# European_Red_List_2017_December

range:
This species occurs in several mountainous regions: in Spain, generally rare but locally common in the north and east; south of France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, south and east of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Greece. 1,000-2,100 m. It is also found in Turkey, south and central Urals, Mongolia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Poland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Latvia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Damon Blue is found on calcareous soil, on grasslands, rough vegetation, such as small patches at the edge of scrub or woodland and also on abandoned Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) fields. It lays its eggs on different species of Onobrychis, including Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia). The caterpillars seem to like being between the flowers and only start to feed late in the afternoon. They are often attended by ants of the genera Lasius or Formica. They pupate in the litter layer. The Damon Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (34%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly. The (sub)-alpine populations are less threatened than the lowland populations.

conservationAction:
In Hungary, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the southern European part of Russia, Crimea, south of Siberia, west of Mongolia. Sea level to 1,800 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly species occurs on stony steppes and limestone outcrops. Its larval foodplants are Hedysarum spp. The female lays the eggs on the leaves. Hibernation takles place in the second or third larval instar. Depending on geographical location of the site, one or two generations a year will be produced (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).


range:
This species occurs locally in Southwest Europe. It is local in the northeast of Spain (to Madrid), south of France, in Switzerland (Wallis), central Italy, Sicily and lower mountainous areas of Germany. It is more common in Southeast Europe, from the south of Poland to the Balkans and Greece. 200-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Transcaucasus and Southern Urals. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
Although widespread in Europe and fairly common in Southeast Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient and good quality of habitat in the rest of the continent. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Meleager's Blue is a local butterfly that occurs on poor, rough vegetation and nutrient-poor grassland often near woods. The populations are usually small. The scalloped edge of the hindwing of the female distinguishes this species from all other blues. The female lays its eggs on Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) and Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia), favouring plants that grow in the shade provided by rocks or woodland. The caterpillars are attended by ants, including species of Lasius, Formica and Tapinoma. Either the egg or the small caterpillar hibernates and pupation takes place in the litter layer. The Meleager's Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mixed woodland (5%).


range:
Occurs locally in southeastern France (from Hérault and Cevennes to the Maritime Alps) and northwestern Italy in the Maritime Alps. Found at altitudes from 600-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Furry Blue occurs on dry, flower-rich, grassy vegetation with scrub, on waste ground and in clearings in deciduous or coniferous woods. The female lays its eggs on Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifola) and possibly also on various medicks (Medicago spp.). The butterflies are attended by ants. Hibernation takes place when the caterpillars are still small. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (40%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%).


range:
This species occurs from north and central Spain via south and central France to the south of Sweden and Lithuania, in Eastern Europe as far as Greece and north and central Italy. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands. 100-2,200 m. It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium, Luxembourg and Latvia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania and Sweden. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Lithuania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Turquoise Blue likes the warmth, occurring on dry, flower-rich slopes and calcareous grassland, often where there is shelter from a wood or from bushes. The butterflies are nearly always seen on calcareous ground. The populations are usually small in mountainous areas, where they often occur with other blues. The female lays its eggs on Kidney-vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria), depositing them onto the underside of the leaves and also on the sepals. The newly-hatched caterpillars feed by scraping off the undermost layer of cells, so making little “windows” in the leaves. Later, they feed on the whole leaf. They are attended by various ant species, including those belonging to the genera Myrmica, Lasius and Formica. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer. The Turquoise Blue mostly has two generations, but at higher altitudes and in the north of its range, It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (18%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%).


redListCategoryRationale:
There is no information on the trend or population size and insufficient information on the distribution of this species. Therefore it is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species is only known from Mt. Falakró and its immediate surroundings in the northwest of Greece (Coutsis & De Prins, 2005). This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This species occurs in low-intensity grazed or recently abandoned clearings and bushy grasslands with sparse trees. The main host plants are Onobrychis spp., and probably O. ebenoides (Lafranchis et al., 2005). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species is a rare endemic, and not much is known about threats. The species is probably sensitive to overgrazing by sheep (Lafranchis et al., 2005).

conservationAction:
On Mt. Falakró (northeastern Greece), the number of sheep has dramatically decreased since 2000 and been replaced with cattle. This has led to the expansion of Onobrychis spp. in the extensive sub-alpine grasslands, which could be favourable for this butterfly species. However, much more research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this butterfly. Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be closely monitored, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
Until recently the Eros Blue was divided into two species: Polyommatus eros (Eros Blue), a mountain butterfly, and Polyommatus eroides (False Eros Blue), a butterfly of hills and mountains in Eastern Europe. Recent molecular research has shown that these are in fact one species.

range:
The mountain form, the former P. eros, occurs in the Pyrenees, the Alps (from French Alps as far east as Hoch Tauern in Austria), mid-Apennines and in mountains in the southwest of Croatia and the southwest of Serbia. 1,200-2,700 m, mostly higher than 1,800 m. The former P. eroides occurs in scattered populations in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eros Blue is a mountain butterfly occurring on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, on rocky places with flower-rich vegetation and on scree slopes. Purple Beaked Milk-vetch (Oxytropis halleri) and O. fetida are probably its major foodplants, but other leguminous plants such as Astragalus sempervirens, A. leontinus and Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) have also been named. The former False Eros Blue occurs on dry grasslands on sand, calcareous soil, or rocky ground and at woodland edges. The males can often be seen in large numbers on damp ground taking in moisture and dissolved minerals. Various milk-vetches (Astragalus spp. and Oxytropus spp.) are used as foodplants and possibly Dyer’s Greenweed (Genista tinctoria). The Eros Blue has one generation a year. Habitats of the mountain butterflies: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (11%). Habitats of the butterflies on hills in Eastern Europe: dry siliceous grasslands (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), mesophile grasslands (7%), coniferous woodland (7%), mixed woodland (7%), inland sand-dunes (7%).

threats:
The former P. eros is not considered threatened in the European part of its distribution. The former P. eroides is threatened by agricultural improvements and abandonment.

conservationAction:
P. eroides was formerly a separate species listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Important habitats, especially of the former P. eroides, should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. P. eroides: it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in the Czech Republic and Slovakia; not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Bulgaria and Poland.


range:
This species occurs in large parts of the south of Europe: the eastern half and the north of Spain, the Pyrenees, the southeast and west of France (Poitou), south of Switzerland, Italy (the Alps, Liguria, Tuscany to Campania), Slovenia and the Balkans from southwest of Croatia, via the south of Herzegovina and the southwest of Serbia to the south of Greece and of Bulgaria. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents. The European colonies are particularly significant for the global survival of the species.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Escher’s Blue occurs on dry and flower-rich grassland, damp rough vegetation, in flower-rich rocky places, on scrub and at woodland edges and on agricultural land. The females lay their eggs singly on milk-vetches (Astragalus spp.), in particular A. monspessulanus. Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) may also be a foodplant. When still small, the caterpillar goes into hibernation and in spring completes its growth, feeding on the leaves and flowerbuds of the foodplants. When fully grown, it leaves the foodplant and pupates under stones. Both caterpillars and pupae are attended by ants of various genera, including Myrmica, Formica, Lasius and Plagiolepis. Escher’s Blue is single-brooded. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), phrygana (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), screes (5%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).


range:
Occurs in central and southern Spain from the Sierra de Cazorla in the south to the Iberian System in the North, always on calcareous substrate. Found at altitudes from 750 -1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Oberthür’s Anomalous Blue occurs on dry, grassy slopes and in dry, often rocky places where short vegetation alternates with scrub. The female lays its eggs on the dry flower stalks of Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia and O. argentea). The caterpillars are attended by ants. This butterfly has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


taxonomicNotes:
This butterfly used to be considered a sub-species of the Furry Blue (P. dolus).

range:
Only occurs in northern Spain (from the Cantabrian Mountains to Catalonia). Found at altitudes from 600-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This butterfly used to be considered a sub-species of the Furry Blue (P. dolus), but there is a clear difference in the number of chromosomes of each species. However, the life cycles and choice of biotope are the same. Eggs are laid on Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia). The caterpillars are frequently attended by ants. This butterfly hibernates when the caterpillar is still small. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km², the number of locations is 10, the species is declining and shows strong fluctuations. Therefore the species is classified as Vulnerable at the European and EU27 level.

range:
Gallo’s Anomalous Blue occurs only in mountains of Calabria in the south of Italy, between 1,100-2,200 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. A population decline from 10-23% is reported from Italy. This species shows large population fluctuations (E. Balletto, pers. comm.).

habitat:
Gallo’s Anomalous Blue occurs both on flower-rich grassland and in woodland clearings. At higher altitudes, it is often found on rocky slopes and screes. This butterfly is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species has a limited range in Europe and shows strong fluctuations. It is particularly sensitive to the adverse influences of grazing. Even though the effects of sheep overgrazing is particularly severe, even slight grazing by domestic stock can result in considerably diminished population densities, which soon fall well below 50% of the normal. A potential threat is over-collecting, although for the time being this is not an issue. (Balletto 1993).

conservationAction:
More research on the distribution and ecology is needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species is listed on the Bern Convention Annex 2.


taxonomicNotes:
The subspecies in Sierra de la Sagra is considered by some as a separate species (P. sagratox).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is restricted to two mountain chains in Southern Spain, where it occurrs in 9 locations. The area of occupancy (AOO) is 16 km² and it is threatened by tourism development. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable under criterion D2.

range:
This species occurs only in the south of Spain, in the Sierra Nevada at 2,500-3,000 m and Sierra de la Sagra at 1,700-2350 m elevation. This is a European endemic species. Recently the populations in the Sierra de la Sagra (formerly described as Polyommatus sagratrox) have been assigned to this species causing the duplication of the area of occupancy (AOO) for taxonomic reasons.

population:
The Nevada Blue is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.

habitat:
In the Sierra Nevada, the Nevada Blue can be found in open patches in dwarf Juniper scrub and on grassy vegetation growing between acid, slate rocks and schist. In the Sierra de la Sagra, the butterflies are found on dry, open calcareous slopes with short vegetation. Here, the climatic conditions are extreme, the ground being covered with snow for nine months of the year. One of the plants that can withstand these conditions, the kidney-vetch Anthyllis vulneraria, is the foodplant. The female lays its eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate in the ground in June. The later instars are often found in the company of ants. Habitats: screes (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).

threats:
This species has a very restricted range. Its main threat comes from the building of tourist infrasructure and tourist activities. Considering its limited distribution it might become threatened in the long term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al. 2008) there is no information on possible changes to the climate envelope.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.


range:
Occurs only in Europe. Found in Spain (eastern coast and southern foothills of the Pyrenees), France from the Eastern Pyrenees via the Provence as far as the Alps and northwards via Ardèche to the Jura and northwestern Italy in coastal areas as far as North Tuscany. Found at altitudes from 0-1,200 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Provence Chalkhill Blue occurs on dry, calcareous soils covered with a flower-rich grassy vegetation, often with scattered bushes. Eggs are laid on Horseshoe-vetch (Hippocrepis comosa). The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera Plagiolepis and Crematogaster. The Provence Chalkhill Blue has two generations a year and the butterflies can be seen as late as October. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This is an endemic species from the northwest of Italy (Aosta), where it is only found at three locations. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km² and the species is reported to be declining. Therefore this species is classified as Endangered at the European and EU27 level.

range:
This species only occurs in the Valle d'Aosta in the Italian Alps, where there are at most five populations. It occurs at 800-1,000 m elevation, sometimes as high as 1,600 m. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km² and the extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km². This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Piedmont Anomalous Blue occurs on warm, dry, rocky slopes with groups of bushes and patches of grassy, species-rich vegetation, where nectar is abundant. The female lays its eggs on Mountain Sainfoin (Onobrychis montana) and Sainfoin (O. viciifolia). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and when still small, hibernate. In spring, they are attended by ants. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The species has a restricted range and very limited dispersal possibilities. The main direct threats come from grassland abandonment, causing shrubs and trees to invade the habitat. It is uncertain whether trade in collected specimens is an additional threat.

conservationAction:
Using a butterfly-net is strictly forbidden in the Pondel-site, which supports the main population. Controls appear to be very efficient. The remaining sites should be well managed and the species should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species is listed on the Bern Convention Annex 2.


range:
This species is widespread and common all over Europe. This species occurs locally on the Canary Islands. It is absent from Madeira and the Azores. 0-3,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Middle East and temperate Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Spain, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Common Blue is a very common butterfly. It looks rather like Chapman's Blue (P. thersites). It can be found on most types of grassy vegetation, ranging from quite dry, nutrient-poor grassland to moderately damp meadows. The female lays its eggs on a variety of leguminous plants, including Common Birdsfoot–trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). The caterpillars feed on the leaves. They are attended by ants of the genera Lasius, Formica, Myrmica, Tapinoma and Plagiolepis. When half-grown, the caterpillars may hibernate in the litter layer. In hot climates, aestivation also takes place, in the egg or larval stage. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer. Depending on the geographical position and altitude of the breeding ground, the Common Blue has one to three (or occasionally even more) generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is considered as Not Applicable, as Europe is at the margin of its global distribution. However, at the Greek level, it might be considered as Endangered owing to its rarity (restricted to one population on Mt. Chelmos, the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km², and experts reporting it is becoming extremely rare and now only known from two locations) and reported decline.

range:
In Europe, it only occurs on Mt. Chelmos and its surroundings in the south of Greece. Mostly 1,100-1,700 m but sometimes seen at lower altitudes (but not lower than 500 m). It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasus. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The Chelmos Blue is found in dry open, calcareous places with a short vegetation, sometimes also in open patches in scrub or in woodland clearings. The females seldom leave their breeding ground, but the males roam outside it, for example, searching for patches of moist ground. The sainfoin Onobrychis alba is used as foodplant. Overgrazing by goats can form a threat for this butterfly; the only foodplants that survive are those growing amongst thorny plants. The caterpillars are attended by ants. The Chelmos Blue has one generation a year and hibernates when still a small caterpillar, under a stone. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).

threats:
The species has a restricted range, though it is more widespread outside Europe. The species is treatened by overgrazing as well as abandonment.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and the ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
A European endemic, only occurring in the border area of Bulgaria and Greece. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than100 km². There are probably fewer than 10 locations. No information on trends or fluctuations is available, and the species is therefore classified as Near Threatened.

range:
The Higgins’s Anomalous Blue occurs locally in mountains in northern Greece and rarely in bordering mountainous area of southern Bulgaria. It occurs mostly between 1,500-2,000 m, sometimes at lower altitudes. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Higgins’s Anomalous Blue is a mountain butterfly, found above the tree-line on flower-rich, calcareous grasslands. The males tend to roam outside their usual habitat. Onobrychis montana ssp. scardica, a sainfoin that only grows in the Balkans, is used as foodplant. The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small, the following spring feeding on the young leaves of the sainfoin (an Eurasian perennial herb). They are often found with ants. Higgins’s Anomalous Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), screes (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%).

threats:
Probably threatened by intensified grazing, abandonment and wildfires, but much is still unknown.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of more than 98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used (GRAS-scenario). This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO² emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models and (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach. The species might be endangered in the long term by climate change.

range:
This species has a scattered distribution across Spain, particularly in the east: from the south (vicinity of Granada and Murcia), via central Spain (area of Sierra de Guadarrama, surroundings of Cuenca and Teruel) to the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mts. It occurs between 200-2,100 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Mother-of-pearl Blue occurs in flower-rich grasslands and on warm, dry chalk rocks with scattered patches of grassy vegetation and occasional bushes. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of Kidney-vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria), seeming to prefer smaller plants. The small caterpillars go into hibernation and after feeding and growing further, they pupate at the end of the spring on the ground. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the species Tapinoma nigerrimum. The Mother-of-pearl Blue has one generation a year. Habitats include dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), inland cliff sand exposed rocks (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%).

threats:
Direct short-term threats come from large scale wood plantations (Eucalyptus). In the longer term this species might become threatened because of climate change.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is restricted to the border area of Bulgaria and Greece. In Greece, it is considered to be one of the most endangered butterfly species. Recently experts could only find a few specimens. The main site was largely destroyed by a quarry in 2008. The foodplant, Onobrychis alba, is extremely local, growing only on marble. At present there is only one known population, with a handful of butterflies, on the verge of extinction in Greece. After grazing with sheep has stopped, open habitats have become very restricted, mostly along forest roads and on steep rocky places, usually with tall grass. In Bulgaria this endemic is very local, relatively rare and has an extremely small range. The total number of locations is probably fewer than ten. The species is therefore considered as Vulnerable.

range:
This species is endemic to the Rhodopi mountains. Most of its range is in Bulgaria, but it is known from a single locality in Greece. Its area of occurrence (AOO) is estimated to be 16 km² (12 km² in Bulgaria, 4 km² in Greece). It occurs between 300-1,500 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A very local species, restricted to few locations with good quality habitat in the border area of Bulgaria and Greece. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Greece (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The species occurs on dry, rocky, often steep places in calcareous areas. The hostplant is Onobrychis alba (Fabaceae) (Lafranchis et al. 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This is a rare European endemic with a very restricted range. The remaining populations are threatened by abandonment, causing the open habitats to disappear and shrubs to invade. The Greek population has been almost destroyed by a quarry.

conservationAction:
More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species . This will make clear what management is needed for the last populations. First indications are that it is important to keep open dry clearings at montane-subalpine levels (Lafranchis et al., 2007). Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed and strictly protected. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Greece, the species only occurs in protected areas but these do not always seem to be effective at stopping habitat destruction.


redListCategoryRationale:
No information is available on the population size, trends and on the threats. It is therefore considered as Data Deficient.

range:
This species is restricted to the Crimea (Tuzov 2000, Gordunov 2001). This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This butterfly species is restricted to the Crimea where it can be found on rather large scree slopes. The butterflies are difficult to detect. The population density is low. In addition, they prefer to sit on the rock or stay perched on low growing plants rather than fly. They are very sedentary and always come back to particular micro-sites. These are often windy places. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of Hedysarum spp. There is one generation a year (Butterflies of Crimea website 2009). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
A rare endemic, for which almost no information is available on the status and threats.

conservationAction:
More research on distribution and ecology is needed. Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, this species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining by more than 25% in the last ten years. In the EU27 countries, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, it is classified as Near Threatened within the EU27.

range:
This species occurs scattered in South and East Europe: in the south, central and north of Spain, southeast of France (from Ardèche to the Alps and Provence), northwest of Italy, south of Poland and the south of the Balkans (from Bosnia and Herzegovina to Greece). 1,000 -1,800 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, south of Siberia, Tian Shan and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Ripart’s Anomalous Blue is mostly found on dry, grassy places with bushes. Different sainfoins are used as foodplant, such as Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia), O. arenaria, Rock Sainfoin (O. saxatilis) and O. alba. The female lays its eggs on the flowers. The caterpillars hibernate when still small. They are often attended by ants, usually of the genera Crematogaster, Camponotus and Lasius. The Ripart’s Anomalous Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (56%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), mixed woodland (6%).


range:
This species occurs in the south of Europe as far as central Germany and central Poland, south and east of France, the eastern half of Spain and the south of Portugal. 0-1,700 m. It is also found in Turkey, the Middle East, Iran, Southern Urals and Tian Shan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Chapman's Blue looks very much like the Common Blue (P. icarus). It occurs in warm, dry places, such as calcareous and nutrient-poor grasslands, fields of sainfoin and abandoned agricultural land. Eggs are laid on Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and in Greece also on Cockscomb Sainfoin (O. caput-galli). The caterpillars feed on soft parts of the leaflets, leaving the veins. The small caterpillars go into hibernation and in those parts of the range with hot climates, the egg goes into aestivation. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera Lasius, Formica, Myrmica and Tapinoma and hide in the litter layer and pupate. Chapman's Blue usually has two generations a year, but in the south of the range also three. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), heath and scrub (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species occurs in two locations only, and has an area of occupancy (AOO) of 8 km². It is unclear if the species is declining or fluctuating, as no population research has been done so far. It is threatened by reafforestation, overgrazing and fires and is therefore listed as Vulnerable D2.

range:
The Andalusian Anomalous Blue is restricted to two mountain ranges in the region of Andalusia, Spain (Sierra de Tejeda and Sierra de Almijara), between 1,500 - 1,600 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, it is restricted to locations with good quality habitat in Andalusia (Spain).

habitat:
The Andalusian Anomalous Blue occurs in warm places in mountain ranges, where flower-rich areas can be found. The foodplant is Sainfoin (Onobrychis argentea). The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small, and feed on the flowers and leaves of the foodplant. Often they are encountered together with ants of the genera Camponotus and Plagiolepis. The habitat is a short Mediterranean scrub growing on calcareous substrate. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
Reafforestation, overgrazing and fires are the major threats for the species. The habitat of the species is however within a Natural Park.

conservationAction:
More research on the distribution and ecology of this species is urgently needed. Since this species has a very restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in the lower region of the Volga River, Kazakhstan, Turkmenisat, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, locally in West China. 300-1,200 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly species occurs in local populations in sandy deserts. The females lay the eggs singly on the shoots of Calligonum species. The caterpillars feed on both flowers and buds. This species produces one generation a year. The pupa hibernates (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). It was first found in Europe in 1998 (Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs locally in south and central Spain and south of Portugal. 100-1,500 m. It is also found in North Africa and West Arabia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The False Baton Blue is found in stony areas with flower-rich vegetation and scrub. The foodplant in Europe is Cleonia lusitanica. The caterpillars feed on flower buds and the overwintering stage is the pupae. Larvae are regularly attended by Plagiolepis and Crematogaster ants. In Europe, It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).


range:
Occurs only on Sardinia (Monti del Gennargentu). Found at altitudes from 800-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Sardinian Blue occurs on dry, rocky, mountainous slopes and on flowery patches in open scrub. Various species of thyme (Thymus spp.) are used as foodplant. The Sardinian Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: phrygana (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


range:
Occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, in France, south and central Germany, Switzerland, Czech Republic, western Austria and Italy. Found at altitudes from 0-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Poland. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Baton Blue can be found on dry, grassy and flower-rich vegetation, especially on warm patches. They are often seen on flowers, drinking nectar. The females lay their eggs on the flowers and leaf stalks of various species of thyme (Thymus spp.), savory (Satureja spp.), lavender (Lavandula spp.) and mint (Mentha spp.). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and developing seeds of the foodplant. They are attended by Myrmica scabrinodis and Lasius alienus ants, but workers from other ant species may visit them, too. The Baton Blue passes the winter as a caterpillar or a pupa and has two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), dry siliceous grasslands (22%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), heath and scrub (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), phrygana (5%).


range:
This species occurs very locally in Southeast Europe: in the northwestern part of Romania, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia and northwest and south of Greece. It is also found on the Crimea and in Turkey, Caucasus and Northwest Africa. 600-1,100 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania, Serbia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Bavius Blue occurs on flower-rich, dry grassland, on dry, stony slopes and on open patches in shrub and in vineyards on calcareous soil. Various species of Salvia are used as foodplant, including Sage (S. officinalis), S. nutans, S. verbenaca and Whorled Clary (S. verticillata). The caterpillars feed mostly on the flowers, but sometimes also on the leaves. They are frequently found with ants. The Bavius Blue has one generation a year. The pupa hibernates. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), phrygana (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), screes (10%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. It is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Greece. Not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Romania. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species is present in the northwestern part of Kazakhstan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly species is mostly found in small and scattered populations in steppe and semi-desert habitat in calcareous outcrops. The female deposits the eggs on the flowers and newly formed bean pods of various Astragalus species. The caterpillars feed on the seeds. They are often attended by ants. This species has one generation a year. Hibernation takes place in the pupal stage (Tuzov, 2,000; Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of more than 98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used (GRAS-scenario). This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO² emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models, (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach as the species might be endangered in the long term by climate change and (iii) a population decline is already observed in most of its range.

range:
Restricted to Portugal and Spain (south of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees), between 600–1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
An abundant species throughout its range. Declines in distribution or population size of 6–30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Panoptes Blue resembles the Baton Blue very closely. It is also found in dry, scrubby and flower-rich places. The foodplants are Thymus zygis, T. vulgaris and T. mastichina. The species has one generation a year and the habitat can be described as low scrub with Salvia, Lavandula or Rosmarinus and open areas within sclerophyllous woodlands. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species might be susceptible to climate change in the long term.

conservationAction:
The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be undertaken to safeguard the species. More research on distribution and ecology is needed.


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Eastern Europe: from the south of Finland and the Baltic States, via southeast Germany, East Austria and Northeast Italy and further eastwards in the Balkans as far as Greece, on many Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1,900 m. It is furthermore present through Turkey and central Asia to China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to areas with good habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Estonia, Romania, Slovenia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This blue is found on dry grassland on sandy or stony soils, south-facing slopes with grassy vegetation, on steep slopes, in rocky gullies, on railway embankments, on road verges and in scrub. Various species of thyme (Thymus spp.) and savory (Satureja spp.) are used as foodplant, the eggs being mostly laid on the flowerheads. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds and are often found with ants, amongst other Myrmica sabuleti. This butterfly species has two generations a year. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), coniferous woodland (8%), heath and scrub (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), phrygana (5%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly, but abandonment is the most direct threat at the moment.


range:
This species occurs up to 49° N in France and up to 51° N in Germany and Poland. It is absent from the south of Italy, the Mediterranean islands, Portugal and Spain (except in the north and Montes Universales). 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Germany, Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Sloe Hairstreak is found in dry scrub in woods, at wood margins, or in the open landscape. They are also seen in abandoned vineyards on calcareous soils. When looking for nectar, the butterflies seem to prefer white flowers. Blackthorn or Sloe (Prunus spinosa) is practically the only foodplant of the Sloe Hairstreak and eggs are laid on branches that are in the sun. The small caterpillars stay in the egg until after the winter, emerging in spring and feeding on the young Blackthorn leaves. When fully-grown, they leave the foodplant to pupate on the ground in leaf litter. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (30%), heath and scrub (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (5%).


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Spain and Portugal (except the northwestern coastal area), in the southeast of France from the eastern Pyrenees to the French Alps and adjacent part of the Italian Alps. It is also found on the Balearic Islands and Northwest Africa. 0-1,300 m. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The False Ilex Hairstreak can be found in dry scrub, open, deciduous woodland, or in mixed woodland. The butterflies can often be seen drinking nectar on thyme. The females lay their eggs on various oak species, including the Holm Oak (Quercus ilex), Common or Pedunculate Oak (Q. robur), Kermes or Holly Oak (Q. coccifera) and Pyrenean Oak (Q. pyrenaica). The small caterpillars only emerge from the egg the following spring, when they start eating the young oak leaves. The ant species Camponotus cruentatus has been found to attend the small caterpillars. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (20%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (20%), fallow land, waste places (10%), urban parks and large gardens (10%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%).


range:
This species occurs locally in most Central European countries. In Scandinavia, it is only present in the extreme South, in Spain and Portugal, it is local. It is absent from Britain, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete. 0-1,600 m. It is also found in Turkey, the Middle East, Urals and Northwest Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Ilex Hairstreak occurs locally at woodland edges and in coppices with warm, dry oak scrub. The female lays its eggs on small oak trees. The tiny caterpillar hibernates in the egg, or in the first larval instar. It feeds on the young oak leaves, eventually pupating in the litter layer under the foodplant. Both Camponotus and Crematogaster ants occasionally visit the caterpillars. The adult butterflies need nectar, feeding on flowering Common Privet (Ligustrum vulgare) and on bramble blossom (Rubus spp.). It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (45%), heath and scrub (15%), mixed woodland (13%).


range:
In Europe, it occurs only on the Greek island Samos. 1,000-1,400 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Iran and Transcaucasus. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The Orange-banded Hairstreak occurs above 1,000 m on open, dry, calcareous slopes with short vegetation and in dry scrub. The eggs are laid on the woody stems of Atraphaxis billardieri, a member of the Polygonaceae. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of the foodplants. The Orange-banded Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).


range:
This species occurs from the extreme south of Finland and the south of Sweden to the north of Italy and the Balkans, except the Mediterranean coastal regions. In France, it is present in the Southeast to the east of the Pyrenees. In central England, there are local populations. 200-750 m. It is furthermore present east to Mongolia, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Black Hairstreak can be found in habitats with Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) bushes. This may be in moderately dry woodland, or in a hedgerow, or on a woodbank, but it also occurs on solitary groups of Blackthorn bushes. Places with brambles are favourable, providing the nectar the butterflies need. The eggs are laid on Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), but sometimes other Prunus species are used. The female chooses twigs that will flower the next spring. The small caterpillars that develop, pass the winter in the eggshell. When they emerge, they feed on the buds and flowers. When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they pupate. The black and white pupa, suspended in a silken girdle from a twig, looks very like a bird dropping, an attempt to avoid predation. The Black Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), mixed woodland (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), heath and scrub (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (5%).


range:
This species occurs in South and Central Europe to about 54° N. It is absent from northwestern France, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, large parts of Italy and most Mediterranean islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Moldova and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Blue-spot Hairstreak can be found in sunny, warm places, on groups of bushes, or on scrub at the edge of a wood, with some flowering vegetation as nectar source nearby. The female lays its eggs on various buckthorns (Rhamnus spp.), choosing branches located in the sun. The small caterpillar only emerges in spring, having passed the winter in the eggshell. It immediately starts to eat buds and young leaves. When fully-grown, it pupates on the foodplant, the pupa suspended by a silken girdle. The Blue-spot Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), heath and scrub (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (7%).


range:
This species occurs from South Scandinavia to the extreme north of Spain. It is also found in the south of Britain. It is absent from European Turkey and the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. 100-1,300 m. Further east to Kazakhstan and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Hungary, Latvia, Romania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The White-letter Hairstreak usually occurs where there is a group of elm (Ulmus spp.) trees, either growing in a wood, sometimes even in the centre of a large town. However, there are populations known that occupy a solitary tree. The eggs are laid on the wood at the base of the flower buds, the female favouring terminal buds situated at the top of the tree. The small caterpillar stays inside the egg during the winter months, emerging in spring, boring its way into a flowerbud. It feeds on flowerbuds and flowers, but not on leaves. A non-flowering tree is therefore not a suitable foodplant. The caterpillars are sometimes attended by ants of Lasius or Formica species. They pupate in the litter layer under the tree. The White-Letter Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (39%), mixed woodland (18%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).


range:
This species occurs locally in the northeastern part of Spain, south of France, Italy, Southeast Europe and the south of Norway, of Sweden and of Finland. 0-2,000 m. It is also found through Turkey and central Asia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. This species has a large, but discontinuous distribution over Europe. It is declining in North and Central Europe, more or less stable in South Europe. Decrease in Central Europe might be over-estimated, since the species can survive for a long time on small and isolated patches. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Norway, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Chequered Blue, a small but conspicuous butterfly, can be seen on warm and rocky slopes and narrow ledges, where there is little vegetation, apart from its foodplants White Stonecrop (Sedum album) and Orpine (Sedum telephium). The females lay their eggs on the leaves of the foodplant near the stem. The caterpillars are often found with ants. The pupa overwinters and is often hidden under stones or in small hollows in the ground near the foodplant. The Chequered Blue produces one or two generations a year, depending on its geographical position. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (23%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), screes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), phrygana (5%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by abandonment of grasslands and shrub invasion on dry, rocky slopes.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although the species shows a decline in some part of its range (strongest declines reported from Bosnia, Albania and the European part of Turkey), it is not considered threatened by experts, as its habitat and foodplants are common in Meditteranean shrubland and maquies in Southeast Europe. Therefore, it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe from the coastal areas of Croatia down to Albania and northeast Bulgaria, FYR of Macedonia, north and central Greece, Corfu and Cyprus. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Middle East and central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas where Paliuris spina-christi occurs. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Little Tiger Blue is mostly found where its foodplant Christ's Thorn (Paliurus spina-christi) is growing, in open scrub and in agricultural areas where it is used as hedging plant. On Cyprus, it also occurs on another prickly plant, Jujube (Ziziphus lotus). The caterpillars eat from the underside of the leaves, making parallel grooves that look like translucent “windows” from above. Because of their quick flight and small size, these butterflies are not easy to observe. They have several generations a year and hibernate in the pupal stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (55%), phrygana (44%).


range:
In Europe, it occurs only in coastal areas of southeast Spain (between Granada and Murcia). 0-2,500 m. It is also found in north and central Africa and southwest Arabia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The markings on the underside of its wings make the Common Tiger Blue an eye-catching butterfly. It breeds in warm, dry, scrubby vegetation, spending much of its time on the foodplants Christ’s Thorn (Paliurus spina-christi) and Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba), that are usually plentiful where it lives. The caterpillars betray their presence by the translucent “windows” that they make by hollowing out grooves on the underside of the leaves. The Common Tiger Blue has several generations a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).


range:
This species occurs in Central Europe, from Scandinavia to the north of Spain. It is absent from large parts of Italy and the Mediterranean islands. 50-1,500 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Hungary, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Switzerland, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Brown Hairstreak occurs in scrub, along hedges near deciduous woodland and in parks, but the butterfly is rarely seen. However, the eggs that are laid at the base of the buds of various Prunus species are easy to find. In winter the pearly-white eggs show up on the bare twigs of the shrubs or trees. The egg, thus, hibernates, hatching in spring. The small caterpillar bores its way into a bud, hollowing it out, later on also eating the leaves of the foodplant. Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) is often used, but also cultivated species of Prunus, such as plum and cherry trees. The caterpillars pupate in the shrub layer under the tree serving as foodplant. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (29%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (18%), mixed woodland (14%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), heath and scrub (6%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme by counting the eggs in winter.


range:
This species occurs scattered in south and central Portugal and Spain as far north as Castilia and northeast as far as the Pyrenees. In France, it is only present along the Mediterranean coast from the Rhône estuary to the Maritime Alps. 0-1,300 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Provence Hairstreak can be found on abandoned agricultural land, especially on calcareous soils, in abandoned vineyards and bushy areas. Various leguminous plants are used as larval foodplant, mainly of the genera Anthyllis, Dorycnium, Trifolium, Astragalus, Medicago, Ornithopus and Lotus. The female deposits its eggs singly on the unopened leaves. The caterpillars are sometimes attended by ants, e.g. Plagiolepis pygmaea. This butterfly species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a pupa in the soil. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), fallow land, waste places (16%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. This species is absent from the EU27 member states.

range:
This species occurs from South Europe and Kazakhstan to Asia Minor, west of Tian Shan, Crimea, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan. Up to 1,400 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
Being very conspicuous with its orange spots on the wings, this butterfly will be easily spotted on dry rocky places and on hills with a steppe-like vegetation or in deserts. The female deposits the eggs on Astragalus vulpinus or A. leptostachys. The tiny caterpillars first feed on the flowers, in the later instars they change to feeding on seeds. This beautiful butterfly has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), screes (20%), mixed woodland (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has disappeared from Romania and Moldova before 1999. It now only occurs in the Ukraine, where it is declining. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km². A decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, it is listed as Vulnerable. It is extinct in the EU27 countries.

range:
This species occurs in Romania, Moldova, the Ukraine and the Asian part of Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The species occurs in small isolated colonies in Southeast Europe. The last records from Romania are dating from the 1980's, although there are rumours that it has been found again. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine. Situation in Moldova unclear (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Nogel’s Hairstreak inhabits very open, dry woodland, dry grasslands in woodland areas and steep slopes. Its main larval foodplant is the milk-vetch Astragalus ponticus. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (60%), phrygana (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).

threats:
Tomares nogelii is a habitat specialist, extremely monophagous and has a highly fragmented distribution, of which little is known. Tourist activities and agricultural improvement have diminished many populations. The remaining populations are mainly threatened by changes in agricultural practices.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species occured only in protected areas in Romania. Protecting the remaing sites from further destruction should be a priority.


range:
This species occurs from the southeastern Urals across Siberia, northeast Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the north of China to Sakhalin, Korea, Japan (Tuzov 2000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Tongeia fisheri occurs on dry stony slopes on small hills and slopes in mountains at about 800-2,000 m. It is also found in rocky river and stream valleys and on glades in coniferous forests. Larval foodplants are Orostachys spinosa, O. malacophylla, Sedum spp and Pseudosedum spp. This species produces two generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is restricted to a few sites in Greece (less than five locations). The habitat is being destroyed. The larval foodplant apparently has a very restricted distribution. Therefore, it is classified as Endangered in Europe and the EU27 countries.

range:
This species occurs in the south of Greece on Mt. Chelmos and in Taijetos Mts. 1,500-2,300 m. It is also found in Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Odd-spot Blue occurs in dry, calcareous places covered with low-growing shrubs. The butterflies are frequently seen drinking the nectar from flowers, especially thyme. The male butterflies sometimes leave their usual habitat in their search for damp patches of ground. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of Acantholimon androsaceum (Plumbaginaceae). The Odd-spot Blue often shares its habitat with Fiery Copper (Lycaena thetis), its caterpillars using the same species of foodplant. The Odd-spot Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).

threats:
This species has a restricted European distribution. It is threatened by changes in the agricultural practices (mainly abandonment), quarrying and tourist activities. It is also a popular butterfly for collectors, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline. Due to its limited distribution, it might get threatened on the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.


range:
This species occurs in Western Sicily, Malta, some Aegean Islands and Crete, Turkey, Cyprus, West Asia and North Africa. Up to 800 m (Pamperis 1997, Lafranchis 2004). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This tiny butterfly occurs on hot meadows and clearings close to the sea. It flies low to the ground and is easily overlooked. The female lays the eggs on Oxalis spp. The species produces several generations a year (Pamperis, 1997). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs scattered over the Iberian Peninsula, Spain (particularly on the south coast, locally on the east coast and inland (Castilian Plateau, Cantabrian Mts.)) and North and Central Portugal. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Australia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

population:
This species is widespread in Southwest Europe.

habitat:
The African Grass Blue is a modest little blue, that flies close to the ground. It is a species of dry grassland, road verges, waste ground and gardens, but sometimes butterflies are found in damp, shady places. Various medicks are used as foodplant, such as Lucerne (Medicago sativa), Tree Medick (M. arborea), Small Medick (M. minima), Black Medick (M. lupulina) and possibly various Oxalis species. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genus Pheidole. The African Grass Blue has two or more generations a year, but passes the winter as a caterpillar. There are only a few butterflies in the first generation. Habitats: fallow land, waste places (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), urban parks and large gardens (25%).


range:
This species is restricted to Corsica and Sardinia. Found at altitudes from 700-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to Corsica and Sardinia.

habitat:
This species replaces the Small Tortoiseshell (A. urticae) on the Islands of Corsica and Sardinia. It may be found in nearly all habitats but only in mountainous area at altitudes higher than 700 m. The larval foodplant is Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica). It is double-generationed. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. More research to distribution and ecology is needed.


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 64° N in Scandinavia. In Spain, it is present only in the northern half and the Sierra Nevada. Sea level-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the whole temperate zone of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In temperate Europe, the Peacock is one of the best-known butterflies, because of its striking appearance and common occurrence. There is no other diurnal butterfly with such noticeable eye-spots on the upperside of its wings. In good years, the Peacock can be present in large numbers. It is often seen in gardens and parks on herbaceous borders and flowering shrubs, looking for nectar. Eggs are laid on Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) in damp, shady places, sometimes at edges of woodland. Occasionally, Hop (Humulus lupulus) is also used. The caterpillar is black with branched black spines and many tiny white spots. It looks similar to the caterpillar of the Map (Araschnia levana), but has prominent spines or thorns on its head. The caterpillars live gregariously in flimsy webs. Sometimes, plants are completely covered with spun silk, which serves as a home for tens of caterpillars. They leave the web to pupate on the foodplant. The adult butterfly goes into hibernation, hiding in cold lofts and sheds. There can be as many as three generations a year, depending on the geographical position and the weather conditions. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mixed woodland (7%), mesophile grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%).


range:
This is a common butterfly all over Europe. It is absent from the Atlantic islands and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Sea level-3,000 m. It is also found in Asia Minor and Central Asia, Siberia to the Pacific Ocean, China, Mongolia and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Spain and the Netherlands (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Tortoiseshell is a common and welcome guest in parks and gardens and is sometimes very abundant. It occurs in low numbers in nearly all habitats. Its only foodplant is Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica). The foodplants are often growing on nutrient-rich, disturbed ground in the sun, such as in rough vegetation at the edges of meadows treated with manure or fertilizer. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of the nettle leaves. The caterpillars are gregarious, living in flimsy webs until they go their separate ways in the last larval instar. The caterpillar of the Small Tortoiseshell is black with two shiny yellow lines along the side of its back and bristly with yellowy-green spines. It forms its pupa on the foodplants. The Small Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly and can often be found in the cold months hiding in houses or sheds. It is one of the first butterflies to be seen in spring. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (11%), towns, villages, industrial sites (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), fallow land, waste places (7%), mixed woodland (7%).


range:
This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It does not occur in Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, North Germany and the Mediterranean islands. In Portugal only in Minho, in Spain, it is restricted to the Cantabrian Mountains, Huesca, Catalonia and western Pyrenees. This species is not present in the south of Italy, and is found in Greece only in the northwestern part of the country. 300-1,500 m. It is also found in Northeast China, Japan and Korea, excluding Transcaucasia, Middle Asia and Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Luxembourg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lesser Purple Emperor is found in clearings and along paths in damp, deciduous woodland that is often situated in river valleys or on the banks of rivers. The butterflies are often seen near puddles on the road and on dung from other animals. Especially the males are attracted to strongly smelling cheese. Its foodplants are poplars (Populus spp.) and willows (Salix spp.). The female, choosing rather small, not so robust trees, deposits its eggs on the upperside of leaves that are half in the shade, or in the sun. The caterpillars usually lie along the nerve in the middle of the leaves, nibbling the rest of the leaf away more or less symmetrically. The half-grown caterpillar spins a little pad in the fork of a twig on which it hibernates. In spring, it returns to the fresh buds and leaves to feed. It pupates suspended from the underside of a leaf or branch. To the north of the Alps and at high altitudes, the Lesser Purple Emperor has one generation a year, but in warm valleys and south of the Alps, it can have two generations a year. There is a striking form, clythie, in which the white of the markings on the upperside of the wings is largely replaced by pale orange. It forms a proportion of most populations and is sometimes common. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (31%), mixed woodland (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (23%), water-fringe vegetation (5%).


range:
This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It does not occur in Ireland and the Mediterranean islands. In Portugal only in Minho, in Spain, it is restricted to the Cantabrian Mts., Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra de la Themanda and the Pyrenees. In Italy it is present only in the north, and in Greece, only in the northwest. In Great Britain and Sweden, it is restricted to the south. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Luxembourg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Purple Emperor inhabits damp, mature, deciduous woods with clearings in them. These woods often have different tree species, stream valleys and woodland rides. Male butterflies are often seen near puddles on the road and on the dung of other animals. They are also attracted to strongly smelling cheese. The males and females meet each other at the top of master oaks, or other old trees that are taller than the rest, situated at the margin of the woods. Various willows (Salix spp.) are used as foodplants, the female depositing its eggs preferably at the top of the tree, on the upperside of shaded leaves. The caterpillars often lie along the main nerve of the leaves, nibbling off the rest of the leaf more or less symmetrically. The half-grown caterpillar spins a small cushion in the fork of a twig on which it hibernates. In spring, it resumes feeding on the buds and fresh young leaves. It pupates, suspended from the underside of a leaf and has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (35%), mixed woodland (26%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (15%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).


range:
This species occurs locally in Southeast Europe along the bigger rivers, particularly along the Danube and its tributaries Tisza, Drava and Sava. It is also present in the south of Hungary, the east of Croatia, the north of Bosnia, the northwest of Serbia and of Albania. It is scattered in Bulgaria, southeastern Romania and in the extreme northeast of Greece. 0-650 m. It is furthermore present through West Siberia to Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Freyer’s Purple Emperor is a butterfly of very warm, damp places. The butterflies can be found along wooded riverbanks, with its foodplant, White Willow (Salix alba). The males and females meet each other at the tops of tall trees and the females lay their eggs in small batches at the top of the tree, on leaves in the crown. The caterpillars grow quickly and pupate suspended under a leaf or on a twig. The caterpillars from the generation that follows, hibernate. The butterflies have a varied diet. The females visit flowers for nectar, aphids for honeydew and ripe fruit for the sugars. The males are often found on damp ground, on dung and on carrion. The butterflies are also attracted to sap oozing from wounded trees. This species has two generations a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (23%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (23%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), water-fringe vegetation (17%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central European species. It does not occur on the Mediterranean islands, in Portugal, Spain except the Cantabrian Mountains to the eastern Pyrenees, almost all Italy, south and central Greece, north of Scotland, and in the north of Scandinavia. Sea level-1,600 m. Across temperate Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Moldova and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Ringlet can be found in grassy places with bushes, woodland clearings and on grasslands bordering woods. The habitats vary from dry to rather wet, such as at the edge of a raised bog. The butterflies are avid visitors of such flowers as thistles, knapweed and other plants rich in nectar. The caterpillars feed on nutrient-rich grasses, such as cock’s-foot (Dactylus spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.), fescues (Festuca spp.) and cat’s-tails (Phleum spp.). The female usually just releases her eggs, letting them fall into the vegetation, either while perched or in flight. The caterpillars hibernate, hidden in a grass tussock and when they resume feeding, only do so at night. They also pupate deep down in the vegetation. The Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).

conservationAction:
In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central European species, absent from the northwest and southeast of France, Scandinavia, Britain and Italy. In Spain, it is only found in the eastern Pyrenees. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in the temperate forest zone of Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It has expanded its original range spectacularly since the middle of the 20th century both in northern and southern direction. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Map is a common butterfly of woodland edges, coppices, hedgerows and wood banks. It has two generations a year. The butterflies of the spring generation are predominantly orange and those of the summer generation predominantly black on the upperside of the wings. In warm years, there may be a partial third generation that in colour is somewhere between the spring and summer form. The Map gets its name from the intricate pattern on the underside of its wings. These butterflies enjoy basking in the sun with their wings wide open, often on the ground. The Map has a dainty floating flight, but it settles again quite quickly. The foodplants are Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) and Small Nettle (U. urens). The eggs are deposited in short chains on the underside of the nettle leaves and look very much like threaded pearls. The caterpillar is black with red-brown spines and two prominent spines or “horns” on its head capsule, absent in the caterpillar of the Peacock (Inachis io). The caterpillars are gregarious, but do not spin a nest. They pupate on the foodplants and pass the winter as a pupa. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), mixed woodland (17%), urban parks and large gardens (11%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mesophile grasslands (6%).


range:
This is a species of the south of Europe. This species occurs in Greece and the Balkans as far as northeast Italy, East Austria and Slovakia. It is also found on the Iberian Peninsula (except the south of Portugal and west of Galicia) and in France (Charente-Maritimes to Eure, Somme, Meurthe-et-Moselle and Haut-Rhin). Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco and the Caucasus, Asia Minor and the Middle East to Southwest Siberia and Tian-Shan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Germany. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The False Grayling is an inconspicuous butterfly. It occurs on warm, nutrient-poor grasslands, often situated near the edges of woodland or scrub, on both calcareous and acid soils. The female drops her eggs at random into the vegetation, leaving the young caterpillars to choose what to eat. They feed on different grasses, including Upright Brome (Bromus erectus), Gray Hair-grass (Corynephorus canescens), Tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum), Crested Dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) and fescues (Festuca spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar. They pupate in a grass tussock and have one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (36%), dry siliceous grasslands (26%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%), mesophile grasslands (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe up to 66° N. It is absent from Scotland, Ireland and the Mediterranean islands (except Sicily). 0-2,100 m. It is also found in the rest of the Palearctic, except for the extreme North and South. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The High Brown Fritillary occurs on woodland edges and in woodland clearings, where there is lush, rough vegetation with plenty of nectar plants. It is often seen together with the Silver-washed Fritillary (A. paphia) and the Dark Green Fritillary (A. aglaja). The eggs are laid on the leaves of violets (Viola spp.) and also on the bark of trees or dead leaves with violets growing near them. The tiny caterpillar remains within the egg during the winter and from about the beginning of March, hatches and starts feeding on violet leaves. It pupates on a twig or on a leaf close to the ground. The High Brown Fritillary has one generation a year. There is variation in colour, mainly of the underside of the hindwing. The different forms are common to rare in different parts of the range. A. a. cleodoxa, a form common in the Pyrenees, has a yellow hindwing with practically no pattern. To the south of the Pyrenees, A. a. cleodippe has clearly defined markings and hardly any green powdering. A. a. clorodippe, with the green underside of its hindwing and also with well-defined markings, is common in the south-east of its range and in mountainous areas. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%), mixed woodland (15%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).


range:
This species is widespread and common in all of Europe. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. 0-2,200 m. It is present in almost the whole Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Dark Green Fritillary can be found on many different types of flower-rich grasslands. The grassland is often situated in or at the edge of woodland and may be dry, calcareous or dune grassland, or damp grasslands along the edges of bogs. The eggs are laid on the often already withered leaf-stems of violets (Viola spp.). Directly after hatching, the small caterpillar prepares for hibernation, hiding itself in the litter layer until the spring. It then begins to feed on the fresh, new growth of the violet plants, continuing into the summer, when it pupates either in the moss layer, or under a tussock of grass. The caterpillars are quite mobile and visit several plants when feeding. The Dark Green Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), mixed woodland (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).


range:
Occurs in all mountainous areas of Corsica and Sardinia. On Corsica, common in the central mountains and on the mountain l'Incudine, on Sardinia in Monti del Gennargentu. Found at altitudes from 800-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Corsican Fritillary is a mountain butterfly, found on grassy vegetation in clearings in deciduous woods. The small caterpillars hatch out in spring and begin to feed on violets, preferring plants growing under juniper bushes. Among the foodplants mentioned in the literature are various Viola species, such as Wild Pansy (V. tricolor), Yellow Wood Violet (V. biflora), Pale Wood Violet (V. reichenbachiana) and V. corsica. The Corsican Fritillary has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. However, since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is an Eastern European species, occurring particularly in the Baltic States and scattered in the south of Finland, Poland, Hungary, the north of Romania and Slovakia. 0-500 m. It is also found in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary and Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Pallas’s Fritillary can be easily recognized by the noticeable jagged, white line, running across the underside of the hindwing. It can be found on damp, flower-rich grassland in open, or deciduous forests or mixed woods. Both males and females are fond of sucking nectar from bramble blossom. The caterpillars live on Marsh Violet (Viola palustris) and Heath Dog Violet (V. canina). It has one generation a year and passes the winter in the egg stage. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%), mixed woodland (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (6%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by changes in woodland management.


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the extreme south of Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean islands (except Sicily), coastal areas of Italy, Britain, Ireland and north Scandinavia. 0- 2,400 m. It is furthermore present east to West Siberia and from Turkey across Iran and Afghanistan to the Tian-Shan and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Niobe Fritillary occurs on poor, dry grassland, often with woodland or scrub nearby. The eggs are laid on the woody stock of violets (Viola spp.). The caterpillar develops quickly within the egg, but does not hatch until after hibernation. Staying hidden during the day, it feeds on the violet plants at night. It pupates low down in the vegetation. The Niobe Fritillary has one generation a year. The form eris, with no silver spots on the underside of its hind wings, occurs at very high altitudes. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), mesophile grasslands (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mixed woodland (10%), heath and scrub (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (6%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands. In some Western European countries, nitrogen deposition leads to a change in the vegetation structure of heathlands and coastal dunes, leading to local extinctions.


range:
This species occurs over almost all of South Europe; the northern edge of its range is the southwestern coast of France, the eastern Pyrenees and Drôme, the Italian Alps (although absent from large parts of the north of Italy), Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,600 m. It is furthermore present in North Africa and across Asia Minor and Central Asia to Pakistan and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range, and can colonize areas temporarily. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Cardinal is a woodland butterfly occurring at woodland edges and in glades with bushes and grassy, flower-rich vegetations. Like the Silver-washed Fritillary (A. paphia), these butterflies are often seen in places where plants rich in nectar, such as thistles, are plentiful. The Cardinal is a fast and powerful flyer, vagrants being sometimes observed outside the distribution range, in Switzerland, for example. The eggs are laid singly on the leaves of violets (Viola spp.). It hibernates as a small caterpillar and pupates in spring, suspended low down on the foodplant or on the nearby vegetation. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), mesophile grasslands (5%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the southern half of Spain, Scotland and the north of England, large parts of Denmark, north and central Norway, northern Sweden and northern Finland. 0-1,500 m. It is furthermore present across the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Tian-Shan, Siberia to the Amur; Turkey, Iran, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Silver-washed Fritillary is a large, conspicuous butterfly that is often present in large numbers. Needing a lot of nectar, they are often found on thistles at the edge of woodland. They also occur on rough vegetation in woodland clearings. The males have black streaks of scent-scales on their forewings. Unlike other butterflies, the eggs are not laid on the foodplant. Instead, the female deposits them singly on the branches and trunks of trees growing at woodland edges. As soon as they emerge from the egg in the late summer, the tiny caterpillar looks for somewhere to hibernate. In spring it starts looking for violets (Viola spp.), on which it feeds at night, hiding under the leaves of the foodplant during the day. It pupates on a stalk of a violet plant, or in a crevice in the bark of a tree. The Silver-washed Fritillary has one generation a year. The females come in two colour variations, the more usual, orange form and the heavily dusted, dark form valezina. In some populations this form is quite common, but in others very rare. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).


range:
This species occurs in the Tundra from the Polar Urals to eastern Chutkotka, in North America from Alaska to the North Territories of Canada. Up to 1,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Lowland or mountain tundra are the types of habitat where this butterfly can be found. At higher altitude, it also occurs on subalpine meadows. The caterpillars feed on Polygonum spp. and violets (Viola spp.). This species has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).


range:
This species occurs from Urals across north and central Siberia to East Yukatia, the Altai, the Sayan, the Amur and Ussuri regions and North Korea. Up to 2,200 m (Tuzov 2,000). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
Boloria angarensis is a butterfly species typical for bogs, clearings and edges of moist coniferours forests. The main foodplants are Vaccinium species. It produces one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gorbunov, 2001). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (100%).


range:
This species is widespread in the north of Europe. In Central Europe, the distribution is much more fragmented and the species occurs south to Central France, south of Switzerland, Central Austria and Slovakia. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Romania, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Cranberry Fritillary inhabits raised bogs and wet heaths, mostly in sheltered places at the edges of woods, or in clearings. Open water is often in the neighbourhood. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaves of Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) and Marsh Andromeda (Andromeda polifolia). The caterpillar goes into hibernation in the moss layer just after hatching, only beginning to feed and grow the following year. However, in adverse conditions, the caterpillar may hibernate a second time. It pupates low down in the vegetation. It is usually single-brooded. Habitats: raised bogs (43%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), blanket bogs (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).

conservationAction:
In the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is in decline (mainly in Central Europe) important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of >98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used GRAS-scenario. This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO2 emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models and (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach. The species might be endangered in the long run by climate change.

range:
In Europe, it only occurs north of 68° N in Lapland in the north of Scandinavia. 100-1,400 m. It is furthermore present east over the polar tundra of the Palearctic Region to Wrangel Island and Chukotka. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Of the typical arctic butterflies in Fennoscandia, this is one of the more widespread and more abundant ones. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Arctic Fritillary occurs in a harsh environment, the windy, dry, rocky tundra in the far north of Europe, with a vegetation of grass and dwarf shrubs. The foodplant is not certain, but Cassiope tetragon (Ericaceae) and violets (Viola spp.) may be used. The butterflies, that only appear for about two weeks a year, fly close to the ground, seeking the shelter of rocks or hollows. The Arctic Fritillary has one generation a year. The flight period is dependent on the weather. Usually the butterflies are on the wing starting from late June to early July, but the emergence may be delayed until early August in cold years. Habitats: heath and scrub (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%).

threats:
The species occurs in low densities and has strong population fluctuations. In the long run, the species might be threatened by climate change (Settele et al., 2008).


range:
This species occurs in Central Europe. It is absent from Ireland, Britain, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces and Cantabrian Mts.), south of Italy, the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and large parts of Greece. 500-1,600 m. It is furthermore present east to West and Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In the northern part of its range, the Weaver’s Fritillary can be found on warm slopes with open woodland, scrub and flower-rich grassland. More to the south, it is also found in damp, shady places. The eggs are laid singly on various violets (Viola spp.). The caterpillars hibernate when half-grown in the litter layer. They pupate deep down in the vegetation. Weaver’s Fritillary has two to three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), mixed woodland (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).


taxonomicNotes:
There are two sub-species, B. e. eunomia and B. e. ossiana.

range:
This species occurs locally mostly in North and East Europe: Finland, Sweden and Norway (except the coasts), the Baltic States. Further south, scattered populations are present in Spain (Cantabrian Mts.), France (the Pyrenees, Vosges and Ardennes), Belgium (Ardennes), Luxembourg, Germany (South and East and the Eifel), north of Italy, south of Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Stara Planina in Bulgaria and Serbia, Poland. 0-1,800 m. Recently found in Turkey. It is furthermore found in the temperate forest zone of the Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Bog Fritillary occurs on wet grasslands and marshy ground by streams, rivers, or lakes and at the edges of raised bogs. Sometimes, the area they occupy is very small. They can be seen beside streams, flying slowly back and forth between small patches where its foodplant Common Bistort (Polygonum bistorta) is growing. The small caterpillars live together in a loosely spun nest and hibernate when half-grown. However, the larger, later caterpillars are solitary and considerably more mobile, frequently leaving their foodplants in order to bask in the sun on another plant. The Bog Fritillary has one generation a year. There are two sub-species, the smaller, more brightly marked B. e. eunomia and B. e. ossiana, that occurs in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Baltic countries. The species' range in Central Europe is highly fragmented. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), raised bogs (26%), fens, transition mires and springs (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), blanket bogs (5%), water-fringe vegetation (5%).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe, it is absent from the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the eastern part of Italy, north of Denmark, east of Ireland, the Netherlands and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Sea level-2,000 m. It is furthermore found in the temperate zone of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct from the Netherlands since the 1960s. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland, Republic of Ireland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Pearl-bordered Fritillary occurs at the edges of woods and in clearings, in meadows and on pastures near scrub. Its habitats are usually dry and moderately rich in nutrients. The butterflies are quite mobile, leaving the habitat in search of nectar, visiting vegetation that ranges from very dry to wet. Most species of violet (Viola spp.) can be used as a foodplant. The female lays its eggs singly, either on a foodplant or on a neighbouring plant. The caterpillars feed on the violet leaves, hibernating in a rolled-up, withered leaf, when half-grown. It pupates on the foodplant, close to the ground. It has one to two generations a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), coniferous woodland (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), raised bogs (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).


range:
This species occurs from 58° N to the extreme north in large parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, although it is absent from Norwegian coastal zone. It is very local in Latvia and Estonia. In the northern part of its range, this species is more common than in the south. 200-1,000 m. It is furthermore found in almost the whole northern Palearctic, Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Estonia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Frejya’s Fritillary occurs in damp, peatland habitats. The female lays its eggs singly on Bog Whortleberry (Vaccinium uliginosum) and possibly also on Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus), Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), Alpine Bearberry (A. alpinus) and Crowberry (Empetrum nigrum). The butterflies can also be seen on drier, grassy vegetation, searching for nectar, visiting Moss Campion (Silene acaulis) frequently. Frejya’s Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: raised bogs (45%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (18%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), heath and scrub (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%).

threats:
This species is extinct in Estonia and strongly declining in Southern and Central Finland due to habitat (bog-) destruction and is starting to decline along its southern range in Sweden. There are no signals of decline in Norway yet.


range:
A northern species that occurs in large parts of Finland, Norway and central and north of Sweden. It is also rare in the Eastern Baltic States. 100-450 m. It is furthermore found in the montane or lowland tundra and bogs of the Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Frigga’s Fritillary is mostly found on open bogs and in swampy areas with shrubs of Birches (Betula spp.) and willows (Salix spp.) scrub, in swampy areas in birch woods and on bogs in coniferous forests. It is a rare fritillary that occurs locally and always in low to very low numbers. Despite its size, it is an inconspicuous butterfly. The eggs are laid singly on Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus). This species produces one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (60%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), mesophile grasslands (10%), fens, transition mires and springs (10%).

conservationAction:
In Lithuania, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although the species shows a decline in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is not considered threatened on the European or EU27 member states level by experts. Therefore, it is classified as Least Concern.

range:
This species occurs in the French Alps and adjacent part of the Italian Alps and in the Balkans from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southwest of Bulgaria and north and central Greece. 1,500-2,600 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Balkan Fritillary can be found in the mountains on flower-rich grasslands, or on grassland with scattered bushes and in clearings in woods. These butterflies usually fly close to the ground. Various violets (Viola spp.) are used as foodplant. The female lays its eggs either on the foodplant, or on a plant nearby. The Balkan Fritillary has one generation a year and hibernates as a small caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (44%), coniferous woodland (33%), mixed woodland (22%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a very restricted distribution in Fennoscandia and is also known from high arctic areas like Novalja Zemlja in Russia. The total area of known occupancy is presumably less than 400 km². It appears to fluctuate more than average for Arctic species. It will be red listed in Sweden and Finland. It is listed as Endangered both at the European and in EU27 level.

range:
In Europe, it only occurs north of 68.5° N in a small area in the border region of Norway, Sweden and Finland. 600-950 m. It is also found in the polar tundra from through Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Dusky-winged Fritillary, occurs in the extreme north of Europe on open, grassy expanses, often on gentle slopes, sheltered from the prevailing westerly wind. It can occur in large numbers, in some places with hundreds of butterflies at once. Before they mate, these butterflies behave in a characteristic way, with the male following the female, flying in short spurts and seeming to make grasshopper-like jumps. The eggs are laid on various plants, including Alpine Bistort (Polygonium viviparum), but it is not certain whether this is its foodplant. The egg takes two years to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%).

threats:
The species occurs usually in low densities in a restricted range in Northern Europe. Furthermore it appears to fluctuate more than other Arctic butterflies. Climate change, and the related changes in vegetation and timberline, might be a long term threat owing to its limited distribution.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. In Sweden, none of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In Finland, all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.


range:
This species occurs in Europe in separate areas: Eastern Pyrenees (very local), in the Alps and in Scandinavia (mountainous areas of Norway, Sweden and extreme north of Finland). In central Europe 1,500-2,500 m, in Scandinavia 0-1,100 m. It is also found in South Siberia, Altai and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
In Scandinavia, the Mountain Fritillary occurs in the mountains on wide, open, dry areas near the tree-line and on grassy, flower-rich slopes. At lower altitudes, it is also found in wet areas where birches (Betula spp.) and willows (Salix spp.) are growing. In the Alps, this fritillary can be found on dry, quite flat alpine and sub-alpine grassland on stony soil. As the evening falls, the butterflies roost communally, usually on rough vegetation in a wet place. The female lays its eggs singly on various violets, including Yellow Wood Violet (Viola biflora) and also on Alpine Bistort (Polygonum viviparum), or on plants growing in the vincinity. The caterpillars take one or two years to develop, depending on the climate. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), heath and scrub (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), blanket bogs (11%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in Spain. No specific conservation actions are needed.


range:
This species occurs from the western part of Siberia across the mountains of South Siberia to the Ussuri region and East Siberia, Mongolia and North China (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly usually occurs on dry meadows and slopes but is sometimes also found on wet sites. The caterpillars feed on different species of violets (Viola spp.). This butterfly species is single-brooded (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in a number of widely separated mountainous areas: in the Cantabrian Mts., the Pyrenees, the Alps, central Apennines, the Tatra, Carpathians, Rila and Pirin Mts. in southwest Bulgaria and the mountains of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is rare in the eastern part of its range. 1,200-3,000 m, mostly above 1,500 m. It is also found in the mountains of central Asia east to China and Tibet. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a characteristic species of subalpine and alpine meadows, that can be found in many mountain chains. In its habitat, it is often one of the most common fritillaries. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Shepherd’s Fritillary is a characteristic species of flower-rich sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and can even be found on quite heavily grazed pastures. They can occur in high numbers. At the end of the day, they often roost communally in damp vegetation with tall plants. Long-spurred Pansy (Viola calcarata) is the major foodplant, but Alpine Plantain (Plantago alpina), Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla spp.) and valerians (Valeriana) are probably also used. Caterpillars are mostly found on plants growing in dry, rocky places. The Shepherd’s Fritillary has one generation a year and passes the winter in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (77%), heath and scrub (16%), blanket bogs (5%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in: Slovakia, Bulgaria and Poland. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Sweden, the species now only occurs in three 2x2 km squares. It can still be found in northern Finland, but the southern range limit is gradually moving northwards. Fennoscandian experts feel that the species can be expected to continue to decline during the coming ten years. It is therefore considered as Vulnerable.

range:
This species occurs only in the extreme north of Europe: in the north of Norway, of Finland and very rarely in the north of Sweden. 100-1,400 m. It is furthermore found in the polar tundra of the whole Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The habitat of the Polar Fritillary is open tundra, with a patchwork of short vegetation. Its foodplant is unknown. Just like other butterflies of the far north, the period in which they can be seen varies a lot from year to year, depending on the weather conditions preceding emergence. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: heath and scrub (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (25%), mesophile grasslands (25%).

threats:
This species has a restricted range, occurs in low densities and has strong population fluctuations. Climate change, and the related increased timberline and vegetation changes, might be a long term due to its limited distribution.

conservationAction:
More research is needed urgently on its distribution and ecology. Important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs in North and Central Europe to the north of Spain and Portugal, south of France, north of Italy and south of Bulgaria. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands and Ireland. Sea level-2,300 m. It is furthermore found in the whole central Palearctic zone and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary, is found in damp to wet meadows or on low intensity-grazed pastures. It is also found on raised bogs and in swampy habitats. Populations may occur in small, sheltered locations, but also in an open landscape. The butterflies can often be seen taking nectar, prefering various species of thistles. The eggs are laid on violets (Viola spp.). When half-grown, the caterpillars hibernate in a rolled-up leaf of the foodplant. They pupate low down on a stalk in the litter layer. At high altitudes and in the north, the Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary has one generation a year, but has two generations a year elsewhere. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (19%), mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), mixed woodland (6%), coniferous woodland (5%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).


range:
This species is present from the Volga River and southern Urals across Siberia, the Altais, the Sayan and Transbaikalia to the Far East, the Amur and Ussuri regions and Mongolia. Up to 2,200 m (Tuzov 2,000). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This butterfly species can be found in moist to dry steppes and meadow-steppes. In the Western part of its range, it thrives in wet biotopes as well. The females deposits the eggs on many violet species (Viola spp.). It usually has two generations a year, but in the eastern part of its range, three generations a year are normal (Tuzov, 2,000). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mixed woodland (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).


range:
This species occurs in Europe in two clearly separated areas: in Lapland, central Norway, western Sweden and Lithuania and in the Alps of Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Slovenia and Bavaria. In the north 300-1,000 m, in the Alps 800-1,800 m. It is furthermore found in the forest zone of the Palearctic Region, east to north China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Norway and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
In the Alps, Thor's Fritillary can be found in flower-rich places, in clearings, or in sheltered “alcoves” at the edges of woods. It prefers damp, north-facing slopes and is often found beside streams or in ravines. In the Scandinavian part of its range, the butterflies can be seen in clearings in birch woods and coniferous forests and near mountain lakes, swampy places, in gullies and river beds. The Yellow Wood Violet (Viola biflora) is its major foodplant, but other violets are used as well. The female lays its eggs either on the foodplant, or on a neighbouring plant and the caterpillars take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (22%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), mixed woodland (11%), water-fringe vegetation (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), heath and scrub (5%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. In the EU27 countries, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat.

range:
This species occurs in Europe in several separate areas: France (Aude and from the Massif Central to the French Alps and the Jura), in the Alps (from France further to Austria), central Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and in Northeast Europe: in Latvia, Estonia and south of Finland. 300-2,000 m. Locally over the temperate zone of the Holarctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong populations in Alps, but declining in lowland habitats in North and East Europe. It is reported extinct in Poland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Titania’s Fritillary occurs in grassy, open places at the edges of woodland, or in woodland clearings, or on grassland with scattered trees, mostly on damp to swampy ground, where its foodplant Snake-root or Common Bistort (Polyganum bistorta) is growing among tall flower-rich vegetation. Various violets (Viola spp.) are also used as a foodplant. The female deposits its rather large eggs singly on either the foodplant, or on a plant nearby. The caterpillars go into hibernation in an early stage and pupate at the end of the spring on a stalk, near to the ground. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mixed woodland (17%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), coniferous woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%).

threats:
This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly. Moreover Schweiger et al. (2008) show that this butterfly species might be endangered in future by climate change by a mismatch between the future climate envelopes for the butterfly and its main foodplant.

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs from Urals to the Ussuri region, Amur region, Mongolia, Alaska, West Canada. Up to 1,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly species occurs on rocky slopes with steppes and rocky habitat near crests. The females lays its eggs on Saxifraga bronchialis. The species produces one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
A southern species that occurs locally: north of Spain, south of France, Italy, the Alps, south of Germany, south of Poland and the Balkans. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 100-1,800 m. It is also found from the Middle Europe across Asia Minor to Central Asia and along the south of Siberia to central China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Marbled Fritillary occurs at the edges of woods or in scrub where brambles are growing. It takes nectar from thistles growing in rough vegetation. Eggs are deposited singly on the leaves and sepals of brambles (Rubus spp.), where they pass the winter, protected by withered leaves. In spring, the small caterpillar feeds on the new, young leaves in the leaf buds, the later larval stages eating older leaves. The pupa is suspended from a leaf or branch of the foodplant. The Marbled Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), mixed woodland (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), heath and scrub (7%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe: in mountainous areas in the north, southeast and central Spain, in the south of France (from the Pyrenees to the Dordogne and eastwards to the Alps), in the north of Italy and in Southeast Europe from Austria and Slovakia to central Greece and Romania. 100-1,700m. It is also found in Asia Minor and Central Asia to the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Lithuania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Twin-spot Fritillary can be found in flower-rich grassland, situated in the shelter of a woodland edge, or in scattered bushes. The most important foodplant is Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), although different species of Dorycnium, a leguminous plant, are named as a foodplant in Spain. It has one generation a year and passes the winter in the egg or caterpillar stage. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (6%).

conservationAction:
In the Czech Republic and Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central European species. In Spain and Portugal only in the north, in France not on the provençal coast, in Italy only in the Alps and an isolated population in Calabria, not in Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In Scandinavia to 66 °N. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in the entire temperate part of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct from the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lesser Marbled Fritillary occurs on damp to wet, flower-rich, rough vegetation, growing in the shelter of woodland. This can be situated in a valley, or on the banks of a stream, in abandoned meadows and swampy habitats. Because of changes in agricultural practices, this butterfly has been able to expand into some abandoned wet meadows. After continuing succession, these meadows will get overgrown by scrub and become unsuitable for the Lesser Marbled Fritillary. Eggs are laid singly or in pairs on the leaves and flowerheads of Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), Goat's-beard (Aruncus dioicus), Great Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis) and brambles (Rubus spp.). It hibernates either as an egg or a caterpillar. The caterpillars feed at night and in bad weather, also during the day. They pupate on the foodplant. The Lesser Marbled Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (41%), water-fringe vegetation (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), mixed woodland (7%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).

conservationAction:
In Portugal and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central and Southern European species. This species occurs south of a line from central France, south of Germany and south of Poland eastwards. It is absent from the south of Portugal, northwest of Spain and north of Italy. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Great Banded Grayling is immediately noticeable by its size and is one of the largest butterflies of Europe. It glides more than it flies and can be seen on dry grasslands at the edges of woodland and on poor and moderately nutrient-rich agricultural land. The butterflies need quite a lot of nectar and are easily observed on the purple flowers of thistles and other plants. The females release their eggs into the vegetation, sometimes while perched, often while in flight. The caterpillars can use most grasses as a foodplant. The tiny caterpillar first hibernates in a grass tussock, only in spring beginning to feed and grow. The caterpillars pupates in a cocoon in a little hollow in the ground. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), mixed woodland (11%), coniferous woodland (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).


range:
This species occurs in most coastal regions of the south of Europe: from Portugal, via the south and east of Spain (and locally in central Spain) and the southeast of France (to Ardèche) as far as Greece. It is absent from the western Adriatic coast between central Italy and Istria (Croatia), but found on most islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
With the whimsical patterning on the undersides of its wings and elegant little tails, the Two-tailed Pasha is one of the most beautiful European butterflies. It breeds in warm, dry places with many shrubs and trees where its foodplant, the Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo) is abundant. The males defend their territory fanatically, attacking other insects. The butterflies can often be seen feeding on the juices of rotting fruit, such as figs and are also attracted to alcoholic drinks. They are strong flyers, often roaming into areas where their foodplant is absent. The Two-tailed Pasha has mostly two generations a year and in some places possibly three. It hibernates as a caterpillar and pupates suspended from the foodplants. On Gibraltar, Samos and Cyprus, it also uses other foodplants. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (35%), phrygana (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (7%).


redListCategoryRationale:
Both at the European and EU27 member states level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. It should however be noted that, in many Western and Central European countries, both the distribution and population size of this species have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
A southern species with a fragmented distribution area. This species occurs in the northeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula, south and central France, central Italy, Sicily, locally in south and east Germany, south of Poland and Switzerland. It is also found in the Balkans, including all of Greece. However, it is absent from Crete, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Middle Asia to Afghanistan, Northwest.China and Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In the southern part of its range, it is more widespread. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia, France, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Hermit inhabits steppe-like grasslands in dry, warm places. In the northern part of its distribution range, it is restricted to dry chalk hills. Although it is a very large butterfly, when its wings are closed, it blends perfectly into its surroundings. Especially when resting on a rock, they are almost invisible. The female deposits her eggs one at a time on the withered blades of many different grasses, including false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.), bromes (Bromus spp.) and fescues (Festuca spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar. They pupate in a sort of cocoon, in a little hollow in the ground, or sometimes low down on the foodplant. The Hermit has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (32%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Although intensification has a negative impact on this species, most populations in Central Europe are actually threatened by abandonment or even a small reduction of the grazing intensity.

conservationAction:
In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. Special attention should be paid to a well balanced intensity and timing of grazing. More research on this is urgently needed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in Southern Russia, Crimea (Ukraine), Azerbaijan, Asia Minor and Kazakhstan, further into Southwest Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This species occurs on rocky areas with a low vegetation, steppes, forests, mountain slopes, sometimes semi-deserts and bushy areas up to 1,800 m in the Caucasus (Tshikolovets, 2003). The larvae feed on several species of grasses. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mixed woodland (33%).


range:
This species occurs locally in the east of Spain in the vicinity of Huesca, Saragossa, Madrid, Cuenca, Teruel, Alicante, Murcia and Granada. 600-1,400 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern Hermit inhabits open, dry areas such as limestone plateaus, dry steppe-like grasslands, grassy slopes with scrub and sometimes steep, wooded slopes. The butterflies occur very locally in low numbers. They are often seen with The Hermit (C. briseus). Various grasses are used as foodplants. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).

threats:
Although this species shows a small decline, it is not believed to face major threats.

conservationAction:
Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species is present in the southern Urals, Altai Mountains, West and East Siberia, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions, China, Mongolia and Korea. Sea level - 1,700 m (Tuzov, 2,000; Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly is a typical species of lowland and mountain meadows, tundra and steppe habitats. In the eastern part of its range it is also found in sparse larch forests and moorlands. In the mountains it often occurs in tundra and alpine meadows. The caterpillars feed and hibernate on the leaves of various Poa species. This butterfly has one generation a year has one generation a year(Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).


range:
This is a Central European species. Not present in the south of Spain, large parts of Portugal, the southern coast of France, north Brittany, Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, large parts of Belgium, north of Germany, Denmark, south of Greece and many Mediterranean islands. In Scandinavia it is only found in the south of Sweden and near the Oslo Fjord. Sea level-1750 m. It is also found across the Caucasus to Asia Minor. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Denmark and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Pearly Heath is found on dry, to moderately damp, grasslands and grassy places at the edges of woodland or scrub. The Pearly Heath is common in some areas. They are active butterflies that fly a lot and are therefore easy to find. The males can often be found, perched in scrub, basking in the sun, from where they chase any females that pass by. In the evening, the butterflies gather to roost communally in scrub or at wood margins. Meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), bents (Agrostis spp.), melicks (Melica spp.), fescues (Festuca spp.) and many other grasses are used as foodplants, the preferred species differing between regions. The female lays its eggs one by one, or in short rows, on blades of grass. When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in a tussock of grass, also pupating there later, deep down in the tussock. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), mesophile grasslands (15%), mixed woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).


range:
Occurs on the islands Corsica, Sardinia and Capraia. Found from sea level-1,200 m, occasionally to 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Corsican Heath is found in different sorts of habitats, flower-rich grasslands at lower altitudes, dry scrub of open or dense maquis, deciduous woodlands, especially in valleys and ravines and coniferous forests at high altitudes. It uses the false-brome Brachypodium retusum and other grasses as foodplants. This species has several, overlapping generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Portugal and Spain, in the southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees, via the Cevennes and Provence to the Alps), the adjacent part of the Italian Maritime Alps and in north and central Apennines. 100-2,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Dusky Heath is a butterfly of dry, grassy vegetation, such as found on rocky slopes in low scrub, thickets and in woodland clearings. Different grasses are used as foodplant, including bent (Agrostis spp.) and Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina). It has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), heath and scrub (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%).


range:
Occurs from France to Slovenia: in the east of France, in the northern part of the Massif Central; in the Jura; in the Alps from the French Alps to the Karavanke Mountains. in Austria, and Julian Alps in Slovenia. Found at altitudes from 800-2,900 m although mostly between1,400-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Alpine Heath is mostly found on open, sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and on grasslands with scattered bushes and trees. It can occur in high numbers in some places. The female lays its eggs, mostly one by one, on grass stalks. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate at the beginning of the summer, the pupa hanging from a plant, usually close to the ground. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), mesophile grasslands (22%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%).


range:
This species occurs in the north of Portugal and the north of Spain (Cantabrian Mts., Pyrenees to Montes Universale). This species occurs from the south of Finland via the Baltic States, Poland, Central and East Germany and the south of Belgium to the northeast of France and from Switzerland via the north of Italy and central Apennines, the Balkans to the north of Greece. 200-2,000 m. It is also found from central and south Siberia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Chestnut Heath inhabits dry to damp grasslands in woods, meadows, nutrient-poor grassland, calcareous grasslands and open marshy habitats. These grasslands are sometimes quite intensively grazed, as can happen on calcareous grassland. However, if grazing is absent, for a few years, change in the grassland does not seem to affect the butterflies. The butterflies do not fly very much and only cover limited distances. The eggs are laid one by one in short rows on the blades of grasses, such as fescues (Festuca spp.), Tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum), Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea), Upright Brome (Bromus erectus) and Crested Dog.s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus). Pupation takes place deep down in the vegetation. The Chestnut Heath has one to two generations a year, depending on the altitude and latitude of its breeding ground. In the field the Chestnut Heath is often confused with the Small Heath (C. pamphilus) and therefore not noticed. On the Iberian Peninsula, there is a sub-species C. g. iphioides, with brightly contrasting eyespots on the underside of the hindwing. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe and the EU27 countries, a population decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Vulnerable. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species, especially in Western and Central Europe, have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This species occurs in small, strongly isolated populations, in France (Allier, Nievre, Saone-et-Loire, Ain, Jura Mountains, Haut Rhin, Bas Rhin, Seine-et-Marne, Meuse and Moselle), northwest, northeast and central Switzerland, south and east Germany, Poland, the Baltic States, south of Finlan and of Sweden, Slovakia and north Austria. Sea level-750 m. This species is present across temperate Asia to China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in the eastern part of its European range, but in most of Western and Central Europe it is very rare and restricted to a few sites of good quality habitat. C. hero is declining in Western and Central Europe. Strongholds nowadays in Eastern Europe (Russia, Baltic states). It is reported extinct in Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Scarce Heath occurs in damp to wet grassy meadows in or at the edges of woods. Sometimes, they occur away from woods in drier places or in flower-rich grassland. The butterflies are fond of settling in grass and do not fly far, nor very often. Among the grasses they use as food are Tufted Hair-grass (Deschampsia cespitosa) and Bearded Couch (Elymus caninus). When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in a grass tussock, later also pupating there. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mixed woodland (19%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mesophile grasslands (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%).

threats:
The main threats are from drainage, agricultural improvements and changing grassland and woodland management. This has caused strong declines and even local extinctions in many countries in Western and Central Europe.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Western and Central European countries where the species is in decline, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe: south of Serbia, FYR of Macedonia, Albania, Romania (south of the Carpatian Mountains), Bulgaria and in the north of Greece. 350-1,900 m, often at higher altitudes than 900 m. It is furthermore present in South Siberia and across Transcaucasia to Asia Minor and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Russian Heath is found both on dry, as well as somewhat damp, grassy vegetation, at wood margins and in woodland clearings and on grasslands. The butterflies have a rather low flight. At rest, just like other heaths, the Russian Heath keeps its wings closed. Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina) and Slender False-brome (Brachypodium sylvaticum) are among the grasses used as foodplants. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mixed woodland (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).


redListCategoryRationale:
A decline of 50-80% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Endangered. In EU27 countries, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in the EU27 countries have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This species occurs in France (the western Pyrenees, les Landes, Gironde to Charente-Maritime and Charente, Sarthe, Seine-et-Marne, Savoie and Isère), Switzerland (Rhine Valley and Tessino), Italy (Varese, Treviso, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia), Slovenia, Austria, Liechtenstein, Poland and Hungary. Sea level-500 m. It is also found throughout Kazakhstan and South Siberia to China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is extremely local in very isolated populations and is restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Bulgaria, Germany, Switzerland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia, France, Hungary (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The False Ringlet is a very local species that is declining at an alarming rate in several countries, though more stable in others. It inhabits low-lying, grassy marshes and reed-beds that are usually situated in the shelter of woodland, creating a warm and humid environment. The butterflies fly very slowly and hardly ever colonize nearby habitats. The eggs are deposited one by one on the blades of grasses, like meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), rye-grasses (Lolium spp.), hair-grasses (Deschampsia spp.), sedges (Carex spp.) and Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea). The caterpillars hibernate half-grown in the tussock, where they pupate as well. The False Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), blanket bogs (20%), raised bogs (13%), fens, transition mires and springs (10%), mixed woodland (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).

threats:
Agricultural improvements (inc. land drainage) as well as abandonment of grassland habitats are the largest threats for Coenonympha oedippus. It survives nowadays in small and fragmented habitats where colonies are threatened by isolation.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Hungary, Austria and France, the species only occurs in protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species has a limited range in Europe. A strong decline is reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is considered as Vulnerable at the European level. The situation in Greece (EU27 country) is unclear, therefore it is listed as Data Deficient in the EU27.

range:
The Balkan Heath is restricted to a small area of the Balkans, between 800-2,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This species is local in grassy woodland clearings. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species has a limited global range and only occurs in a few countries in the Balkan. The ecology and habitat requirements are largely unknown. This butterfly is probably threatened by abandonment.

conservationAction:
More research on distribution and ecology is needed. Important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. However, in the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien, 2008) this species shows a decline in European grasslands, its main habitat. The species might become threatened in the future.

range:
This species occurs throughout Europe, as far north as 69° N. It does not occur in the extreme north of Scandinavia and on some islands. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in the rest of the temperate Palearctic region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Finland, Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Small Heath is a common species of nearly all types of grassland. It is mostly found on fairly open, poor meadows and pastures. The female deposits her eggs one by one, or in rows, on the blades of most grasses, including meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), fescues (Festuca spp.) and bents (Agrostis spp.). The caterpillar grows very quickly on nutritious grasses, but can also use poor grasses, growing then more slowly. In the third or fourth larval instar, the caterpillar hibernates deep down in a tussock of grass, where it also later pupates. The number of generations a year is between one and three and depends on the geographical position of the habitat. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (10%), improved grasslands (6%), urban parks and large gardens (5%), fallow land, waste places (5%).

threats:
Although this species is still common and widespread, it shows a population decline in the European grasslands. The main cause is the intensification of agriculture, although abandonment could also affect populations in Eastern Europe.

conservationAction:
This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Ukraine, this species is restricted to two small plots of virgin steppe in the north-eastern part of Crimea, where it is reported to decline (Van Swaay & Warren, 1999: decline >75% in 25 years). The status and trend in Russia are unclear, but this species is rare (distribution is less than 1%). It is therefore considered as Critically Endangered. This species is absent from the EU27 member states.

range:
This species is present from the Crimea in Ukraine through Southern Russia to northern and central Tian-Shan, West Siberia (south) and the Altai Mts. Up to 3,000 m, in Urals and Caucasus only up to 800 m (Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003). It occurs in the steppe zone from Eastern Europe to the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Coenonympha phryne may be found in virgin steppes, semi-desert and dry slopes on limestone. While the sites where the butterflies are on the wing are usually small, the local density of individuals can be high. The males show a particular fast flight, chasing on females to mate with. The females try to get rid of the males by dropping out of the air and landing in dense grassy fescue vegetation, where they then hide for a while. The foodplants are probably several species of Stipa and fescues (Festuca spp). Hibernation takes place as caterpillar or as pupa. This species is single-brooded (http://babochki-kryma.narod.ru/main.htm). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).

threats:
This butterfly and its habitats are threatened by agricultural improvements, fragmentation and recreational activities.


range:
Occurs in Italy very locally in the Apennines and Mount Baldo in the Alps. In southeast Europe, it is present in several mountainous areas (from the Croatian coastal mountains, Bosnia, south of Serbia and FYR of Macedonia to southeast of Bulgaria and north of Greece). Found at altitudes between 800-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Eastern Large Heath occurs mainly on grasslands above the tree-line. It is sometimes found in clearings in damp woodland. The caterpillars feed on fescues (Festuca spp.), Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans), cotton-grasses (Eriophorum spp.), White Beak-sedge (Rhynchospora alba) and Beaked Sedge (Carex rostrata). This species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (41%), mesophile grasslands (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).

conservationAction:
The species occurs only in protected areas in Croatia. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.


range:
Occurs on almost all Crete (between an altitude of 0-1,800 m). This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Cretan Small Heath occurs on grassy vegetation and in open scrub. The butterflies fly quickly and close to the ground. When resting, they always keep their wings closed. It is uncertain how many generations this species has a year, either one generation with a long flight period, or two or more generations, each with a short flight-period. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe, a population decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Vulnerable. In the EU27 countries a decline of more than 25% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in the EU27 countries have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This is a species of North, East and Central Europe: Scandinavia, except the northwestern coast, the Baltic States, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, north of England, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium (Ardennes), east and northeast of France, northwest of Switzerland, north of Austria, northern Balkans, north of Bosnia and Herzegovina, formerly also in the Jaice region in Bosnia. This species occurs from sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in the temperate zone of Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Germany, Romania and Switzerland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Slovakia, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Heath inhabits raised bogs, wet heaths, swampy habitat and wet grasslands, often occurring on quite rough vegetation. As a consequence of land drainage remaining habitat patches are often small which makes them difficult to detect. However, in a vast peatland, the Large Heath can be common and the butterfly can be seen flying back and forth between wet patches with the foodplants. There is some uncertainty about the identity of the foodplants. Probably, there are regional differences in their use. Cotton-grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) is certainly important, but other Eriophorum species, beak-sedges (Rhynchospora spp.), fescues (Festuca spp.), Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea) and a few sedges (Carex spp.) are also mentioned. The female deposits its eggs singly on, or in the neighbourhood of, the foodplant. The caterpillars hibernate in the third or fourth larval instar, hidden in tussocks of grass. They try to find a position in the vegetation that offers protection from predators above and from high winter water levels below. They also pupate in the tussocks of the foodplant. The Large Heath has one generation a year. There are many regional sub-species, that are distinguished by the degree of development of the eye-spots. Habitats: raised bogs (25%), blanket bogs (21%), fens, transition mires and springs (21%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%).

threats:
The most important threat to this species is land drainage, mostly because of agricultural improvements in the surrounding area.

conservationAction:
In the Netherlands, Romania and the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Habitat conservation is the most important conservation measure, including prevention of drainage in surrounding agricultural areas. Restoration of bogs should only be undertaken with great care and after thorough research, as a quick rise of the watertable can also have a negative impact on the species.


range:
This species occurs in the south of Europe in coastal areas along the Mediterranean. It is probably resident from the southeast of France to the southwest of Italy, Serbia and west and southwest of Greece. It is also found on most of the large islands in the Mediterranean. There are temporary populations on the southern and eastern coasts of Spain; the difference between these and permanent populations is not clear. This is a strong migrant species, which is found on most continents. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
The Plain Tiger occurs in coastal areas on warm, rocky places with scrub, on agricultural land and in gardens. The Plain Tiger can fly great distances and in this way can found new populations. The caterpillars feed on the milkweeds Asclepias curassavica and Cynachum procera, on Fuerteventura on Caralluma burchardii, a local native plant. It has several generations a year and does not hibernate. In areas with cold winters, populations can therefore only be temporary. It is difficult to establish whether the species is present as a resident the whole year, or as a migrant, only breeding in the summer. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), improved grasslands (16%).


range:
This species is resident in coastal areas of the Canary Islands, except Lanzarote, and in the Malaga province in the south of Spain. In other areas, it is only a vagrant. It is a relatively new species for Europe. It was first reported from the Canary Islands in 1880, but the populations in the south of Spain were only discovered in 1980. Sea level-100 m. This is a strong migrant species, which is found on most continents. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
There are only a few populations of the Monarch in Europe and these are in the south. However, in America it is famous for its migration behaviour and it can even be found as a rare visitor in the coastal areas of North-west Europe. The populations are situated in warm to very warm dry places, such as erosion gullies. The butterfly can also be seen in parks and gardens. The populations are usually small and surrounded by agricultural areas. In Spain, the eggs are laid on the milkweed Asclepias curassavica and on the Canary Islands also on the related Bristly-fruited Silkweed (Gomphocarpus fruticosus). The butterflies breed continually and may have several generations a year. The use of herbicides and insecticides and the burning of refuse are threatening them with extinction. Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (40%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (20%), scrub and grassland (20%), fallow land, waste places (20%).


range:
Occurs only in the alpine zone of southeast France and northwest Italy (from the Maritime Alps to the Hautes-Alpes and Cottian Alps). Found at altitudes between 1,800-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The False Mnestra Ringlet occurs on grassy slopes and near woods. The female lays its eggs on Festuca paniculata, a fescue that only occurs locally. As it is the only foodplant known, this accounts for the rare occurrence of this butterfly. The False Mnestra Ringlet is single-brooded and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (33%).


range:
This species occurs in moderately high and high mountains: Scotland and northwest England, France (Massif Central, Cévennes, east of France), southeast of Belgium (Famenne), via Germany and Poland to Latvia and via the north of Italy and the Balkans to the north of Greece. 400-2,000 m. Across central Russia to West Siberia and across the Caucasus to East Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Lithuania and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Scotch Argus can be found in a wide variety of habitats. It inhabits flower-rich grasslands and grassy woodland clearings and can also be found on heathland, bogs and marshy areas with very open woodland. Many different grasses can be used as a foodplant, such as Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea), Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans), Tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum), Cock’s-foot (Dactylus glomerata), fescues (Festuca spp.), cat’s-tails (Phleum spp.), Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) and Quaking Grass (Briza media) and also sedges (Carex spp.). The caterpillar hibernates in the second or third larval instar. It pupates in the litter layer and is single-brooded. Habitats: coniferous woodland (20%), mixed woodland (18%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mesophile grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%).


range:
Occurs in the Alps from French Alps to Hohe Tauern in Austria and Dolomites in Italy. It is only found in the southern part of the Alps in Switzerland, it is also present in central Italy and is very rarely in Bulgaria (Stara Mountains.) and Serbia. Found at altitudes between 900-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. It is reported extinct in FYR of Macedonia. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Almond-eyed Ringlet is found on sub-alpine grasslands and on, sometimes damp, grasslands, in woodland clearings or in the shelter of woods. The butterflies can often be seen on flowers, drinking nectar. On warm days, the males congregate to drink on damp patches. In the Alps, the caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina) and Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). They hibernate when half-grown and pupate at the end of the following spring. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level


range:
Occurs only in the Alps in the border region of Italy, Slovenia and Austria (Venetian Alps, Julian Alps and Karavanke Mountains.). Found at altitudes between 1,350-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Lorkovic’s Brassy Ringlet inhabits southern exposed slopes with alpine grassland interspersed with rocks. These butterflies are only active when the sun is shining. They fly close to the ground, visiting flowers from time to time and spend much of their time on rocks, resting. The female deposits her eggs on dry grass stalks, just above the ground. The caterpillars feed on Mat-grass (Nardus stricta) and on different fescues (Festuca spp.). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Austria, none of the populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.


range:
Scattered occurrence in several mountainous regions of Europe: Spain (Cantabrian Mountains., Pyrenees), France (Pyrenees, Massif Central and the western and eastern Alps), central Italy, Romania (Carpathians), Bulgaria (Rila and Pirin Mountains.) and in the mountains of Serbia, Albania and Bosnia. Found at altitudes between 1,600-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Common Brassy Ringlet occurs on dry, grassy slopes, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and scree. The female lays its eggs on dry stalks of grass, close to the ground. Its foodplants are various fescues (Festuca spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first or second larval instar and pupate the following year between June and August. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (58%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
This endemic and local species is restricted to the border area of Switzerland and Italy. The species is known from seven locations and is reported to be declining in Italy. It is therefore listed as Vulnerable.

range:
The species occurs in a very small area in the southern part of the Simplon in Switzerland and Italy. In all, there are five locations known in Switzerland in an area of 10 x 10 km² and only two in Italy. It occurs between 1,600-1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. A strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% has been reported from Italy (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). In Switzerland, in the 1980s, road building destroyed some of the largest subpopulations. After that there is no information on the trend in Switzerland.

habitat:
Rätzer’s Ringlet is found on steep, sunny slopes on acid soil with patches of grassy vegetation and rocks and scattered larch or fir trees. It is one of the rarest European butterflies, with not more than six or seven populations. The butterflies often bask in the sun with their wings wide open. The males congregate regularly on damp ground. The females visit different nectar plants and are especially fond of thyme. They lay their eggs on the dry grass stems of Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina). Before completing their development, the caterpillars hibernate twice. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
The species is mainly threatened by habitat destruction. The species is popular with collectors, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Italy, not all populations are in the European Natura 2000 networking programme areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a very local Alpine species. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000km² and the species is reported to be declining. As none of the other criteria are met, this species is considered Near Threatened.

range:
This species occurs only in the mountains of central Austria (in an area of approximately 4,000 km²) from Mallnitz to the Saualpe in Carinthia. It occurs mostly between 1,600-1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The White Speck Ringlet owes its name to the row of small white spots on the underside of the hind-wings of both the males and females. This Erebia is mostly found near the tree-line on flower-rich grasslands with scattered trees, or along sunny edges of woods. Foodplants are various grasses, especially Tufted Hair-grass (Deschampsia cespitosa). It probably takes two years to develop from egg to butterfly. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).

threats:
Some populations are threatened by the abandonment of Alpine pastures. Furthermore, building activities related to ski tourism may harm the remaining populations.


range:
This species occurs from the Northern Urals across Siberia, north of Mongolia and north. China to North Korea (Tuzov, 1997). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This species occurs on grassy forest places and edges, flowery hills and rocky slopes with meadow and steppe vegetation (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), mixed woodland (50%).


range:
This species occurs from the Sayan Mountains and the Polar Urals across Siberia to the Chukot Peninsula, Kamchatka. Up to 2,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This Erebia species occurs on lowland meadows and stony slopes with sparse vegetation. It can also be found on mountain tundra between 1,000 and 2,500 m might. The larval foodplants are probably different species of fescues (Festuca spp.). There is one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gordunov, 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs north of 65° N in Norway, Sweden and Finland. 350-500 m. Across the northern areas of Eurasia to the north of Mongolia and the north of China; also in North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
Just like the Lapland Ringlet (E. embla), the Arctic Ringlet is a marsh butterfly, but the two species do not overlap, the Arctic Ringlet avoiding lowland marshes. It occurs above 350 m altitude, on open marshes in woods, namely marshes with a low cover of grasses and sedges without trees or bushes, although surrounded by birch trees. It also occurs at lakesides and near small streams and is also seen in woodland clearings in its search for nectar. Its foodplants are grasses. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: raised bogs (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mixed woodland (16%).


range:
This species occurs from the most northeastern part of European Russia, through the northernmost parts of Asia to North America and in the mountains of central and East Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This butterfly can be found on swamps and grassy places with scrubs and small forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).


range:
This species occurs from the Urals through the temperate part of central and East Asia to Sakhalin and North Korea (Tshikolovets, 2003). Up to 2,500 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This species occurs on forest edges and flowery slopes (Tuzov, 1997), open places in coniferous and mixed forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
The species occurs in Sweden and Norway north of 60° N, scattered over Finland and very rarely in Estonia and Latvia. 100-400 m. Across Middle and South Siberia to Kamchatka, North Mongolia and North Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Lapland Ringlet inhabits bogs and marshes with sedges and grasses and scattered groups of willows and myrtle. The marshes are often situated in coniferous or birch woods. Its foodplants are probably sedges (Carex spp.), Tufted Hair-grass (Deschampsia cespitosa) and Bog Hair-grass (D. setacea). These butterflies are difficult to find because they are shy and always occur in low numbers. Also, their habitat is very inaccessible. The development of the Lapland Ringlet from egg to butterfly takes two years. Habitats: raised bogs (42%), fens, transition mires and springs (14%), mixed woodland (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), coniferous woodland (14%).


range:
Occurs in several separate areas: in Spain (Cantabrian Mountains., Sierra de la Demanda, Sierra de Gistral (Lugo), Sierra de Cebollera), the Pyrenees, Andorra, France (Massif Central, Cévennes, Auvergne and Vosges), the whole alpine area from France to Slovenia, Czech Republic (Sudeten), Slovakia and Poland (Tatra), Romania (Carpathians, Retezat Mountains), Serbia, FYR of Macedonia (Sar Planina, Jakupica Planina, Pelister Massif), Albania, northwest Greece (Varnous Mountains), northwest England (Cumbrian Mountains), Scotland (Perthshire). In the Alps 1,200-2,400 m, in England and Scotland above 500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in the Republic of Ireland and Ukraine. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Serbia, United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Mountain Ringlet inhabits mountainous areas that are snow-covered in winter. It is found on damp grasslands and rough vegetation, often in the shelter of a slope or woodland edge. The female lays its eggs on various grasses and sedges, including fescues (Festuca spp.), Mat-grass (Nardus stricta) and Heath-grass (Danthonia decumbens). The caterpillar hibernates twice. It completes the first larval instar before hibernating the first time. By the end of the summer it reaches the fourth instar before hibernating again. The following year, it pupates in summer and the butterfly emerges. The Mountain Ringlet is a very variable butterfly with many local and regional sub-species and forms. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (64%), heath and scrub (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).

conservationAction:
In Croatia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of more than 98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used (GRAS-scenario). The species might be endangered in the long term by climate change. This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO² emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models, (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach and (iii) a decline in the population is already observed.

range:
This species occurs in Southeast France (from Languedoc to Provence and the French Alps) and Spain (in the foothills of the eastern Pyrenees and in mountainous areas in the centre, near Guadalajara, Cuenca and Teruel). In France, it occurs between 450-1,500 m elevation, in Spain 900-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Spring Ringlet appears in the early spring in grassy, rocky clearings in open woodland. The Spanish populations in the Montes Universales occur in clearings or on level ground in light pinewoods on calcareous soil, on short, grassy vegetation with low shrubs and scattered rocks. The main foodplant is Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina), but other fescues and meadow-grasses (Poa species) have also been named as foodplants. The Spring Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).

threats:
Abandonment of semi-natural grasslands is a threat to this butterfly. Furthermore in the long term climate change might have a large impact on this species.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
Occurs locally only in the Alps: in Switzerland in the Northern Alps and Engadin, Italy in the Ortler Alps and Dolomites, Germany in the Allgäuer Alps and in Austria as far east as the Rax mountains. Found at altitudes between 1,200-2250 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Eriphyle Ringlet occurs locally in the Alps and is one of the smaller ringlets. It is a characteristic species of the north-facing slopes, occurring on rough, herbaceous vegetation in the alpine and sub-alpine zones, where there are plenty of alder (Alnus spp.) saplings. They are often found in places where the conspicuous plants Adenostyles alliariae and Masterwort (Peucedanum ostruthium) are growing. It uses Sweet-Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) and Tufted Hair-grass (Deschampsia cespitosa) as foodplants. Some of the caterpillars leave the egg before the winter, but most of them hibernate in the egg and emerge in spring, when they all start feeding on grasses. In autumn, they hibernate again and moult twice before pupating at the end of May. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).


range:
This species occurs in many mountainous regions in Europe: the Cantabrian Mts., Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Alps (from the French Alps to the Julian and Austrian Alps), central Italy, Bohemian Forest, Sudeten, Tatra, Carpathians, the north of Europe from Finland to the Ural Mts. and in Southeast Europe, the Dinarian Alps and mountains of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and the north of Greece. 750-2,500 m. It is also found on Asian side of the Ural Mts. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Ringlet occurs in open woodland, in grassy clearings in woods and above the tree-line on grassland with rather tall vegetation. In the Jura Mountains, these butterflies can be found at the edge of raised bogs and at an altitude of 1,000 m, also in light, damp woods. The Greek populations also seem to prefer damp places. Both the males and females visit flowers for their nectar and the males can often be seen drinking on damp ground or on dung. Various grasses are used as foodplant, including Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans), Wood Meadow-grass (Poa nemoralis), Red Fescue (Festuca rubra), Sheep's-fescue (F. ovina), Calamagrostis varia and also sedges (Carex spp.). It takes two years for the development from egg to butterfly. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), coniferous woodland (21%), mixed woodland (18%), heath and scrub (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).


range:
This species can be found from Northeast Europe through the northernmost parts of Asia to America (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
It is found in lowland and mountain tundras (Tuzov, 1997). Habitats: mixed woodland (33%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This is an Alpine species. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km². Furthermore the species is declining. As the species is not severely fragmented, the number of locations is probably more than 10 and the species is not known to fluctuate, it is considered as Near Threatened.

range:
This species occurs locally between 2,200-2,600 m elevation in a limited part of the Alps: in southeastern Switzerland (Engadin and Ticino Alps) and in neighbouring parts of the Italian and Austrian Alps. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Even before it settles, the Yellow-banded Ringlet can be recognized by the conspicuous yellowish band on the underside of the hind-wing. The butterflies occur above the tree-line on steep, sunny slopes. They can often be seen taking nectar in grasslands with rather tall, flower-rich vegetation. However, females lay their eggs in shorter, grassy area, settling low down in the vegetation and releasing eggs one by one onto the ground. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina) and go into hibernation twice. Habitats include alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).

threats:
This species has a restricted global range. Although the species is reported to be declining in Switzerland, no direct threats are known.


range:
The species occurs in many mountainous areas in Europe: in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), the Pyrenees, the Alps, central Italy, Velebit Mountains. (Croatia), Dinarian Alps (Bosnia), mountains of southern Serbia, south of Albania and southwest of Bulgaria, Carpathians (Romania) and the Tatra (Poland / Slovakia). Found at an altitude between 1,600-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Silky Ringlet can be found on screes, sunny, rocky slopes and dry grasslands with scattered rocks. The butterflies often bask in the sun on stones, but, with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. They are rarely seen visiting flowers. The caterpillars are found on fescues (Festuca spp.), Alpine Meadow-grass (Poa alpina), P. minor and Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans). The caterpillars take two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (47%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (9%).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria, Slovakia, Croatia and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs in the Pyrenees between 1,500 and 2,500m; in Spain particularly, at altitudes higher than 2,000 m in the central part of the Pyrenees. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Gavarnie Ringlet is found on screes with patches of grassy vegetation and on steep, grassy slopes. Meadow-grasses (Poa spp.) are the main foodplants. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has not been declining with more than 25% in the last ten years and its population size is probably larger than 10,000 adult individuals.

range:
Occurs in Spain in the Sierra Nevada (between altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m). This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Spanish Brassy Ringlet inhabits alpine grasslands, grassy slopes with bushes, grassy rocky slopes and screes on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. This species only occurs locally, but sometimes in large numbers. Its foodplants are various fescues (Festuca spp.) and meadow-grasses (Poa spp.). The caterpillars hibernate, pupating the following spring. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).

conservationAction:
In Spain, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.


range:
This species occurs in the northeasternmost part of the European Russia and in the northern parts of Central and East Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly can be found on tundras, grassy scrubs, meadows and open coniferous forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
Occurs only in the Cantabrian Mountains (Picos de Europa), Sierra de la Demanda and the Pyrenees. Found between altitudes of 1,700-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The dark-coloured Lefèbvre’s Ringlet is mostly found on open, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation, often on calcareous soil. Various fescues and meadow-grasses are used as foodplant, such as Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina), F. paniculata, Alpine Meadow-grass (Poa alpina) and Smooth Meadow-grass (P. pratensis). It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: screes (66%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%).


range:
This species has a divided distribution range. The northern part consists of Scandinavia, Denmark and the Baltic States; the southern part comprises eastern France (Vosges to Alpes Maritimes, Massif Central), eastern Belgium, central Germany, south of Poland, the Balkans and the north of Greece (Rhodope Mts., Vermion Mts., Varnous Mts.). In Italy it only occurs in the Alps and Apennines. It is absent from the Pyrenees and Iberian Peninsula. In Central Europe above 500 m and in Scandinavia from sea level but in all places well below the tree-line. This species occurs in the forest zone of the entire Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Latvia, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Arran Brown occurs in sheltered, grassy, flower-rich places in woodland. These places are usually rather damp and shady. The female deposits its eggs on the withered blades of various grasses, including cock's-foots (Dactylus spp.), hair-grasses (Deschampsia spp.), fescues (Festuca spp.) and Heath-grass (Danthonia decumbens). Sedges (Carex spp.) are also used. The egg hibernates and the following year, the caterpillar feeds and grows and in the last larval instar hibernates again. In summer, the caterpillar pupates. The Arran Brown has one generation a year, but the life cycle takes two years to complete. Habitats: coniferous woodland (28%), mixed woodland (26%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (19%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%).


range:
In Spain in the Picos de Europa, in the French and Spanish Pyrenees from Pto de Somport to the Col du Tourmalet, Pto de Benasque and Pic Carlit. Further in France, in the Massif Central on the Plomb du Cantal and Mont Dore, locally in the Maritime Alps and from NE Isère to Haute-Savoie and the Vosges. From the Central Alps to the Julian Alps, Tatra and Fatra (Slovakia), Carpathians (Romania) and on the Durmitor (Montenegro). It is also found in Bosnia, on Vlasic Pl., Vranica Pl. and Jahorina Pl. In the sub-alpine zone, preferably found at altitudes between 1,200-1,900 m, occasionally 2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania, Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Yellow-spotted Ringlet is a species of cool and cold conditions. Above the tree-line it occurs on open mountain meadows and below it inhabits damp, flower-rich grasslands and woodland glades. The female deposits her eggs one at a time on the blades of various grasses, such as fescues (Festuca spp.) and cat’s-tails (Phleum spp.). It hibernates twice, the first time as an egg or a tiny caterpillar, without having fed at all. During the next summer, the caterpillar develops as far as the penultimate stage and then hibernates again. It pupates in the following summer. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (68%), heath and scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), coniferous woodland (6%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (6%).

conservationAction:
In Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central and East European species. It occurs from east and central France (Cher and Allier to Ardennes and Savoie) via the southeast of Belgium, north of Germany and of Poland eastwards. It is also found from the north of Italy via the Balkans to the north of Greece and the area in between. Above 400 m in the Ardennes, up to 2,200 m in the Alps. It is also present in Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Urals and S Siberia, the north of China and the north of Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belarus and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Woodland Ringlet occurs in many different biotopes. It can be found on damp, flower-rich grasslands and rough vegetation near or in woodland, in marshes, but also on calcareous grasslands. Its foodplants are various grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea), fescues (Festuca spp.), Tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum), Upright Brome (Bromus erectus) and Wood Millet (Milium effusum) and also sedges (Carex spp.). The caterpillar is active at night and mostly hibernates when half-grown, but at very high altitudes it may hibernate twice. It pupates in the litter layer and usually has one generation a year. However, the development from egg to butterfly may take one or two years. Habitats: coniferous woodland (16%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).


range:
Occurs in the Alps from the Maritime Alps to East Austria, at altitudes 800 - 2,400 m, but most populations occur at 1,600 – 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Lesser Mountain Ringlet occurs in many different biotopes. It can be found on wet grasslands, pastures and meadows, on dry, nutrient-nutrient-poor grasslands in open woodland, on dry grasslands with bracken and above the tree-line on alpine grasslands. Because of the wide choice in biotope, this butterfly is common throughout the Alps. In the time up to hibernation, the caterpillars feed during the day. After hibernating, they are only active at night. They can be found on Wood Meadow-grass (Poa nemoralis), Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) and Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina). The development from egg to butterfly takes one year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%).


range:
Occurs in many southeastern European mountainous regions: in the south of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, southwest and east of Serbia, north of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Romania (including the Carpathians), southwest and central Bulgaria and in Greece. Found at altitudes between 900-2,800 m, usually over 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Black Ringlet can be found on rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation, in dry and sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and sometimes in clearings in coniferous woods. The butterflies fly close to the ground, often resting with wings wide open. The caterpillars feed on Sheeps-fescue (Festuca ovina) and possibly other grasses. The Black Ringlet has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (30%), coniferous woodland (30%), screes (20%), mesophile grasslands (10%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%).


range:
Occurs in separate mountainous areas in Spain (Sierra de Bejar, S. de Gredos, S. de Guadarrama, S. de la Demanda, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees), France (Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura and Vosges), Switzerland, south of Germany, Liechtenstein, west of Austria, central Italy (Alps and Apennines). Absent from the Carpathians, Tatra and mountains of the Balkans. 600-2,300 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Piedmont Ringlet occurs on a variety of grassy places in and near woods. The female lays its eggs on many different grasses, including fescues (Festuca spp.), Wavy Hair-grass (Deschampsia flexuosa), Mat-grass (Nardus stricta) and several species of bent (Agrostis spp.). At very high altitudes, when the caterpillars are half-grown, they hibernate in the litter layer. They may hibernate twice before pupating deep down in the vegetation. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (54%), mesophile grasslands (18%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (9%), coniferous woodland (9%).


range:
Occurs in the Alps from France via the south of Switzerland to the Salzburger Alps in Austria. Found at altitudes of 1,400-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Mnestra’s Ringlet occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, especially dry grasslands on steep, sunny slopes. The butterflies are seldom seen on flowers, drinking nectar. The female lays its eggs close to the ground on dry stalks of grass. The plain green caterpillars have been found on fescues (Festuca spp.) and also on Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans). They hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).


range:
Occurs in several mountainous areas: in the Alps from the Ligurian Alps and French Alps to Tirol (Brenner Pass) and the Dolomites, the Apuan Alps, north and mid-Apennines. Found at altitudes of 1,100-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Marbled Ringlet is mainly found on warm, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation in flower-rich grasslands and occasionally in woods, for the most part on limestone. When the butterflies settle on stones or on the ground with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. However, they can be seen visiting flowers, which they do regularly. The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar and in spring begin feeding on fescues (Festuca spp.), or on Mat-grass (Nardus stricta). The caterpillars have been found on the larger tussocks growing in the shelter of rocks. They pupate in June or July. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), screes (25%).


range:
Occurs in Spain (the Pyrenees, particularly in the East), in large parts of Southeast France (eastern Pyrenees, Massif Central, Provence, the French Alps) and in Italy (the western Alps, Apuan Alps and central Apennines). Found at altitudes between 500-1,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Autumn Ringlet occurs in woodland clearings and on grassy vegetation with scattered bushes. The caterpillars feed on different grasses, such as Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis), Alpine Meadow-Grass (Poa alpina), Smooth Meadow-grass (Poa pratensis), Annual Meadow-grass (P. annua), Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina) and Meadow Fescue (F. pratensis). This species is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), coniferous woodland (33%), screes (33%).


range:
Scattered occurrence in the Alps: central Switzerland (only near Grindelwald), northeast of Italy (in two widely separated areas, Val di Vizze and Monte Peralba in the Carnic Alps) and Austria (from the Brenner Pass to the Niedere Tauern. Found at altitudes between 2,100-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
De Lesse’s Brassy Ringlet occurs above the tree-line on sunny, rocky, steep open slopes with patches of grassy vegetation. The caterpillars are found on Festuca quadriflora and take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).


range:
Occurs in several mountainous regions in South and Central Europe: the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, the Alps (French, central Swiss, East Italian, Bavarian, Austrian and Julian Alps) and in the Balkans from western Croatia to the north of Greece. Mostly found at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 m, sometimes 300-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Bright-eyed Ringlet is often found on damp to wet grasslands, sometimes with lots of sedges in the vegetation. However, it also occurs on dry grasslands, rocky slopes and in woodland clearings. The grass in some of these habitats may be quite tall. Several different foodplants are known, including sedges (Carex spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.), Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea), Quaking Grass (Briza media), Red Fescue (Festuca rubra) and meadow-grasses (Poa spp.). The caterpillars take one or two years to develop, depending on the altitude of the breeding ground. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (62%), heath and scrub (18%), mesophile grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).


range:
Occurs only in Bulgaria (in Stara Planina., Rila and Pirin Mountains) and Serbia. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This Erebia occurs in sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, often near woodland. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (75%), mixed woodland (25%).

conservationAction:
In Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs locally in the south of Europe: in France in the southeast of the Massif Central (Ardèche, Cévennes), in northeast Italy (vicinity Lago di Garda) and in Southeast Europe from the southwestern part of Croatia, the south of Bosnia and of Serbia to central Greece. 800-2,600 m (mostly 1,400-2,000 m). It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
In the mountains, the Ottoman Brassy Ringlet occurs on slopes and level ground with grassy vegetation. At lower altitudes, it is found in woodland clearings. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina) and other fine-leaved grasses. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), screes (11%).


range:
Restricted to the Cantabrian mountains in the northwest of Spain. Found at altitudes of 1,000 - 1,700 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This large ringlet is found in grassy vegetation with scattered bushes, such as broom (Cytisus spp.) and Tree Heath (Erica arborea), on acid soils. The caterpillars feed on meadow-grasses (Poa spp.) and fescues (Festuca spp.). Chapman's Ringlet is single-brooded. It is not known in which stage hibernation takes place. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).


range:
This species has a scattered occurrence in Europe: the eastern Pyrenees, the Alps, central Apennines, mountainous areas of the southwestern Balkans, the Carpathians and Tatra and in the north of Europe in Norway, west of Sweden and north of Finland. In central Europe 1,600-3100 m, in South Scandinavia 900-1,200 m and in Lapland from sea level. It is also found in the mountains of the south of Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Within its range the Dewy Ringlet is one of the more common Erebias. In Scandinavia, it is mostly found in damp places where grass and bushes are growing, often near small streams and in more mountainous areas on grassy slopes. In Central Europe, the butterflies occur on stony, alpine meadows with a vegetation of short grasses and dwarf shrubs. These butterflies have a characteristic, undulating flight. This gives the impression that they are not using their hindwings and are just about to fall to the ground. The female lays its eggs on different grasses, such as fescues (Festuca spp.), meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans), or Mat-grass (Nardus stricta). In most parts of its range, the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), heath and scrub (16%).

conservationAction:
In Slovakia, Bulgaria and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
The species occurs in Europe in mountainous areas in the Alps, the Tatra and the Carpathians. Found at altitudes between 1,000-2,500 m, mostly 1,400-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This Ringlet owes its rather odd name to the absence of eye-spots on both surfaces of the wings. The Blind Ringlet occurs both on dry and damp grasslands, especially where the vegetation is tall and in grassy places at the edge of woodland. Above the tree-line, they occur mainly on dry vegetation. They have various foodplants, depending on the habitat. In dry places, the caterpillars can be found on Mat-grass (Nardus stricta), Festuca quadriflora and Sheep's Fescue (F. ovina) and in damper places in the shade on Red Fescue (F. rubra), Glaucous Sedge (Carex flacca) and C. ferruginea. The caterpillar hibernates twice, pupating at the end of May between spun grass stalks. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (87%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%).

conservationAction:
In Slovakia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs in the Alps from French Alps to Hohe Tauern and Dachstein Mts. in Austria and Julian Alps in Slovenia, also in central Italy. Found at altitudes of 1,800-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Sooty Ringlet is a butterfly of mountainous areas with everlasting snows and glaciers. It occurs high up, on steep screes and moraines, breeding on patches with a mosaic of sparse vegetation and small stones. The female deposits the pale-coloured eggs on mostly light-coloured stones. Once the caterpillar has emerged from the egg, it sometimes has to travel some distance before finding one of the grasses it uses as a foodplant. Caterpillars have been found on the fescues Festuca halleri and F. quadriflora, as well as on Annual Meadow-grass (Poa annua). The caterpillars take two or possibly three years to develop. Habitats: screes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (20%).


range:
This species occurs at the edge of the Arctic Ocean in extreme north ofNorway and bordering part of Finland. Sea level -200 m, sometimes to 400 m. It is furthermore present sporadically to the southern Urals. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Arctic Woodland Ringlet is often found on damp grasslands, but it also occurs on dry grasslands and in waste places, often where there is shelter from birches, or juniper bushes. Unlike the other ringlets in Lapland, the Arctic Ringlet (E. disa) and the Lapland Ringlet (E. embla), this species does not occur on peat bogs. It lays its eggs on Wood Millet (Milium effusum) and Swamp Meadow-grass (Poa palustris). The caterpillars take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (100%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2 (under the name Erebia medusa polaris).


range:
Occurs only in Europe, in several mountainous regions: Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Alps (from France to Austria and Slovenia), the Jura, Tatra, Fatra (Czech Republic), Carpathians and in the Balkans, the Dinarian Alps, Stara Planina (Romania), Rila Mountains (Bulgaria) and the mountains of FYR of Macedonia and Albania. 900-2,500m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Water Ringlet is found especially on flower-rich grasslands, rocky, grassy slopes and near woodland. The female usually deposits her eggs close to the ground, on dry stalks of grass. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina), F. quadriflora and various meadow-grasses (Poa spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar and pupate in June or July of the following year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (18%), heath and scrub (13%), screes (9%).

conservationAction:
In Croatia, Poland and Slovakia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs very locally in the mountains of southeast Europe: in Serbia, west of FYR of Macedonia, southeast and central Bulgaria and north of Greece. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Nicholl’s Ringlet is mainly found on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, where the butterflies fly close to the vegetation. They are sometimes seen near woods. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), coniferous woodland (40%), mesophile grasslands (20%).

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was recently split from Spanish Brassy Ringlet (E. hispania).

range:
This species, which was recently split from Spanish Brassy Ringlet (E. hispania), is known only from the Pyrenees, including Andorra, from altitudes of 1,650-2,300 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This species occurs on rocky grassy slopes and alpine meadows. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).


range:
This species occurs in the northern Urals and the polar tundras of European Russia and in the arctic parts of Asia and North America and the mountains of Central and East Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This species can be found on tundras and swamps. Its hostplants are Carex spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).


range:
Occurs in the southeast of France (from Drôme and Vaucluse to the French Alps) and in the bordering Italian Alps. Found at altitudes of 1,400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Larche Ringlet inhabits steep screes and rocky slopes of limestone with sparse grassy vegetation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. Research is needed on its ecology and habitat.


range:
Occurs only in the central Spanish and French Pyrenees. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The False Dewy Ringlet looks very like the Dewy Ringlet (E. pandrose) but, as far as it is known, the two species do not occur in the same habitat type. This species mostly occurs on steep, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation. The caterpillars feed on various meadow-grasses (Poa spp.) and fescues (Festuca spp.). It has one generation a year has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).


range:
Occurs in the southeastern Alps, from southern foothills of Monte Baldo and Dolomites in Italy, southern Austrian Alps, via the Julian Alps and Karavanke Mountains to the west and southwest of Croatia. Found at altitudes between 300-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Styrian Ringlet is found mostly on rocky limestone slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and on scree. The caterpillars feed on various grasses, such as Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans) and Alpine Meadow-grass (Poa alpina). The Styrian Ringlet is single-brooded. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (40%), screes (20%).


range:
Occurs in the eastern Alps: from Ticino (Monte Generoso) in Switzerland and the Dolomites (Italy) to the Julian Alps (Slovenia) and northwards to the Allgäuer Alps (Germany) and Karwendel Mountains (Austria). Found at altitudes between 600-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Stygian Ringlet occurs on warm, steep, rocky slopes with grassy vegetation and sometimes scattered bushes, often on limestone. Its foodplant is Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans). In Switzerland, it takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. The tiny caterpillar goes into hibernation immediately after leaving the egg, only starting to feed the next spring. In autumn, they again hibernate, pupating in June or July of the following year. In other areas at lower altitudes, they can complete their life cycle in one year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This is a local species with scattered populations in Europe. Population declines have been reported in Switzerland and Romania. In Romania there are two distinct populations: a large one in the Eastern Carpathians (Rodna) and one in the Southern Carpathians (Retezat), which seems to be on the brink of extinction. In Poland the situation is unclear, and it is not known if the species maintains a resident population at the moment. It is considered that both in Europe and the EU-27 countries the species has declined by more than 30%. Therefore it is classified as Vulnerable.

range:
This is a European species that occurs very locally in widely separated areas: in France in the Massif Central (Monts du Cantal) and the Alps (Savoie and Isère), in central Switzerland (Grindelwald), in Czech Republic (Sudeten) and in Romania in three places in the Carpathians. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
The Sudeten Ringlet is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Poland. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland. Populations are more or less stable in France. In Czech Republic, there is a (quite strong) range decline, but the population size appears to be stable (Eionet 2010).

habitat:
The Sudeten Ringlet occurs on alpine and sub-alpine grasslands, especially those near the tree-line. They are most numerous on damp grasslands with tall grasses and flowering plants, but they also reproduce on dry grassland. Although Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) is probably the most important foodplant, other grasses, such as Annual Meadow-grass (Poa annua), are also used. It has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (37%), coniferous woodland (25%), mixed woodland (12%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%).

threats:
The main threats are intensified grazing and abandonment. Considering its limited distribution, the Sudeten Ringlet may become threatened in the long term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al. 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Czech Republic, Poland and Romania, the species only occurs in protected areas.


range:
Occurs in the north of Portugal, in some mountainous areas in north and central Spain (including Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Gredos, Sierra de Guadarrama and Cantabrian Mountains), the Pyrenees, the Alps of France, south of Switzerland and Italy and of the Balkans in Croatia, south of Bosnia and Albania. Its elevational range is 400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in mountainous areas of Europe.

habitat:
In the Alps, de Prunner’s Ringlet is found on very dry grasslands with scattered rocks, whereas more to the south it occurs in clearings in woods growing on rocky ground, in Spain in clearings in pine forests on limestone. Its foodplants are Sheep’s-fescue (Festuca ovina), Smooth Meadow-grass (Poa pratensis), Alpine Meadow-grass (P. alpina) and Feather-grass (Stipa pinnata). It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), mesophile grasslands (22%), coniferous woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%).

conservationAction:
In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.


range:
Occurs in the Swiss Alps, central Italian Alps, Allgäuer Alps in Germany and Alps of Austrian Tirol. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Swiss Brassy Ringlet occurs in woodland clearings on grassy, rocky slopes and on screes. The caterpillars feed on different fescues (Festuca spp.) and on Mat-grass (Nardus stricta). The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small. They develop further the following spring, pupating sometime between June and August. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (44%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), screes (11%).


range:
Occurs only in eastern Spain in the mountains near Teruel, Cuenca and Guadalajara (such as the Sierra de Albarracin). Its elevational range is 1,000-1,600 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Zapater’s Ringlet is found in clearings in pinewood; these sometimes small clearings have grassy vegetation and shrubs. It usually occurs on limestone. The butterflies often visit thyme for nectar. Different fescues (Festuca spp.) and meadow-grasses (Poa spp.) are used as foodplants. This butterfly is single-brooded and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: coniferous woodland (100%).


taxonomicNotes:
This is a very variable species with many sub-species.

range:
This is a species of South and Central Europe. In Scandinavia to 62° N. It is absent from Italy (except the extreme north), south and central Greece, the Mediterranean islands and East Britain. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs throughout the temperate zone through Siberia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Marsh Fritillary occurs in very different types of habitat, like moist, sheltered grasslands, along the edges of raised bogs and on dry, calcareous grasslands. The foodplants are Devil’s-bit Scabious (Succisa pratense), Small Scabious (Scabiosa columbaria), Field Scabious (Knautia arvensis) and teasels (Dipsacus spp.). The eggs are laid in large clumps under the leaves. The caterpillars spin a substantial nest between the leaves of the foodplants, feeding in it and also hibernating communally there. However, later they are solitary and look for places deep in the vegetation in which to pupate. The Marsh Fritillary has one generation a year. This is a very variable species with many sub-species. In Spain and Portugal, E.a. beckeri is larger and brighter than most sub-species, with bold, black markings. E.a. debilis is found above 1,800 m in the Alps and Pyrenees and is smaller, with a lot of black markings and hardly any orange. E. a. provincialis occurs in the south of France and is pale orange. E. a. hibernica occurs in Ireland and is very distinctive with prominent red and heavy black markings. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mesophile grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), heath and scrub (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Denmark, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece and Luxembourg, it is not known if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
The species occurs in the Alps (from the foothills of the French Alps to the Niedere Tauern in Austria) and in the southwest of Bulgaria (Rila and Pirin Mts.). In the Alps, its elevational range is 900-3,000 m (most numerous at altitudes higher than the tree-line), in Bulgaria 2,000-2,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Cynthia's Fritillary occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grassland with short, grassy vegetation and low-growing shrubs and in rocky areas. They fly quickly, close to the ground and are fond of basking in the sun on rocks or bare patches of ground. The female lays its eggs in clusters under leaves of Alpine Plantain (Plantago alpina) and Long-spurred Pansy (Viola calcarata). The caterpillars are black and bristly with yellow bands between each segment. They can be very numerous and take two years to develop. The first hibernation takes place communally in a silken web. In the fourth larval instar, they hibernate a second time, solitary under stones, where they later pupate. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (30%).

threats:
Although this species shows a decline in a part of its range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.


redListCategoryRationale:
The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of >98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used GRAS-scenario. This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO2 emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models and (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach. The species might be endangered in the long run by climate change. In Portugal this is one of the rarest species, known only from the Algarve.

range:
This species occurs in the south of Portugal and in a number of hilly and mountainous regions in Spain: southeast Spain (from the southern tip to Valencia), middle of Spain (Sierra de Cuenca and in Castile), North Spain (Pyrenees and foothills as far as Catalonia) and just in the French part of the eastern Pyrenees. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species in part of Europe.

habitat:
The Spanish Fritillary occurs on open, grassy places with stony soil and lots of shrubs. It uses various foodplants, such as Cephalaria leucantha and C. syriaca, the teasels Dipsacus fullonum and D. comasus, scabious (Scabiosa and Knautia spp.) and possibly knapweeds (Centaurea spp.). The female lays its eggs in small batches on the underside of leaves. The caterpillars live in a communal spun nest, also hibernating there. There is one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), heath and scrub (25%).

threats:
This species could be threatened by climate change in the future.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.


range:
The species occurs in Norway and Sweden above the Arctic Circle up to the Northern Arctic Sea and in Finland in the border region with Norway. 300-700 m. It is also found in the polar and mountain tundra of Siberia to Mongolia and Caucasus in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
At lower altitudes in Lapland, this lovely fritillary occurs on flower-rich swampy areas and wet slopes with scattered birches. Above 500 m, it is found in drier rocky places. Compared to the other fritillaries that occur in Lapland, the Lapland Fritillary is remarkably colourful. It is one of the first arctic species to be seen, appearing practically as soon as the snow has melted. It flies quickly, zigzagging low over the vegetation. The female lays its eggs in small groups on plantains (Plantago spp.), Alpine Speedwell (Veronica alpina), Rock Speedwell (V. fruticans) and species of Vaccinium. The caterpillars live communally in small silken webs and hibernate there. They pupate in spring. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), raised bogs (16%), heath and scrub (16%).

threats:
This species appears to be fluctuating extremely between years, which may be related to a variation in the length (2 to 4 years) of its lifecycle. This species could be endangered by climate change in the future.


range:
This species occurs in Europe only in the Alps: from the French Alps to Austria and Slovenia. Mostly 1,700-2,200 m, but also seen at 1,000-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the Urals, south and west Siberia, Mongolia, Northeast China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Asian Fritillary can be seen searching for nectar or foodplants on open scrub, rich in herbaceous plants, or in clearings in open woodland, in flower-rich grassland and on vegetation of dwarf shrubs above the tree-line. These butterflies only occur locally, although at times in large numbers. The female lays all her eggs at once, on the underside of a leaf of its foodplant, Blue Honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea). The caterpillars live in communal webs and in autumn make a more substantial shelter of leaves, spun together with silk, in which to hibernate. They take two years to develop and have to hibernate twice. The fully-grown caterpillar leaves the nest after the second hibernation and pupates on the foodplant or adjacent rocks. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), coniferous woodland (11%), mixed woodland (11%), blanket bogs (5%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (5%), screes (5%), water-fringe vegetation (5%), raised bogs (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe a population decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Vulnerable. In the EU27 countries, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in the EU27 countries have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This species occurs in several separate areas: southeast of Sweden, south of Finland, the Baltic States and northeast of Poland. Locally in the north and southeast of of Germany, north of Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and further eastwards and southwards to the north of Greece. In France in Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne, Nièvre, Allier, Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or, Haute-Marne and Haute-Saône. 200-1,000 m. It is also found in the temperate zone of Siberia up to Transbaikalia and Yakutia in the east and to northwest of China and Mongolia in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, FYR of Macedonia, France, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Scarce Fritillary occurs in clearings, where young ash trees are growing in open, mixed woodland. The eggs are laid in one batch on a leaf of Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) or Aspen (Populus tremula), preferably at a height of 4 to 10 m. The butterfly generally has a slow, gliding flight but can speed up when necessary. The caterpillars build a nest of silk and leaves and feed together at first, while still quite small. They go into hibernation, remaining in the nest, which usually falls to the ground onto the woodland floor. In spring, they leave the nest and separate, spreading out in search of food. They use a variety of larval foodplants at this stage, including honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), plantains (Plantago spp.), or privets (Ligustrum spp.). They pupate in the litter layer. It has one generation a year although some of the caterpillars hibernate a second time before pupating. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), mixed woodland (18%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%), mesophile grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).

threats:
This is a typical species of open woodlands and coppice, mostly threatened by changes in woodland management or the felling or destruction of the forests.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In part of its European range, this species depends on specific woodland management. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Italy, none of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In Estonia, France and Germany, it is not known if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors regard H. senthes a subspecies of H. aristaeus.

range:
Restricted to the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, Giglio and Capraia. Its elevational range is 500-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species. Some authors regard H. senthes a subspecies of H. aristaeus.

habitat:
The Southern Grayling occurs on open, grassy slopes, on rocky slopes, in scrubby vegetation and in open woodland. The caterpillars feed on grasses, including Albardine (Lygeum spartum). They continue feeding on warm winter days. In spring they pupate in the ground. The Southern Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), mixed woodland (20%), screes (20%).


range:
This species can be found in the southeast of Russia and North Kazakhstan and in the Caucasus up to 3,000 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This butterfly occurs on steppe and semi-desert habitats in mountains and at foothills, dry steppes in valleys and subalpine meadows (Tuzov, 1997). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of the Azores-graylings is still under debate. At this moment only H. miguelensis is considered a separate species.

redListCategoryRationale:
Although this species occurs in a small extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO), it is not declining by more than 30% nor shows extreme fluctuations according to Russell et al. (2007). Therefore it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is restricted to the Azores. H. azorina occurs on Faial, Pico, Sao Jorge, Terceira, Flores and Corvo (although some authors consider the population on the two latter (western) islands to be H. occidentalis). Its elevational range is 400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Azores Grayling is a butterfly of sheltered places on grassy slopes on the Azores. The butterflies are often observed on flowers where they come for nectar. The only foodplant is probably Festuca jubata. The Azores Grayling has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (33%), heath and scrub (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species only occurs in two locations, and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 20 km². It is furthermore threatened by agriculture. Therefore it is classified as Vulnerable.

range:
Restricted to two locations on the Canary Island El Hierro, between 300-1,500 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a very local and rare European endemic, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on El Hierro, Canary Islands. It is not known how large the population is, but numbers might well be under 10,000 adults.

habitat:
This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, El Hierro, where it can be found on the very steep and grassy cliffs and the vineyards at the base of the cliffs. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species is restricted to two locations on one island. It is threatened by the conversion of steep areas to vineyards and intensivation of vineyard management, including the use of insecticides.

conservationAction:
As this species has a restricted global range and is very rare, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs only on the Greek island of Karpathos. Its elevational range is 300-750 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Karpathos Grayling is found on rocky slopes covered with open scrub and in clearings in coniferous woods, where the butterflies often rest on the trunks of trees. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).


range:
Confined to Crete and found at elevations of up to 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas, but common in Crete.

habitat:
The Cretan Grayling is found on dry, scrubby vegetation, often with sparse trees and also in olive groves. It has one generation a year. Habitats: phrygana (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).


range:
This species is restricted to Cyprus. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Cyprus.

habitat:
The Cyprus Grayling is a very common endemic butterfly species in Cyprus, emerging in April but dispersing to higher altitudes by early summer. Large numbers congregate in the mountains during the summer months, returning to coastal regions in autumn (John and Parker 2002). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe and the EU-27 countries, a decline of more than 25% falls within the uncertainty limits for population declines for this species. Therefore it is considered to Near Threatened.

range:
The Woodland Grayling occurs south of a line from the southern border of Belgium, central Germany and southern Poland eastwards. It is absent from north and west of France, as well as the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily and Lefkada. On the Iberian Peninsula it occurs only in Aragon and Catalonia. It occurs from sea level to 1,600 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It is reported extinct from Luxembourg. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Romania, Slovenia and Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Woodland Grayling is a butterfly of open woods that occurs on grassy vegetation, along woodland rides and in woodland glades. The butterflies often settle on tree trunks where, with their wings tightly closed and the eye-spots hidden, they are very well camouflaged. The eggs are laid on the blades of grasses such as fescues (Festuca spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.) and bromes (Bromus spp.). The caterpillars grow very slowly and hibernate half-grown in the litter layer. The caterpillar pupates in a little hollow in the ground, spinning a kind of cocoon. The Woodland Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), mixed woodland (10%), heath and scrub (7%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (7%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and open woodlands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.

conservationAction:
In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe: south of Bosnia, FYR of Macedonia, south and east of Bulgaria and in large parts of Greece (including many Greek islands). Sea level-1,500 m; mostly below 600 m. It is also found across Asia Minor to Transcaucasia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Freyer’s Grayling can be found in dense thickets, on rocky slopes, on dry, grassy vegetation, in open woodland and in olive groves and orchards. There are trees in most habitats. In appearance and choice of biotope, Freyer’s Grayling is very similar to the Tree Grayling (H. statilinus). The butterflies are fond of resting on the ground or on tree trunks and hardly ever visit flowers. It uses different grasses as foodplants and has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), coniferous woodland (14%), mixed woodland (14%), screes (14%), sclerophyllous scrub (14%).


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Portugal and Spain (except the extreme north), in the southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees via Ardèche to the French Alps) and adjacent part of the Italian Maritime Alps. Sea level-1,500 m, sometimes -2,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Striped Grayling occurs mostly on dry, rocky slopes with bushes and grassy vegetation and in open woodland. The butterflies often rest on the ground or on tree trunks. Foodplants are various grasses, such as Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon), Cock’s-foot (Dactylus glomerata), meadow-grasses (Poa spp.) and false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.). This butterfly is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar or pupa, on or just in the ground. Habitats: heath and scrub (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (16%).


range:
Restricted to the Canary Island Gomera. 200-400 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Gomera, Canary Islands.

habitat:
This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, Gomera. There, it can be found on the steep and grassy cliffs and on rocky gullies and slopes, mostly where there is also some bushy vegetation or laurel forest at close range. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs in several separate areas. Its distribution is often not clear, because of confusion with H. fagi. It is found in Portugal, Spain (east and northeast), France (the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Basses-Alpes, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire and Jura), west of Italy (in the mountains), south of Switzerland, Austria, north of Hungary, east of Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, south of Poland, east of Lithuania, southeast of Latvia, south of Norway. 500-1,500 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Rock Grayling can be found at the edge of very open woodland on poor steppe-like grasslands, as found, for example, near open coniferous woods growing on sandy ground. In these habitats, there are usually rockmasses or other forms of open ground. The butterfly often rests on the ground or against tree trunks, where the colours and pattern of the underside of its wings provide excellent camouflage. The eggs are laid on different grasses, including fescues (Festuca spp.) and false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.). The caterpillars grow very slowly and hibernate when half-grown in the litter layer. They pupate in a little hollow in the ground, after spinning a sort of cocoon. The Rock Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (34%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), inland sand-dunes (8%), mixed woodland (8%), broad- leaved deciduous forests (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), heath and scrub (5%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and open woodlands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.

conservationAction:
In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a very restricted range and an area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 400 km². Only five locations are known. The species is not reported to be declining. It is therefore classified as Near Threatened (almost meeting the criterion B2a) both at the European and EU27 level.

range:
This species is restricted to the Eolian Islands of Italy: Volcano and Panarea. It occurs from sea level to 500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
The Eolian Grayling is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Italy.

habitat:
The Eolian Grayling replaces the Grayling (H. semele) on the Eolian Islands in Italy, where it is a common and widespread species. Its ecology resembles that of the Grayling. It occurs in open places on rocky slopes and gullies, often close to scrub, but it may also be found in gardens and open woods. The eggs are deposited on many grass species. The Eolian Grayling is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species has a restricted range on a few small islands.

conservationAction:
Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This butterfly species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This species can be found in areas with herbaceous covering above 1,000 m and in areas of the Laurisilva where heath is predominant. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (20%), coniferous woodland (20%), mixed woodland (20%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (20%), volcanic features (20%).


range:
This species occurs on the Greek islands of Lesbos and Samos. 150-1,100 m. Its main range is in Turkey. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This grayling can be found in very open, dry coniferous woodland with an undergrowth of scattered bushes and grasses. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (100%).


redListCategoryRationale:
Although this species occurs in a small extent of occurrence (EOO) and AOO, it is not declining by more than 30% nor shows extreme fluctuations according to Russell et al. (2007). Therefore it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Restricted to Sao Miguel, in the Azores. Its elevational range is 600-1,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Le Cerf's Grayling can be found in on grassy vegetation in small valleys and sheltered hollows. The butterflies are often observed on flowers where they come for nectar. Probably, the only foodplant is Festuca jubata. The species has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (33%), heath and scrub (33%).


range:
This species is restricted to the south of Italy. Its elevational range is 800-1,100 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Italy.

habitat:
The Italian Grayling is is restricted to a small region on the South of Italy. It occurs on dry stony grasslands. This species is single-brooded (Lafranchis 2004). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
Confined to the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Elba and Capraia. Its elevational range is 300-2,100 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Corsican Grayling is found on open slopes covered with grassy vegetation and scrub or dwarf scrub, sometimes with coniferous woodland nearby, although they also occur above the tree-line. Different grasses are used as foodplants, including the fescue Festuca morisiana. The caterpillars do not have a real diapause and continue feeding throughout the winter. It has one generation a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
This species occurs on the Greek islands of Lesbos and Ikaria, and on the Crimea. Sea level-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey, the north of Iraq, the north of Iran and the Transcaucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Eastern Grayling occurs in dry, bushy vegetation in open pinewoods and in rocky areas with grassy vegetation. The caterpillars feed on grasses, although on which species is not known. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), phrygana (20%), screes (10%), mixed woodland (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species has a very restricted range and an area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 400 km². Only five locations are known. The species is not reported to be declining. Therefore it is classified as Near Threatened (almost meeting the criteria B1a+2a) both at the European and EU27 level.

range:
This species is restricted to the Ponza Islands in Italy. This is a European endemic species.

population:
The Ponza Grayling is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on the Ponza Islands in Italy.

habitat:
The Ponza Grayling is the only grayling on the island of Ponza. It occurs on dry grassland and scrub close to trees. This species is single-brooded (Lafranchis 2004). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species has a very restricted range on a few isolated islands.

conservationAction:
Since this species has a very restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
Occurs in almost all of Europe. However, in Scandinavia, Britain, Ireland and the Baltic States it is largely restricted to coastal areas. Absent from some parts of west France and large parts of Greece, Albania, FYR of Macedonia, south of Bulgaria and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Its elevational range is from sea level to 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient and good quality of habitat. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Slovenia, the Netherlands, United Kingdom. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Grayling is found in dry, infertile habitats, occurring on poor, dry grasslands, dry heaths and in dunes along the coast. The males and females meet each other above a solitary tree in a wide open landscape, such as a pine on heathland or on bare patches of ground in dune areas. The female lays its eggs on various fine-leaved grasses, including fescues (Festuca spp.), bents (Agrostis spp.) and bromes (Bromus spp.). Walking over the bare ground, it approaches a grass tussock and deposits an egg on a withered grass blade a few centimetres above the ground. The caterpillar grows very slowly, feeding mostly at night. It hibernates deep down in a grass tussock. When it is ready to pupate, it spins a kind of cocoon in a little hollow in the ground. The Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), coniferous woodland (10%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (10%), heath and scrub (10%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).


range:
This species is present from Albania and the FYR of Macedonia to the south of Bulgaria and Greece, including some of the Aegian islands. There is a recent record from the northern Adriatic island Cres (Croatia). 50-1,600 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

habitat:
The Balkan Grayling replaces the Grayling (H. semele) in the Southern part of the Balkan peninsula. It may be found on dry grassland, scubs and open woodlands from sea level up to an altitude of 1,600 m. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
Both at the European and EU27 member states level, a population decline of almost 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Near Threatened. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in Central Europe have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This is a species that occurs from the southwest to southeast of Europe: on the Iberian Peninsula, in the southwest and south of France, Italy, south of Switzerland, Austria and all over the Balkans. It also occurs locally in Poland and Lithuania. There are a few scattered and isolated populations in the Netherlands and Germany. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Morocco, Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the northern part of its range. In the south, it is widespread. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Romania, Slovenia, The Netherlands and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Especially in the northern part of its range, the Tree Grayling is a typical inhabitant of the open steppe. It occurs in very warm, dry and nutrient-poor areas with much open ground and sparse vegetation, such as on rockmasses and at the edge of blown sands. The size and markings of this butterfly are very variable. While remaining on the ground, the female deposits her eggs one by one on withered blades of grass. Grey Hair-grass (Corynephorus canescens), Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina), Brown Bent-grass (Agrostis vinealis), bromes (Bromus spp.), Feather grass (Stipa pinnata) and other grasses are used as foodplants. The small caterpillar passes the winter in a grass tussock and, if it does not freeze, remains active during the winter. However, growth only begins after hibernation. As development is very slow, the caterpillar only pupates towards the end of the summer in August. The flight period of the Tree Grayling, that only has one generation a year, is therefore very late. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), coniferous woodland (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (7%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (7%), inland sand-dunes (5%).

threats:
This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and (in West and Central Europe) open sand dunes and heathlands. Here also nitrogen deposition leads to a faster succession of open sand areas, thus reducing the area of suitable habitat substantially. In some Central European countries the abandonment of former military training areas also leads to the invasion of shrubs and trees, further reducing the habitat.

conservationAction:
In Lithuania and the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, (especially Western and Centreal Europe) important habitats should be protected and managed. More research is needed to the ecology of this species, here again, especially in Western and Central Europe. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.

redListAssessors:
van Swaay, C., Maes, D., Wynhoff, I., Settele, J., Warren, M., Wiemers, M., Šašić, M., López Munguira, M., Verovnik, R. & Verstrael, T.


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe from the coastal mountains of Croatia to the southeast of Romania and south of Greece (including several Greek islands) and on Cyprus. 0-1,300 m, sometimes 1,900 m. It is also found through Turkey to Syria and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Eastern Rock Grayling looks very much like the Woodland Grayling (H. fagi) and they occur together in some places. This butterfly is a species of scrub and open woodland of all kinds, deciduous, coniferous and mixed. At the hottest part of the day, the butterflies hardly fly at all, resting with closed wings on the shadow side of the tree trunk, or on the ground where they blend into their surroundings. They hardly ever visit flowers. Their flight is quick and powerful. The caterpillars feed on grasses. Although single-brooded, they can be seen from May until September. The butterflies may be inactive during the hot, dry summer. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%), mixed woodland (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), coniferous woodland (12%).


range:
Restricted to the Canary Island Gran Canaria. Its elevational range is 400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands.

habitat:
This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, Gran Canaria. It can be found rocky gullies surrounded by pine forest. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species occurs in fewer than five locations, it's area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 20 km² and it is threatened by tourist activities and fires. Therefore it is classified as Vulnerable.

range:
The La Palma Grayling occurs only on the Canary Island of La Palma, between 400-1,300 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a very local and rare European endemic, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on La Palma, Canary Islands. It is not known how large the population is, but numbers might well be under 10,000 adults.

habitat:
This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, La Palma. It can be found in rocky gullies surrounded by laurel or pine forest. It has one generation a year (Tolman & Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
This species is restricted to few locations on one island. It is threatened by tourist activities and fires.


range:
Occurs in the south of Russia and The Balkans: in Serbia, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and the north of Greece. Its elevational range is 600-1,500 m, sometimes 2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
Delattin’s Grayling is a butterfly of warm and dry places. It is found on rocky slopes, on dry grasslands and in open woodland. It has one generation a year. The adults butterflies are on the wing from June to July. Further details on the ecology of this species are unknown. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), mixed woodland (16%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%), phrygana (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).


range:
Only present on Tenerife, Canary Islands. Its elevational range is 1,400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Tenerife, Canary Islands.

habitat:
The Canary Grayling is a widespread but local species in the central mountains of Tenerife. It occurs on sparsely vegetatied rocky gullies in pine forests. The species has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs from the utmost Eastern Europe to Mongolia and China. Up to 800 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This species occurs on semideserts, dry steppes and arid stony hills up to 800 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs in the southwest and southeast of Europe: central Portugal, Spain (except the northwestern and northeastern parts), central Pyrenees, Southeast France, locally in central and south Italy and in the north of Sicily, in Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary and in the Balkans from Croatia to the southeast of Romania and Greece (including some islands) and on Cyprus. 400-2,000 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, Middle Asia, Kazakhstan and South Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Oriental Meadow Brown is a butterfly of warm, dry places. They can be found on dry grasslands with scattered bushes, or dry scrub vegetation and in open woodland. At rest, their wings are almost always closed. They have a rapid flight, often keeping to the shadow cast by trees or bushes. Grasses, such as meadow-grasses (Poa spp.) and fescues (Festuca spp.) are used as foodplants. It has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), mixed woodland (7%), phrygana (7%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, since it has been declining by 24% in Europe in the last ten years.

range:
This species occurs in the north of Portugal and large parts of Spain, in the south of France and of Switzerland, north of Italy, from Austria, Czech Republic, south and east of Poland to the south of Finland and further eastwards. It is also present throughout the Balkans, including Greece. Sea level-2,200 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, temperate Asia from Turkey to Mongolia, China and South Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Latvia, Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Dusky Meadow Brown occurs in many different grassland types. It is important that its habitat is dry and warm. In the north of its range, the grassland is steppe-like and more to the south the butterfly is found in more dense vegetations. It uses various grasses as foodplant, including fescues (Festuca spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.) and Feather-grass (Stipa pinnata) and other Stipa species. When the female is about to lay an egg, it first alights on the ground and walks to a foodplant, then it chooses a low-hanging grass blade on which to deposit an egg. The caterpillar hibernates in the first larval instar and only starts feeding in spring. At first, it feeds mainly during day, but when the weather gets too warm, it only feeds at night. Pupation takes place deep in the vegetation or litter layer. The Dusky Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (24%), dry siliceous grasslands (22%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), coniferous woodland (5%).


range:
This species is present from the Polar Urals to Kamchatka in the North to montane tundra and Tibet in the south. Up to 3,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly species occurs on tundras, swamps and moist meadows in forests and in the mountains. It produces one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003)). Habitats: coniferous woodland (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).


range:
This species occurs all over Central and Southern Europe. It is absent from islands in the East of the Mediterranean, Ireland and Britain. Resident up to 63° N in Scandinavia, migrant to 66° N. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore present through the temperate part of Russia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Norway, Spain, Spain - Canary Islands and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The large, silver-white mirrors on the underside of the hindwings, distinguish the Queen of Spain Fritillary from other fritillaries. They are strong flyers and can be seen outside their breeding grounds.The butterflies of the first generation that emerge at the end of the spring are quite small, but those of summer generations are often bigger. They can be found on a wide range of dry, flower-rich grasslands, wasteland and fields. The female deposits its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of violets (Viola spp.) on which the caterpillars later feed. On this nutritious diet the caterpillars grow very quickly, pupating low down in the vegetation. The Queen of Spain Fritillary has two to four generations a year, depending on the altitude and geographical position of the habitat. Hibernation takes place in the larval stage in temperate areas, but probably it can overwinter in other stages as well. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (13%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), fallow land, waste places (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), improved grasslands (5%).


range:
This species occurs very locally in Southeast Europe: in the east of Serbia and of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, northwest of Greece and of Bulgaria. It is also found in Ukraine. 700-1,600 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, the Caucasus and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas.

habitat:
The Lesser Lattice Brown is a butterfly of grassy woodland glades. It occurs both in deciduous and mixed woodland. The butterflies have a rapid flight. They often rest in trees, but sometimes on shorter vegetation. The caterpillars feed on grasses, such as Annual Meadow-grass (Poa annua), but also on larger, coarse-leaved species. The Lesser Lattice Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), mixed woodland (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%).


range:
This species occurs in the Balkans: from the south of Croatia, and of Bosnia to the south of Romania and Greece. This species occurs also on several Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1750 m. It is also found on Turkey, Israel, Syria, the north of Iraq and western Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lattice Brown inhabits open, dry woodland and dry scrub. In the hottest part of the day, the butterflies settle on tree trunks, hiding in the deep shade of bushes and thickets. They are sometimes seen on dry riverbeds. The female deposits its eggs in crevices in the bark of trees and bushes. The caterpillars feed on grasses, such as meadow-grass (Poa spp.), quaking grass (Briza spp.), brome (Bromus spp.) and foxtail (Alopecurus spp.). The Lattice Brown has one generation a year. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (57%), sclerophyllous scrub (28%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (14%).


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 68° N in Scandinavia. It is absent from the southwest of Spain, the south of Portugal, large parts of Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, northwest of Germany, Denmark, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia and Crete. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Urals, Central Asia, and Southwest Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Romania, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Wall Brown occurs in quite different habitats. It is mainly found in warm, dry places near rocks and nutrient-poor grassland, or on rough vegetation near woodland edges. However, it can also occur on damp grassland and rough vegetation near wood margins. The butterflies need a lot of nectar, often visiting purple or pink flowers of thistles and other nectar-rich plants. The female lays its eggs on the blades of grasses that include Holcus spp., bents (Agrostis spp.) and small-reeds (Calamagrostis spp.). The caterpillars hibernate when half-grown in a grass tussock and pupate later deep down in the vegetation. The Large Wall Brown has one generation a year in the north of its distribution range and two a year in the south. Habitats: mixed woodland (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), heath and scrub (7%), coniferous woodland (7%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. However, in the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien 2008) this species shows a decline in European grasslands, its main habitat. The species might become threatened in the future.

range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe except mid and north of Scandinavia, Scotland, Finland and Estonia. Sea level-3,000 m. It is also found in North Africa and eastwards to the Caucasus, Asia Minor, the Middle East, also Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range, although it shows strong declines in number in many parts. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Sweden, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Wall Brown inhabits many different types of grassland, natural grasslands, as well as not all too intensively farmed land. The butterflies are mostly very active, the males very alert. They fly up when disturbed from rocks or walls on which they often bask in the sun and are therefore conspicuous. The males have a broad scent-brand on their forewings. The female deposits her eggs on the blades of many different grasses, including fescues (Festuca spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.), cock’s-foot (Dactylus spp.), bromes (Bromus spp.) and Crested Dog’s-tail (Cynosurus aristatus). When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in the litter layer, where it later, deep down, pupates. The Wall Brown has two to three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%).

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


taxonomicNotes:
This butterfly species used to be considered a sub-species of the Wall Brown (L. megera)

range:
Occurs on the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Capraia and Montecristo. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This butterfly species can be fairly common in maquis habitat. It used to be considered a sub-species of the Wall Brown (L. megera). The life-cycle of these two species is very similar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).


range:
This species occurs locally in the moderately high mountains in the south of Europe (500-2,500 m) and in Scandinavia (100-1,200 m). It is furthermore found in temperate Asia (except for the extreme north) to Mongolia, the Amur region and Northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Northern Wall Brown is found in woodland clearings and meadows in woodland, usually in relatively warm places with large rockmasses. The butterflies are fond of basking in the sun on warm rocks or on the ground. The eggs are laid on a number of grasses, including fescues (Festuca spp.), small-reeds (Calamagrostis spp.) and cock’s-foot (Dactylus spp.). The Northern Wall Brown hibernates either in the last larval instar, or as a pupa and has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (28%), coniferous woodland (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).

conservationAction:
In Croatia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central European species. This species occurs from the Baltic States to the north of Greece and from the south of England to France (except in the south). It is absent from Scandinavia and only in the east of Denmark. In Spain, it is only in the Cantabrian Mts. And the Pyrenees. Its is also absent from the south and the east of Italy and the Croatian coast. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, Northwest Kazakhstan, Amur, Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg and Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The White Admiral is a true woodland butterfly and is found in clearings and woodland rides. The female lays its eggs on young honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) leaves, preferring those half in the shade. The caterpillars feed on the leaves in a characteristic way. Starting at the tip and working towards the stalk, they leave the main nerve intact and use it to rest upon. The hibernation is in the second larval instar. To make the hibernaculum the remaining part of the leaf is spun into a little tube and the leaf stalk is spun tightly onto a twig. After hibernating, the caterpillar feeds on the newly-emerged leaves. It pupates upside down on a twig and has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (56%), mixed woodland (20%).


redListCategoryRationale:
At the European level, this species is listed as Least Concern, as it has been evaluated against all the IUCN criteria and does not meet, nor is it close to meeting (e.g. populations have not been declining by more than 25% in the past 10 years), the thresholds for any category of threat. In the EU27 countries, a population decline of more than 25% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, it is classified as Near Threatened within the EU27.

range:
This species occurs locally in Central Europe. In France, it is present only in the northeast and Brittany, in Germany and Belgium only in the south, in Southeast Norway, South and Central Sweden, south of Finland to the north of Greece. 100-1,500 m. It also occurs in the whole temperate forest zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, France, Germany and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Belgium, Hungary, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
An encounter with the Poplar Admiral is one of those things that one never forgets. It is an impressive butterfly and the woods it inhabits are areas of natural beauty. They are found in mixed woodlands with damp clearings, where its foodplants Aspen (Populus tremula) and Black Poplar (Populus nigra) grow. The female deposits its eggs one by one on leaves that are preferably situated in the sun, with more branches above them. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves, damaging them in a characteristic way. Starting at the point, they eat the softer tissue, leaving the middle nerve untouched. This nerve is supplied with a spun thread, which catches the caterpillar’s frass. When about two-thirds of the leaf is left, the caterpillar uses it to build a hibernaculum, which is fastened tightly onto a twig with spun thread. It hibernates in the second larval instar and in spring eats large numbers of leaves before finally pupating, suspended from a leaf. The Poplar Admiral has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), mixed woodland (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of the woodland management.


range:
This species occurs in a continuous area from Galicia (Spain) via the south and the east of France, Italy and the Alps eastwards. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found through Turkey and the Middle East to the west of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range, which can colonize areas temporary. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern White Admiral occurs in warm to very warm places in woodland and scrub, often situated near streams, springs or other damp places. The eggs are laid on nearly all species of honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves in the manner characteristic of this genus, nibbling at the soft tissues while leaving the main nerve untouched. For hibernation, a small cradle is made from the remains of the leaf, which is secured to a twig with silk. When they come out of hibernation, they begin feeding on the young honeysuckle leaves. The caterpillar pupates suspended from a twig of the foodplant. This species has one generation a year north of the Alps, but two in the Mediterranean region. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (38%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%).


redListCategoryRationale:
In Europe and the EU27 countries, a population decline of more than 30% falls within the uncertainty limits for this species' population decline. Therefore, this species is considered as Vulnerable. It should however be noted that both the distribution and population size of this species in Western and Central Europe have declined severely during the 20th century (so before the last ten years).

range:
This is a Central European species, local and very rare. In Spain possibly only in Biscay, in France except Atlantic coast and south, Switzerland, north of Italy via Slovenia to the east, continuous from Southeast Germany to the south of Finland. 200-1,500 m. It is also found eastwards across northern Central Asia to Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The Woodland Brown is declining in large parts of Europe. Present strongholds are mainly in East Europe. It is reported extinct in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Belgium, Bulgaria and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Hungary, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Woodland Brown is fond of warm, open places in damp, deciduous or mixed woods with well-developed shrub and herbaceous layers. These habitats may be flooded in winter. The butterflies rarely visit flowers, preferring to feed on honeydew, moisture on buds and sap runs from wounded trees. The males often settle on puddles on the ground, while the females tend to stay in the very top of the trees. Females and caterpillars are restricted to a narrow zone under the tree and bush canopy along the edges of clearings where the host plant must be present (Bergmann, 2001). Eggs are laid on all species of grasses, including fescues (Festuca spp.), meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), small-reeds (Calamagrostis spp.) and false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.) and also on sedges (Carex spp.). The half-grown caterpillar hibernates in a grass tussock, where later in the year it also pupates. The Woodland Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (45%), mixed woodland (29%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), coniferous woodland (5%).

threats:
Changes in woodland or woodland management are the main threats all over the continent. Nevertheless agricultural abandonment and land drainage are important threats in some countries, mainly because the habitat was maintained in a successional change by grazing.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It is important to maintain suitable glades by grazing or clearing at regular intervals to prevent overshading of its habitat. To improve overgrown sites small clearings (10-30 m in diameter) should be created, wide enough to allow the sun to reach the ground (Bergman pers. comm.).


range:
This species occurs from the Urals across the south of Siberia, China and Mongolia to Korea and Japan. Up to 1,700 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
In the Western part of its range this butterfly occurs in open coniferous forests, but more tot the East it is also found in tundras in the mountains, flying over stony slopes and alpine meadows at the upper forest border. The females lay their eggs on a number of grass species, such as Agrostis, Elytrigia and Calamagostis species. Usually only one generation a year is produced but in favorable conditions a second generation might appear as well (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: mixed woodland (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%).


range:
Occurs commonly on the Greek islands Chios and Inousses. Its elevational range is from sea level to 800 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Where it occurs, it is rather common.

habitat:
This Meadow Brown can be seen on dry, grassy vegetation with scattered bushes and near agricultural land. The butterflies are inactive in summer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).


range:
Occurs only on Cyprus. Its elevational range is from sea level to 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This Meadow Brown is often found in shady places, such as in woods, orchards and among scrubby vegetation and it is also occurs on more open sites. These butterflies have a rapid, linear flight. The caterpillars feed on grasses, although exactly which species is not known. There is one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Research is needed on its ecology and habitat requirements.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic from the Greek island of Nisiros, whose area is appr. 42 km², so the Extend of Occurrence is less than 100 km². Furthermore, this island can be regarded as one location. Since no decline has been reported and the species does not appear to fluctuate, it is classified as Near Threatened.

range:
This species occurs in Europe only on the Greek island Nisiros. Sea level-100 m. It is also found in the southwest of Turkey, but here the range is restricted as well. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a species with a very restricted distribution, both globally and in Europe.

habitat:
This meadow brown is found on dry, open scrub and near agricultural land on the Greek island Nisiros. In the summer months, the butterflies are inactive. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).

threats:
In Europe, the very small range of this species (the extent of occurrence - EOO - is less than 100 km²) in one location makes it vulnerable to environmental changes. Outside Europe the butterfly can be found only around Budrum in Southwest Turkey.


range:
This species occurs all over Europe to 63° N. It is absent from central and north Scandinavia. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found east to West Siberia and across Asia Minor and the Caucasus to Turkmenia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Meadow Brown is a common butterfly of many different grassland types, both natural grasslands and not too intensively used farmland and semi-natural grassland. The butterflies are noticeable by their lively behaviour. The female deposits its eggs on a large number of grasses, including species of fescue (Festuca spp.), false-brome (Brachypodium spp.), cock's-foot (Dactylus spp.), dog’s-tail (Cynosurus spp.) and brome (Bromus spp.). Sometimes, it also just drops the eggs in flight. The caterpillar goes into hibernation in the litter layer when half-grown. It also pupates deep in the litter layer. The Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini et al., 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
In Europe, it only occurs on the Greek island Lesbos. Sea level-900 m. Its main distribution is in Turkey. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This meadow brown prefers damp places with grassy vegetation and bushes. The butterflies have a long flight period and are inactive in summer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: water-fringe vegetation (50%), fens, transition mires and springs (50%).


range:
Scattered occurrence on Sardinia. Most abundant in the Monti del Gennargentu, where it is found at elevations of 600-1,300 m; elsewhere at 400 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Sardinian Meadow Brown is mostly found on bushy vegetation with Cistus, on grassland with bushes, in woodland clearings and in open woodland and near streams. The butterflies often fly close to the ground. Compared to M. jurtina, that occurs in the same habitats but also on higher altitudes, M. nurag is much smaller and much lighter and more orange-yellow on the upper-side of the wings. Females aestivate during the hottest period of summer waiting for first autumn rains for egg laying. After mating, the female stores the sperm and eggs get fertilized after the aestivation period when females lay their eggs (Grill et al., 2006). The caterpillars live on grasses, including Festuca morisiana, an endemic fescue of Sardinia. The caterpillars are mainly active at night and continue feeding throughout the winter as long as it does not freeze. The Sardinian Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face immediate threats. According to Grill et al. (2006) global warming could disrupt the aestivation, which might threaten the species in future.


range:
This species occurs in Europe only on islands in the Eastern Aegean Sea. Sea level-1,300 m. It is also found in Turkey, Jordan, Israel, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species with a restricted European distribution.

habitat:
This meadow brown is a butterfly of open woodland, found in oak woods, mixed woods and coniferous forests and also in open scrub. Further, it is seen in olive groves, vineyards and occasionally villages. The butterflies mostly fly in the shadow of trees and bushes, keeping close to the ground. In contrast to the Meadow Brown (M. jurtina), this butterfly is hardly ever found on open, flower-rich grasslands. Butterflies are present from the spring until the autumn, but during the hot, dry summer months, they are inactive, hiding in trees or bushes, or on tree trunks. Although the females mate soon after emergance, they do not lay their eggs in summer. The eggs mature during the period of inactivity in summer and are deposited during the following autumn on several species of grasses. This meadow brown has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


range:
Occurs in Italy from central Italy to the northeast of Sicily. Its elevational range is 350-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Italian Marbled White occurs locally in small populations. It occurs in rocky, calcareous places on patches of dry, grassy vegetation among loose thickets of Prickly Juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus), Rosa sempervirens, the bramble Rubus ulmifolius and Thymus capitatus, with a few scattered trees. The caterpillars feed on grasses such as Feather Grass (Stipa pinnata) and the false-brome Brachypodium retusum. The Italian Marbled White has one generation a year and only flies for three weeks per year in any one location. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. In Italy, not all populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.


range:
This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It is absent from Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, north of Lithuania, north of Germany, the Netherlands, north and central Britain, Ireland, Portugal, south of Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In Spain, it is only in the Cantabrian Mts.and the Pyrenees. Sea level-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa and from the Southern Urals across the Caucasus and Asia Minor to the north of Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Marbled White inhabits many different types of nutrient-poor grassland. It is common in the southern part of its range, also on road verges and in agricultural areas. The butterflies need a lot of nectar and are often seen on plants in bloom. Various grass species, mostly fine-leaved, are used as foodplants. The female usually just drops its eggs into the grass, sometimes while flying. The first instar caterpillar hibernates without eating first. In periods of hot weather, the other instars can also go without food. They pupate deep in the vegetation. The Marbled White has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mixed woodland (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).


range:
This species occurs all over the Iberian Peninsula, except the north of Spain. Sea level-1,600m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Spanish Marbled White is found in warm, dry places with low vegetation on rocky slopes, on flower-rich grassy vegetation and in scrub. Its foodplants are grasses of the genus Stipa. The caterpillars hibernate, pupating on the ground in the early spring. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


range:
Occurs on Iberian Peninsula (but absent from the Spanish northern coast and most of the southwest) and in France (along the Mediterranean from the Pyrenees to Rhône Valley and as an isolated population in the vicinity of Montauban). Its elevational range is from sea level to 2,000 m, sometimes 2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Iberian Marbled White occurs in flower-rich, dry to damp grasslands, near dry scrub and along woodland edges and hedgerows. Grasses such as Annual Meadow-grass (Poa annua), Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis), Compact Brome (Bromus madritensis) and Brachypodium retusum are used as foodplants. This species is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), scrub and grassland (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), screes (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (11%).


range:
This species occurs in Southeast Europe: from coastal zone of Croatia, via south of Bosnia and of Serbia to the south of Greece and on some Greek islands. 0-1,500 m, sometimes -2,100 m. It is also found through Turkey to Transcaucasia and northwest of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Balkan Marbled White occurs on dry grasslands, rocky slopes, in open scrub and in grassy clearings in woods. The caterpillars feed on different grasses. This butterfly is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (37%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%).


range:
This species occurs in central Portugal, large parts of Spain (except Southwest and orth), southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees via Ardèche and Provence to the French Alps) and in bordering part of the Italian Maritime Alps. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portuga and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Western Marbled White is mostly found in dry, rocky places with grassy vegetation and scattered rocks, although it is also seen in damper locations. Its foodplants are various grasses, such as Tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum), Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon), Cock’s-foot (Dactylus glomerata) and several Stipa spp. This species has one generation a year. It spends the summer as young larva without feeding, but feeds during the winter. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (40%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), mesophile grasslands (20%).


range:
Only occurs on West Sicily in the mountains south of Palermo (the very similar M. arge occurs in northeast Sicily). Its elevational range is from 600-1,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Sicilian Marbled White lives in rocky places with dry, grassy vegetation. Its foodplants are grasses and probably the false-brome Brachypodium retusum is one of them. After hatching, the tiny caterpillar first eats the shell of its egg and then becomes inactive in summer months, only beginning to feed in autumn. The next spring, when it is fully-grown, it spins a little tent from sand and plant remains in which to pupate. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species has a scattered occurrence in Europe: northeast Portugal, north and central Spain (but not in the northern coastal zone and the western Pyrenees), southeast of France (eastern Pyrenees, south of the Massif Central to the Alps), south and central Italy, north of Sicily and in the Balkans in the western part of FYR of Macedonia, Albania and north of Greece. In Spain 400-1,500 m, in Italy 1,000-1,500 m and in the Balkans 1,000-2,100 m. It is also found from the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan to South Siberia and from Asia Minor and the Middle East across Iran to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Esper's Marbled White is a butterfly of grassy vegetation, occurring both on acid and calcareous soils. They are often found on dry, rocky slopes but also in grassy glades in woods. They are fond of visiting thistles and like plants for their nectar. Various meadow grasses (Poa spp.) and false bromes (Brachypodium spp.), Feather Grass (Stipa pinnata) and Aegilops geniculata are used as foodplants. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate on the ground in spring. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (15%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), phrygana (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), coniferous woodland (7%), mixed woodland (7%).


range:
This species occurs very locally in the south of Europe: in South Portugal (up to just north of Lisbon), in Southwest Spain (and in isolated populations near Granada and Jaén) and in Northwest Sicily. In Spain and Portugal 0-800 m, on Sicily 800-1,100 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
In Spain, the Aetherie Fritillary is found in clearings in disturbed Holm Oak (Quercus ilex) woodlands, where its foodplants, thistles (Cirsium spp.) and knapweeds (Centaurea spp.), such as Star Thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa), Brown Knapweed (C. jacea) and C. carratracensis grow. In Sicily, it is found in open, warm, dry places whith Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus), which is probably the foodplant here. The female lays its eggs in batches on the foodplants. The Aetherie Fritillary has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. The sub-species that occurs on Sicily may have two generations a year. Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (100%).


range:
This species occurs locally in the Balkans: in mountainous regions in FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and S Romania. 500-1,500 m. Recently also found at the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria. It is also found across Asia Minor to Central Asia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Freyer’s Fritillary is found on flower-rich grassy vegetation and in woodland clearings on both calcareous and acid soil and seems to prefer moist places. The female lays its eggs in large batches on the leaves of knapweeds (Centaurea spp.). The caterpillars feed and also hibernate communally in a nest of spun silk. When almost fully grown, they separate and pupate close to the ground, on the stems of plants. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mesophile grasslands (25%), mixed woodland (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%).


range:
Occurs in the eastern part of the Alps: in Switzerland only in extreme east (Engadin), the eastern and central Italian Alps and in Austria as far as the Gurktaler Alps. Its elevational range is from 2,000-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
This tiny, rather dark Fritillary, with its faded markings, always looks as though it has been worn by much flying. The Little Fritillary occurs above the tree-line on alpine meadows with a short vegetation. They have a rapid, zigzagging flight. The female lays its eggs in clusters on the leaves of Alpine Plantain (Plantago alpina). Because the breeding grounds are at such high altitudes and the growing season is so short, the caterpillars take nearly two years to develop and are more numerous in some years than others. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe. It is absent from the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula (except Sierra Nevada), the Mediterranean islands, south of Greece, Ireland and Britain (except the South). The sub-species M. a. celadussa occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, also in the south of France and of Switzerland, Italy and Sicily. Sea level-2,700 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to the Amur region and Kamchatka Peninsula. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Heath Fritillary is found in many different biotope types, ranging from dry to damp, grassy, flower-rich places, often situated near bushes or in woodland, or in clearings and along the edges of paths in woods. Its foodplants are plantains (Plantago spp.), cow-wheats (Melampyrum spp.), speedwells (Veronica spp.), foxgloves (Digitalis spp.) and toadflaxes (Linara spp.). The female lays its eggs in clusters on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed communally in silken nests, also hibernating together when half-grown. They then disperse over the plant, either into small groups, or, mostly, become solitary. They pupate on the foodplant and usually have one generation a year, except in the south, where they have two. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (11%), heath and scrub (6%), coniferous woodland (5%).

conservationAction:
In United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a Central European species. It is absent from Scandinavia, the Netherlands, north and central Belgium, northwest and southwest of France, the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean islands, Italy (except in the north) and Greece (except in the north). 100-1,500 m. It is also found across the Caucasus and the north of Kazakhstan to West Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Serbia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Nickerl’s Fritillary occurs on open, dry grasslands and heaths on calcareous slopes and is very heat-tolerant. The female deposits her eggs in clusters on the underside of the leaves of its foodplant Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata). The caterpillars feed and also hibernate in communal silken nests. They pupate low down in the vegetation. Nickerl’s Fritillary has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), mesophile grasslands (24%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).


range:
This is a species of eastern Central Europe, with some isolated occurrences outside this region. Thus, it is local in southeastern Sweden, southeastern Germany, northern Italy (Aosta, Susa, Turin, Lago Maggiore, Lago di Garda, Venezia) and Bulgaria (Stara Pl.). It is more common in southern Lithuania, northeastern Poland, eastern Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and further eastwards. 300-1,000 m. It is also found across the north of Kazakhstan and the south of Siberia to Northeast China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Sweden, Switzerland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Assmann’s Fritillary occurs on warm grasslands and heath that are often situated at the edges of woodland, or near groups of shrubs. Its foodplants are Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata), Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus minor) and the Speedwell (Veronica austriaca). The female lays its eggs in batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed communally in a silken nest, where they also hibernate. They then separate, later pupating low-down in the vegetation. This fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), mixed woodland (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).


range:
This is mainly a species of Central and Eastern Europe. In Scandinavia, it is only found in the south. It is also found on Sicily and Corfu, but otherwise absent from the Mediterranean islands. Also absent from the Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces, Sierra de Guadarrama, Montes Universales and the north of Portugal), almost the whole Netherlands, Ireland and Britain, except the Isle of Wight. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs in most of the Palearctic, except for the polar tundra, north of Siberia and the Far East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Luxembourg, Sweden, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Glanville Fritillary is found on many different types of flower-rich grasslands, both on calcareous and acid soils. This butterfly can survive on meadows and pastures, as well as on road verges and forgotten patches of vegetation, sometimes small habitats supporting large populations. Various plantains (Plantago spp.), speedwells (Veronica spp.) and knapweeds (Centaurea spp.) are used as foodplants. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars live gregariously in a spun nest, also hibernating in a bigger nest when half-grown. In spring, a small proportion of the caterpillars develop quickly, going on to produce a partial, second generation. The remaining caterpillars develop more slowly. Thus, the Glanville Fritillary usually has one generation a year and in favourable locations a partial second generation. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).


range:
This southwestern European species occurs in Portugal, large parts of Spain (southeast and central Spain, Sierra de Gredos and further eastwards, northeast Spain, the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mts.), in the southeast of France, in the Italian Alps and in Switzerland (very locally in Wallis). 150-1,600 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.

population:
This is a local species from (semi-) natural habitats in Southwest Europe.

habitat:
The Provençal Fritillary occurs in all types of flower-rich, grassy places; on flower-rich grasslands, both in damp and dry places and on calcareous as well as acid soil, on flower-rich, grassy vegetation on the banks of rivers and streams, in scrub and at woodland edges. In Switzerland, at the extreme north of its distribution range, it is only found in dry, warm, bushy places. Its foodplants are toadflax (Linaria spp.), snapdragons (Antirrhinum spp.) and sometimes also foxgloves (Digitalis spp.). The female lays its eggs in small batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars hibernate in a spun shelter. In most locations, this species has two generations a year, however in the Alps, only one. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (28%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%).


range:
This is a species of Central Europe. It occurs in an area between the north of Germany and the north of Italy and further eastwards. In Western Europe, it is only present in the northern provinces of Spain, central western, southwestern and eastern France and eastern Belgium. It is also found in the south of Scandinavia, locally in Latvia and in the Balkans to Bulgaria. 100-2,000 m. It is furthermore present across the south of Siberia to Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bulgaria, Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, FYR of Macedonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Moldova, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The False Heath Fritillary is found in sheltered, marshy habitats and damp woodland clearings. At higher altitudes, it is also found on rough, calcareous grasslands. Different species of valerian (Valeriana spp.) are used as foodplants, the female depositing its eggs in large clusters on the underside of the leaves. The small caterpillars only feed for a short time before hibernating communally in a silken shelter. After hibernation, they separate, later pupating low down on the foodplant. The False Heath Fritillary usually has one generation a year, but at low altitudes in the Alps and in Spain, it sometimes has two. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (31%), fens, transition mires and springs (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use (especially drainage) and abandonment of grasslands, as well of the drainage of wet woodlands.


range:
This is a species of Southern and Central Europe. This species occurs south of a line from mid-France via mid-Germany, northeast of Poland and southeast of Latvia. It is absent from some of the Mediterranean islands. Sea level-2,400 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, Siberia up to Northwest China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Spotted Fritillary can be found on nutrient-poor grasslands, steppe-like vegetation and dry, rough vegetation near rocks and on slopes. Further, it is also seen on fallow agricultural land, or at the edges of fields It uses a wide variety of plants as foodplant, plantains (Plantago spp.), toadflaxes (Linara spp.), speedwells (Veronica spp.), foxgloves (Digitalis spp.), woundworts (Stachys spp.), valerians (Valeriana spp.) and mulleins (Verbascum spp.). The female lays its eggs in clumps on the underside of the leaves, near to the ground. At first, the caterpillars feed communally in a loosely spun shelter, but they separate quite soon, either into smaller groups, or become solitary. The caterpillars hibernate alone, or in small groups, in a spun web. They pupate low down on the foodplant or in the vegetation. The Spotted Fritillary has one to three generations a year, depending on the geographical location and altitude of its breeding ground. The adult butterfly is extremely variable in its wing markings and wing colours. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), mesophile grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).

threats:
This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. Howwever, it shows a rapid decline in Poland and seems to occur only in eastern Poland now. In Portugal half of the populations is lost since the 1970s and now highly fragmented.

conservationAction:
In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This is a species of Southwestern Europe. It occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, except south of Portugal; France, except the northeast; the Swiss Jura and Schaffhausen; the Ligurian and Cottian Alps in northwestern Italy and locally in the south of Germany. 400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Meadow Fritillary occurs in both dry and moderately damp habitats in many kinds of open, grassy, flower-rich places near woodland. Plantains (Plantago spp.) are the main foodplants, especially Ribwort Plantain (P. lanceolata). The eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed and hibernate communally in a silken shelter, only separating in the last larval instar. They then look for a safe place to pupate, low down on the foodplant. The Meadow Fritillary usually has two generations a year, but only one in cooler breeding grounds. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), fens, transition mires and springs (8%).


taxonomicNotes:
M. telona was recently split from this species.

range:
As M. telona was recently split from this species, the range of M. phoebe might have to be re-examined, especially in Southeastern Europe. So far M. phoebe is a species of Southern and Central Europe: it occurs south of a line from Brittany via central Germany, northeast of Poland and southeast of Latvia. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands except Sicily, Chios and Lesbos (though M. telona might be present there instead). It is also found across Asia Minor to Transbaikalia, Mongolia and West China. Sea level-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Knapweed Fritillary occurs in dry, open places with flower-rich vegetation. These grasslands are often in a sheltered situation at the edge of woodland, or of groups of shrubs. In the north of its range, the grasslands are mostly calcareous. The larval foodplants are knapweeds (Centaurea spp.). The female lays its eggs in large batches on the undersides of the leaves. The small caterpillars live gregariously in a silken nest, also hibernating together. Later, they become solitary and choose somewhere close to the ground to pupate. The Knapweed Fritillary usually has two generations, but at higher altitudes and in the north of its range only one. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).


taxonomicNotes:
This species has recently been split from M. phoebe (Russel et al., 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
As this species has only been recently recognized, there is not enough good information on its distribution and trend. For this reason, it is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species has recently been split from M. phoebe (Russel et al., 2007). Much of its range is still to be examined, but it seems to occur from the Middle East to Southeastern Europe and possibly Italy. The situation in North Africa is still unclear. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
It occurs in dry, open places with flower-rich vegetation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

threats:
Information on threats are only reported from Hungary. Here most populations are small, fragmented and isolated. The habitats are threatened by the cessation of animal husbandry. Research to the distribution and ecology of the species is needed before a proper analysis of threats and conservation measures can be made.

conservationAction:
Research on the distribution and ecology of the species is needed before a proper analysis of threats and conservation measures can be made.


range:
This species has a scattered occurrence in large parts of Southern Europe: north of Portugal, mountains in north and central Spain, in Italy locally from the Alps to the south of the Apennines and from Slovenia and Slovakia to the whole of Southeast Europe. 0-2,200 m. It is furthermore present through Asia Minor, West Siberia, Northwest China and Mongolia, the mountains of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northwest India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Lesser Spotted Fritillary occurs on flower-rich, grassy vegetation, in both dry and damp places and on waste ground. Various mulleins (Verbascum spp.) are used as foodplants, including Aaron’s Rod (Verbascum thapsus), V. densiflorum and V. longifolium. The eggs are laid in batches on the underside of the leaves. The young caterpillars feed, gregariously in a communal web, where they also hibernate. After hibernation, they form smaller groups and are often seen on the upper surface of the leaves. This species has one or two generations a year, depending on the climatic zone of its flight area. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (13%).


range:
Occurs in France in the Alps and foothills, in Switzerland in Wallis and Engadin, in Austria in Tirol and in Italy in the Alps and central Apennines. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,600 m, mostly higher than 1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is often abundant within its range. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Grisons Fritillary is a small Fritillary that breeds on flower-rich sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and on sunny, grassy slopes. The adult butterflies visit mostly low plants for nectar and the males are also seen on damp patches, excrement and dead animals. The female lays its eggs in clusters on the foodplant. The caterpillars have been found on Alpine Plantain (Plantago alpina) and Achillea species, but Spring Gentian (Gentiana verna) and Stemless Trumpet Gentian (G. acaulis) are also named as foodplants. The caterpillars hibernate, pupating in June or July of the following year, the pupa usually hanging from a stone. However, at higher altitudes, development is slower, taking nearly two years and they hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).


range:
This is a species of Southern Central Europe. This species occurs in France (except the northwest and the extreme south), north of Italy, Switzerland, south of Germany, Poland via Balkans to the north of Greece. In Spain, it is limited to the Cantabrian Mts. and the Pyrenees. 100- 1,700 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, West and Central temperate Asia, Mongolia and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, Moldova and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Dryad inhabits grassy, rather rough vegetation, often located at the edge of woodland or scrub and mostly quite damp. The foodplants are relatively broad-leaved, nutritious grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea), small-reeds (Calamagrostis spp.) and bromes (Bromus spp.). The female drops its eggs in flight into the grass. The tiny caterpillars emerge and, without feeding, enter a period of inactivity during the summer months. In autumn, they begin to feed, hibernating in the first or second larval instar. The caterpillars make a little hollow in the ground in which to pupate, but do not spin a cocoon. The Dryad has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).


range:
This species occurs from the southern side of the Alps (Valle d'Aosta), south of Switzerland and southeast of Austria and further eastwards to the south of Poland and Romania. It is also found locally in the south of the Balkans to the north of Greece. 500-1,600 m. It is furthermore present throughout the whole temperate zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Hungarian Glider is a butterfly of light, damp woodland, occurring in deciduous, as well as in mixed woods. It is similar to the White Admiral (Limenitis camilla), which is also a woodland butterfly. The butterflies are rarely seen drinking nectar from flowers. It glides from perch to perch with only an occasional flap of the wings. Goat's-beard (Aruncus dioicus), Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), Bridewort (Spiraea salicifolia) and S. chamaedryfolia are used as foodplants. The female deposits the eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves. After hatching, the tiny caterpillar first eats the eggshell and then makes a shelter in the tip of the leaf. In four places, it eats out narrow grooves across the leaves and subsequently spins the edges of the leaves together. It only leaves the shelter to feed. In autumn, it makes another shelter in which to hibernate. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (19%), mixed woodland (15%).


range:
This species occurs in Eastern Europe: from the northeast of Italy and the south of Austria eastwards to Romania and locally in the south of the Balkans to the north of Greece. Up to 1,500 m. It is also found in the forest and forest-steppe zone Siberia and in Nepal, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Poland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova, Romania and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Common Glider inhabits damp, deciduous woodland, especially in river valleys. The butterflies often settle in the top of the trees to rest or bask in the sun, with their wings wide open, just like the Hungarian Glider (N. rivularis). This butterfly has a characteristic flight, elegantly gliding from perch to perch. The caterpillars feed on Spring Pea (Lathyrus vernus), Black Pea (L. niger) and also on Black locust (Pseudorobinia accacia). The Common Glider has two generations a year and hibernates as a small caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%), mixed woodland (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (16%).


range:
This species occurs in the north and east of Europe down to and including the north of Spain. It is vagrant in the south of England, the north of Germany, the Netherlands and the north of Belgium. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands, Sicily included. Sea level-2,500 m. It is also found in the whole temperate zone of the Holarctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in Europe, but in areas with a maritime climate it can be very rare or even missing. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Romania and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Germany, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). This species shows migrating behaviour in some years.

habitat:
The Camberwell Beauty is an imposing butterfly with its large, deep-brown wings, beautifully edged with wide, pale borders. They are strong butterflies and can fly large distances, although this only happens in some years. They occur near patches of woodland in stream valleys, gullies, along woodland edges and on scrub. Because they are fairly mobile, they can be seen in open countryside far away from their foodplants. The female lays its eggs in large clusters around the twigs of birches (Betula spp.), willows (Salix spp.) and poplars (Populus spp.). In some years, they show a tendency to migrate in summer and autumn. At first, the caterpillars live together in a communal web, becoming solitary when nearly fully-grown. The caterpillar is easily recognized, black and spiny with a double row of red spots on its back. They pupate on the bark of the foodplants. The adult butterflies hibernate in a hollow tree, wood pile or just hidden in the vegetation and wait for spring before mating. The Camberwell Beauty has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (26%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (10%), urban parks and large gardens (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of Europe, including all the south and east. It is rare in the south of England and the Netherlands. It is absent from Ireland and north and central Scandinavia. It is also found across Asia Minor to West Siberia and West China. Sea level-1,700 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in Europe, but in areas with a maritime climate it can be very rare or even missing. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Large Tortoiseshell is found in warm, sunny places in deciduous woods and near groups of trees. Elms (Ulmus spp.), willows (Salix spp.) and sometimes fruit trees or Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) are used as foodplants. The female, usually choosing a twig from the previous year, deposits a large group of eggs in a band around it. The caterpillars live together in silken tents until the last larval instar when they become solitary. They are fond of sitting on the sunny side of the foodplant or on branches in the sun. The caterpillar is dull, dark-grey with rust-coloured stripes along its back and sides and long rust-brown spines. The pupa hangs from a twig in the foodplant, looking very like a withered leaf. The newly-emerged butterflies often roam. The Large Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly in cool, dark places such as in a hollow tree. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (21%), mixed woodland (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), urban parks and large gardens (11%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), coniferous woodland (5%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The main distribution in Russia, where the trend is unknown. The species shows (probably natural) expansions and retractions at the edge of its continental range. This means that, in most of Europe outside Russia, the species comes and goes. The last ten (and even fifty) years, declines have mainly been reported, but they could be part of long-term natural fluctuations. Declines are reported from the western edge of its range. The decrease of the overall European distribution and population trend is estimated to be less than 25% by experts. This specie sis therefore considered as Least Concern at the European level.In the EU27 countries, all situated at the edge of the main distribution, the species distribution has declined by 46% in the last ten years. For this reason, the species is considered Vulnerable in the EU27 countries.

range:
This species occurs locally in Eastern Europe: from east of Austria to the Balkans and further eastwards. It is also found in the south of Finland, the Baltic States and Poland, although probably only temporary populations. Outside Russia, it is difficult to ascertain whether this species has permanent populations, or is only present as a vagrant, reproducing but unable to survive the winter. It is furthermore present east to China, Korea and Japan, also North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in the eastern part of its range, this species is local and rare in the western part. It is reported extinct in Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbiadata provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The False Comma is somewhat similar to the Comma (Polygonia Central album), but although the wings are strongly toothed, the indentations are much less deep than those of the Comma. It also resembles the Large Tortoiseshell, but the white patches near the tips of the forewing and on the front edge of the hindwing distinguish it from both these butterfly species. It occurs in the lowlands of Eastern Europe, in deciduous or mixed woods. It prefers damp woods and is found in clearings or at the wood edge. It is a mobile butterfly and a strong migrant. Because of its migratory behaviour, it is difficult to ascertain whether populations are permanent or temporary. The female lays its eggs in spring, clustered around the twigs of the foodplants which may be birches (Betula spp.), willows (Salix spp.), poplars (Populus spp.), or elms (Ulmus spp.). The False Comma has one generation a year and because it hibernates as a butterfly, can be seen for much of the year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (43%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (12%), mixed woodland (6%).

threats:
It is unclear what the causes for the declines in the western part of its European range are. They might be part of natural fluctuations, but little is known of the population dynamics of this species.

conservationAction:
The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research on the distribution, ecology and population dynamics is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
The species shows (probably natural) expansions and retractions at the edge of its continental range. This means that in most of Europe outside Russia, the species comes and goes. The last ten years, declines have mainly been reported, but they could be part of long-term natural fluctuations. In Europe, the main part of the distribution is in Russia, where the trend is unknown. However, experts believe the European population should be considered as Least Concern. In the EU27 countries, all at the edge of the range of this species, declines are reported in several countries. The EU27 distribution has declined by 27% in the last ten years. For this reason, the species is considered Near Threatened in the EU27 countries.

range:
This species occurs locally in Eastern Europe: from the Baltic States in the north, via eastern Poland, eastern Slovakia, eastern Hungary and Croatia to northwestern Greece in the south and further eastwards. It is not clear where the populations of this species are permanent and where as a migrant it only has temporary populations. It is furthermore present in the entire Palearctic Region except for the extreme north. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in the eastern part of its range, this species is local and rare in the western part. It is reported extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Yellow-legged Tortoiseshell occurs in lowland woodland in Eastern Europe, in damp, deciduous woods growing on flood plains, or on the wooded banks of streams and rivers. Different trees are used as foodplants, including willows (Salix spp.), poplars (Populus spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.) and Nettle Tree (Celtis australis). Until nearly fully-grown, the caterpillars inhabit large communal nests, which they spin in branches that hang over the water. The Yellow-legged Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly hidden in hollow trees or wood piles. It has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (11%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).

conservationAction:
More research on the distribution, ecology and population dynamics is needed. In Croatia, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs only in Lapland north of 67° N. 100-1,100 m. It is also found across subpolar tundras of Siberia to the Chukot Peninsula and Alaska. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Arctic Grayling mostly occurs on almost bare mountain slopes and on dry, stony ground with a vegetation of low grasses, mosses and lichens. At high altitudes, the butterflies fly along slopes and narrow ledges that offer shelter from the westerly winds. Especially the females are also found on damper ground, looking for nectar plants. The eggs are laid on Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina), preferably on tussocks growing in the shelter of rocks or shrubs. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly and the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), screes (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (20%).


range:
Occurs only in the Alps from the French Alps to the Carnic Alps in the south of Austria. Its elevational range is 1,400-2,900 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
At altitudes of about 1,500 m, the Alpine Grayling occurs on dry, scrubby vegetation. Above the tree-line, they can be seen in dry, stony alpine grasslands and on dry, open sunny slopes. Most habitats have a stream in the vicinity. Perched on a stone, the males defend their territory, chasing away other butterflies, as well as other insects. The female lays its eggs one at a time on dry grass stalks close to the ground. The caterpillar hibernates in the first larval instar and having fed during the growing season, hibernates again in the last instar. Eventually, some time between April and June, it pupates. Its main foodplant is Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina) but other fescues are also used. This butterfly is single-brooded. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (42%), water-fringe vegetation (14%), screes (14%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (14%).


range:
This species occurs in south and central Norway, in large parts of Sweden and Finland as far north as Lapland, in the Baltic States and northeast of Poland. It is furthermore present east to Siberia and North America and down to Mongolia, the Amur region and North Korea in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland, Latvia, Poland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
Both in lowland and mountains, the Baltic Grayling occurs in peaty and swampy habitats. Most butterflies are found in damp habitats with a vegetation of grasses and sedges, often with open water in the middle and surrounded by coniferous woodland. The butterflies frequently visit the wood edge looking for flowers, because the peat vegetation is poor in nectar plants. They also rest on the branches or trunks of trees, or on dead wood. The Baltic Grayling shares its habitat with hardly any other butterfly. The female lays its eggs on various grasses, but which ones the caterpillars feed on is not known. The caterpillar’s development takes nearly two years. Habitats: raised bogs (70%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), coniferous woodland (10%).


range:
This species occurs in the polar Urals and arctic and temperate parts of Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly can be found on woodland clearings and glades, dry glades near forest swamps, sometimes on dry meadows. Main larval hostplants are Carex spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.


range:
This species occurs from the northernmost part of the Urals through the arctic and temperate parts of Asia and North America (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This butterfly can be found on meadows and rocky tundras. The main larval hostplant is Carex spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is declining in Finland, particularly in its southern range, but still widely distributed in Fennoscandia and in arctic areas of Russia from Kola peninsula to the Ural. The Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) calculates a possible decline of >98% of the climate envelope between 1980 and 2080 based on the most pessimistic of the three climate change models used GRAS-scenario. This species is classified as Near Threatened because (i) observed rates of CO2 emissions and temperature increases already exceed those foreseen in the worst-case scenario models and (ii) it is appropriate to take a precautionary approach. The species might be endangered in the long run by climate change.

range:
This species occurs in Lapland and in central Norway north of 62° N. 250-900 m. It is also found in the polar tundras of Europe and Asia, the montane tundras of Siberia and the Far East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Norse Grayling occurs in both dry and wet biotopes, on marshes with a vegetation of mosses and grasses, at the edges of swampy habitats and streams, in low birch scrub, on sparse vegetation in clearings in birch woods and on sunny, rocky slopes with low shrubs. The butterflies spend much of the day resting on tree trunks or on the ground with their wings closed and are so hardly noticeable. They are quick flyers and difficult to approach. The female lays its eggs on various sedges and grasses. The egg takes two years to develop into a butterfly and the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: raised bogs (33%), heath and scrub (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).

threats:
This species could be threatened by climate change on the long run.


range:
This species occurs in the northern Urals and northern parts of Asia and North America. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.

habitat:
This species can be found on tundras and mountain swamps (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%).


range:
This species occurs on the steppes of Eastern Europe, West and Central Asia. It is also found in the Caucasus (Tshikolovets, 2003). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
This species occurs on virgin steppes, sometimes with rocky and calcarous places; on steppes and subalpine meadows up to 2,000 m in the Caucasus. Main larval hostplants Poa avena and Festuca ovina (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).


taxonomicNotes:
In the south of its range, the sub-species P. a. aegeria is found and in the north the sub-species P. a. tircis. In between there is a range of intermediate forms.

range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe except mid and north of Scandinavia. Sea level 1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Caucasus and Asia Minor. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Moldova, Romania, Spain and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. The woods may be deciduous, coniferous or mixed and the butterfly occurs along woodland rides, in clearings and at wood edges. In the north, it occurs mostly in quite extensive areas of woodland, but in the south a line of trees can be sufficient to support a population. Each male claims its territory on a sunny branch, projecting out of the crown of the tree or on a sunny patch on the ground and waits there for a female to fly along. The foodplants are grasses that grow in woodland and damp grassland, such as fescues (Festuca spp.), false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.), meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), cock's-foot (Dactylus spp.), Purple Moor-grass (Molinea caerulea) and Holcus spp. The female deposits its eggs singly on the blades of grass. Hibernation takes place as a caterpillar or pupa, deep down in a tussock of grass. The Speckled Wood has two to three generations a year. In the south of its range, the sub-species P. a. aegeria with orange blotches on the dark-brown wings is found and in the north the sub-species P. a. tircis with paler, creamy blotches. In between there is a range of intermediate forms. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (28%), mixed woodland (17%), coniferous woodland (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).


redListCategoryRationale:
The extent of occurence (EOO) is less than 5000 km² and the species is declining. The number of locations is one, as the threat of competition occurs on the whole island. The Madeiran Speckled Wood is therefore classified as Endangered at the global, European and the EU27 level.

range:
This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Madeiran Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. It can be found throughout the year in laurel and chestnut forests. The caterpillars' foodplants are grasses such as the false-brome Brachypodium sylvaticum, Holcus lanatus and Agrostis gigantea. This species produces several generations a year. In summer, the number of butterflies sometimes decreases for a while (Tolman & Lewington 2008). Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (100%).

threats:
This is a European endemic with a restricted range. Although habitat is still abundant on Madeira, the Madeiran Speckled Wood is apparently gradually being replaced by Pararge aegeria, a widespread species in Europe. Pararge aegeria colonized the island in the 1970s and is still expanding its range.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species and the interactions between P. xiphia and P. aegeria. The trend of both species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


range:
Restricted to the Canary Islands Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Gomera and La Palma. Its elevational range is 200-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.

population:
A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on the Canary Islands.

habitat:
The Canary Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. It can be found throughout the year in laurel and chestnut forests. The caterpillars' foodplants are grasses that grow in woodland and damp grassland, such as false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.), cock’s-foot (Dactylus spp.), Luzula forsteri, Oryzopsis miliacea, Agrostis tenuous and Carex divulsa. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. More research to distribution and ecology is needed.


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 68° N in Scandinavia. It is absent from Ireland, Scotland, the Spanish Atlantic coast and south of Portugal. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs in the forest zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Comma is a butterfly of wood edges and clearings in wood, except in very dry places. It is easily recognized by the deep indentations in the margins of its wings and the small white comma on the otherwise dusky underside of the hindwing. Eggs are laid on many different plant species, like Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica), bramble (Rubus spp.), elm (Ulmus spp.), willow (Salix spp.), Hazel (Corylus avellana) and Hop (Humulus lupulus). The caterpillar is solitary, brownish-black with long spines and a broad white stripe on its back towards the rear, making it look like a bird dropping. The pupa hangs from the foodplant on a small stalk. The butterflies hibernate in hollow trees, hedgerows and shrubs. In large parts of Europe it has two generations a year. However, in Scandinavia it only has one generation and in warm locations in Spain and Greece, it can have three. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mixed woodland (14%), urban parks and large gardens (13%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), towns, villages, industrial sites (6%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).


range:
This species occurs in the south of Europe from the southeast of France and further eastwards: France in Ardèche and Provence, almost all of Italy (very rare in the north of Italy), along the Dalmatian coast to Greece and Bulgaria. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,700 m. It is furthermore present across Asia Minor to Afghanistan and Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Slovenia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern Comma is a species of dry grasslands and dry scrub. The major foodplant is Common Pellitory (Parietaria officinalis), a plant that often grows on old walls, so that these butterflies are often found near buildings. They can often be seen, wings wide open, basking in the sun on walls and rocks, or on the ground. The caterpillars probably also feed on Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica), willows (Salix spp.) and elms (Ulmus spp.). The Southern Comma has two to three generations a year and just as the ordinary Comma (P. Central album), hibernates as an adult butterfly. It can therefore be seen early in spring. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (26%), phrygana (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).


range:
This species occurs in Croatia in the coastal and inland coastal zone (0-700 m) and in the northwest of Greece (550-1250 m). It is present across the south of Russia to the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan and across the Caucasus and Asia Minor. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Dalmatian Ringlet is an early spring species, and occurs on dry grasslands with open or semi closed scattered bushes and on rocky slopes. Butterflies can be observed in the low flight or resting on ground. The female lays its eggs on Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina) and Bromus condensatus, depositing them a few at a time on tussock. The Dalmatian Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: phrygana (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), mixed woodland (12%).


taxonomicNotes:
This Grayling used to be considered a subspecies of Brown's Grayling (P. mamurra).

redListCategoryRationale:
A very rare and local species, of which almost nothing is known. Pamperis (1997) reports four locations only. The area of occupancy (AOO) is most probably under 20 km² and it is threatened by land abandonment. Therefore it is listed as Vulnerable D2.

range:
This species occurs only in northwest Greece, between 500-1,500 m elevation. This Grayling used to be considered a subspecies of Brown's Grayling (P. mamurra), which occurs in the Asian part of Turkey. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is an extremely local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.

habitat:
These butterflies are mostly found in open, shrubby vegetation, but also in clearings and along paths in woods. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).

threats:
Almost nothing is known about this species. It is probably threatened by abandonment.

conservationAction:
As almost nothing is known about the distribution and ecology of this species, basic research on distribution and ecology is needed. Only after that can important habitats be distinguished. These should be protected and well-managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.


range:
This species occurs in Southeastern Europe: in Croatia, Bosnia, southwest of Bulgaria, Albania, FYR of Macedonia and scattered over Greece (including Crete and islands in the Eastern Aegean). It is also found in Turkey and the north of Iraq. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
With the white bands on each wing and the dark narrow scent-brand, the males of the White-banded Grayling are unmistakable. The butterflies occur on dry, grassy vegetation in open scrub and on rocky slopes. Sometimes, they are seen in open woods. They often drink nectar from thistle-like plants. The males defend their territory, perching on a rock or other prominent features in the surroundings. This butterfly is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), screes (20%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species occurs in one location only, near Pletvar in the FYR of Macedonia. The total distribution area is less than 1.5 km². The population size is possibly below 10,000 specimens in bad years. The population is in decline because of habitat destruction by quarrying. This species is therefore considered as Critically Endangered at the European level. It is absent from the EU27 state members and is therefore assessed as Not Evaluated at the EU27 level.

range:
This species occurs only in the Pletvar Massif near Prilep in the FYR of Macedonia, between 1,000-1,200 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The population size is possibly below 10,000 specimens in bad years.

habitat:
The Macedonian Grayling inhabits dry, limestone rocks with grassy vegetation here and there. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).

threats:
This is a European endemic, restricted to one location globally. The area of habitat for the species is shrinking due to active quarries. Without any intervention the species is critically threatened with extinction.

conservationAction:
The most urgent action is the protection of the remaining habitat from further destruction by quarrying. Research is also needed on the ecology and habitat requirements of the species to ensure that a proper management plan can be drawn up to prevent the species from becoming extinct. The effects of the management should be monitored closely by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.


redListCategoryRationale:
A very local and endemic species, restricted to fewer than five locations. The population is reported in decline (Van Swaay & Warren, 1999: 15-25% decline in 25 years). Therefore it is listed as Endangered. This species is absent from the EU state members and is therefore assessed as Not Evaluated at the EU27 level.

range:
This species is restricted to the Crimea, Ukraine. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is smaller than 5,000 km². This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
This butterfly occurs in Ukraine on the Crimean mountain steppes and in pine forest on a limestone mountain area covered by grassland. The foodplant is Stipa pennata. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%).

threats:
Populations are reported to be threatened by tourist activities and fires.

conservationAction:
More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Ukraine the type-locality is under protection in the Ialta state reserve.


range:
This species occurs in Southeastern Europe: in the east of Albania, southwest of FYR of Macedonia and northwest of Greece. 1,400-1,700 m. It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Grey Asian Grayling is found in the mountains on dry, often stony or rocky slopes with grassy vegetation. The butterflies fly low over the ground, but often settle on stones or bare ground. They frequently visit flowers. Different grasses are used as foodplants. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (66%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%).


range:
Occurs in the south of FYR of Macedonia and scattered in Greece. Its elevational range is 1,000-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.

habitat:
The Grecian Grayling occurs mainly on calcareous slopes with grassy vegetation and on rocky slopes. The butterflies fly close to the ground. When at rest on the ground with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. The caterpillars feed on various grasses. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (66%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.


range:
In Europe, it only occurs locally in the mountainous areas of southeastern Spain, including the Sierra Nevada, S. de los Filabres and S. de Maria. 1,400-2,700 m. It is also found from Southern Urals across Kazakhstan and North Tian-Shan to Mongolia and the north of Tibet. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Nevada Grayling occurs in the mountains in open, dry places where grassy vegetation alternates with bare, sandy or pebbly ground and where sometimes scattered bushes are growing. They have also been seen on screes. The caterpillars feed on grasses, but the species are not certain. Possibly, Sheep's-fescue (Festuca ovina), Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria albicans) and the false-brome Brachypodium distachyon are used. This species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: heath and scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), screes (25%).


range:
This species occurs in the mountains of the northwest of Greece. 850-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, Iran and Armenia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The Dark Grayling occurs on dry, rocky slopes with patches of low vegetation and scattered bushes and also in open coniferous woodland. The butterflies often settle on bare ground and can also be seen drinking nectar from large thistle-like plants. Grasses are used as foodplants, but it is not known which species. The Dark Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), coniferous woodland (50%).


redListCategoryRationale:
This is an endemic species to the border area of Bulgaria and Greece. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km² and the number of populations is probably fewer than five. In Bulgaria it is restricted to one locality. This species is probably threatened by abandonment. Therefore it is listed as Vulnerable.

range:
This species occurs in the Pirin Mountains, in the southwest of Bulgaria and the Phalakron, Menikion and Orvilos mountains in the north of Greece, between 800-1,800 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.

population:
Dils’ Grayling is a very local species, restricted to few locations with good quality habitat.

habitat:
Dils’ Grayling occurs on slopes with shrubs and small trees and on steep, rocky slopes. The female lays its eggs on grasses, often those growing in the shade in rocky crevices. It has one generation a year. Habitats: screes (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%), phrygana (33%).

threats:
The main threat is probably abandonment of habitat, causing more trees and shrubs to invade. However, much is still unknown about this species.

conservationAction:
As little is known from this species, more research on the distribution and ecology is needed. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.


range:
This species occurs throughout most of Portugal and Spain (except the northwest and the north coast), in the southeast of France from the Pyrenees to the Ardèche, Drôme and Var. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

habitat:
The markings on the Spanish Gatekeeper are brighter than those of the other gatekeepers. The butterflies are mostly found on dry, rather rough, grassy vegetation with trees or bushes in the neighbourhood. The caterpillars feed on grasses, especially false-bromes (Brachypodium spp.), but also probably bromes (Bromus spp) and meadow-grasses (Poa spp.). The Spanish Gatekeeper is single-brooded and passes the winter in the caterpillar stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), scrub and grassland (16%).


range:
This species occurs in large parts of the south of Europe: almost all of Portugal and Spain (except the north coast), southeast of France (to the Massif Central), large parts of Italy (in north almost absent) and in Southeastern Europe from the coastal line of Croatia through Albania to the west and south of Greece. This species occurs also on several islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in Africa and Northwest Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This species is widespread in part of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Southern Gatekeeper can be found on dry grasslands, rocky slopes with grassy vegetation, in open scrub and now and then in woodland clearings. The foodplants are grasses, probably Deschampsia spp., although this is not exactly certain. This butterfly species has one or two generations a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), phrygana (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%).


range:
This is a species of Central and Southern Europe. It does not occur in Scandinavia, north of Germany, north of Poland, the Baltic States, north of Ireland, Scotland, south of Italy and on the Mediterranean islands except Corsica and Sardinia. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found in Morocco and in the western part of Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.

population:
This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Serbia, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).

habitat:
The Gatekeeper occurs on many different types of grassland. Mostly, it chooses rather rough, dry to damp vegetation, situated beside woodland or scrub, or not far from them. The butterflies are fond of basking in the sun on scrub and are often seen visiting flowers. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaf-blades of nearly all soft grasses, such as Cock’s-foot (Dactylus spp.), fescues (Festuca spp.), bents (Agrostis spp.) and Rye-Grass (Lolium spp.). The caterpillar avoids bright sunlight and feeds mostly on grasses growing in the shade. When half-grown, it hibernates in a tussock of grass. It completes its growth the following year and pupates low down in the vegetation. The Gatekeeper has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), mesophile grasslands (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).


