its range due to large-scale projects for flood control, drainage and irrigation (Maltby 1994). The increase in settlement and improvement in access has resulted in further disturbance, with levels of pollution increasing substantially through the use of insecticides (Stattersfield et al. 1998).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
This species would likely benefit from the protection and preservation of its marshland habitat, including the restriction of access to important areas. In addition a ban on the widespread use of insecticides would assist recovery.


population:
The European population is estimated at 32,700,000-56,500,000 pairs, which equates to 65,300,000-113,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 27,800,000-48,000,000 pairs, which equates to 55,600,000-96,100,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a wide variety of habitats. In western Europe, it is most commonly found in deciduous and mixed woodland, well-vegetated suburbs, urban parks and gardens, moorland scrub, and offshore islands with very scanty cover. In European Russia, egg-laying occurs from the second half of May; however in western Europe it begins late March or early April and a week or more later in central Europe. The nest is a domed structure with a side entrance hole (Kroodsma et al. 2013) and is made of grass, leaves, moss and other vegetation, lined with feathers and hair (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is sited in a wide range of locations, often in dense vegetation but also in a cavity or crevice and will use artificial sites. Clutches can be three to nine eggs but most often five to eight. The diet is mostly invertebrates such as spiders (Araneae), beetles (Coleoptera), earwigs (Dermaptera) and orthopterans but it will also take small vertebrates, such as small fish, tadpoles and young frogs. The species is resident, migratory and partially migratory (Kroodsma et al. 2013).

threats:
Some island populations, which represent whole subspecies are very small and thus vulnerable; the designation of race hirtensis, on St Kilda (Scotland) in 1884 led to an increase in collecting activity, although there is no evidence this caused a significant decline. In non-migratory populations, severe winters with prolonged snow cover can decimate numbers but this is normally temporary and recovery is quick (Kroodsma et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The racefridariensis is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

In Europe this numerous species is undergoing moderately rapid population declines, and it is therefore classified as Near Threatened. Within the EU27 declines are more rapid and the regional classification here is Vulnerable.

range:
The species has an extensive range. In Europe it breeds from Iceland east to the Ural mountains. The nominate race iliacus breeds across northern and eastern Europe and winters in western and southern Europe, as well as around the Black and Caspian Seas. Race coburni breeds in Iceland and the Faeroe Islands and winters in western Europe (Collar and de Juana 2013).

population:
The European population is estimated at 13,200,000-20,100,000 pairs, which equates to 26,300,000-40,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,980,000-3,270,000 pairs, which equates to 3,960,000-6,550,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
During the breeding season this species is found in forest-open country mosaics in lowlands and relatively low hills, with preference for mid-successional conditions, especially in river basins and on floodplains. It also inhabits open deciduous or mixed forest margins with fields and mires, clearings in primary forest, regenerating managed forest at the tall bushy stage with considerable understorey, shoreline thickets, tundra willow (Salix) and birch (Betula) scrub, scrubby semi-open cultivated sites, parks and gardens and thinned woodland with grassy areas around buildings. In the winter it uses open woodland, orchards and scrub thickets, wherever berry-bearing bushes and grassy areas are near by. The breeding season is from early April to late July, with some latitudinal variation. The nest is a bulky cup of grass, moss and twigs, bound with mud and bits of vegetation and lined with fine grass stems and leaves. It is sited on the ground in thick vegetation or low in a bush or tree or on a rotten stump. Clutches are normally four to six eggs. It feeds on invertebrates as well as seeds and berries in the autumn and winter. The species is chiefly migratory (Collar and de Juana 2013).

threats:
Population numbers can be very variable owing to the effects of harsh and mild winters, and of unfavourably cold summers (Collar and de Juana 2013). The species is also illegally trapped in the Mediterranean (Murgui 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Tighter controls on hunting around the Mediterranean should be implemented.


population:
The European population is estimated at 54,800,000-87,100,000 pairs, which equates to 110,000,000-174,000,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 47,400,000-70,100,000 pairs, which equates to 94,700,000-140,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species inhabits a very wide range of habitats. Its main and original habitat is relatively open broadleaf, coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests but it is also found in tree plantations, orchards, farmland, gardens and parks and commonly in open grassy areas so long as vegetation cover is within a short distance. In Europe it breeds from mid-March to early September. The nest is a large cup of dry grass stems and small twigs, packed with mud and lined with fine grass and stems. It is generally sited 0·5–15 m off the ground in a bush or tree or in a climbing plant against a wall, and frequently in or on a wall, outside or inside a building. It is a highly flexible and adaptive forager and feeds principally on invertebrates, mainly earthworms and insects and their larvae but will also take fruits and seeds and, occasionally, small vertebrates. The species is sedentary, partially migratory and fully migratory, depending mainly on latitude (Collar 2005).

threats:
Declines in Britain may be owing to agricultural intensification, as decreases are greater on farmland. In the Cantabrian Mountains, in Spain, hunting may explain its scarcity there and in the Netherlands declines are possibly a result of lower breeding success. In the western Palearctic other threats include predators, disturbance, adverse weather conditions, nest collapse and starvation (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although this species is not currently threatened it would benefit from the promotion and maintenance of low-intensity farming.


population:
The European population is estimated at 24,400,000-38,400,000 pairs, which equates to 48,800,000-76,800,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,700,000-21,800,000 pairs, which equates to 25,400,000-43,600,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species breeds in almost all types of temperate forest and woodland, generally in lowlands and valleys but reaching the tree-line in Switzerland and Russia. It requires patches of trees and bushes with small areas of open moist ground supporting abundant invertebrate fauna. It has also adapted well to modern lowland agricultural and urban landscapes, breeding in small woodlots, parkland, orchards, mature hedgerows, overgrown railway embankments, roadsides, cemeteries, and suburban gardens with some tall trees. In non-breeding areas in the south of its range habitats are somewhat drier. In western Europe breeding occurs mainly from mid-March to mid-August but can start a month later in central and northern Europe. The nest is a neat cup of grass, twigs and moss with a thick hard lining of clay, mud, dung or rotten wood, often mixed with leaves. It is usually placed in a bush, shrub or tree, often against the trunk, but can also be in a creeper on wall, in a bank or on a ledge. Clutches are three to five eggs (Collar 2005). It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates, especially earth worms, as well as fruit as it is available through the year (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory, although southern and western populations are mostly sedentary (Collar 2005).

threats:
Local declines are thought to be due to changes in agricultural practices which may have caused a major reduction in availability of key summer food resources on lowland farmland, as well as the loss of hedgerows, scrub and permanent grassland with livestock, and the wide-scale installation of under-field drainage systems, which causes early soil drying and thus a loss of topsoil earthworms. Pesticides and predators may also be a threat (Collar 2005). The species has been subject to hunting for many decades in the Mediterranean, but there is no clear evidence this has caused a decline (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Collar 2005). Adverse weather is also known to negatively affect this species (Robinson et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. The species is listed as red in the national U.K. red list (Eatonet al. 2009). Research is being undertaken examining the ecology of this species and the causes of its decline.  

Conservation Actions Proposed
In the U.K., where the species is declining, management for this species should include the planting and restoration of hedgerows to provide nesting and feeding sites and this should be implemented along with sympathetic field margin management. Incentives are needed to encourage mixed farming, damper soil conditions and small, uncropped features, In addition it would likely benefiti from the creation and maintenance of ditches, which remain damper for longer during summer, preferably with hedge cover or close to scrub and raised water levels on grass fields (Peachet al. 2004). Future studies should focus on the relationships between species’s survival and environmental variables (Robinson et al. 2004).


range:
Within Europe, the species breeds in Iceland and northern and central Europe and east to Russia. Outside the breeding season, populations migrate to winter in western and southern Europe (Collar 2005).

population:
The European population is estimated at 14,200,000-28,600,000 pairs, which equates to 28,400,000-57,300,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 3,060,000-4,700,000 pairs, which equates to 6,110,000-9,390,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species typically inhabits mixed habitat, mainly part-wooded and part-open country, commonly using trees for breeding and roosting and hedges and open ground for foraging. It breeds in boreal forests of mixed pine (Pinus) and birch (Betula), as well as scrub, clearings, parks and gardens. In high latitudes, relatively small numbers extend beyond the tree-line into alpine heathland and tundra scrub, and even to entirely bleak grassy islands in the extreme north. It winters mainly in lowlands, often in more open habitats, including grassy and cultivated fields, moorland edges, woodland edges and orchards. Breeding occurs from early April to late August, with timing varying with latitude. The nest is a bulky, untidy cup, made of twigs, roots, moss, lichen, grass and leaves, lined with animal hair, rootlets and fine grass, and cemented with mud. It is generally sited in the fork of a tree or against the trunk or on a branch, usually towards upper levels of tree and normally at least two metres off the ground but occasionally on ground, or in a cliff face. Normally lays five or six eggs. The diet is mainly invertebrates and fruits, but also takes berries and seeds in the winter, and shoots and buds in the spring. The species is migratory but movements are essentially irruptive and nomadic (Collar 2005).

threats:
In southern Greenland the species may have been extirpated by severe winters during the 1960s (Collar 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Research to identify causes of declines and appropriate conservation measures.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

The range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size may be moderately small to large, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

The bird is not recorded from the EU27 region.

population:
The European population is estimated at 8,000-15,000 pairs, which equates to 16,000-30,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in sparse montane forest, the upper limits of cedar (Cedrus) forest, mossy tree-lined scrub, plateau taiga, and bottomland forests in montane river valleys. In Russia, it breeds from May to July. The nest is placed low down, usually below two meters, in a rotten stump or in the sheltered fork of a tree, frequently in larch (Larix), poplar (Populus) or cedar shrub. It is a cup of twigs, moss and stems cemented with mud, and lined with finer stems. Clutches are four or five eggs. It feeds on invertebrates but also takes berries and seeds in the autumn and winter. The species is migratory (Collar 2005).


population:
The European population is estimated at 299,000-598,000 pairs, which equates to 597,000-1,200,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 215,000-344,000 pairs, which equates to 430,000-689,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in mountain steppe with conifers, including wet spruce (Picea) and spruce-fir woodland (P. abies-Abies alba). In central Europe it also uses conifer-beech (Fagus), extending into bushy scrub with Rhododendron hirsutum and Pinus mugo in alpine regions, dry rugged upland slopes, heath and heather moorland with bracken, stones and grass patches, subalpine meadows with scattered shrubs and trees and low shrubbery above the tree-line on rocky slopes. In Britain it favours heather-grass mosaics and Nardus-Molinia grassland  and most nesting territories contain small crags, gullies, scree and/or boulders, as well as sloping or flat areas with short vegetation and scattered trees or bushes.

Breeding occurs from mid-April to mid-July in Britain and the Alps and in Scandinavia from early May to the end of June in the south and late May to early August in the north (Collaret al. 2013). In Britain the nest is generally built on or close to the ground, however in Poland it is found mostly in trees close to the trunk (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is a bulky cup of dry grass, stems, moss and leaves mixed with mud and lined with dry grass. Clutches can be from three to six eggs but most commonly four or five. It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and fruits, with invertebrates making up most of the diet in spring and early summer. The species is migratory; British and northern European breeders are thought to winter mainly in southern Spain and north-west Africa (Collar et al. 2013).

threats:
Causes of declines are not clearly understood in this species. It is thought to be suffering from increased human disturbance and the development of many upland areas for outdoor leisure pursuits as well as from competition with species such as T. merula, T. viscivoru and T. pilaris. In southern Spain, the widespread loss of juniper forest may be partly responsible for decline in British breeding populations, where it may also be suffering from  large-scale afforestation in the uplands (Collar et al. 2013) and increased grazing intensity (Burfield 2002). Hunting of north-west European migrants passing through southern Europe may also be significant (Collar et al. 2013). The species may also be threatened by climate change (Beale et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. In the UK, the Ring Ouzel Study Group was set up due to the lack of knowledge and a concern for the species and it continues to influence research and conservation actions, co-ordinate and facilitate monitoring and promote the conservation of this species. 

Conservation Actions Proposed
An improved understanding of the climatic mechanisms affecting populations of this species would assist the development of management regimes that can mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Conservation measures could also be better informed through an improved understanding of basic ecology during the post-breeding period. In addition to this action to minimise the threats posed by increased firewood collection and grazing in Morocco would benefit populations throughout Europe (Beale et al. 2006).


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,120,000-8,960,000 pairs, which equates to 8,250,000-17,900,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 2,370,000-4,590,000 pairs, which equates to 4,740,000-9,170,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species requires a mosaic of wooded and open country, and thus inhabits open mature forest, woodland glades, orchards, riverside forest, open grassland with scrub and mountain steppe with shrubs; often penetrating grassy-bracken moorland areas on low craggy hills and mountains at some distance from trees. It is most typically found, in rolling, open landscapes with scattered trees or copses, including parkland and park-like farmland.

In western and central Europe, it breeds from late March to late June and from late April in the north. The nest is a large cup of dry grass, plant stems, roots and moss, bound together with mud and lined with fine grasses and sometimes pine needles. Typically it is found two to ten metres up in the fork of a tree and normally lays three to five eggs. It feeds on invertebrates as well as seeds and fruit in the autumn and winter. In the west of its range the species is sedentary or a partial migrant and in the north and east of its range it is more fully migratory (Collar 2005).

threats:
In Spain the species suffers pressure from hunting. Finnish populations have suffered from the felling of old growth forest (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997, Collar 2005) as a result of modern forestry practices. Studies in the Netherlands have shown fluctuations in population numbers due to severe winter weather (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species would benefit locally from the restoration and maintenance of low-intensity forestry management.


taxonomicNotes:
Zoothera major, Z. dauma and Z. horsfieldi (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) have been lumped into Z. dauma following Collar (2004). Z. imbricata from Sri Lanka, previously considered a subspecies of Z. dauma following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), is trea

range:
This species predominantly breeds across Siberia and the Himalayas, and winters in the northern Indian Subcontinent, northern south-east Asia, southern China, and southern Japan, but there are also some resident subspecies, including neilgherriensis in the hills of south-west India, and horsfieldi from Java to Sumbawa, Indonesia. Subspecies major was previously considered specifically distinct and Critically Endangered, with only c.58 breeding birds estimated to remain in 1996. It is confined to the islands of Amami-ooshima and Kakeroma-jima in the northern Nansei Shoto Islands, Japan.

population:
The European population is estimated at 80,000-120,000 pairs, which equates to 160,000-240,000 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The European, race aurea breeds in dark coniferous and mixed forests of the southern boreal zone and dark taiga zone, typically in spruce (Picea) forests along river valleys, wooded steppe, mixed or broadleaf stands on ridges and slopes, open woodland with larch (Larix), birch (Betula) and aspen (Populus), often in headwater areas. Breeding is known to occur from late May to August in Siberia. The nest is a large cup of moss, twigs, grass and roots, with a rim of mud, twigs and moss as a basal fixative and lined with fine rootlets, fern stems and fibres. It is generally sited one to six metres up in a tree fork, bush or bank. The diet is made up of mainly invertebrates, including worms, insects and their larvae, small slugs and snails but it will also take berries (Collar 2005). The race aurea is wholly migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
In Europe, the species may have declined during the 20th century due to the intensification of forestry methods but current practices are more balanced (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The taxonomy of the species has been in flux, and much more research and analysis is needed on variations in song and measurements to resolve this situation (Collar 2004). Low-intensity, balanced forestry methods should be continued.


taxonomicNotes:
Ardea alba (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Casmerodius as C. albus. Casmerodius albus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was previously retained as a cross-regional species contra Christidis and Boles (2008) who moved C. albus in

population:
The European population is estimated at 20,700-34,900 pairs, which equates to 41,500-69,900 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 5,200-7,700 pairs, which equates to 10,300-15,500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersive movements (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). Palearctic populations are migratory (Flint et al. 1984, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The timing of the breeding season varies geographically (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) although temperate breeders tend to nest in the spring and summer (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species typically breeds in colonies of tens, hundreds or even a thousand pairs (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), sometimes with other species. Some populations also show a tendency to breed solitarily or in small groups (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The species is a diurnal feeder (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) but is most active at dawn and dusk (although in coastal environments its feeding habits are determined by tidal stages) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and roosts at night in trees (Brown et al. 1982) alongside lakes or rivers or in mangroves, often with other species (Langrand 1990). The species inhabits all kinds of inland and coastal wetlands (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) although it is mainly found along the coast in the winter (Snow and Perrins 1998). It frequents river margins, lakes shores, marshes, flood-plains (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), oxbows, streams (Snow and Perrins 1998), damp meadows (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), rice-fields, drainage ditches (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), aquaculture ponds, reservoirs (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and sewage works (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Hockey et al. 2005) inland, and the shallows of salt-lakes (Marchant and Higgins 1990), saltpans, mudflats, coastal swamps, (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), saltmarshes, seagrass flats, lagoons (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and estuaries when in coastal locations (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). In aquatic habitats its diet consists of fish, amphibians, snakes, aquatic insects and crustaceans although in drier habitats terrestrial insects, lizards, small birds and mammals are more commonly taken (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The nest is constructed from sticks (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and vegetation (Brown et al. 1982) and is normally positioned over water at a height of 1–15 m (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) in reedbeds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), bushes, trees (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and other plants near water or on islands in sites that are protected from ground predators (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species usually nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups where nests may be less than one metre apart or touching, although they are usually placed more spread out in reedbeds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Breeding pairs may also reuse nests from previous years (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

threats:
The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) for example through drainage, grazing, clearing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants (Marchant and Higgins 1990). The species previously suffered from intense persecution for the plume trade (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Breeding site conservation should include colony protection, control of disturbance and vegetation management, and the conservation of feeding areas should include the management of hydrology, salt intrusion, contaminants and disturbance (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). An artificial island nesting site created in the Camargue, France succeeded in attracting nesting pairs to the area (Hafner 2000). Freshwater habitats need to be sustainably managed.


population:
The European population is estimated at 223,000-391,000 pairs, which equates to 447,000-782,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 140,000-265,000 pairs, which equates to 280,000-530,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most Palearctic populations of this species are fully migratory, dispersing widely in September and October after the breeding season and returning to breeding grounds in February (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). This species is a generalist in its habitat use, although shallow water, relatively large prey, and four or five months of ice-free breeding season are among the essential characteristics of its habitat (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It occurs from sea-level up to 500 or even 1,000 m, occasionally breeding much higher (Snow and Perrins 1998) (2,000 m in Armenia), inhabits any kind of shallow water, either fresh, brackish or saline, both standing or flowing, and shows a preference for areas with trees as it is commonly an arboreal rooster and nester. Some degree of isolation and protection are also typical of places chosen for roosting and nesting (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is found inland on broad rivers, narrow streams, lake shores, ornamental ponds, fish-ponds, marshes, flood-plains, reeds swamps, rice-fields and other irrigated areas (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), river oxbows, reservoirs, ditches, canals, sewage farms, inland deltas, and on islets and emerging rocks (Snow and Perrins 1998). On the coast the species also frequents deltas, salt-marshes (Brown et al. 1982, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), estuaries, tidal mudflats, muddy and sandy shores, and sand-spits (Snow and Perrins 1998). Its diet consists predominantly of fish and eels 10–25 cm long, as well as amphibians, crabs, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic insects, snakes, small rodents, small birds (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and plant matter (although this may be incidental, or only to aid in pellet formation) (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The nest is a stick platform that is often re-used over successive years (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), usually positioned high in a tall tree up to 50 m, but also on the ground or on cliff edges, in reedbeds or in bushes. In reed-beds nests may be built of reeds, and ground nests may be reduced to a slight scrape, ringed with small stones and debris (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species commonly nests in colonies and nesting sites are typically situated 2–38 km (convenient flying distance) from preferred feeding areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

threats:
In Europe the species was heavily persecuted in the nineteenth century due to its consumption of fish, which resulted in competition with fishermen and fish farmers (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Although killing at aquaculture farms has not reduced the global population so far (possibly because it is young birds that are mostly killed) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), 800 herons are estimated to have died per year at Scottish fish-farms between 1984 and 1987 (Carss 1994, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) by being shot, drowned or poisoned by fish farmers (Carss 1994). Renewed hunting poses a threat to Bavarian populations by decreasing numbers to levels that inhibit recovery following severe winters (severe winters increase mortality rates for juveniles) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Timber harvesting is a threat throughout much of the species range by removing trees used by nesting colonies and/or disturbing nearby colonies (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and avian botulism (van Heerden 1974), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is not listed on priority lists of the Conventions.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Freshwater habitats need to be sustainably managed. Establish non-intrusion zones and stop logging around colonies.


taxonomicNotes:
Ardea purpurea (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into A. purpurea and A. bournei by Hazevoet (1995). This treatment is not followed by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group although we do recognise consistent behavioural differences and that bournei

population:
The European population is estimated at 31,600-46,000 pairs, which equates to 63,100-92,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 12,700-15,700 pairs, which equates to 25,300-31,500 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Populations breeding in the western Palearctic are migratory (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and travel on a broad front between breeding and wintering grounds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds from April to June in the western Palearctic. It is a colonial breeder (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014, Turner 2000, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and although nesting group sizes are usually small and rarely exceed 50 pairs (Turner 2000), colonies of up to 1,000 pairs have been recorded in some areas (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). It often also nests on the periphery of colonies of other heron species such as Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). In migratory populations the autumn migration occurs from August to October (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), with the return passage in the spring beginning in March (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). The species is mainly crepuscular, but may also feed diurnally. The species inhabits wetlands from sea level to 1,800 m (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), showing a preference for dense, flooded, freshwater reedbeds (Phragmites spp.) in temperate areas (occupying Typha, Scirpus and Papyrus swamps elsewhere) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It also utilises lake shores, river margins (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), ditches, canals, brackish water lagoons (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), rice-fields and coastal mudflats (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). Its diet consists of fish 5–15 cm long (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) (occasionally up to 55 cm), salamanders (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), frogs, insects (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) (e.g. beetles, dragonflies, hemiptera (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and locusts (Hancock and Kushlan 1984)), crustaceans (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), spiders (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and molluscs (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) as well as small birds and mammals, snakes and lizards (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The nest is a platform of reeds stems or sticks (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) positioned over or beside water up to three metres high in flooded reedbeds (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), three to four metres high in thickets (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or up to 25 m high in trees (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The species usually nests in loose single- or mixed-species colonies with A. cinerea, and although colony sizes are usually small, large groups of up to 1,000 pairs have been recorded (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014).

threats:
The main threat to this species in Europe is the loss of reedbeds though direct elimination (to reduce sedimentation) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), agricultural encroachment (Hockey et al. 2005), water management practices (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (e.g. drainage) (Hockey et al. 2005) and reed cane harvesting (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Studies in southern France have shown that the overall conservation of this species in Europe is favoured by maintaining large uncut reedbeds with relatively high spring water levels (Barbraud et al. 2002). Freshwater habitats need to be sustainably managed and non-intrusion zones established around colonies.


population:
The European population is estimated at 15,000-25,900 pairs, which equates to 30,000-51,700 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,400-10,600 pairs, which equates to 12,800-21,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
In the Palearctic this species is migratory and dispersive (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), travelling on a broad front between breeding and wintering areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds from April to July in Eurasia in single- or mixed-species colonies that can be up to 2,000 pairs in size. After breeding Palearctic populations migrate south from August to November (Kushlan and Hancock 2005. Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), returning to the breeding colonies between February and May (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species feeds solitarily (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or in small groups of 2–5 individuals during the breeding season (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) although in winter and on migration large feeding flocks may form (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is mainly crepuscular (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), roosting by day and night in large (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) often mixed-species (Brown et al. 1982) groups in sheltered woods and reedbeds (these roosts may draw in herons feeding up to 80 km away) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species inhabits permanent or temporary wetlands (Brown et al. 1982) showing a preference for fresh waters with abundant marsh vegetation (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), reedbeds, nearby bushes, trees and scrub (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Habitats frequented include swampy plains, river valleys, deltas, lakes, ponds, canals, ditches and rice paddyfields (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). On migration (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) the species may also occur on estuaries, inshore reefs or islets (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). It generally avoids dry habitats and those with very high rainfall (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and usually breeds in the lowlands although it has bred on montane lakes up to 2,000 m. Its diet consists predominantly of larval insects although fish and amphibians (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) (e.g. frogs and tadpoles) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) up to 10 cm long, grasshoppers, beetles, butterflies, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs and exceptionally small birds may also be taken. The nest is a well-constructed platform usually placed less than two metres (occasionally up to 20 m) high near or over water in reedbeds (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) or in dense thickets of trees or shrubs (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (e.g. of willow (Salix spp.) or poplar (Populus spp.)) (Hafner and Didner 1997), preferring nesting sites within five kilometres of feeding areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds in single- or mixed-species colonies that can be up to 2,000 pairs in size (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), neighbouring pairs building nests 5–10 m apart (occasionally as close as 0.5 m) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

threats:
The greatest threat to this species is the loss and deterioration of natural and man-made freshwater habitats (e.g. through changes to flood regimes in rice paddyfields) and wet woodlands (e.g. through woodcutting and burning) (Hafner and Didner 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Reed marshes and freshwater habitats need to be sustainably managed, including the reduction of water pollution and fish overexploitation.


population:
The European population is estimated at 37,600-66,400 calling or lekking males, which equates to 75,300-133,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 11,000-18,600 calling or lekking males, which equates to 21,900-37,100 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Populations breeding on the Atlantic coast of Europe and in the Mediterranean are largely sedentary due to the relatively mild winters (Newbery et al. 1996) (although they may make local dispersive movements related to rainfall) (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Continental populations are mainly migratory however (Newbery et al. 1996, Kushan and Hancock 2005) with a marked post-breeding dispersal of immatures (Kushan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds from March to June in Eurasia. The species has highly restrictive breeding habitat requirements (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015). It shows a strong preference for quiet lowland marshes around lakes and rivers (less than 200 m Asl) (Kushan and Hancock 2005) with extensive dense young reedbeds of Phragmites spp. (e.g. with one to three years worth of new growth (Marion et al. 2000, Puglisi et al. 2005) but still maintaining some old or dead stems) that are flooded but are fairly shallow (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015) (less than 30 cm deep) (Newbery et al. 1996), have few fluctuations in water-level (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015), have low acidity (Kushan and Hancock 2005) and are surrounded by clear open areas (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015) of deeper water, which is maintained into the driest part of the breeding season (Gilbert et al. 2005). Breeding adults are more attracted to unfragmented (Puglisi et al. 2005) reedbeds over 20 ha in area, although smaller sites with networks of reed-fringed waterways or open wetland habitats with a number of small reedbeds (Newbery et al. 1996) (greater than 100 m) (Gilbert et al. 2005) over a wide area may also be used (Newbery et al. 1996). The species frequents a more varied range of habitats outside of breeding season, foraging on rice-fields, watercress beds, gravel pits, fish farms, ditches, sewage farms (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015), small ponds and wet grassy areas (Kushan and Hancock 2005) as well as marshes and reedbeds (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015). It also forages in running water when still waterbodies freeze during the winter (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Its diet varies depending on the site and season although it predominantly takes fish (particularly cyprinids and eels) and amphibians as well as adult and larval insects, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, snakes, lizards, birds, nestlings and small mammals (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015). The nest is a pad of reeds and other vegetation (Kushan and Hancock 2005) constructed close to or floating on water (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015) amidst dense reedbeds (Kushan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015).

threats:
The species is threatened mainly by the loss of Phragmites reed marshes (Kushan and Hancock 2005) owing to habitat alteration through drainage (Kushan and Hancock 2005), direct destruction (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015), changes in traditional management (e.g. changes to reed harvesting regimes) (Marion et al. 2000), sea level rise and salt water intrusion (Newbery et al. 1996), the effects of wave action from boat traffic at the edge of open water (Marion et al. 2000), and pollution (Marion et al. 2000, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015) (either eutrophication which modifies fish populations within reedbeds or pesticides which may reduce the species's survival) (Marion et al. 2000). Disturbance from humans during the nesting period is also a threat (Newbery et al. 1996, Marion et al. 2000, Kushan and Hancock 2005) (e.g. disturbance from reed cutting (Kushan and Hancock 2005), noisy recreation and water-sports (Newbery et al. 1996, Marion et al. 2000, Kushan and Hancock 2005), motor vehicles and hunting (Kushan and Hancock 2005)). The hunting of adults and collecting of eggs and chicks still occurs in some areas (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2015), and the species may suffer high mortalities in very cold winters (especially in sedentary populations) (Marion et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA). European Union International Action Plan for the Conservation of this species was published in 1996 (Newbery et al. 1996).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Breeding adults in Europe may be more attracted to unfragmented (Puglisi et al. 2005) reedbeds over 20 ha in area, although smaller sites with networks of reed-fringed waterways or open wetland habitats with a number of small reedbeds over a wide area may also be used (Newbery et al. 1996). There is evidence that females in Britain preferentially nest in locations surrounded by less scrub but more vegetated open water, with a higher proportion of Phragmites spp. than other plant species, and in areas where deeper water is maintained into the driest part of the breeding season (Gilbert et al. 2005). The European Action Plan for this species recommends raising water levels, harvesting and burning reeds, cutting invasive scrub, or digging out reedbeds on a rotational compartmental basis as methods of slowing reedbed succession (Newbery et al. 1996). It also recommends the regular cutting of small areas of reedbed to maintain Phragmites spp. monocultures (Newbery et al. 1996), to provide a range of multi-age reed stands (Kushan and Hancock 2005) and to favour the retention of water levels in spring and summer (promoting rapid growth, preventing a build-up of reed litter and providing foraging sites) (Newbery et al. 1996). Large-scale reed cutting should be prohibited in the late-winter however (Kushan and Hancock 2005). Wetlands should also be managed to enhance the carrying capacity of fish and eel populations (thus increasing food resources for bitterns) (Noble et al. 2004, Self 2005, Gilbert et al. 2007). In Britain it was found that suitable habitats should be provided for all fish life stages (including spawning, refuge and overwintering), the movement of fish throughout reedbeds should be promoted (e.g. by changes in hydrological management regimes and sluice design) (Noble et al. 2004) and issues relating to water quality, zooplankton and macrophyte community structures should be addressed (Self 2005). Measures should include sustainably managing river valleys and reed marshes, including the reduction of water pollution and fish overexploitation. Disturbance at the breeding sites by recreation should be minimized.


population:
The European population is estimated at 76,100-92,300 pairs, which equates to 152,000-185,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 72,100-84,600 pairs, which equates to 144,000-169,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Most populations of this species are partially migratory, making long-distance dispersive movements related to food resources in connection with seasonal rainfall (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). It breeds colonially, often with other species, in groups that number from a few dozen to several thousand pairs (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The nesting effort of the species is related to rainfall patterns, leading to an annual variation in productivity (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious (Brown et al. 1982, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), feeding in loose flocks of 10–20 individuals (Brown et al. 1982) and often gathering in flocks of hundreds or even thousands of individuals where food is abundant (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The species is a diurnal feeder (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and commonly associates with native grazing mammals or domesticated livestock (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and may follow farm machinery to capture disturbed prey. The species inhabits open grassy areas such as meadows (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), livestock pastures (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), semi-arid steppe (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), dry arable fields (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), artificial grassland sites (e.g., lawns, parks, road margins and sports fields) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), flood-plains (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), freshwater swamps, rice-fields, wet pastures (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), shallow marshes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and irrigated grasslands (with ponds, small impoundments, wells, canals, small rivers and streams) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It rarely occupies marine habitats or forested areas (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). It occurs from sea-level up to c. 1,500 m (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Its diet consists primarily of insects such as locusts, grasshoppers (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), beetles, adult and larval Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, dragonflies (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and centipedes but worms (Brown et al. 1982), spiders (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), crustaceans, frogs, tadpoles, molluscs, fish, lizards, small birds, rodents and vegetable matter may also be taken (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The nest is constructed of twigs and vegetation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and is positioned up to 20 m high in reedbeds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), marshes, dense thickets (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), bushes or trees (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), usually over or surrounded by water (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups with the nests placed close or touching (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Large colonies nesting in urban areas are perceived as a public nuisance and may be persecuted (e.g. by disturbance to prevent colony establishment, removal or direct killing) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). In its breeding range the species is threatened by wetland degradation and destruction such as lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian et al. 2002), and in some parts of its range it is susceptible to pesticide poisoning (organophosphates and carbamates) (Kwon et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is not listed on priority lists of the Conventions.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The species can adversely affect the trees and bushes it uses for nesting, which may lead to the abandonment of the colony site if it is not managed (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Freshwater habitats need to be sustainably managed. Establish non-intrusion zones around colonies.


taxonomicNotes:
Egretta gularis (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) contains the taxon dimorpha, which was previously included within E. garzetta following Kushlan and Hancock (2005). Prior to that, all three taxa were treated as separate species following Sibley and Monroe (1990

population:
The European population is estimated at 66,700-84,800 pairs, which equates to 133,000-170,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 43,600-51,700 pairs, which equates to 87,200-103,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersive movements (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). Populations breeding in the Palearctic are highly migratory (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). The timing of breeding varies geographically (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) although, in general, European populations breed in spring and summer (March to July). The species usually nests in colonies sometimes of thousands of pairs and often with other species. Some populations also breed solitarily or in small single-species groups of under 100 pairs. It inhabits fresh, brackish or saline wetlands (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and shows a preference for shallow waters (10–15 cm deep) in open, unvegetated sites where water levels and dissolved oxygen levels fluctuate daily, tidally or seasonally, and where fish are concentrated in pools or at the water's surface (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Habitats frequented include the margins of shallow lakes, rivers, streams and pools, open swamps and marshes, flooded meadows, flood-plains (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), lagoons, irrigation canals, aquaculture ponds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), saltpans (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and rice fields (which are especially important in areas with few remaining natural wetland habitats) (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species also occupies dry fields and cattle pastures (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and some populations are almost entirely coastal, inhabiting rocky or sandy shores, reefs, estuaries, mudflats, saltmarshes and tidal creeks (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 20140). It is a highly opportunistic feeder (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), taking mainly small fish under 20 g in weight and less than 10 cm long (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), aquatic and terrestrial insects (e.g. beetles, dragonfly larvae and crickets) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and crustaceans as well as amphibians, molluscs (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) (snails and bivalves) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), spiders, worms, reptiles and small birds (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The species may nest on the ground in protected sites (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or up to 20 m high on rocks, in reedbeds, bushes or trees (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). It usually nests in single- or mixed-species colonies (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It may feed up to 7–13 km away from breeding colonies during the breeding season (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is threatened by wetland degradation and loss through drainage for agriculture, changes in current management practices and contamination from agricultural and industrial operations (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Ellis et al. 2004, Melville and Shortridge 2006), and it previously suffered from hunting for the plume trade (although this is no longer a threat) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive and Annex II of the Bern Convention.

Conservation Actions Proposed
An artificial island nesting site created in the Camargue, France succeeded in attracting nesting pairs to the area (Hafner 2000). A study in north-west Italy suggests that existing nesting sites should be protected and that breeding habitats should be actively managed in order to maintain suitable habitat characteristics (Fasola and Alieri 1992). The creation of a network of new nesting sites spaced at 4–10 km in relation to available foraging habitats in zones currently without suitable nesting sites is also recommended (Fasola and Alieri 1992). Freshwater habitats need to be sustainably managed. Establish non-intrusion zones around colonies.


taxonomicNotes:
Ixobrychus minutus and I. dubius (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as I. minutus following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 63,100-111,000 pairs, which equates to 126,000-222,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 23,900-36,900 pairs, which equates to 47,800-73,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Palearctic populations of this species undergo extensive post-breeding dispersal movements in all directions and are also fully migratory, travelling southward on a broad front (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) between August and October and returning to the north from March to April (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). In the western Palearctic the species breeds mainly between May and July. It breeds singly or occasionally in small loose groups in favourable areas (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The species is most common in freshwater marshes with beds of bulrushes (Typha spp.), reeds (Phragmites spp). (Hockey et al. 2005) or other dense aquatic vegetation, preferably also with deciduous bushes and trees (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) such as willow (Salix spp). or alder (Alnus spp.) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). It may also occupy the margins of lakes, pools and reservoirs (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), wooded and marshy banks of streams and rivers (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), peat bogs (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), wooded swamps, wet grasslands, rice-fields (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), rank vegetation around sewage ponds (Hockey et al. 2005), and in places the margins of saline lagoons (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and saltmarshes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Its diet varies with region and season but it is essentially insectivorous and takes aquatic adult and larval insects such as crickets, grasshoppers, caterpillars (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and beetles (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Other food items include spiders, molluscs, crustaceans (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) (e.g. shrimp and crayfish) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), fish, frogs, tadpoles, small reptiles and birds. The nest is constructed from reeds and twigs (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and is normally placed near open pools in thick emergent vegetation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (such as beds of bulrushes Typha spp. or reeds (Phragmites spp.)) (Hockey et al. 2005) close to the surface of the water or up to 60 cm above it (Snow and Perrins 1998). Alternatively nests may be placed in low bushes or trees (e.g. alder or willow) up to two metres above water (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). Preferred nesting sites are usually 5–15 m out from the shore in water 20–30 cm deep (Snow and Perrins 1998).

threats:
Since 1970, European populations have fallen, most likely due to habitat destruction and pollution, however these alone do not explain its decline. In Belgium, the species has suffered from pollution and the drainage of wetlands and in the Netherlands building construction has disturbed nesting habitat. High mortality during migration and in the wintering quarters has been attributed to the European declines. Droughts in Africa have led to desertification and loss of wetland areas, which extends the trans-Saharan crossing (Tucker and Heath 1994). Recreational activities such as fishing and swimming are also a threat as is the intensive commercial use of water areas (e.g. reed cutting, fish farming), river regulation measures and eutrophication (Bauer et al. 2006). The species may also be affected by fires (San-Miguel-Ayanz et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Although conservation measures in the European breeding grounds are unlikely to reverse declines in this species, wider-scale conservation actions should be taken, for example, the maintenance of reedy fringes to rivers and ditches. Habitat protection in Europe should be undertaken so that sufficient habitat exists for the species should habitat conditions in Africa become more favourable (Tucker and Heath 1994). Other measures should include: Sustainably managing river valleys and reed marshes, including the reduction of water pollution and fish overexploitation; Minimising disturbance at the breeding sites by recreation.


population:
The European population is estimated at 60,000-86,100 pairs, which equates to 120,000-172,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 26,300-33,900 pairs, which equates to 52,600-67,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Northern populations of this species are migratory, with those breeding in the western Palearctic travelling on a broad front across the Sahara (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). Post-breeding southward movements occur from September to October and return northward movements occur from March to May (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). In temperate regions breeding occurs in the local spring (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species usually nests in small numbers (Snow and Perrins 1998) in single- or mixed-species colonies, although sometimes groups may reach several thousand pairs (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). When nesting within mixed-species colonies the species tends to form monospecific clusters (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species inhabits fresh, brackish or saline waters with aquatic vegetation and trees (e.g. pine, oak) for roosting and nesting in (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014), showing a preference for islands or predator-free areas for nesting sites (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It occupies the forested margins of shallow rivers, streams, lagoons, pools, ponds, lakes and marshes and may feed on pastures, reservoirs, canals, aquaculture ponds (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and rice-fields (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). On migration the species may also frequent dry grasslands or marine coasts (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and estuaries (Hockey et al. 2005). It is common at elevations of up to c. 2,000 m (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is an opportunistic feeder taking fish, frogs, tadpoles, turtles, snakes, lizards, adult and larval insects (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) (e.g. beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and dragonflies) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, leeches, small rodents, bats and the eggs and chicks of other bird species (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). The nest is a platform constructed of sticks and vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) placed 2–50 m above water or on dry ground near water (Snow and Perrins 1998) in trees, bushes, reedbeds, on cliff ledges and on the ground (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) in protected sites (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

threats:
The species is threatened by wetland drainage and destruction (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) and by drought in wintering areas (Hafner and Kushlan 2002). It is highly susceptible to pesticides (Kwon et al. 2004, Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014) such as organophosphates, carbamates (Kwon et al. 2004) and DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) which negatively affect hatching success (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). There are also cases of genetic damage to chicks as a result of petroleum contamination (Custer 2000). The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and Newcastle disease so may be threatened by future outbreaks (Kuiken et al. 2006). It is also persecuted (anti-predation killing) at aquaculture facilities due to its depredation on fish stocks (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and has suffered declines due to the exploitation of chicks from nesting colonies in the past (Martínez-Vilalta et al. 2014). Chicks of the species are still taken for food in some areas (Hafner 2000, Kushlan and Hancock 2005).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
A study carried out in north-west Italy suggests that existing nesting sites should be protected and that breeding habitats should be actively managed in order to maintain suitable habitat characteristics (Fasola and Alieri 1992). The creation of a network of new nesting sites spaced at 4–10 km in relation to available foraging habitats in zones currently without suitable nesting sites is also recommended (Fasola and Alieri 1992). Measures should: Sustainably manage river valleys and reed marshes, including the reduction of water pollution and fish overexploitation and minimize disturbance from recreation at the breeding sites.


population:
The European population is estimated at 3,000-3,600 pairs, which equates to 5,900-7,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,600-2,000 pairs, which equates to 3,300-3,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species occurs mainly on inland, freshwater wetlands but also at coastal lagoons, river deltas and estuaries (Peja et al. 1996, Crivelli et al. 1997, Mix and Bräunlich 2000, Elliot et al. 2014). Typically winters on ice-free lakes in Europe (Elliot et al. 2014). It starts to breed in late March and April (Elliot et al. 2014), sometimes solitarily but usually in dense colonies of up to 250 pairs ( Cramp et al. 1977, Elliot et al. 2014). Adults form monogamous pair bonds (Mix and Bräunlich 2000). It leaves the colonies between the end of July and September, although a few remain until November (Nelson 2005). It is gregarious during the winter, often occurring in large flocks and foraging communally and cooperatively in small groups (Cramp et al. 1977).  Immature birds and non-breeders may remain in the wintering grounds year round (Nelson 2005), or may stay with the breeding colonies (Cramp et al. 1977).

Birds return to the breeding sites in late-January to April, depending on the region (Nelson 2005). It breeds on small islands in freshwater lakes or in dense aquatic vegetation such as reedbeds (Crivelli 1994, Peja et al. 1996, Pyrovetsi 1997, Elliot et al. 2014), often in hilly terrain (Nelson 2005). A few breed in Mediterranean coastal lagoons (Peja et al. 1996, Nelson 2005). Nests typically consist of a pile of reeds, grass and sticks approximately 1 m high and 0.5–1.5 m in diameter (Nelson 2005, Elliot et al. 2014). They are usually situated amongst aquatic vegetation on floating or stationary islands isolated from the mainland to avoid mammalian predators (Crivelli 1994, Peja et al. 1996, Pyrovetsi 1997) but occasionally may be built on open ground (Hatzilacou 1993, Hatzilacou 1999, Nelson 2005). Artificial islands may also be used for nesting (Pyrovetsi 1997, S. Bugariu in litt. 2012). It feeds almost entirely on fish (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is dispersive in Europe, moving only short distances typically within the eastern Mediterranean (Elliott et al. 2014).

threats:
Former declines were primarily caused by wetland drainage, shooting and persecution by fishers (Crivelli 1994, Crivelli et al. 1997, Mix and Bräunlich 2000). Cases of illegal shooting are still reported (e.g. four shootings in 2009 in the Danube Delta, B. Barov in litt. 2009). Other continuing threats include disturbance from tourists and fishers, wetland alteration and destruction, water pollution, collision with overhead power-lines and over-exploitation of fish stocks (Crivelli et al. 1999, Hatzilacou 1993, Mix and Bräunlich 2000). Organochloride residues including DDT have been recorded in high levels in the eggs of this species and those of its prey (Albanis et al. 1995). Nest predation by wild boar at times of low water levels is the most important threat to the Bulgarian breeding colony (N. Petkov in litt. 2007). The breeding colonies in Mediterranean lagoons in Albania and Turkey are threatened by coastal developments and the alteration of the functioning of the lagoons (Peja et al. 1996).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. Conservation efforts have reduced the impact of the major threats in Europe (Crivelli et al. 1997). Marking and dismantling of power-lines (Crivelli et al. 1997), the provision of breeding platforms in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria and Romania and rafts in Greece and Bulgaria, together with wardening (Hatzilacou 1999), water level management and education programmes at key sites, have reduced mortality and increased breeding success. A European action plan was published in 1996 (S. Bugariu in litt. 2007) and reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). A national species action plan for Romania was officially approved in 2009 (S. Bugariu in litt. 2012).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor breeding, wintering numbers and ecological changes at key sites. Sustainably manage wetlands. Establish wardened non-intrusion zones around breeding colonies. Bury power-lines or replace with more visible cable. Legally protect the species and its habitat in range states. Conduct public awareness campaigns and mediate potential conflicts with fishermen. Prevent poaching and overexploitation of fish.


population:
The European population is estimated at 4,900-5,600 pairs, which equates to 9,700-11,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,400-4,800 pairs, which equates to 8,800-9,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Its regular habitat includes fresh or brackish water of lakes, deltas, lagoons and marshes, often requiring extensive reed beds for breeding.  Within Europe the populations are fully migratory (Elliott et al. 2014) and travel via important stop-over sites (Nelson 2005). The species is entirely piscivorous, and in Europe it prefers carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Elliott et al. 2014)

threats:
The species is threatened by habitat destruction through drainage (Crivelli et al. 1991, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005, Elliott et al. 2014), the divergence of rivers for irrigation (Johnsgard 1993), agriculture development and industry (Elliott et al. 2014). It is also subject to climatic fluctuations that have a strong influence over water-levels in wetlands: floods leading to the inundation of nesting sites (Elliott et al. 2014) and lowering water-levels leading to the death of fish due to increased water salinity (Crivelli 1994). The species is threatened by persecution (Johnsgard 1993, Elliott et al. 2014) and hunting for sport because of its (minimal) depredation of fish from fish-farms (Crivelli et al. 1991, Kostadinova et al. 2007). It also suffers mortality due to collisions with electric powerlines during migration, dispersal or on its wintering grounds and is often found drowned in fishing nets (Crivelli et al. 1991). Disturbance (Elliott et al. 2014), (e.g., from tourism) threatens breeding colonies (Crivelli et al. 1991), and pesticides, heavy metal contamination and disease could have devastating effects on large colonies in the future (Crivelli et al. 1991, Elliott et al. 2014).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species; Appendix II of the Bern Convention; Annex I of the Birds Directive. It occurs within 43 Important Bird Areas. Within the EU it is listed within 108 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitoring and review of water management practices in key habitats. Protection of breeding and feeding sites. Enforcement and monitoring of persecution, including educational programmes to reduce this threat. Monitoring of heavy metal and pesticide levels, and improved management of water bodies to reduce contaminant loads.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Regionally Extinct (RE)
EU27 regional assessment: Regionally Extinct (RE)

This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in both Europe and the EU until any reintroductions are considered fully self-sustaining and countable.

range:
Historically, the species occurred across the Alps of central Europe, and a large captive population has been maintained in zoos, which has been used for release trials and reintroduction work in Austria and Spain, with a long-term aim to re-establish the species in parts of its former range. A semi-wild population exists at Birecik, Turkey (Arihan 1998), where birds are free-flying for five months, but are taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent them from migrating (Hitapogly 2010).

population:
The species is considered to be regionally extinct in Europe and the EU27. The species became extinct in Germany, Austria and Switzerland during the 16th and 17th centuries. It is thought that the species also used to breed in Spain more than 500 years ago (Hirschfeld 2008). Since the beginning of the 20th century there have been sharp declines in the North Africa and Middle East populations. The wild population in Birecik, Turkey, declined from 3,000 birds in 1930 to 400 in 1982 and was declared extinct by 1989 (Akcakaya et al. 1992), mainly as a result of poisoning by pesticides, loss of feeding habitat due to agricultural intensification, and human disturbance at the colonies, probably as well hunting pressures especially during migration.

habitat:
This species inhabits arid and semi-arid plains and plateaux with rocky escarpments as well as cultivated fields and formerly high-altitude meadows or pastures. It roosts and nests in cliffs, adjacent to watercourses or along the sea coast. It is also found nesting on man-made structures such as castles, walls and towers (Matheu et al. 2014). Breeding begins February to March and finishes late June or early July, however dispersal does not start until August (Cramp et al. 1977). It breeds in colonies of up to 40 pairs. Nests are a loose platform of branches lined with grass, straw, wool, rags and other rubbish. Clutch size is usually two to four eggs (Bowden et al. 2003, Matheu et al. 2014). It feeds on invertebrates such as beetles, snails, scorpions and vertebrates such as amphibians, lizards and snakes, and occasionally even small rodents. Its broad high protein diet also includes some vegetation such as berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants (Hancock et al. 1992, Bowden et al. 2003). The population is mainly migratory.

threats:
It has declined at least for several centuries, perhaps partly owing to unidentified natural causes. However, the more recent rapid decline was undoubtedly the result of a combination of factors, including land-use change and agricultural intensification (Akçakaya 1990, Bowden et al. 2008, Collar and Stuart 1985). In Turkey, a major historical threat was poisoning and reduced breeding success caused by pesticides (DDT) used against locusts and mosquitoes (Murdoch 2010). Human disturbance (building development) at nest sites was also an important driver of decline in Turkey (Akçakaya 1990). Electrocution by powerlines and poorly designed electricity pylons pose a threat to the population in Birecik, as well as to the Central Europe and Spanish release projects (Fritz and Unsöld 2013, Serra et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999 an International Advisory Group (IAGNBI) was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice (Bowden 2001,www.iagnbi.org). An International Species Action Plan was published in 2006. In Turkey hunting of the species is prohibited and 180 hectares of habitat in Birecik was designated as “Wildlife Improvement Area” in 2011. The management plan has been prepared and waiting for approval (Bowden, C. in litt. 2015). Over 2,000 individuals of the western (Morocco) population exist in captivity worldwide but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (very small numbers held in Turkish zoos [Böhm 2004]). A European Endangered species captive breeding Programme (EEP) was initiated in 1988 (Boehm and Bowden 2010). An in situ breeding programme at Birecik, Turkey has established a partially captive population of c. 190 birds and a number of unsuccessful trial releases of small numbers of birds have taken place since 2007 (Boehm & Bowden 2010, Serra et al. 2014). Most released birds were tagged or satellite tagged and colour-ringing of young birds at Birecik is ongoing (J. Tavares in litt. 2007, Hatipoglu 2010). Reintroduction programmes have focused on developing methodology, and are underway in Austria and Spain (also involving Germany and Italy) (UNEP/CMS 2008, Fritz 2010, Boehm and Bowden 2010). These trials have more recently evolved into reintroduction efforts on site in each case. In Cádiz, southwestern Spain, a total of 190 birds were released between 2004 and 2009 (Boehm and Bowden 2010). Although juvenile mortality was been high, the first breeding pair was formed on nearby cliffs in 2008 and a small independent non-migratory colony is becoming well established in the area (Matheu et al. 2014). There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe (Zoufal et al. 2006). In Austria, a small migratory breeding colony has been established and a European LIFE+ project is in place aiming to establish three self-sustaining breeding colonies north of the Alps by the end of 2019 (http://waldrapp.eu/). In Turkey, efforts have focused on increasing the semi-wild population through better husbandry, and now awareness-raising activities are ongoing, targeting locals and particularly farmers, focusing on the ecological importance of the species and the negative effects of using pesticides (Hatipoglu 2009, Bowden, C. in litt. 2015).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Explore the possibility of conservation translocation and reintroduction of captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available) (Mendelssohn 1994, Brindley et al. 1995, Bowden 2001, Bowden, C. in litt. 2015). Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey (J. Tavares in litt. 2007). A similar project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities and better links between the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects could be established; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey (J. Tavares in litt. 2007, Serra et al. 2009, Bowden et al. 2012). Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds (J. Tavares in litt. 2007). Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success (Bowden et al. 2003). Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development (Bowden et al. 2003), making sure to involve local people (Serra et al. 2009). Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route (Anon. 2006). Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements (Brindley et al. 1995). Employ management techniques such as the provision of drinking water (Smith et al. 2009, Serra et al. 2009). Common Raven (Corvus corax) populations around breeding sites should be controlled where they are identified as causing significant nest predation (Serra et al. 2009).


population:
The European population is estimated at 10,200-15,200 pairs, which equates to 20,400-30,500 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,700-8,800 pairs, which equates to 13,400-17,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
Palearctic breeding populations are fully migratory (Matheu et al. 2014) but may only travel short distances (Snow and Perrins 1998). In the north of its range the species breeds in the local spring (e.g. from April). The species usually nests in monospecific colonies or in small monospecific groups amidst mixed-species colonies (Matheu et al. 2014). When not breeding the species forages singly or in small flocks (Matheu et al. 2014) of up to 100 individuals (Hancock et al. 1992) and migrates in flocks of up to 100 individuals (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998). It is most active during the morning and evening (although in coastal areas it forages at low tide regardless of the time of day) (Hancock et al. 1992), and often roosts communally up to 15 km away from feeding areas (Brown et al. 1982). The species shows a preference for extensive shallow (Matheu et al. 2014) (less than 30 cm deep) wetlands with mud, clay or fine sand substrates, generally avoiding waters with rocky substrates, thick vegetation or swift currents (Hancock et al. 1992). It inhabits either fresh, brackish or saline (Hancock et al. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) marshes, rivers, lakes and flooded areas, especially those with islands for nesting or dense emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) and scattered trees or shrubs (Matheu et al. 2014) (preferably willow (Salix spp.), oak (Quercus spp.) or poplar (Populus spp.)) (Hancock et al. 1992). It may also frequent sheltered marine habitats during the winter such as deltas, estuaries, tidal creeks and coastal lagoons (Hancock et al. 1992, Matheu et al. 2014). Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (such as waterbeetles, dragonflies, caddisflies, locusts and flies), molluscs, crustaceans, worms, leeches, frogs, tadpoles and small fish (Matheu et al. 2014) up to 10–15 cm long (Hancock et al. 1992). It may also take algae or small fragments of aquatic plants (Matheu et al. 2014) (although these are possibly ingested accidentally with animal matter) (Hancock et al. 1992).

The nest is a platform of sticks and vegetation constructed on the ground on islands in lakes and rivers, or alternatively in dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) (Matheu et al. 2014), bushes or deciduous trees (such as willow, oak or poplar) (Hancock et al. 1992) up to five metres above the ground (Matheu et al. 2014). The species nests in colonies within which neighbouring nests are usually placed one or two metres apart or touching (Hancock et al. 1992). Breeding colonies are sited within 10–15 km of feeding areas, often much less (although the species may also feed up to 35–40 km away) (Hancock et al. 1992).

threats:
The species is threatened by habitat degradation through drainage and pollution (Matheu et al. 2014) (e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons) (Hancock et al. 1992), and is especially affected by the disappearance of reed swamps due to agricultural and hydroelectric development (Hancock et al. 1992). Over-fishing and disturbance have caused population declines in Greece (Hancock et al. 1992), and human exploitation of eggs and nestlings for food has threatened the species in the past (Hancock et al. 1992, Matheu et al. 2014). Poaching and collisions with overhead electricity cables are the main non-natural causes of death during migration (Triplet et al. 2008). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES, Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention, Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA). An International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Eurasian Spoonbill was published in 2008 (AEWA technical series no 35) (Triplet et al. 2008). An International Species Action Plan is in place and national or regional Special Action Plans and/or specialist working groups are in place in some countries (Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, Romania, Serbia). Systematic monitoring occurs in most countries in Europe, including an international colour ringing scheme. Wetland restoration and management of breeding colonies and feeding sites is in place in France, Spain, Croatia and Slovakia.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Measures should: Monitor breeding, migrating, wintering numbers, age composition and ecological changes at key sites; Establish non-intrusion zones around colonies; Sustainably manage wetland areas.


population:
The European population is estimated at 28,300-37,700 pairs, which equates to 56,500-75,400 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,300-7,400 pairs, which equates to 12,600-14,700 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersal movements (Matheu et al. 2014) and are considerably nomadic (Snow and Perrins 1998). In addition northern breeding populations are fully migratory (Matheu et al. 2014) and may travel on a broad front (e.g. across the Sahara) (Brown et al. 1982). Northern and southern breeding populations breed during the local spring, whilst breeding elsewhere coincides with the rains (Matheu et al. 2014). The species nests in mixed-species colonies, either in small groups (Brown et al. 1982) or in large aggregations of thousands of pairs, and during the winter or dry seasons the species usually forages in small flocks (Hancock et al. 1992, Matheu et al. 2014) of up to 30 individuals (Brown et al. 1982). It often roosts communally at night in large groups (sometimes thousands of individuals) with other species, occasionally in trees far from wetland feeding sites (Brown et al. 1982). The species feeds in very shallow water (Hancock et al. 1992) and nests in freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds or rushes) and low trees or bushes (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Matheu et al. 2014). It shows a preference for marshes at the edges of lakes and rivers (Hancock et al. 1992), as well as lagoons, flood-plains, wet meadows (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Matheu et al. 2014), swamps (Matheu et al. 2014), reservoirs (Hancock et al. 1992), sewage ponds, rice-fields and irrigated cultivation (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Matheu et al. 2014). It less often occurs in coastal locations such as estuaries, deltas, saltmarshes (Hancock et al. 1992) and coastal lagoons (Matheu et al. 2014). Roosting sites are often large trees that may be far from water (Brown et al. 1982, Matheu et al. 2014). The diet of the species varies seasonally depending on what is available (Hancock et al. 1992). It takes adult and larval insects (e.g. aquatic beetles, dragonflies, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and caddisflies), worms, leeches, molluscs (e.g. snails and mussels), crustaceans (e.g. crabs and crayfish) and occasionally fish, frogs, tadpoles, lizards, small snakes and nestling birds (Matheu et al. 2014).

The nest is a platform of twigs and vegetation usually positioned less than one metre above water (occasionally up to seven metres) in tall dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds or rushes), low trees or bushes over water (Matheu et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss (Snow and Perrins 1998, Matheu et al. 2014) through drainage (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Hancock et al. 1992) for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian et al. 2002), clearing, grazing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants (Marchant and Higgins 1990). It is also threatened locally by hunting (Snow and Perrins 1998, Matheu et al. 2014), disturbance and pesticides (Matheu et al. 2014), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Measure should: Sustainably manage river valleys and wet grasslands; Abandonment of pastoral grassland, afforestation of farmland and drainage of wet meadows and inland wetlands in key breeding areas should be stopped.


taxonomicNotes:
Phoenicopterus ruber (Sibley and Monroe, 1990, 1993) has been split into P. roseus and P. ruber following Knox et al. (2002), contra SACC (2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27, although this species may have a restricted range, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27.

range:
This species is regularly seen from West Africa eastward throughout the Mediterranean to southwestern and southern Asia, and throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The Palearctic population (including West Africa, Iran and Kazakhstan) is estimated to number between 205,000 and 320,000, the southwest and south Asian populations combined at 240,000, and the sub-Saharan African populations between 100,000 and 120,000 (Delany and Scott 2006).

The Palearctic population appears to be increasing, while the Asian and sub-Saharan African populations appear to be stable (Delany and Scott 2006).

population:
The European population is estimated at 45,000-62,400 pairs, which equates to 89,900-125,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 31,900-36,900 pairs, which equates to 63,900-73,900 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species inhabits shallow (Snow and Perrins 1998) eutrophic waterbodies (Hockey et al. 2005) such as saline lagoons, saltpans and large saline or alkaline lakes (Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 2014). It will also frequent sewage treatment pans, inland dams (Hockey et al. 2005), estuaries (Brown et al. 1982) and coastal waters (Diawara et al. 2007), seldom alighting on freshwater but commonly bathing and drinking from freshwater inlets entering alkaline or saline lakes (Brown et al. 1982). It nests and roosts on sandbanks, mudflats, islands (Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 2014) or boggy, open shores (Flint et al. 1984). It breeds regularly from March to June in large dense single-species colonies of up to 20,000 pairs (occasionally up to 200,000 pairs).

The species nests in large dense colonies on mudflats or islands of large waterbodies, occasionally also on bare rocky islands (del Hoyoet al. 2014). The nest is usually an inverted cone of hardened mud (Flint et al. 1984) with a shallow depression on the top (alternatively it may be a small pile of stones and debris when mud is not available). Its diet consists of crustaceans, molluscs, annelid worms, larval aquatic insects, small fish, adult terrestrial insects, the seeds or stolons of marsh grasses, algae, diatoms and decaying leaves. It may also ingest mud in order to extract organic matter (e.g., bacteria) (del Hoyo et al. 2014). Juveniles, and to a lesser extent adults (Mateo et al. 1998), are prone to irregular nomadic or partially migratory movements throughout the species's range in response to water-level changes (Snow and Perrins 1998, Hockey et al. 2005).

threats:
The species suffers from low reproductive success if exposed to disturbance at breeding colonies (Ogilvie and Ogilvie 1986, Yosef 2000) (e.g., from tourists, low-flying aircraft (Ogilvie and Ogilvie 1986) and especially all-terrain vehicles (Yosef 2000)), or if water-levels surrounding nest-sites lower (resulting in increased access to and therefore predation from ground predators such as foxes and feral dogs) (Miltiadou 2005). The species also suffers mortality from lead poisoning (lead shot ingestion) (Mateo et al. 1998, Miltiadou 2005), collisions with fences and powerlines (Hockey et al. 2005), and from diseases such as tuberculosis, septicemia (Nasirwa 2000) and avian botulism (van Heerden 1974).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. The removal of sand polluted with lead shot from a salt-lake in Cyprus was successful in significantly reducing the numbers of deaths due to lead poisoning (Miltiadou 2005). At two colonies (one in France and one in Spain) management techniques to counteract erosion and the lack of suitable nesting islands were successfully applied in order to encourage breeding by the species (Martos and Johnson 1996). The species is also kept and does well in captivity (del Hoyoet al. 2014). The Flamingo Specialist Group was established in 1978 to actively promote flamingo research, conservation and education worldwide.

Conservation Actions Proposed
The conservation of all wetlands used by this species for feeding and breeding is important and breeding sites should be monitored to ensure the continuation of appropriate habitat management techniques (Tucker and Heath 1994). Measures suggested and implemented at the Ebre Delta in Spain include regular surveys and monitoring, raising public awareness, mitigation of damage to rice fields, control of salt pan levels and wardening against disturbance (Curcóet al. 2009).


taxonomicNotes:
Dendrocopos leucotos and D. owstoni (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) were previously lumped as D. leucotos following Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993).

population:
The European population is estimated at 232,000-586,000 pairs, which equates to 464,000-1,170,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 22,000-71,000 pairs, which equates to 44,000-142,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
The species occurs in broad-leaved forest. In central and southern Europe it is found in forests dominated by beech (Fagus spp.), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and oak (Quercus spp.) and in northern and eastern Europe forests dominated by birch (Betula spp.) and aspen (Populus tremula) (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Courtship begins in February and egg-laying from late April to May or June. Both sexes excavate the nest in the soft wood of a dead or decaying tree, stump or branch, or in a utility pole. Clutch size generally three to five eggs (Winkler and Christie 2002). It is highly insectivorous and only occasionally takes plant matter. It specialises on wood-boring beetle larvae, particularly longhorn species (Coleoptera) but also feeds on flies, carpenter moths and carpenter ants (Gorman 2014). The species is generally resident with some local movements (Winkler and Christie 2002).

threats:
Intense forest management, leading to a reduction of dead wood or the introduction of conifers results in a reduction in population size (Winkler and Christie 2002, Håpnes 2003), accompanied by loss of genetic diversity (Winkler and Christie 2002).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010) and a national Species Action Plan was published in 2005 (Mild and Stighäll 2005). Norwegian birds were translocated to Sweden (Håpnes 2003) and a captive breeding programmes set up in order to supplement the dwindling population there. Some reserves were established as was successful management to create dead wood, however the achievement of the targets planned in 2005–2008 was on average much lower than planned (Blicharska et al. 2014).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Everywhere, this species's survival is dependent on preservation of reasonably large areas of unmanaged deciduous forest (Winkler and Christie 2002, Håpnes 2003), including dead wood. Restoration of natural habitats is also important (Håpnes 2003).


population:
The European population is estimated at 12,900,000-19,300,000 pairs, which equates to 25,800,000-38,600,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 4,020,000-7,020,000 pairs, which equates to 8,040,000-14,000,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see attached PDF.

habitat:
This species is found in trans-Palearctic coniferous and deciduous forests between the northern taiga and the Mediterranean (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It is also common in copses, tree avenues, parks and gardens. Courtship begins in December and egg-laying from mid-April to June (later in the far north and at higher altitude). The species is monogamous and both sexes excavate a new hole each year, in a dead or living tree of a wide variety of species. Occasionally utility poles are used and nest boxes as well. Clutches can be four to eight eggs but normally five to seven. Its diet is varied and displays clear seasonal changes in more seasonal habitats. It feeds mainly on invertebrates but will also take crustaceans and mussels, coniferous seeds, nuts, acorns, buds, tree sap, berries, fruit and possibly nectar. It is also notorious for taking the eggs and young of other birds. It is mostly resident and dispersive although northern populations are also subject to eruptive migration (Winkler and Christie 2013).

threats:
Harsh winters can cause significant mortality in this species. Fragmentation of habitat is a threat locally. The Canary Island races canariensis and thanneri are currently probably the most vulnerable, especially the former, which may be at some risk because of human exploitation of Canarian pine forest (Winkler and Christie 2013).  Air pollution, causing die-back in forests, in central and eastern Europe appears to have mixed effects; where damage is heavy nesting possibilities, food supply and food quality deteriorate causing a decline in woodpeckers, although the impact of this is unknown. Hybridization is known to occur with Syrian Woodpeckers (Dendrocopos syriacus) (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997).

conservationAction:
Conservation Actions Underway
Bern Convention Appendix II. Canary Island races canariensis and thanneri are listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Action Proposed
Protection of areas of Canarian pine from exploitation would help secure this species in the Canary Islands. Research in to the long term effects of air pollution on forests in central and eastern Europe is needed in order to determine its impact on this species.


