# European_Red_List_2017_December

taxonomicNotes:
This species is often confused with P. impar.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Pegusa lascaris is present in the eastern Atlantic, from the southern part of the North Sea and southward from Scotland to Gulf of Guinea and South Africa. This is a benthic species, found on gravel, sand or mud at depths of 5 to 350 m, usually at depths ranging from 20 to 50 m. This is an esteemed species which taken in mixed-species demersal trawls and faces high fishing pressure in some parts of its range, particularly off the coast of Egypt where it may be overexploited. There is controversy surrounding the taxonomy of P. lascaris, which is often misidentified as P. impar. However, this species is widespread, there are no indications of population decline, and it appears to be abundant in parts of its range. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for P. lascaris; however, its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. This species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pegusa lascaris is present in the eastern Atlantic, from southern part of the North Sea and southward from Scotland to Gulf of Guinea and South Africa. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs all through the coastline, including Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Aegean Sea (Karakulak et al. 2006), Sea of Marmara, Black Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002), Sea of Azov (Quéro et al. 1986), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), east Levant (Demetropoulous and Neocleous 1969, Golani 1996). Quéro et al. (1986) and Bauchot (1987) did not mention it from Egypt and Libyan coast but it is now reported from Egyptian waters (Mehanna 2007). It is also reported from Suez Canal (Ben-Tuvia 1990). Pegusa lascaris can be found at depths ranging from 5 to 350 m, but is most common at 20 to 50 m (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2008, Afonso-Diaz et al. 2002).

population:
In the Mediterranean, P. lascaris is often confused with P. impar. As a consequence, its distribution and population trends are difficult to estimate. In France, all the specimens were later identified as P. impar (Borsa et al. 2001). According to regional European Union catch data, landings since 1978 show a steady increase with several peaks until a maximum of 475 tonnes in 2006. Landings declined to 275 tonnes in 2009 with an increase in landings since then (FAO 2011). In the Levant coasts, it is not thought to be a rare species. It seems even to be the most common sole in shallow waters in the Levant coasts (mainly juveniles and sub-adults) (D. Golani pers. comm.). According to Karakulak et al. (2006), one sample was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. Dulčić and Glamuzina (2006) report that 15 specimens (9.8 to 30.6 cm TL) were collected using various fishing gears, in three estuaries systems in the central east Adriatic Sea. Mehanna (2007) mention that 640 specimens (9.5 to 28.9 cm) were examined in Egyptian waters, during February 2005 and May 2005 (monthly intervals).

habitat:
Pegusa lascaris is a benthic species which is found on gravel, sand or mud at depths ranging from 5 to 350 m, but more commonly at depths ranging from 20 to 50 m. It feeds on a wide range of small marine bivalves, mainly on crustaceans such as amphipods, mysids, shrimps and decapods, bivalves and polychaetes (Quéro et al.1986). This species reaches a maximum length 40 cm SL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). Pegusa lascaris can live up to 15 years old (Deniel 1990). Juveniles are found in estuaries and shallow waters. Pegusa lascaris is a serial, synchronous spawner. Large individuals (>18 cm) will spawn throughout the year, while smaller specimens peak from April-May and October. Female maturity occurs at 12.5 cm while males mature at 13.6 cm. Both sexes mature at 3 years. Typically, females reach larger sizes than males. The sex ratio of male P. lascaris to female is 1:0.92 (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2008).

threats:
In some areas, P. lascaris is a commercial species which is densely fished by bottom trawls. Off the coast of Egypt, the exploitation rate was found as 0.71, which is above the optimum fisheries exploitation rate of 0.50 (Mehanna 2007). Juveniles occurs in shallow waters and estuaries and would be subjected to environmental degradation occurring in these habitats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for P. lascaris. Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of P. impar and P. lascaris. The average commercial trawling depth in the region is from 35 to 200 m, which means that most of the population of this species should not impacted by commercial trawling within its distribution. It is not known how capture as bycatch is affecting this species or its habitat. Pegusa lascaris was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Pegusa lascaris is taken in mixed demersal trawl fisheries, as well as artisanal fisheries. This species is densely fished by bottom trawls, especially along Egyptian coasts. It is an esteemed food fish at larger sizes (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013). Flesh of P. lascaris typically sells in European fish markets for 18 euro/kg (Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2008).


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors (Ben-Tuvia 1990, Tinti and Piccinetti 2000) claim that S. aegyptica is a synonym of S. solea. Some other authors consider S. aegyptica a valid species (Desoutter 1997, Borsa and Quignard 2001, Vachon et al. 2008). It is currently accepted as a valid species (Eschmeyer 2014). It is often confused with the sympatric Solea vulgaris (Quensel, 1806), a junior synonym of Solea solea (Linnaeus, 1758).

redListCategoryRationale:
Solea aegyptiaca, as currently accepted, is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea and is primarily distributed along the North African Mediterranean coast. It appears to be extending its range into the Red Sea. It is found at depths of one to 50 m. The maximum estimated age at maturity is four years. This is a commercially important species and is fished throughout its range. It is taken in commercial trawls and juveniles are taken in beach seine and other near-shore fisheries. There are important fisheries for S. aegyptiaca throughout the Mediterranean, particularly in Egypt, where it is considered over-exploited. Although there is no range-wide population information currently available, there is evidence that this species is heavily exploited in parts of its range, for example reductions in mean size and increased proportions of juveniles in the catch have been observed in Egypt. There are no species-specific landings data available; however, landings of the Common Sole (Solea solea) reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), assumed to be representative of the putative S. aegyptiaca, have steadily increased since 1975. We therefore infer that its population is not presently in decline despite over-exploitation. Solea aegyptiaca is listed as Least Concern with the caveat that monitoring of the fisheries for S. aegyptiaca is highly recommended.

range:
In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found from Tunisia to Egypt (Chanet et al. 2012). It is extending its range into the Red Sea via the Suez Canal (Chanet et al. 2012). It has also been recorded from the southern Adriatic Sea and Gulf of Lyon (Quéro et al. 1986).

population:
A hybrid zone between S. aegyptiaca and S. senegalensis exists in northern Tunisia. The zone of highest introgression is Bizerta lagoon, with introgression clining towards the south in S. aegyptiaca (Quanes et al. 2011). Additionally, this species is easily misidentified as S. solea, an important fisheries resource, in the Mediterranean Sea, where both species live in sympatry.  At present, population size and landings through time are not available. However, there is evidence that the population is overexploited. In Egypt in 2007 the exploitation rate (0.71) was substantially higher than reference exploitation rates, including the exploitation rate that maintains 50% of the stock biomass and that results in maximum yield per recruit (Mehanna 2007). The length at first capture (14.15 cm) is less than the age at 50% maturity (15 cm), which suggests that many individuals are not surviving long enough to reproduce (Mehanna 2007). At Bardawil lagoon on the Mediterranean coast of Sinai, Egypt this species is heavily exploited and considered overfished by commercial fisheries. The estimated total length at first capture is 13 cm, while the length of 50% maturity is 15.3 cm (Mehanna et al. 2010). In the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia, a highly-exploited ecosystem, this species was considered fully exploited in 2000 to 2005. It is unlikely that the Gulf of Gabes, like many marine ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea, can be fished sustainably (Hattab et al. 2013). There are no species specific landing reported for this species.  However, it is considered the most common sole landed in Egypt (Mehanna 2007) and presumably by extension, west along the northern coast of Africa to Tunisia in the Mediterranean. This species is easily misidentified as Solea solea (the Common Sole) and therefore landings of Solea solea from the southern Mediterranean are most likely representative of Solea aegyptiaca. Although this species is listed as overexploited in Egypt (Mehanna 2010), the FAO landing of the common sole for this area have steadily increased from 1975 to to 2010 from around 250 mt to just under 2500 mt in the southern Mediterranean.  We infer that the landing of the common sole are representative of the putative S. aegyptiaca and therefore infer that its population is not presently in decline despite over exploitation.

habitat:
This is a benthic demersal species that lives on soft mud and sand substrata in coastal and littoral waters and in brackish lagoons (Quéro et al. 1986). It feeds on benthic invertebrates, for example cnidarians, polychaete worms and bivalve molluscs. Age and growth studies based on sagittal otoliths revealed that this species is relatively fast growing with a maximum age of four years (Mehanna 2007). Spawning in this species takes place in late autumn and winter (African coasts of the Mediterranean seas) (Quéro et al. 1986). Size at 50% maturity is about 15 cm, with all sampled individuals mature by 19.5 cm (Ahmed et al. 2010). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 31.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 15 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Solea aegyptiaca, is a commercially important endemic and demersal flatfish species in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters. It is fished by bottom trawls especially along Egyptian coasts. The exploitation rate was found as 0.71, which is above the optimum fisheries exploitation rate of 0.66 (Mehanna 2007).

conservationAction:
There is no specific conservation measures for this species. Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of S. solea and S. aegyptiaca. Solea aegyptiaca was previously assessed as Least Concern (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Golani, D., Kada, O., Nouar, A., Quignard, J.P. & Cuttelod, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Solea senegalensis is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from the United Kingdom south to at least Senegal. This species is found over sandy and muddy substrata from <1 to 65 m. Adult populations are mostly found between 12 to 65 m, while juveniles may be found at shallower depths and in estuaries. Solea senegalensis may be expanding its range northwards due to climate change. This species is farmed in extensive aquaculture farms in Portugal and Spain. In many parts of its range, juveniles are also taken in estuaries which may be an important nursery ground. This species is taken as bycatch in commercial trawling throughout its range. There is little species-specific population information available for this species. There has been a 75% decline in landings recorded off the coast of Portugal from 1995 to 2011; however, some landings are not reported, so this may not be indicative of a population decline. Further, it is unclear whether or not the population in Portugal is representative of the entire assessment region. Therefore, S. senegalensis is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Solea senegalensis is restricted to the eastern Atlantic. It is found from the United Kingdom and La Rochelle (France) south to at least Senegal, including the Canary Islands and the western Mediterranean. Solea senegalensis is found at depths ranging from very shallow waters to 65 m (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press), and has been recorded in waters as deep as 310 m (K.D. Camara pers. comm. 2012).

population:
Population Structure A hybrid zone between S. aegyptiaca and S. senegalensis exists in northern Tunisia, where introgressed individuals have been found off the coast (Quanes et al. 2011). There are little species-specific population data available for S. senegalensis. In the western Mediterranean, catches of S. senegalensis are sporadic and generally low. There is no clear trend for this species in the Gulf of Cadiz based on the International Bottom Trawl Survey data from 1997 to 2012 (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). Reported landings from Portugal have declined by 75% over 15 years, from 1995 to 2011 (Teixeira et al. 2013). However, these data should be interpreted with caution; some landings were not officially reported (M. J. Costa pers. comm. 2013). Further, there is some anecdotal evidence that S. senegalensis is becoming more common along the coasts of Spain and Portugal (M. J. Costa pers. comm. 2013), perhaps in response to increasing water temperatures (Teixeira et al. 2014).

habitat:
Solea senegalensis is found over sandy and muddy substrata from <1 to 65 metres, with catches in Mauritania ranging from 11 to 310 m (K.D. Camara pers. comm 2012). Adult populations are mostly found between 12 to 65 m, while juveniles may be found at shallower depths and in estuaries and lagoons (FNAM, Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). This species can reach a maximum length of 60 cm SL, however it is more common to 45 cm SL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). Solea senegalensis exhibits sexual dimorphism, with females reaches larger size of  532.3 mm, and males only reaching 457.2 mm for males (Andrade 1990). Sexual maturity is reached at 300 mm. Solea senegalensis can live up to 11 years (Andrade 1990). The spawning period in Portuguese waters occurs from Autumn to Spring (Andrade 1990) and Spring to Summer (Dinis 1986). It feeds on crustacea, polychaetes, and mollusks (Teixeira and Cabral 2010).

threats:
Solea senegalensis is a component of commercial flatfish fisheries. Juveniles are taken as bycatch in fisheries conducted in estuaries. In some countries within the southern part of its range in the Eastern Central Atlantic, such as Mauritania and Senegal, it is targeted. Artisanal catches for this species in Mauritania have fluctuated from 2006 to 2010 from a high of 117,328 to 9,049 kg, with no information on effort. In many parts of its range, juveniles are also taken in estuaries which may be an important nursery ground. This species is also taken as bycatch in commercial trawling throughout its range. 

conservationAction:
Solea senegalensis is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. There appears to be a minimum size regulation for fishes taken in the Portuguese trawl fisheries (M. J. Costa pers. comm. 2013).

useAndTrade:
Solea senegalensis is caught in a mixed fisheries for flatfish. This species is farmed in aquaculture farms in Portugal and Spain (Dinis et al. 1999, Anguis and Canavate 2005). In some countries within the southern part of its range in the Eastern Central Atlantic, such as Mauritania and Senegal, it is targeted. In many parts of its range, juveniles are also taken in estuaries which may be an important nursery ground. This species is also taken as bycatch in commercial trawling throughout its range.

redListAssessors:
Keskin, Ç., Monroe, T., Costa, M. & Rijnsdorp, A.D.


taxonomicNotes:
Some authors (Ben-Tuvia 1990, Tinti and Piccinetti 2000) claim that S. aegyptica is a synonym of S. solea. Other authors consider S. aegyptica a valid species (Desoutter 1997, Borsa and Quignard 2001).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Solea solea occurs in the eastern Atlantic southward from Trondheim Fjord, including the North Sea and western Baltic, to Senegal, including Cape Verde and the Canary and Madeira Islands as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This species is found at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m. It is long-lived, and reaches a maximum age of at least 40 years. It is found over sandy and muddy substrates. This is a highly commercial, valuable commercial flatfish species which is typically caught with beam-trawls and seines throughout its range. The majority of landings declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are declared from the northeastern Atlantic Fishing Zone. Based on summed estimates spawning stock biomass (SSB) across all International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) stocks, from 2000 to 2013 SSB fluctuated with no indication of decline. However, it is important to note that some stocks in the northeast Atlantic are experiencing declines in SSB, low recruitment and reduced reproductive capacity. These include the Skagerrak, Kattegat, and the Belts as well as the Irish Sea. Solea solea has undergone changes in distribution within the North Sea, with the center of distribution moving southward. These changes have been attributed to a combination of climate change and fishing pressure. In the Mediterranean, available information suggests that SSB is declining in the region and that stocks are generally overfished and are not fished sustainably, as the fishery in some region is based of of 1-2 year old individuals. This species is subject to varying levels of management throughout its range. Additionally, it is likely to be found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Solea solea is assessed as Least Concern, however a better understanding of stock status in the Mediterranean is needed.

range:
Solea solea occurs in the eastern Atlantic, southward from Trondheim Fjord (including North Sea and western Baltic) to Senegal, including Cape Verde (Desoutter 1990) and  the Canary and Madeira Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present throughout the basin, including the Adriatic Sea (Fiorentini et al. 1999, Lipej et al. 2003), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur et al. 2001, Salen-Picard et al. 2002, Darnaude et al. 2004, Darnaude 2005, Merigot et al. 2007), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), Ionian Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea (Guarniero et al. 2002), Aegean Sea (Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Koutrakis et al. 2005, Karakulak et al. 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin et al. 2007) and the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is also present in the Bosphorus and the south-west Black Sea. It burrows into sandy and muddy substrata at depths ranging from 0 to 200 m, but is more commonly found at depths ranging from 10 to 60 m (Frimodt 1995).

population:
Population structure: Genetic studies revealed a clear genetic structure with at least three different populations, Kattegat/Skagerrak, North Sea and Bay of Biscay, and with indications for a fourth population in the Irish/Celtic Sea (Cuveliers et al. 2012). Despite documented shifts in life-history traits, neutral genetic diversity inferred from 11 microsatellite markers showed a remarkable stability over a period of 50 years of heavy fishing (Cuveliers et al. 2011). Summary of FAO landing statistics: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) common name for S. solea is “Common Sole”. Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions, in order of decreasing recent landings: Northeastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea, and Eastern Central Atlantic. The overall trend in landings is one of continual increase with fluctuations to a peak at 66,555 tonnes, followed by a period of steady decrease to 33,515 tonnes in 2011. The trend is reflected across all fishing regions, and is driven by landings in the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone. Regional population information: Based on summed Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) across all International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) stocks from 2000 to 2013, a time period approximating 3 generation lengths in this species, SSB is fluctuating with no indication of decline. However, it is important to note that some stocks are experiencing decline. Solea solea has undergone changes in distribution within the North Sea, with the center of distribution moving southward. These changes have been attributed to a combination of climate change and fishing pressure (Engelhard et al. 2011). North Atlantic: The exploitation level increased to unsustainable levels in the 1970s and 1980s but has reduced in the last 5-10 years in North Atlantic stocks although it is still above the desired level (Fmsy) (ICES 2013). Recent trends in the spawning stock biomass differ between management areas. A temporary peak in SSB occurred in the early 1990s due to above average recruitment. In spite of the reduced exploitation rate, SSB has declined in the Irish Sea and Skagerrak due to below average recruitment over the last 10 years. In the other management areas, SSB has been stable or increased and is above the reference level (Bmsy) (ICES 2013). The time trend in SSB summed over the different stocks has remained stable over the time period of 3 times the generation length (2000 to 2012). Mediterranean Sea: SSB indices from SoleMon surveys in the Adriatic Sea showed a decreasing trend during 2005 to 2009 and the SSB index remained at the lowest level in 2010. Fisheries are considered unsustainable with exploitation level being above the precautionary reference point (STECF 2011). In the northern and middle Adriatic Sea, exploitation of this species is based on 1 to 2 year old individuals. Stock is overexploited and SSB is low. In the southern Levant, off the Egyptian Mediterranean coast the stock is overfished, and recommendations include a 40 to 60% reduction in fishing effort. Fishes of the family Soleidae contribute 4% of the catch in this region (STECTF 2014).

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology  Although sole is occasionally recorded at depths of up to 250 m, most fish are restricted to shallow waters down to 50 m. Early juveniles are restricted to coastal waters down to 20 m (le Pape et al. 2003). Solea solea is a benthic species that occurs at a temperature range of 8.0 to 24.0°C (Moreira et al. 1992). It burrows into sandy and muddy substrata from 0 to 200 m, but is more typically found at depths of 10 to 60 m. It retreats to deeper water during winter (Frimodt 1995). It feeds on worms, mollusks and small crustaceans at night. In the Gulf of Lion, polychaetes represent the 80% of the diet (Salen-Picard et al. 2002). It is frequently present in coastal lagoons in the south of France (Mouillot et al. 2007). Recently settled sole feed on harpacticoid copepods, while juveniles and adults prey on a variety of benthic invertebrates with crustaceans and polychaetes being the dominant prey (Amara et al. 2001, Molinero and Flos, 1992, Rijnsdorp and Vingerhoed 2001). Recently settled sole feed on harpacticoid copepods, while juveniles and adults prey on a variety of benthic invertebrates with crustaceans and polychaetes being the dominant prey (Amara et al. 2001, Molinero and Flos 1992, Rijnsdorp and Vingerhoed 2001). Life History and Reproduction  The maximum size reported for this species is 70 cm (Quéro 1997). Sole is a long-lived species. The maximum observed age in biological samples collected in the North Sea since 1960 is 42 years in males and 38 years in females (A. Rijnsdorp pers. comm. 2013). Males mature at a smaller size and age than females. Females mature at a size of around 28 cm and 2- or 3-years of age in the North Sea and possibly slightly later in the Celtic Sea (Horwood 1993). In the Mediterranean Sea, size-at-maturation is around 25 cm (Grati et al. 2013). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 37.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 15.2 cm TL and for males is 14.8 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Generation time in the North Sea decreased from 8 years in the 1940s to 5 years in the early 1960s and to 4 years since the 1980s (Cuveliers et al. 2011).Reproduction in S. solea starts after 3 to 5 years of age, when they reach 25 to 30 cm. Spawning happens mainly during the months of February to May (off the coasts of Galicia, for example), although in warmer areas (such as the Mediterranean Sea), it can occur at the beginning of the winter. This species reaches a maximum age of 26 years (maybe off Norway). Based on recent age-class data, generation length is estimated to be 4 years (since the 1980s), based on the most recent stock assessment and estimates of mortality and fecundity at each age class (for age classes 0 to 35+ age class).Nurseries are located in waters less than 20 m on sandy or muddy bottoms (le Pape et al. 2003). The relative contribution of the different regions nursery grounds to the recruitment to the total stock appears to be related to the available nursery habitat, but may vary considerably from year to year and appears to be related to the available nursery habitat (Rogers 1992, Rijnsdorp et al. 1992). In the Bay of Biscay and western Mediterranean, the quality of nursery habitat increases with the freshwater inputs providing organic material from terrestrial sources (le Pape et al. 2013).In most regions, spawning occurs in coastal waters down to 30 m, except for the Bay of Biscay where spawning occurs further offshore over deeper water (Koutsikopoulos et al. 1992, Horwood 1993, Rijnsdorp and Vingerhoed 1994). Distinct spawning grounds can be distinguished that are related to the specific nursery areas (Rijnsdorp et al. 1992, Lacroix et al. 2013).  Northern populations from colder environments mature earlier, have higher rates of energy acquisition and reproductive investment, and have smaller asymptotic sizes than southern populations from warmer environments (Mollet et al. 2013).

threats:
Solea solea is a species with high commercial interest. It is typically caught with trawls and seines throughout its range. In many parts of its range, juveniles are also taken in estuaries which may be an important nursery ground. This species is also taken as bycatch in commercial trawling throughout its range. Solea senegalensis is now extending its range to the western Mediterranean Sea and is thought to be competing with S. solea, at least in the northwest part of the basin (Cabral 2000).

conservationAction:
Solea solea is subject to varying levels of management throughout its range. In the northeast Atlantic Total Allowable Catch (TAC) restrictions are in place, and generalized fishing effort is regulated. In the Mediterranean, stock status of this species is largely unknown, and there is a need for more effective management, including reductions in fishing effort and an improvement in exploitation patterns. There are some issues taxonomic issues regarding the validity of S. aegyptiaca, which may be a synonym of S. solea. More research is need regarding this species' taxonomy and population information. Solea solea was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Solea solea is a species with high commercial interest. It has been targeted by fishing fleets in European waters since the early nineteenth century. In the North Sea, this species is principally caught in mixed flatfish beam-trawl fisheries. Although landings of plaice by weight are ~5 times greater than those of sole, because sole are considerably more valuable, the two species are of roughly equal value overall (Pilling et al. 2008).

redListAssessors:
Monroe, T., Keskin, Ç., Costa, M. & Rijnsdorp, A.D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the eastern Atlantic, Synapturichthys kleinii is found from Portugal, Spain and the Canary Islands south to Natal, South Africa including the Mediterranean Sea. It is also found in the southwestern Indian Ocean. Synapturichthys kleinii can be found at depths ranging from 20 to 460 m. Within the assessment zone, this species appears to be naturally rare, and is occasionally fished. Despite the lack of information on population size, structure, and basic life history, there are no known widespread threats and it is likely that Synapturichthys kleinii is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, Synapturichthys kleinii is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Synapturichthys kleinii occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal, Spain and the Canary Islands south to Natal, South Africa. It has been found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988) but was not identified in the Spanish Mediterranean Seas in trawl MEDIT surveys during 2013 (L. Gil de Sola pers. obsv. 2014). Synapturichthys kleinii can be found at depths ranging from 20 to 460 m (Golani 2005,  J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007, Dallavalle and Chanet 2009, Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press).

population:
Synapturichthys kleinii is a naturally rare species. It is considered rare in Portugal as it did not appear in studies dedicated to flatfishes (Teixeira et al. 2011). Within the Mediterranean, it is more common along the southern Mediterranean coast (Derbel et al. 2007). According to Dulčić and Glamuzina (2006), 117 specimens (17.2 to 25.1 cm TL) were collected with various fishing gears in three estuarine systems in the central east Adriatic Sea.

habitat:
Synapturichthys kleinii is a benthic species which inhabits sandy and muddy substrata, mainly in shallow marine and brackish water (Heemstra and Gon 1986), and is often collected in areas where algae is abundant (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). It is found to depths of 460 m. This species feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly crustaceans such as amphipods, and crabs, polychaetes, bivalves and gatropod mollusks (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). Synapturichthys kleinii is an ambush predator which changes color when startled (Dallavalle and Chanet 2009). This species reaches a maximum size of 40 cm TL (Desoutter-Meniger and Munroe in press). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 39.5 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 29.0 cm TL  and for males is 20.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Synapturichthys kleinii is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries throughout its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Synapturichthys kleinii was regionally assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is rare and is occasionally fished (Dallavalle and Chanet 2009). It is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries throughout its range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as populations are common through most of its European range, and although it is subject to small scale exploitation of multi-species fisheries in the Macaronesian area, there are no other species-specific threats to the species. Further research should be conducted on the population trend of the species.

range:
Polymixia nobilis is distributed across the Atlantic Ocean in deep waters. In the Eastern Atlantic, it is known from the Corner Rise seamount, the Azores, Madeira, Greater Meteor seamount, Seine and Sedlo seamounts, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde and St. Helena Islands. It has a disjunct distribution in the ECA and is found around oceanic islands and seamounts. Elsewhere, in the western Atlantic it is known from Florida, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Cuba, and the eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico, Lesser Antilles, Cuba, and from Panama to the French Guiana. It is a benthic species, found from 70-800 m deep, but it is more common between 360-540 m (Hureau 1986, 1990; Moore 2002).

population:
In European waters Polymixia nobilis occurs frequently in the Canary Islands (Franquet and Brito 1995, Brito et al. 2002, García-Mederos et al. 2010). Delgado (2007) indicates the species to occur frequently off Madeira, Porto Santo and the Desertas islands. In survey cruises off the Azores, Menezes (2003) found the species to be rare. Elsewhere in the Macaronesian area, the species is also common in seamounts, islets and islands off the Cape Verde archipelago (Menezes et al. 2004). The populations of P. nobilis in the area are subject to small scale exploitation, in a context of multispecies fisheries using hook-and-line and bottom longlines.Polymixia nobilis is abundant in museum collections (56 lots), lots typically containing one to two individuals, although several lots contain more than four individuals (Fishnet2 2013). However, the population trend of the species is unknown.

habitat:
This bathydemersal species is found on semi-hard and soft bottoms on the continental shelves and slopes (Fock et al. 2002). It is found from 70-800 m depth (Moore 2002), but more commonly from 360-540 m. It is associated with a variety of deep-water structures, such as seamounts in the Azores (Pakhorukov 2008), and flat hard-bottom habitat off the coast of the eastern USA characterized by carbonate bedrock with little to no vertical relief, and patchy cover of small scleractinian and stylasterid corals (Wieber 2008) though it is not a dominant component of the species assemblage in terms of numbers or biomass in these habitats.This species is gonochoristic, but not sexually dimorphic. In the Canary Islands, males range in size from between 16.5-38.4 cm fork length (FL) and females from 14.2-46.5 cm FL. In size classes higher than 36 cm, the sex ratio is skewed in favour of females. Sexually mature individuals are present during all months, and a spawning peak was evident between April and June. The size at first maturity is estimated at 26 cm FL for males, and 39.8 cm for females. This is a slow growing and relatively long-lived species, the oldest recorded individuals reaching 14 years of age (46.5 cm FL). It can reach a maximum size of 48 cm (TL). Females attain higher asymptotic lengths and lower growth rates. Individuals of small and medium sizes prey primarily on crustaceans and fishes, while large specimens prey mainly on bathydemersal fishes (García-Mederos et al. 2010). Connectivity in the deep-sea is poorly understood, and seamounts are thought to have less potential for re-colonization.In Madeira, from samples taken in survey cruises with bottom longlines, P. nobilis was found to be frequent, although not dominant in an overall depth range comprised between 100-600 m, being more abundant 300-400 m deep. The furcal length range was comprised between 18-46 cm, corresponding to a weight range of 190-1,950 g (Delgado 2007).

threats:
The species is subject to small-scale exploitation in a context of multi-species fisheries, but there are no other specific threats to P. nobilis. In the Canary Islands, catches are relatively important within the local small-scale ﬁsheries. The species is ﬁshed year round with line-and-hook (mainly oﬀ El Hierro Island) and trammel nets (mainly in the eastern sector of Tenerife Island).

conservationAction:
Relevant biological parameters (reproduction, growth and feeding habits) were recently collected for this species with the expressed aim of allowing the future implementation of regulatory measures for the sustainability of the fisheries and conservation of this species in the Canary Islands (Garci­a-Mederos et al. 2010). In certain areas (seamounts) off Madeira, Azores and the Canaries, where the species is present, there are some protection measures enforced, namely the prohibition to use certain types of more harmful fishing gears for example gill nets, trammel nets and bottom trawling under 200 m deep (Regulation 1685/2005). Further research should be conducted on the population trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
In European waters, Polymixia nobilis is taken in a small-scale demersal fishery off the islands of Gran Canaria and El Hierro (Canary Islands) by handline and bottom drop line which primarily target Beryx splendens. Separate statistics are not reported, however catches are aggregated with targeted Beryx spp. and range from 2.5 tonnes in 1991 to 17.5 tonnes in 1995 (Rico et al. 2001, Durr and Gonzalez 2002). This is a relatively important local, small-scale fishery, in the Canaries (Garci­a-Mederos et al. 2010).In Madeira, P. nobilis is subject to a small scale fishery, in a context of multi-species fishing of demersal species with bottom longlines. However landings of this species are scarce (less than one tonne per year). The species achieves a market value of 3.5 euros per kg.Besides, the species is also possibly impacted by purse seine fisheries targeting Blue Whiting. Given that P. nobilis co-occurs and is frequently captured incidentally in fisheries targeting Beryx spp., the species may be taken as by-catch (Garci­a-Mederos et al. 2010).


taxonomicNotes:
Cyema spp. has taxonomic problems -- it likely comprises multiple species (see Mundy 2005). However, because of the taxonomic issues associated with the genus Cyema, it is listed as Data Deficient pending taxonomic validation.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Cyema atrum is widely distributed in all oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from the coast of Portugal to the Azores and Madeira, and appears to be rare. There are no known major threats and it is not targeted. Therefore, C. atrum is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Cyema atrum is widely distributed in all oceans (Smith 1989). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, C. atrum is known only from the coast of Portugal to the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014), but has not been recorded from the Mediterranean (Saldanha and Bauchot 1996). It is typically found at depths of 330 to 5100 m (Saldanha 1990, Saldanha and Bauchot 1996).

population:
Cyema atrum is more common than the other species in the family Cyematidae (Smith 1989). However, it appears to be rare in the north Atlantic Ocean (e.g., it is very rare off the southeastern coast of Greenland (Moller et al. 2010) and known from only one specimen off the Azores (Santos et al. 1997).

habitat:
Cyema atrum is a marine bathypelagic and abyssal species with a depth range from 330 - 5100 m (Saldanha 1990). Little is known about its ecology, but it is carnivorous and has a distinct leptocephalus larva (Saldanha and Bauchot 1996). The largest individual on record measures 15.0 cm total length (TL) (Saldanha 1990).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats. It is found below the depths at which most trawling occurs.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Research into all areas of the ecology and biology of this species is suggested.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Eurypharynx pelecanoides is circumglobally distributed in tropical and temperate waters. It is found at depths ranging from 500 to 7,625 meters, although it is more typically found in waters ranging from 1,200 to 1,400 meters. It is abundant in museum collections. This species is an opportunistic feeder which feeds on a variety of prey items including crustaceans, fish, and squid. There are no species-specific threats to E. pelecanoides, and its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas. Therefore, E. pelecanoides is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Eurypharynx pelecanoides is circumglobally distributed in tropical and temperate waters (Nielsen et al. 1986). Recent records include the Gulf of Mexico and off Louisiana (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). In the northeastern Atlantic, E. pelecanoides is distributed from Iceland south to Madeira and the Canary Islands, but is not known from the Mediterranean (Nielsen et al. 1986). It is found at depths ranging from 500 to 1625 meters, although it is more typically found in waters ranging from 1,200 to 1,400 meters (Masuda et al. 1984).

population:
Sampling undertaken as part of the Census of Marine Life project, using double-warp midwater trawls, revealed that Eurypharynx pelecanoides is a dominant component of the fish assemblage, contributing 4.6% of the total biomass collected at depths ranging from 750 to >2,300 meters. This species was also found to be a dominant component of the near bottom assemblage between 1,500 and 2,300 meters, accounting for 42% of the total biomass (Sutton et al. 2008). Eurypharynx pelecanoides is abundant in museum collections (542 lots). It is most frequently seen in single-specimen lots. Lots typically contain 1 to 2 individuals, however there are a few lots which contain many individuals (FishNet2 database searched March 2013).

habitat:
Eurypharynx pelecanoides is an indiscriminate feeder which feeds on a variety of prey items including crustaceans, fish, and squid (Nielsen et al. 1989). This species is thought to be semelparous, breeding only once (Nielsen et al. 1989). This species is sexually dimorphic, with males developing a large, knob-like nasal rosette (Gartner 1983). The largest individual on record measures 100 cm total length (TL) (Reiner 1996).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats to E. pelecanoides.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for E. pelecanoides; however, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas. Research into all aspects of the ecology and biology of this species is suggested.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for this species. It is not utilized commercially (Nielsen and Bertelsen 1990).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Monognathus boehlkei is known in the European region from west of Madeira. Outside the European region the fish is only known from near Bermuda, is known from very few specimens, and nothing is known of its population, threats and full distribution. It is considered Data Deficient and further research into the species is required.

range:
Monognathus boehlkei is known from the Atlantic Ocean, from near Bermuda and from west of Madeira (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1987, Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
Monognathus boehlkei is a deep-water species occurring in depths between 2,500 and 5,000 m (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1987). There is limited information available on its life history characteristics.

threats:
Nothing is known of the threats to the species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation actions in place for this species. Further research is required.

useAndTrade:
Only known from a very few specimens and presumably not utilised.


redListCategoryRationale:
Monognathus herringi is known to occur in the northeast Atlantic from west of Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Data Deficient as little is known of its distribution, threats or population trend, and research is required to confirm if endemic to European waters.

range:
Monognathus herringi is known to occur in the northeast Atlantic Ocean from west of Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1987).

habitat:
Monognathus herringi is a deep-water species occurring in depths between 2,960-5,400 m (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1987). There is limited information available on its life history characteristics.

threats:
Three is no information available on threats.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is only known from waters south of the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
There is almost nothing known about Monognathus nigeli.  In Europe, it is reported to occur in the south of the Azores (85 nautical miles northeast of the Marsala Seamount; Quéro et al. 2003). Globally, this species can be found in the Eastern North Atlantic.  This genus can be found in pelagic waters between 2,000 and 5,400 m depth.

habitat:
Monognathus nigeli most likely feed on shrimp and a venomous fang is used to immobilize larger prey. The maximum size is six centimetres.

threats:
There are no known species specific threats.

useAndTrade:
Monognathus nigeli is not targeted by fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: DD Saccopharynx ampullaceus is found throughout the eastern Atlantic Ocean, but appears to be rare. This species lives at depths of 1,000 to 3,000 m. There are no known species-specific threats nor conservation measures in place. Therefore, S. ampullaceus is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Saccopharynx ampullaceus is found in the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, there are scattered records of this species occurring from Greenland, Ireland, Madeira, Azores, Portugal (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1986), to Cape Verde (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1990). In the north Atlantic this species occurs from about 10° to 66° N with most records between 30° and 50° N (Bertelsen and Pietsch 1996). The minimum depth of occurrence of this species rose from 2,550 m over the Porcupine Abyssal Plain to 1,000 m over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and is known to reach depths of up to at least 3,000 m.

population:
In the North Atlantic, S. ampullaceus is most abundant at depths of 1,000 to 3,000 m (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1986). Saccopharynx ampullaceus is not very abundant in museum collections (18 lots - no more than one individual per lot) (FishNet2 database searched February 2013). It has been described as very rare in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004), and rare off the southern coast of Greenland (Moller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Saccopharynx ampullaceus is a bathy- to abyssopelagic species (Moore et al. 2003). Adult specimens of this species are most abundant between 1,000 and 3,000 m (Bertelsen and Pietsch 1996), reaching a maximum size of 161 cm total length (TL).  It feeds mainly on fish (Coad and Reist 2004), and their large mouth and dispensable abdomen enable them to swallow large prey. It has been speculated that the luminous caudal organ serves as a lure to attract prey, but this has not been confirmed by observation.  This species displays some sexual dimorphism at maturity; males show a reduction of the feeding apparatus and an enlargement of the eye and olfactory organ (Bertelsen and Nielsen 1986). In terms of reproduction, this species is oviparous and has epipelagic leptocephalus larva. A reduction of jaws and complete loss of teeth in sexually mature specimens occurs in both sexes (Bertelsen and Pietsch 1996).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to S. ampullaceus.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for S. ampullaceus. Its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Research into all aspects of the biology and ecology of this species is suggested.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for S. ampullaceus. This species is rare and of no importance to fisheries.


taxonomicNotes:
European and North American salmons have long been considered as a single  species but they are distinguished by chromosome numbers and genetic  characteristics. Their status should be re-evaluated.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) Atlantic Salmon is a keystone migratory species with a North Atlantic distribution, with presence in freshwaters across much of westernand northern Europe and a marine extent that ranges across the North Atlantic to at least the west coast of southern Greenland and north of the Faroe Islands. The species is an important component of subsistence, recreational and commercial fisheries throughout the European region, and provides a range of ecosystem services. The species has undergone historical extirpation from rivers in Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, and Switzerland, and individual subpopulations have been lost from the Iberian Peninsula, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Ireland, France, England, Wales, Scotland, and European Russia. These local extirpations and population declines have been attributed to a number of factors including, deliberate introductions and aquaculture escapement, overfishing (at sea and in freshwaters), pollution, damming and excessive sea lice (Lepiophtheirus salmoni) loads. The species has been the subject of widespread conservation actions (e.g., NASCO Action Plan; NASCO 1999), primarily focused on fisheries management, and on habitat conservation and restoration. Numbers of farmed salmon escaping to the wild are large relative to the abundance of their wild conspecifics (Thorstad et al. 2008), with negative effects on wild populations including both ecological interactions and genetic impacts of inter-breeding Thorstad (2008) show that inter-breeding of farm with wild salmon can result in reduced lifetime success, lowered individual fitness and decreases in production over at least two generations. Because of the high but uncertain level of stocking across the species range (although it is recognised that in some regions this is low in relation to natural smolt numbers; e.g., Ireland: a total of c.500,000 smolts released annually in relation to a conservative estimated natural smolt production of 25-50 million annually; anon. reviewer pers. comm. 2014) and escapes, the scale of impact of the threats to the wild population is difficult to determine exactly and this requires further research. There are most likely relatively few truly self-sustaining wild populations remaining in Europe (some river basins in Russia and Norway, parts of Ireland and the UK). The species is estimated to have an average generation length of six years. In the past 20 years (approximately three generations) salmon farming has increased substantially (introducing sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis and promoting the spread of the monogenetic trematode Gyrodactylus salaris), and many dams and other river obstructions have been built. Over a similar timeframe, salmon catches at sea (both reported and unreported catches) have undergone a continuing decline since 1987, with reported catches declining from more than 8,000 tonnes (fresh weight) in 1987 to less than 2,000 tonnes in 2012 (ICES 2013b). Well documented threats have led to an inferred population decline in wild self-sustaining populations of more than 30% over the last three generation lengths, based on suspected declines in pre-fishery abundance (PFA) across the European region, and corroborated by PFA data for the United Kingdom (JNCC 2013) that show a 27% decline over the same time period. This PFA figure is, most probably, increasingly composed of hatchery fish, and as for the above European PFA estimate, an overall decline over the last three generations exceeding 30% is inferred. The species is assessed as Vulnerable (VU A2ace) as a result of overfishing in the sea, declining habitat quality, reduced extent of occurrence (EOO), and the impact of pollution, climate change, and introduced taxa. Population abundance of Atlantic Salmon is at an historically unprecedented low level in some rivers in Europe (Hedger et al. 2013). Trend data have never been comprehensively reviewed in detail for all the European or global populations, however river basin status data have been compiled at the country scale (WWF 2001: see attached table); only Iceland was assessed as having virtually unimpacted natural populations (99% of river basins considered 'Healthy'), and only Ireland (38%), Norway (47%), Scotland (63%) and England and Wales (33%) having significant percentages of 'healthy' salmon rivers. 'Healthy' salmon populations might also occur in northern European parts of Russia and this region might be the largest stronghold of the species, however data are poorly available from that region. The study by Limburg and Waldman (2009) reported that European stocks have crashed again since the 1980s from the low levels after the massive crash in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This is not a local problem, as populations of wild S. salar are also at historic lows in North America (Limburg and Waldman 2009). None of these studies distinguish between fully wild and ranched populations, in which fry, parrs or even smolts are stocked, often in huge numbers to sustain the salmon runs. We believe that if there were a critical assessment of this phenomenon, it would reveal that the conservation situation of Atlantic Salmon is much worse, especially in the Baltic, UK, central and eastern Europe, than inferred from data available for this assessment. The bottom line of decline has not yet been reached as climate change is thought to have already had some impacts and is likely to have greater future effects upon Atlantic Salmon in terms of both sub-population size and health (condition) (Johnsson and Johnsson 2009, IUCN 2009). Climate change may be partly to blame already for their decreasing numbers and conservation/reintroduction problems, especially in the southern part of its range. It is more than obvious that a cold stenothermic species such as the Atlantic Salmon will be impacted by climate change, especially in southern Europe, where anyhow, only few self-recruiting populations are left. In the northern part of the range, it is possible that salmon might benefit from climate change (Hedger et al. 2013), but the amount of suitable habitat available in the north does not balance the amount of habitat lost in the south. However McGinnity et al. (2009) suggest that climate change will have as much of an impact, if not an even greater impact at northern latitudes (due to increased winter temperatures leading to increased energy utilisation, the greater phenological adaptations required, and the greater magnitude and rate of projected temperature changes) as in southern latitudes. In addition, there is evidence that the temperature of the sea's surface may affect smolt survival. It is also thought that climate change may affect salmon growth rates or make their food less available. This assessment does not take into account the clear differences in the status of individual stocks (sub-populations from individual river basins) where some are in serious decline or extirpated whereas others are doing much better, as evidenced by the river stock assessment presented by WWF (2001). It is therefore clear that each stock should be assessed independently in order to better reflect this variation, and to inform river basin population management and restoration actions. The COSEWIC (2010) report on the sub-population-level assessment of salmon in Canada is an example of such an approach that could be applied to inform the conservation of the species in European waters.

range:
The Atlantic Salmon has a North Atlantic distribution (Kottelat 1997, Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). In Europe the species is known from the Atlantic, North, White, Barents and Baltic sea basins, from the Minho/Miño (Portugal, Spain) to the Kara drainages (Kara Sea, western Siberia). Within this range the species is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Germany (reintroduced), Denmark, Iceland, Great Britain, Ireland, and in northernmost rivers of Scandinavia and northern European Russia. Landlocked populations are known from southern Finland, Lakes Vänern (Sweden), Ladoga, Onega, and from some small lakes in the Vyg and Kem drainages, White Sea basin (Russia) and from southern Norway. The main foraging areas of salmon of European origin are along the west coast of southern Greenland and north of the Faroe Islands, however it is unclear from the literature reviewed if there is exchange between the European and American populations. Baltic populations do not leave this sea (WWF 2001). The species has undergone historical extirpation from Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany (now reintroduced), Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, and Switzerland. Populations from the Duero, Tagus and Guadiana rivers in the Iberian Peninsula (based on historical records) are now extirpated, and populations have been lost or threatened with loss from numerous rivers in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and the other Baltic Sea countries, Ireland, France, United Kingdom (England Wales, and Scotland), and Russia (the Lavna, Niva, Teriberka, Voronya, and Kalga rivers) (NASCO 2013a). The fish was thought to be extinct in Belarus since the mid-20th century as a result of dams built on the Western Dvina and Neman rivers, however recent research has found very small numbers of the fish migrate annually upstream in the Neris/Vilia rivers to the upper part of the Neman River basin in Belarus to spawn in the Vilia River tributaries (in the Dudka River about 800 m upstream from the confluence with Vilia) (Polutskaya 2005, 2009). In both North America and in Europe the species has been widely stocked in river basins for fisheries, and farmed in coastal and estuarine aquaculture, from where feral populations have become locally established and hybridized with local populations, and the species has also been introduced in large numbers to the northeast Pacific (USA and Canada; anon. reviewer pers. comm. 2014). The species has also been introduced to New Zealand, Chile and southern Argentina, although salmon have not yet been able to establish self-reproducing stocks anywhere (H. Sparholt pers. comm. 2013). In eastern North America the species is known from New England (Connecticut and Housatonic rivers, and possibly formerly to Delaware), north to Ungava Bay (northern Quebec) and to the Nastapoka River in eastern Hudson Bay (Morin 1991, G. Hammerson pers. comm. 2012). The only remaining populations that are believed to consist, at least in part, of native fishes in rivers in the United States of America occur in Maine (Dennys, Machias, East Machias, Narraguagus, Pleasant, Ducktrap, and Sheepscot rivers; Colligan and Nickerson 1996, G. Hammerson pers. comm. 2012); a few populations have been partially restored through hatchery production (Federal Register 1994). In Canada, the species' range extends northward from the St. Croix River (at the border with Maine, U.S.A.) to the outer Ungava Bay of Quebec, with one population in the eastern Hudson Bay (COSEWIC 2010).

population:
The species is regionally abundant in European waters, however this is mainly due to massive stocking across its range in Europe and pre-fishery abundance (PFA) has declined from around 10 million individuals in the 1970s to c.3.6 million in recent years; this represents a 64% decline over the 29 year period (1975 – 2004), this represents a 64% decline over the 40-odd year period (c.1970 – 2010), equivalent to a 28.8% decline over the last 18 years (three generation lengths). This decline in PFA has been greater in southern European stocks than in northern European stocks (Windsor et al. 2012). This PFA is, most probably, increasingly composed of hatchery fish, and although the exact contribution of captive-bred fish is unknown, it is inferred that the decline of PFA population has declined by more than 30%. This inferred level of decline is confirmed by data for United Kingdom waters. PFA estimates produced for the ICES Working Group (JNCC 2013) reports show a 44.5% decline in the 29 year period from the mid-1970s (average 1975-79 = 1,301,481 individuals) to the mid-2000s (average 2000-03/04 = 722,471), an average annual decline of 1.5%. Given that the period represents approximately five generations for the species, we can estimate a decline of 27% over the last three generation lengths. This PFA figure is, most probably, increasingly composed of hatchery fish, and as for the above PFA estimate, an overall decline over the last three generations exceeding 30% is inferred. The Atlantic Salmon Rivers Database (NASCO 2013a) records the stock status of the species in 1,399 European rivers; Not Threatened With Loss (1,028 rivers in which the natural salmon stocks are not considered to be threatened with loss)Threatened With Loss (161 rivers in which there is a threat to the natural stock of salmon which would lead to loss of the stock unless the factor(s) causing the threat is(are) removed)Lost (79 rivers in which there is no natural or maintained stock of salmon but which are known to have contained salmon in the past)Restored (45 rivers in which the natural stock of salmon is known to have been lost; but in which there is now a self-sustaining stock (restoration efforts or natural recolonization)Maintained (42 rivers in which there is no natural stock of salmon; contained salmon in the past, but in which a salmon stock is now only maintained through human intervention)Unknown (44 rivers in which there is no information available as to whether or not it contains a salmon stock)   This equates (excluding 'Unknown' rivers) to 24.1% of river stocks considered to be impacted (threatened, lost, restored or maintained). Populations from the Lima (WWF 2001), Duero, Tagus and Guadiana rivers in the Iberian Peninsula (based on historical records) are now extirpated, and populations have been lost or threatened with loss from numerous rivers in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Ireland, France, United Kingdom (England Wales, and Scotland), and Russia (the Lavna, Niva, Teriberka, Voronya, and Kalga rivers) (NASCO 2013b). Baltic Sea populations underwent dramatic declines in the 20th Century, when the annual production of smolt in the Baltic declined by about 95% (WWF 2001), and less than 10% of salmon fry are the offspring of wild salmon hatcheries (IBSFC 2000). In spite of these reductions in fishery pressures, many stocks of the species are not rebuilding. This is because, whilst there have been some recoveries based on habitat restoration and improvements (e.g., in England and Wales (NASCO 2007a), Denmark (NASCO 2007b) and Norway (e.g., Hesthagen et al. 2011), the natural mortality of juvenile salmon in the marine phase has increased. The causes for that remain largely unknown. The spawning stocks in the southern part of the distribution area are so low and habitat quality is so poor that the basin productivity of juveniles are reduced compared to the potential of the rivers. In the northern part there are generally enough spawners to fulfil the production potential of the rivers. The Baltic stocks are improving (HELCOM 2013a), but many other stocks are still under the production potential of the rivers. Also here, it is difficult to distinguish between rivers with fully or partly ranched stocks and those with fully natural stocks. Aquaculture production from North and South America and Europe has, on the other hand, massively increased over the same period from almost nil in the 1960s to over 2.07 million tonnes in 2012 (FAO 2013). This species is represented by a large number of subpopulations and locations. Many wild salmon rivers have their own genetically distinct stock. ICES (2012) reported that many wild populations around the North Atlantic remain at very low levels despite many years of severe reductions in commercial salmon fisheries and other conservation actions. Chaput (2012) reported a decline since mid- to late-1980s in marine survival, as measured by the return rates of smolts to adults from monitored rivers. A key element of concern has been the decline since the 1960s (Hendry and Cragg-Hine 2003) in the proportion of single winter fish to Multi-Sea-Winter (MSW) fish (fish that stay more than one year at sea) returning to spawn. MSW fish are larger in size and produce significantly greater numbers of eggs and egg deposition is reduced as a result of the decline in MSW fish.

habitat:
Habitat Found in rivers where water temperature rises above 10°C for at least three months per year and does not exceed 20°C for more than a few weeks in summer. Juveniles and resident stream populations inhabit riffles of fast-flowing, moderately cold streams and rivers. In northern Europe, juveniles may live in cold lakes. Salmon spawn mostly in natal streams, in rivers and streams with swift flowing water and a succession of riffles and pools. Lacustrine populations migrate to tributaries. Usually spawns in depressions made by the female fish in the gravel. Pelagic at sea or in large lakes, mostly foraging in surface layers. In the ocean, the fish has been found to 210 m, but is usually present at depths of 2-5 m (anon. reviewer pers. comm. 2014). Biology Both anadromous and landlocked populations occur. Evidence suggests that spawning in 'couples' occurs the minority of times, with most spawnings involving multiple males (anadromous adults and parr; anon. reviewer. pers. comm. 2014). Spawning occurs during October-January (October in Norway and Russia, November in Germany, Denmark and southwestern Sweden; December in Ireland, France and Spain), although spawning time can also vary among populations in the same river (J. MacLean pers. comm. 2014). Translocated stocks are reported to retain their original spawning time. Females select spawning sites and create shallow spawning sites (redds; areas of disturbed gravel) which may contain one or more nests, each nest being the result of a separate spawning event. Males guard and defend females against other males. An individual female may dig up to fourteen nests (average of around six) depending on their size (anon. reviewer. pers. comm. 2014), and both sexes may mate with several partners. The female spawns into the nest depression and eggs are covered with gravel by the female. Most males die after reproduction, while 10-40% of females (kelts; post-spawning adult) may survive spawning and migrate back to sea in autumn or overwinter in rivers and migrate again in spring, although kelt survival can be as low as 1% (J. MacLean pers. comm. 2014). Eggs are covered with 10-30 cm of gravel and hatch in 70-160 days. Successful development of eggs and alevins (fry with egg sack attached) requires a water permeability through gravel above one meter per hour (1 mh-1). Alevins are negatively phototactic and move deep into gravel. Fry are positively phototactic and inhabit very shallow riffles, usually downstream of spawning site. Fry usually emerge from gravel between March (Spain) and July (north Finland) when temperature rises above 8°C. Young over one year old (parr) are territorial, feeding on drifting and benthic invertebrates. Some males may spawn for the first time when they are still parr and are then able to fertilise more than 20% of eggs by sneaking into redds of anadromous couples. Mature parr are also able to successfully fertilize eggs in the absence of anadromous males. Mature male parr usually migrate to sea but have a lower probability of returning to breed as adults than males that did not mature as parr. Some parr may remain in freshwater. Ripe female parr are very rare. A few landlocked stream populations maturing as parr are known from Norway, in streams where waterfalls prevent access to anadromous salmons. Parr feed for 1-7 (usually 2-3) years in freshwater depending on temperature and feeding conditions. Usually, parr smoltify at 100-150 mm SL; smoltification is triggered by increasing day length in winter. Neither sex feeds in freshwater during the spawning and post-spawning migrations. Usually, 0.3-6.0% of females reproduce a second time. Kelts may spawn in the year following the first reproduction or may remain at sea for 18 months before returning once more to the river. In short rivers, up to 34% of the individuals reproduce a second time and there are records of individuals spawning for up to six seasons. Smolt start to migrate downstream in April-June when temperature increases above 8-10°C from low winter levels. Migration peaks when rising water levels coincide with increased turbidity during spring floods or heavy rain. A small number may migrate to sea in autumn. Smolt are gregarious and migration is nocturnal with peaks at dusk and dawn. Learning the route during downstream migration seems to be the main factor determining successful homing. Smolt may spend some time in brackish estuaries or they may immediately move to the sea. At sea, the species is pelagic and feeds on small fish and large crustaceans such as amphipods and euphausids. After spending between one and four winters at sea, individuals migrate to their natal river. Patterns of upstream migration depend on the particular river and age of the fish. Individuals may enter rivers in any month of the year, with some fish entering more than a year before spawning. Individuals that have spent more than one winter at sea usually seem to enter rivers in spring while those that spent a single winter at sea dominate the autumn run. A number of individuals enter their non-natal river and either stay (and may breed successfully) or leave and enter another river (either natal or non-natal) (J. MacLean pers. comm. 2014). During upriver migration, the silvery colour of the marine phase is replaced by a dark breeding colour; the skull of males enlarges and they develop a kype on the lower jaw. The species sometimes hybridises with S. trutta. Generation length The generation length of the species in Europe is estimated at six years (H. Sparholt pers. comm. 2013), based on generation length for salmon with a smolt age of between two to five years, representing the case in southern parts of its European distribution. In the north, the smolt age is four years. However age-at-maturity varies from three years (one if you include mature male parr) to 10 years (Hutchings and Jones 1998), with an average of between four and five years.

threats:
The species is strongly affected by water pollution and sedimentation, primarily caused by logging and agricultural activities (especially in spawning habitats), damming and overfishing. Because of degraded environmental conditions, most populations depend largely or exclusively on stocking, especially in western and central Europe. Due to intensive farming and fishery controls, the fishing pressure on wild stocks has decreased but other problems have increased. The natural mortality of juvenile salmon in the marine phase has increased, however the causes of this are not well understood (H. Sparholt pers. comm. 2012). Depletion of forage species by commercial fisheries and freshwater exposure of juveniles to an endocrine disrupter (leads to mortality in marine phase) are suggested possible causes in the case of North American populations (G. Hammerson pers. comm. 2012). Farmed salmon are usually the result of hybridization of different stocks with selection favouring farm conditions. Large numbers of farmed salmon escape and - as they have no homing site - move to any river and hybridise with wild stocks. Usually egg and juvenile survival rates are much less than in wild salmon and thus farm escapees drain the reproductive success and pollute the genetic and adaptive identity of wild populations. Large scale releases have, for example, been cited as a potential threat to Baltic salmon genetic diversity (Palmé et al. 2012). Sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis, an ectoparasitic copepod, occur in large numbers on captive salmon and seriously infect wild smolts, as they migrate past salmon farms in estuaries (Whelan 2010). The primary concern relating to sea lice originating from aquaculture is the impact on outmigrating post-smolt salmon, which are susceptible to lice infections. Further comparison of sea lice burdens of inward and outward migrating salmon, and of salmon from areas with and without salmonid aquaculture is required (ICES 2013a). It has been well shown that wild salmon adjacent to salmon aquaculture have high infestations of sea lice (Bostick et al. 2005), however the mode of transmission to wild salmon from aquaculture is not well understood. ICES (2013a) reports a continuing lack of research into sea lice burdens on salmon, either studies comparing sea lice prevalence on 'wild' salmon pre- and post-development of aquaculture within a region, or comparison between stocks with and without aquaculture (ICES 2013a). Butler (2002) concluded that in Scottish waters less than 1% of the sea lice originated from wild salmonids. Whelan (2010) undertook a comprehensive review of the impact of sea lice on salmon and found extensive evidence linking localised epizootics of juvenile lice with increased lice levels on migratory salmonids (Bjørn et al. 2001, Gargan et al. 2003, Krkošek et al. 2005). Heuch and Mo (2001) concluded that total lice egg production annually in farming areas in Norway had increased by more than 50 times compared to pre-farming conditions. WWF (2001) report that diseases and sea lice transferred from caged salmon to wild salmon are a severe hazard to juveniles in countries where salmon farming is predominant. The introduction of the monogenetic trematode Gyrodactylus salaris from Baltic hatchery salmon to Baltic farmed and wild stocks has caused mass mortalities. Gyrodactylus is a freshwater ectoparasite on parrs; it is spread by salmon eggs or parrs (or trout) used for stocking. In some rivers, Norwegian fisheries authorities killed all fish (not only salmon but the whole population of all native non-anadromous species) with ichthyocides in an attempt to eradicate the parasite. Overfishing at sea, and in particular with drift nets, is a major threat to the species, although fisheries controls have been implemented. The species is also impacted as bycatch in the mackerel fishery in the North Norwegian Sea. Overfeeding in farms and the use of chemicals and/or antibiotics can result in localised pollution impacts in the marine environment, however evidence of impacts on wild salmon is required. The direct and indirect impacts of climate change on the species and its habitats are not well understood and require further research. Jonsson and Jonsson (2009) suggest that a northward movement of the thermal niche of anadromous salmon will result in decreased production and population extinctions in the southern part of the species distribution, earlier migrations, later spawning, younger age at smolting and sexual maturity and increased disease susceptibility and mortality. Northern populations are predicted to benefit from increased parr recruitment and smolt production as a result of climate change, whilst higher levels of parr mortality might occur due to decreased summer water availability (Hedger et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
There are many conservation actions in place for the species, including scientific research and monitoring, habitat restoration and legal measures such as the Convention for the Conservation of Salmon in the North Atlantic Ocean (NASCO) which entered into force on 1 October 1983. Through the contracting parties (Canada, Denmark (in respect of the Faroe Islands and Greenland), the European Union, Norway, Russian Federation and the United States of America) the convention aims to promote the conservation, restoration, enhancement, and rational management of salmon stocks in the North Atlantic Ocean. Conservation actions include habitat protection and restoration (e.g., removing weirs and other obstructions to migrations and improved water quality through liming to reduce pH of acidified rivers in Norway (Hesthagen et al. 2011). There should be a presumption against stocking practices undertaken to enhance salmon and sea trout fisheries (McIntyre and Kettlewhite 2014), whilst ex situ conservation, reintroduction and support of natural populations should be undertaken with care. Ongoing research and monitoring is essential to fully understand the impacts of ongoing and novel threats on the species. The species has been assessed as Vulnerable (VU A4b) in the Baltic (HELCOM 2013b), and occurs on the national Red Lists of the following European countries: UK (Biodiversity Action Plan species), Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic, Finland, Poland, Russia, Estonia, and Lithuania (JNCC 2013). The freshwater populations (except those in Finland) have been listed in Annexes II, IV and V of the EU Habitats Directive (HELCOM 2013b). The species appears in the Bern Convention (Appendix 3), and has been listed on the OSPAR List of Threatened and/or Declining Species and Habitats (OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic; JNCC 2013). The species is recorded as occurring in 515 Natura 2000 protected areas throughout much of Europe (EUNIS 2014). The fish had been assessed at the global scale as Lower Risk/least concern for the IUCN Red List in 1996 (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996).

useAndTrade:
Salmon aquaculture includes farming, ranching and stocking activities. Production of farmed salmon in the North Atlantic in 2010 was approximately 600 times the harvest of wild fish (NASCO 2013c). Salmon is an iconic species in both historical and contemporary culture, found in many aspects of art, literature, jewellery, and architecture etc. The species is a focus for social activities (e.g., fishery clubs), and the driver of general river restoration activities. Salmon runs draw visitors throughout Europe where the species is present in numbers. Salmon are central to the cultures of the Sami and Kven northern indigenous peoples in Norway (WWF 2001). The species is an important food and recreational angling fish throughout its European range (Kulmala et al. 2013) with high commercial, social and cultural values, and it is an iconic species in both historical and contemporary culture. The species also provides important ecosystem services as a source of oceanic carbon and river organic enrichment, and as direct prey for large numbers of oceanic and river species including other fishes, many birds, mammals including some whales and seals (anon. reviewer pers. comm. 2014). Kulmala et al. (2013) estimate that the cultural value of the species may exceed the value of commercial landings in northern Europe. Further research to obtain information on the scale of these benefits across the European region is required.

redListReviewers:
Harrison, I.J., Hogan, Z., MacLean, J. & Mauroner, A.

redListContributors:
Kottelat, M., Hammerson, G.A., Comeros-Raynal, M., MacLean, J. & Allen, D.J.


redListCategoryRationale:
Agonus cataphractus is restricted to coastal regions of the northwest Atlantic and reaches as far as the Arctic region of the White Sea. Agonus cataphractus primarily occurs over soft bottom substrates such as sand, mud, and gravel to 270 m depth. This species has experienced decreases in population in areas of the North Sea due to anthropogenic impacts; however, increases in average abundance have been observed in the past few decades due to improvements to waste water facilities which have reduced the amount of organic pollution in the Thames estuary. Agonus cataphractus is relatively short lived and most individuals only reproduce once at the age of one year; populations of A. cataphractus are likely able to rebound quickly from disturbances. Therefore, Agonus cataphractus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Agonus cataphractus occurs in coastal areas of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean (Wheeler 1969). It barely reaches the arctic region in the White Sea and occurs off Jan Mayen, in the Barents Seas, Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, and the English Channel (Wienerroither et al. 2010, Kanayama 1991). The depth range for A. cataphractus is 35 m to 270 m (Kanayama 1991).

population:
Between a 1977 and 1992 sampling period, 3,074 individuals of A. cataphractus were captured in the Thames estuary. This species occurred in 55.4% of all samples and accounted for 0.52% of all the marine fishes sampled. The abundance of this species peaked in December and March to April with a marked decline in abundance in February of each year. Agonus cataphractus was found to be absent from the middle reaches of the estuary between early June and mid September (Power and Attrill 2002).  This species was reported to be one of three most common species found in trawls of the outer Thames estuary in the early 1960s. Agonus cataphractus was reported occasionally in samples by the late 1960s and by the 1970s this species was commonly observed in West Thurrock samples (Wheeler 1963, Andrews and Rickard 1980, Huddart and Arthur 1971, Wheeler 1979).  Biomass of this species based on catches from the English Groundfish Survery did not show any significant trends between 1977 and 1986 (Daan  et al. 1990). Sample abundances rose from 4.2 individuals per sample between 1977 and 1982, to 13.5 individuals per sample between 1983 and 1989 (Power and Attrill 2002). An exception to the overall increasing trend was observed in 1985 when abundances of this species fell significantly. This event is suspected to be due to abnormally low surface temperatures recorded during the winter of 1984 to 1985 (Power and Attril 2002). Agonus cataphractus was ranked at the ninth most abundant species and the fourth most frequently encountered species in the Forth estuary. This species was also found to be common in the lower Blyth estuary (Elliott and Taylor 1989, David and Dunn 1982). Agonus cataphractus was determined to be slightly more abundant in the middle Thames estuary than in the adjacent lower Medway estuary where this species was ranked as the 21st most abundant species sampled and comprised only 0.1% of all fish sampled (van den Broek 1979, 1980). Between 1901-1907 and 1993-1997 the catch rate appears to have sharply increased (Rijnsdorp et al. 1996).

habitat:
Agonus cataphractus is a coastal species that is found over soft substrates including sand, mud and gravel. This species can grow up to about 15 cm and is short lived with a life span of three to four years. Common prey items of A. cataphractus include juvenile crabs (Carcinus maenus), shrimp (Crangon crangon) and amphipods (Grammarus spp.). Agonus cataphractus undertake a seasonal migration in the southern parts of its distribution to shallower waters and are commonly found in estuaries in winter months (Wheeler 1969). Agonus cataphractus is known to spawn in late autumn and early winter in shallow water but may occur as early as October in the French Atlantic coast (Wheeler 1969, Le Gall 1969). Agonus cataphractus usually only reproduce once at age one plus and it has been suggested that a reproductive advantage is gained when this species uses the warmer estuarine waters rather than cooler waters of the North Sea (Le Gall 1969, Power and Attrill 2002). Females deposit the demersal eggs in the alga which can range from 1.7 mm to 2.2 mm (Kanayama 1991, Washington et al. 1984) Peak occurrences of this species reported from November to January along the English east coast would coincide with an inshore spawning migration but could also be associated with seasonal use of preferred prey species such as age zero flat fish and decapod crustaceans known to peak in abundance between December and January (Attrill et al. 1999, Power  et al. 2000).   Agonus cataphractus can be found in a wide range of salinities which suggests that this species has a physiological tolerance more characteristic of a euryhaline species than that of a strictly stenohaline species. The additional metabolic costs of osmotic and ionic regulation required in varying salinities will reduce growth unless compensated by increased feeding opportunities (Power and Attril 2002, Wootton 1990). This species is commonly associated with dab and sole in flatfish nursery areas (Riley et al. 1981).

threats:
Agonus cataphractus is susceptible to anthropogenic impacts in the North Sea as it inhabits coastal and estuarine habitats. These threats may include eutrophication, coastal erosion, landfill, run-off from urban and industrial activities and waste water. The Seine, Rhine Meuse complex, Scheldt, Weser, Elbe, Humber and Thames basins are of the most heavily industrialized regions in the world (Power and Attril 2002, Ducrotoy et al. 2000).

conservationAction:
Increased average annual abundances of A. cataphractus have been observed in the past few decades due to the reduction of organic pollution associated with the upgrade of major sewage technologies in the Thames estuary (Andrews 1984, Power and Attrill 2002).

useAndTrade:
Agonus cataphractus is a non-commercial species (Power and Attrill 2002).

redListAssessors:
Florin, A., Keskin, Ç., Lorance, P. & Herrera, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Leptagonus decagonus is widely distributed throughout the Arctic. In the northeastern Atlantic, L. decagonus is known from the Norwegian, Barents, and Kara seas. It is very populous in the Barents Sea. No major threats to this species have been identified. Therefore, Lepagonus decagonus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Leptagonus decagonus is a widespread circumarctic species. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, L. decagonus occurs in the Norwegian, Barents, and Kara seas. This species has a depth range of 120 m to 930 m (Kanayama 1991, Busby 1998). Outside of the assessment region, this species occurs off Greenland and Canada, including the North-west Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Newfoundland (Kanayama 1991, Busby 1998).

population:
Leptagonus decagonus has been collected as bycatch in shrimp trawl surveys conducted in the North Atlantic (Pedersen and Nygard 1991, Kingsley et al. 1999). Over 3,000 individuals of L. decagonus were collected in a trawl survey conducted over the south western part of the Barents Sea in the summer of the year 2000 (Byrkjedal and Hoines 2007). Leptagonus decagonus was determined to be a primary indicator species for an assemblage of Northwest Greenland and a single station in Canadian waters. Of the five species collected from this area, the relative abundance estimated for L. decagonus was 0.18 (Jorgensen et al. 2011).

habitat:
Leptagonus decagonus is a benthic dweller and occur primarily over muddy or sandy bottoms to 930 m depth. This species feeds on pelagic and benthic crustaceans and polychaetes. Leptagonus decagonus usually spawns in June and July off the Murman coast and in May and June off the Iceland. The number of mature eggs has been recorded from 480 to 1,750 ranging from 1.5 to 1.9 mm in diameter (Kanamyama 1991). The maximum recorded length for this species is 21 cm TL (Andriashev 1986).

threats:
No major threats have been identified for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC 2014, World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Leptagonus decagonus is captured as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the North Atlantic (Pedersen and Nygard 1991, Kingsley et al. 1999). However, additional use and trade information is not available for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Artediellus atlanticus is a demersal, Arctic boreal species that is distributed on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the Barents Sea, abundance of A. atlanticus increases in the northeast direction with increasing longitude and latitude and has been described as rare in the North Sea. Artediellus atlanticus is not targeted in commercial fisheries but may be susceptible to impacts from climate change. However, no major threats to this species have been identified. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Artediellus atlanticus is an Arctic boreal species that is distributed on both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean and has been recently recorded from Greenland and the Pacific side of the Arctic (Mecklenburg et al. 2011). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, A. atlanticus occurs from the Frans Josef Land, Svalbard and Scandinavia, south to Iceland and the northern British Isles (Fedorov 1986). The depth range for A. atlanticus is from shore to 792 m (Kells and Carpenter 2011).

population:
The abundance of Artediellus atlanticus increases in the northeast direction in the Barents Sea and is positively correlated with increasing longitude and latitude (Fossheim et al. 2006). In the summer of 2000, 4,840 individuals of A. atlanticus were captured in a bottom fish trawl survey in the western Barents Sea. This species was one of the eight species that were distributed over almost the entire sampling area of the survey (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007). Artediellus atlanticus is rare in the North Sea (Jiming 1982).

habitat:
Artediellus atlanticus spawns from late summer to fall. Northern populations spawn in November and southern populations from July to September (von Dorrien 1996). Eggs examined from 206 females ranged from 40 to 216 ova. This species usually ranges from 6.5 to 10 cm SL with a maximum length of 13 cm (von Dorrien 1993). Artediellus atlanticus exhibits sexual dimorphism with variations in size, colour, and height of dorsal fin (von Dorrien 1996). This is a demersal species that primarily feeds in invertebrates (Vinagre et al. 2011). Two year old individuals collected from the Barents Sea ranged from 5.4 to 6.5 cm in length and three to five year old individuals ranged from 5.9 to 9.7 cm (Eriksen et al. 2012).

threats:
Artediellus atlanticus may be affected by water temperature changes due to climate change which can alter migration, physiology, food availability, etc. (Roessig et al. 2004). However, major threats to this species have not been identified.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas in the northeast Atlantic (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Artediellus atlanticus a non-commercial species (Vinagre et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC This species is listed as Least Concern, as Gymnocanthus tricuspis is common in the Arctic region and has a wide distribution. It may be susceptible to impacts from temperature changes caused by climate change, although major threats have not been identified.

range:
Gymnocanthus tricuspis is present in the Arctic and along both coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean (Fedorov 1986). The range of G. tricuspis stretches as far north as 83°N, including the northern face of Spitzbergen, northern Norway, Murmansk, Novaya Zemlya, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea. The depth range for G. tricuspis is 2 to 173 m (Wilson 1973, Moller et al. 2010, Kells and Carpenter 2011). This species is primarily distributed from the Polar Front northwards and was found to be confined to Bear Island Bank (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007).

population:
Gymnocanthus tricuspis is circumpolar and is one of the most abundant benthic fish species in the Arctic region (Mecklenburg et al. 2011). It is listed as common in the Greenland Red List of Marine Fish (Moller et al. 2010). In a beam trawl survey conducted in the Chukchi Sea during the summer of 2004, 443 individuals of G. tricuspis were captured. Nine species constituted 91% of the total catch by number and was dominated by sculpins, specifically G. tricuspis which made up 34% of the catch (Norcross et al. 2010).

habitat:
Gymnocanthus tricuspis is a benthic species that burrows into sand and sand-mud bottoms with salinities of 32-35 ppt, sometimes as low as 16-30 ppt (Fedorov 1986).  It feeds on small benthic amphipods and polychaetes (Coad and Reist 2004). Females grow more quickly than males, especially after two years. This species breeds during late summer and can live up to four years or more. Gymnocanthus tricupis has a wider salinity range and lower temperature tolerance than other species of the genus which allows this species to inhabit arctic waters (Wilson 1973). The maximum length for this species is 30 cm TL (Andriyashev 1964).

threats:
Gymnocanthus tricuspis may be affected by water temperature changes due to climate change which can alter migration, physiology, food availability etc. (Roessig et al. 2004). However, major threats to this species have not been identified.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for G. tricuspis; however, the range for this species overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for G. tricuspis.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern as it is common and widespread in the Arctic region. Icelus bicornis is a circumarctic species that inhabits a variety of deep water habitats. Use and trade information is not available for this species and no major threats have been identified.

range:
Icelus bicornis is a circumarctic species that occurs on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. This species is mainly found in the North Sea (Jiming 1982), Icelandic Sea (Jónsson and Pálsson 2006), Norwegian Sea (Pethon 2005), Barents Sea (Karamushko 2008) and Kara Sea (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007, Dolgov 2013). The depth range for this species is 10 to 930 m (Møller et al. 2010).

population:
Globally, Iceclus bicornis was the third most prevalent species in a survey conducted in the Beaufort Sea in 1977 but did not occur in the 2008 trawl survey (Rand and Logerwell 2011). Icelus bicornis is rare in the North Sea (Jiming 1982). A trawl survey conducted in the Barents Sea captured 200 individuals of I. bicornis in the summer of the year 2000 (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007).

habitat:
In the northeast Atlantic, I. bicornis occurs in the transitional zone between living coral and debris zone (Costello et al. 2005). It is a benthic species found on muddy, sandy or rocky bottoms or among algae. It feeds on benthic polychaetes, crustaceans (Hyppolyte, Boreophausia), and large hyperiids (Phascolosoma). The maximum recorded length is 15.7 cm (Fedorov 1986, Coad and Reist 2004). Males of this species are usually below 7 cm and females below 12 cm. Icelus bicornis lives at temperatures -1.7-10°C. Females may lay 150-1,000 eggs with a diameter of 3 mm (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

threats:
This species may be affected by water temperature changes due to climate change which can alter migration, physiology, food availability etc. (Roessig et al. 2004). However, major threats to this species have not been identified.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for Icelus bicornis. 


redListCategoryRationale:
Micrenophrys lilljeborgii is distributed in the northeast Atlantic Ocean from Iceland to Ireland and the British Isles to the southwestern Scandinavian coasts. It is widespread and there is no evidence of population decline. Although it is rare within its range, it may not be caught often as it resides on hard bottom seas that trawls cannot fish upon. Therefore, Micrenophrys lilljeborgii is listed as Least Concern

range:
Micrenophrys lilljeborgii is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It is known from the west and north coasts of Ireland, east and west Scotland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, southwest Scandinavian coasts and was recently collected from the southeast North Sea in German waters; however, it is uncertain whether these new records are an indication of a range expansion (Sandercock and Wilimovsky 1968, Neudecker et al. 2006). Additionally, 48°N to 66°N and 13°E to 25°W is also a proposed range for this species (Fedorov 1986). It is suspected that records from more southern countries (e.g. The Netherlands, Belgium, France, the Channel Islands and southern England) may be included in records of some laboratories that have never been published (Neudecker et al. 2006). The depth range for M. illjeborgii is six to 100 m depth (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

population:
Micrenophrys lilljeborgii comprised 0.07% of 1,498 larval fishes caught (51 species) off the Iberian Peninsula (Rodriguez et al. 2009). This small fish species is preyed upon by larger fish such as cod but in recent years cod stocks have decreased dramatically which may allow M. lilljeborgii to expand its distribution (Cook 2002, Ratz 2003, Neudecker and Damm 2004). Museum collection material for M. lilljeborgii is limited (Sandercock and Wilimovsky 1968) and it is considered to be a rare species (Daan 2001). In a survey conducted off the west coast of Ireland, this species comprised 0.0% larval abundance in 1980, 0.011% larval abundance in 1983 and 0.008% relative larval abundance of cottids (O'Brien and Fives 1995). The population in its range appears rare, although it occurs on hard bottom substrate, which is difficult for bottom trawls to fish upon, and it is likely that it has been well sampled in the routine trawl surveys of the region. It is also a small species which makes it harder to fish.

habitat:
Micrenophrys lilljeborgii is a demersal benthivore that occurs over the inner shelf, primarily over sand, gravel and coral debris substrates (Jiming 1982, Costello et al. 2005, Neudecker et al. 2006, Englehard et al. 2008). Micrenophrys lilljeborgii has demersal eggs and newly hatched larvae of this species are two to three millimetres (Bruun 1925). The maximum recorded length for this species is 7.4 cm TL but is common to six centimetres TL (Fedorov 1986).

threats:
This species may be effected by water temperature changes due to climate change which can alter migration, physiology, food availability, etc. (Roessig et al. 2004). However, major threats to this species have no been identified.

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for M. lilljeborgii.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread throughout its range. However, localized declines have been reported from Iceland, the North Sea and Kattegat in the Baltic Sea, while positive trends appear in the western and northern Baltic Sea. Monitoring should be implemented for this species, as it appears to be threatened by chemical pollution in parts of its range and it is caught as a by-catch in some commercial fisheries.

range:
The species is present in the Atlantic Ocean waters of Europe, from the Bay of Biscay to the Barents Sea, from Iceland to the British Islands and the Baltic Sea Fishbase (2011). It has been recorded in the Gulf of Cádiz during groundfish surveys (ICES 2005).  It is also present in the western Atlantic Ocean.

population:
Roger and Ellis (2000) reported the increase of M. scorpius population in the North Sea, comparing 1901-1907 and 1989-1997 data. However Kasper (2010) reported a decreasing trend in population and abundance of the species in Iceland and the North Sea, after analyzing 25 years (1985-2009) of scientific trawl survey data. It is a common non-commercial species in Irish inshore waters (Went and Kennedy 1976, King et al. 1983).  HELCOM Group of Experts assessed the species in 2013 and, based on data from Swedish surveys, the species was listed as Least Concern (HELCOM 2013). The experts found a negative trend in Kattegat population, but a positive trend in the western and northern Baltic Sea, so the population for the entire HELCOM area is not suspected to be decreasing overall. The overall population trend of the species is unknown.

habitat:
It is a marine and brackish species, found on rocky, sandy and muddy bottoms, from shallow waters to bathial bottoms (zero to 431 m) (Fishbase 2011). A bentho-piscivore species, it feeds on fishes, crustaceans, polychaetes and amphipods, and it has demersal eggs and larvae which hatch after five weeks (Fishbase 2011). Its generation length is five years (HELCOM 2013).  The species predation efficiency has been demonstrated to be the same both in sand and seagrass beds during a experiment in a artificial environment (Horinouchi 2007).

threats:
No changes in the distribution of the species have been observed due to climate change during the 20th century (ICES 2008), but effects during the last two decades are unknown. It is caught as by-catch in Iceland's scallop fisheries (Guijarro et al. 2006) and in Ireland, and no data on captures is available at Eurostat database. The species has been affected by chemical pollution from mining industry in west Greenland (Sonne et al. 2014), and PCBs have been demonstrated to have negative effects in the species (Khan 2011). The Baltic area is also affected by pollution and hazardous substances, reducing the amount of suitable habitat for the species (HELCOM 2007). It is considered as a bioindicator in polluted areas.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is exposed in public aquariums (Fishbase 2011), such as Nausicaá in France, but no information is available regarding the origin of the specimens.  This is a not commercial species, and no data on the species are available in Eurostat. However, it is an incidental by-catch species taken by both commercial fishing vessels and recreational anglers, but individuals are usually discarded alive.


redListCategoryRationale:
Taurulus bubalis is widely distributed in European wasters and occurs in a variety of habitats. Its occurrence in the Mediterranean is marginal and needs to be verified. There are no major threats for this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Taurulus bubalis is endemic to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It is distributed from the coasts of Iceland and the Faroes (Brunn 1941) to the Baltic Sea, eastward to the Gulf of Bothnia (Malmgren 1863); Riga, Latvia (Berzins 1933); Finland (Berg 1940) to the White Sea and from northern Norway, along the coasts of Denmark to France and the Bay of Biscay (Wheeler 1969) to south of Portugal and into the Mediterranean (Vinciguerra 1923). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present along the northern coasts eastward to Gulf of Genova. Taurulus bubalis occurs on all coasts of England and Ireland (Went and Kennedy 1976). This species was not found in the Alboran Sea during trawl surveys conducted by MEDITS in 2013 (L. Gil de Sola pers. obsv. 2014). This species occurs to 200 m depth (Parin et al. 2002).

population:
Taurulus bubalis is a predonimnatly Atlantic species with only a few records from the Mediterranean. This species is rare near the southern and northern limits of its range (Neyelov 1973). Taurulus bubalis is common in the Galway Bay area and is especially common on the shore at at Finavarra, Co. Claire (King and Fives 1983). Taurulus bubalis is common in the Kattegat and its abundance decreases with salinity towards the northeast in the Baltic Sea. There is no clear population trend over the last 10 years (HELCOM 2013). This species has not been recorded in the Spanish Mediterranean or the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera and L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Taurulus bubalis is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999) that inhabits tide pools and inshore waters on rocky bottoms or among algae and seaweeds to 30 m depth (Günther 1888). Taurulus bubalis will emerge from the water and climb onto land when water oxygen levels are low (Davenport and Woolmington 1981, Martin and Bridges 1999). The diet of this species is variable and primarily consists crustaceans; however, polycheates, fishes and molluscs are also consumed and most prey items are consumed whole. Differences between the diets of littoral and sublittoral specimens were observed as well as differences between Galway Bay specimens and Isle of Man specimens (Rice 1962, King and Fives 1983). The maximum recorded size for this species is 25 cm SL but is common to 12 cm SL (Bauchot 1987).  In a study conducted in the Galway Bay area, the littoral population primarily consisted of zero group and one year old fish with a small percentage of fish recorded over three years of age and the oldest specimens being five years. Specimens from this study ranged from 1.0 to 15.5 cm SL with majority of captures occurring within the 5.0 and 6.0 cm length groups. Sublittoral specimens lengths ranged from 3.0 and 14.0 cm SL. In May, the first juveniles were observed on the shore measuring 1.0 to 2.6 cm (King and Fives 1983). In the same study, females generally occurred more than males and sex ratio was seen to vary within age classes which may indicate a variation in the survival rates of males and females. Overall, the female: male sex ratio for littoral fish was 1.34:1, which was highly significant. Growth of T. bubalis is rapid in the first two years of life and slows down as the fish ages. Females grow faster than males especially after the age of maturity and it has been suggested that a reason for this may be that females are able to endure the stress of spawning better than males can. In the Galway Bay area, spawning of T. bubalis occurs from December to March and some fish of both sexes spawn in their second year of life (age group one) - by their third year of life (age group two) all fish had spawned at least once. There is a positive correlation between fecundity and standard length of the fish - fecundity estimates ranged from 724 to 7,938 and oocytes measured 1.3 to 1.5 mm in the largest females. Five maturity stages were recognized for males and females (King and Fives 1983).

threats:
Currently, there are no major threats to this species (HELCOM 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for Taurulus bubalis; however, the range of this species overlaps with a number of marine protected areas in the northeast Atlantic (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). In the HELCOM Assessment Region, this species was assessed as Least Concern (HELCOM 2013). Taurulus bubalis was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
In the Atlantic, this species has minor commercial importance. In the Mediterranean Sea, it may possibly be taken and eaten but it is a very infrequent species and may be confused with Scorpaena spp., although records of this species form the Mediterranean are sparse.

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Cook, R., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Papaconstantinou, C., Florin, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Triglops murrayi is distributed throughout the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In the Northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs throughout the Barents Sea and to the North Sea to Kattegat, including the Shetland Islands and the Faroes. No major threats have been identified for this species and its range overlaps with marine protected areas in the region. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Triglops murrayi is restricted to the North Atlantic and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean (Mecklenburg et al. 2011). Triglops murrayi is mainly distributed from the Polar Front northwards (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007). This species occurs along southwest and southeast Greenland, north to Spitsbergen, the Barents and White seas, along the coasts of Norway south to Skagerrak and Kattegat, the North Sea, Shetland Islands and the Faroe Islands (Neyelov 1973, Møller et al. 2010). It has been found from 7—69 m depth in the Barents and White seas (Leim and Scott 1966) and has an overall depth range of 7–530 m (Parin et al. 2002).

population:
In the western Barents Sea, 5,715 individuals of this species were caught from 93 trawl stations in the summer of 2000 (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007). This species can be deemed to be common in the Barents Sea and off southeast Greenland (Møller et al. 2010). There is no further population information on the size or trends of the species.

habitat:
Triglops murrayi is primarily a boreal species linked to Atlantic waters. It is a benthic species that occurs over sandy bottoms (Leim and Scott 1966, Pietsch 1993). This species primarily feeds on invertebrates including polychaetes and crustaceans (Kells and Carpenter 2011, Muus and Nielsen 1999). In the Barents Sea, it is usually found at depths between 100 to 200 m at temperatures of 1–3°C and salinities not less than 34 ppt; in the White Sea it is found in somewhat shallower waters at temperatures between 6–12°C and salinities of 23–29 ppt The maximum recorded length for this species is 20 cm TL (Pietsch 1993).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for this species but it is unlikely that this species is targeted by fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern, Triglops pingelii is common near Greenland and in the Barents Sea, while it has a wide arcto-boreal distribution. More research should be conducted to determine the population trends of this species.

range:
Triglops pingelii is an Arctic-boreal species and is circumpolar in the Arctic (Mecklenburg et al. 2011). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, T. pingelii occurs to 74°N, including Spitzbergen, western coasts of Novaya Zemlya, southeastern part of the Barents Sea to the White Sea (McAllister 1963, Leim and Scott 1966). The depth range of this species is 0 to 930 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
Triglops murrayi is rare in the North Sea. Between January 1977 and 1978 this species had a mean biomass of 0.5 kt (Yang 1982). In the western Barents Sea, 975 individuals were caught from 26 trawl stations in 2000 (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007). Out side of the European region, this species is common off Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Triglops pingelii is an arctoboreal benthic to epi-benthic species that feeds on crustaceans, arrow worms, and fishes. This species can reach 20.2 cm in length (Coad and Reist 2004).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for this species. However, it is unlikely that this species is targeted.


redListCategoryRationale:
Cyclopteropsis mcalpini is known from the Barents Sea in European waters and from Greenland elsewhere. Information about the habitat and ecology of this species is limited and museum specimens are very limited. This species is therefore listed as Data Deficient with a need for additional information about its population trends and biology.

range:
Cyclopteropsis mcalpini is restricted to the North Atlantic and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, C. mcalpini is known only from the Barents Sea and has a depth range of 50 to 150 m (Coad and Reist 2004, Møller et al. 2010).

population:
Population information from the European region is not available but Cyclopteropsis mcalpini is rare in Greenland waters (Mecklenburg et al. 2011). There are few museum specimens for this species (Eschmeyer 2014; FishNet2 Portal, www.fishnet2, August 2014).

habitat:
Cyclopteropsis mcalpini occurs near mud bottoms and is a plankton feeder (Karamushko 2008). The maximum recorded size for this species is 7.5 cm TL (Robins and Ray 1986).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). There is a need for additional information about the population trends, biology and potential threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
Cyclopteropsis mcalpini is not a commercial species (Karamushko 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Near Threatened (NT) Cyclopterus lumpus is widely distributed in the boreal region of both sides of the North Atlantic. Adults of this species occur in the upper 50 m to 60 m of oceanic waters. Spawning takes place in the spring, after which males protect eggs in shallow inshore waters for six to ten weeks. Females of this species can reach 13 years of age and most begin spawning at four to five years of age. Females of C. lumpus are directly targeted, primarily using gillnets; both sexes are taken as bycatch from other major fisheries. The roe of C. lumpus was previously used as an alternative to sturgeon roe, but is now sold as luxury caviar in the European Union and is also exported to Asian markets. The major fishery within the assessment zone is in Iceland, where the fishery is managed using Total Allowable Catch (TAC) quotas. There are also large areas where this species is not harvested. In the northeastern Atlantic, landings reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have declined by 69% over the past 20–25 years (3 generation lengths). Over the same time period, population reduction estimates have ranged from 40% declines in Norway and Iceland to 75–90% in the Kattegat. Areas where this species is exploited show an average reduction of 35–50% decline. In other locations, there are no clear declines (e.g., North Sea and Baltic Sea). Throughout the assessment zone, it is inferred that population declines are 25–35%, and thus approaching the threshold for a listing as Vulnerable under A2bd. However, as Cyclopterus lumpus is widely distributed and not harvested throughout its entire range, and the largest fishery in the region is managed, C. lumpus is assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
Cyclopterus lumpus is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean, where it is distributed along both coasts. In the northeastern Atlantic, Cyclopterus lumpus occurs from the Kara and Barents seas south to Portugal, including Iceland, Faroe Islands, and the British Isles (Stein 1986, Dulcic and Golani 2006). It is found throughout the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013). Scattered records exists from the Mediterranean, but these are probably vagrants (Banon et al. 2008). Cyclopterus lumpus has a depth range of 77 to 365 m, but adults usually occur in the top 50 m to 60 m of oceanic water (Davenport 1985, Kells and Carpenter 2011).

population:
Cyclopterus lumpus is very common around Iceland (Günther 19861). This species is common off all coasts of the United Kingdom and Ireland, and is especially abundant in the north and in the Orkneys and Shetlands (Davenport 1985). A population of small individuals of C. lumpus lives in the Baltic Sea and penetrates the Gulf of Bothnia (Reuter 1883, Andersson 1942, Bruun and Pfaff 1950, Halme 1954). Cyclopterus lumpus is regarded as an abundant fish but this is not so obvious due to its solitary and territorial behaviors (Davenport 1985).  Within the assessment zone, the majority of landings are reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) from Denamrk, Iceland, and Norway. Minor landings (<500 mt per year) are also report from the Faroe Islands, Germany, the Russian Federation, and the United Kingdom. Aggregated landings in the assessment zone have declined by approximately 69%, from about 11,000 mt in 1988 to 3,400 mt in 2011 (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed 2014 July). Fisheries-independent surveys from the region provide conflicting data on the status of the population. There is no clear trend in average catch per unit effort (CPUE) in the North Sea based on the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) between 1970 and 1993 (Heessen 1996). In the Baltic Sea proper, there is no decline in CPUE of C. lumpus based on the IBTS between 1988 and 2010; however, in the Arkona Sea, a small basin just west of the Baltic Sea, the IBTS indicated a 60 to 70% decline the last 20 years. In the Kattegat, IBTS indicated a 90% decline in CPUE from the late 1980s to 2013, potentially the result of some very good years in the late 1980s. Over a slightly longer timeframe (1979 to 2010), IBTS indicated a 75% decline in CPUE (HELCOM 2013). The biomass index of female C. lumpus from the annual groundfish survey in Iceland declined from 10 to about 3.5 between 1988 and 2012, representing a decline of 65% over three generation lengths (Marine Research Institute 2014). Over the same time period, the biomass index for males declined by about 50%, from about 0.6 to about 0.3 (Marine Research Institute 2014). In Norway, the weighted population decline of C. lumpus is approximately 40%, based in part on Institute of Marine Research data (Agnalt et al. 2011). Across the assessment zone, it is inferred that the population of C. lumpus has declined by 25—35%.

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Cyclopterus lumpus adults are pelagic and usually occur in the top 50 m to 60 m of oceanic waters often over abyssal depths (Davenport 1985). Adults remain pelagic until the winter before spring spawning when they gradually develop demersal habits (Bagge 1964, Schopka 1974). Cases of C. lumpus entering low salinity environments have been observed - development is normal between 20.4‰ and 34‰ and death occurs at lower or higher salinities. Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay populations probably posses different physiological characteristics since salinities in these areas drop below 20.4‰ (Kjørsvik et al. 1984). Growth of C. lumpus is most rapid before maturity and slow after age of maturity is reached (Bagge 1964). Juveniles and larvae occur in intertidal pools throughout the summer but there is also evidence that some larvae are recruited to the open sea neustonic community (Daborn and Gregory 1983). The neustonic phase involves an association with floating weed where juveniles feed upon copepods (Harpacticus chelifer) which is typical of shoreline algae (Davenport 1985).   Life History and Reproduction Specimens of Cyclopterus lumpus in the North Sea had a mean length of 45 cm (Bagge 1964) while five year old females from Icelandic waters were only reported to have a mean length of 39 cm. Females from a low salinity population the Baltic Sea only averaged 17 cm in length at five years of age. Females of this species can reach 13 years of age (Davenport 1985). The maximum length for males of this species is 50 cm and 61 cm for females (Accessed through www.fao.org 2013 August 12). A generation length of 7 years was used in the 2013 HELCOM RedList Asssessment of this species. This species exhibits sexual dimorphism where females are much larger than the males and during breeding season males develop pink or red coloration but gender becomes more challenging to determine outside of the season (Davenport 1985). It spawns between the ages of four to seven years (Schopka 1974, Cox 1920). Males in the in the North Sea mature one to two years earlier than females (Davenport 1985). Adults lay their eggs in masses in near shore shallow waters, usually sub-tidally but in some cases at or just above low water spring tide tide level (Yesipov 1937). Spawning typically takes place in the spring and males of this species guard the eggs for six to ten weeks. After hatching, the larvae are then dispersed  by currents. Males will mould the egg mass to create a funnel shaped depression which is suggested to aid mass ventilation (Zhitenev 1970). A single male will guard eggs masses from several females; however, the different egg masses do not adhere to each other because inter-egg adhesion is only possible for a few hours after spawning (Davenport et al. 1983). While guarding the eggs, males will fan the eggs vigorously during the first few hours and afterwards will intermittently blow water through the mouth and use pectoral fin action to fan the egg masses - this can last for a few seconds to up to an hour (Mochek 1973). During the brooding period, males of these species are extremely aggressive, not only to conspecifics but to other predatory species as well (Fabricius 1780, Jensen 1944). Males of this species have also been reported to spout water to keep the egg masses wet when exposed during low tide (Yesipov 1937). An individual has also been observed lying on its side with a single operculum exposed in order to guard its eggs in extremely shallow water (McIntosh 1886).  Mating occurs in shallow water on rocky shores in areas of kelp and male individuals arrive before females to establish territories (Cox 1920). Courting behavior is exhibited by males and females including tail fanning, showing flanks to one another, and long periods of sucker attachment close to each other (Davenport unpublished data). This species will lay eggs on stones and among Laminaria beds but not on exposed rock (Mochek 1973). Females lay eggs in two or three masses at intervals of 8 to 14 days (Ehrenbaum 1904). Cylopterus lumpus exhibit external fertilization where sperm and ova are released freely into the water column. When eggs come into contact with sea water they adhere to one another and form masses up to 26 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm (Davenport 1985, Zhitenev 1970). Eggs of C. lumpus are ~ 2.3 mm diameter and the number of eggs can be up to 400,000 in large females but 100,000 ova is more common (Daveport 1985). There are significant differences between the fecundity of populations from West Greenland, Iceland, Hordaland, and Troms - Icelandic and Greenland individuals had more eggs than the Norwegian populations (Myrseth 1971). Various development times and temperatures have been reported for different regions of the northeast Atlantic - Ehrenbaum (1904) reported development to hatching in the North Sea took 70 days at the beginning of the breeding season and decreased to 14 days later in the season. In the White Sea, Andriyashev (1954) reported a development time of two months. Collins (1978) reported that eggs did not hatch at 3.8°C but hatched at 6.4°C after 31 days and 9.8°C after 25 days. Davenport (1983) reported a 40 day development time at 5°C and noted that the earliest stages of development were particularly lengthy. Davenport (1983) also observed that early stage eggs of C. lumpus could withstand a completely anoxic environment for at least 30 minutes but sensitivity to lack of oxygen increased during development.

threats:
Cyclopterus lumpus is a commercially important species. Current fishery practices target females of this species and gillnets tend to capture more ripe females due to their large size. The peak selection of commercial nets occurs at ~42 cm to 44 cm for C. lumpus (Davenport 1985). The mortality in adult C. lumpus is size dependent where the mean length increases with age until a certain length is reached (~42 cm to 44 cm in Icelandic females) and after which mean length decreases with age (Thorsteinsson 1983). In 2003, King Crabs in Varanger Fjord consumed lumpsucker roe equivalent to approximately one-third of commercial catches during the same period. Red King Crab predation on lumpsucker eggs may hamper recruitment in northern Norwegian waters (Mikkelsen and Pedersen 2012).

conservationAction:
The Marine Stewardship Council is currently reviewing the Icelandic gillnet lumpfish fishery for eligibility and is scheduled for completion in November 2014. Cyclopterus lumpus was assessed as Near Threatened under Criteria A2b in the Baltic Sea, based on an estimated population decline of 15—30% (HELCOM 2013).

useAndTrade:
Cylopterus lumpus  has been exploited for centuries with majority of the catch being incidental to the herring and salmon fisheries. The vulnerability of brooding males encouraged shore based exploitation which is still currently practiced (Davenport 1985). Males are taken by iron hooks attached to poles at low tide. From 1905 to 1908, ~14,000 kg of C. lumpus were taken using this method and exported from Helgoland to the West German mainland (Cox 1920). Females are targeted in inshore shallow waters during breeding season for roe (Davenport 1985). Between 1903 and 1907 an average of 491,851 kg fresh weight C. lumpus were caught per year by Danish fisherman primarily from the North Sea and Kattegat and ~9% from the Baltic proper (Cox 1920). The Norwegian gillnet catch from 1978 contributed 2,489 t (79.3%) of the total catch (Norges offisielle statistikk B162, Davenport 1985). Swedish and Norwegian statistics immediately before and after WWII are extremely difficult to obtain; however, Cox (1920) estimated that several million kilos of C. lumpus were taken by the Swedish fishery each year.  Currently, this species is fished primarily for roe and the major fisheries are limited to Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark, Russia, and Newfoundland with exports to Asian markets including Japan and Korea (Collins 1976, Davenport 1985, Accessed through www.msc.org 2013 August 12). The roe was marketed as an alternative to sturgeon caviar and the general public has been virtually unaware of the roe's source, however, "lumpfish caviar" has since become a recognized product and is sold as a luxury caviar primarily to European Unions (Davenport 1985, Accessed through www.msc.org 2013 August 12). Cylcopterus lumpus is still sold fresh through the retail trade in Denmark and was recognized as a staple food fish in the earlier part of the century (Davenport 1985). Cylopterus lumpus has been increasingly used for freezing and export, primarily to China (Accessed through www.msc.org 2013 August 12). Current fishery practices are primarily conducted by gillnet but also include trawling, and longlining as incidental catches. Females are targeted in the fishery as they are much larger than males - the mesh size of the majority of gillnets is 27 cm to 29 cm and males are caught in nets with mesh sizes of 17 cm to 19 cm (Davenport 1985, Thorsteinsson 1981).

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Cook, R., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Florin, A. & Papaconstantinou, C.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Eumicrotremus spinosus occurs from the Barents Sea to the Kara Sea in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It is not common for E. spinosus to occur in large groups but when a  number of individuals are collected, the sex ratio tends to be biased towards females. Eumicrotremus spinosus is not commercially harvested and species-specific threats are unknown. It is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Eumicrotremus spinosus is widespread in the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, E. spinosus occurs from the Barents Sea to Frans Josef Land, Spitsbergen and the Kara Sea (Mecklenburg and Sheiko 2003, Mecklenburg et al. 2011) and south to Iceland and Scandinavia. This species primarily occurs from the Polar Front northwards (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007). In the Barents Sea, this species occurs from 150 to 260 m (Dolgov 1995).

population:
Eumicrotremus spinosus does not usually occur in high numbers but is regularly captured in trawl hauls (Wienerroither et al. 2011, pers. obs.; Berg and Nahrgang 2013). The sex ratio of E. spinosus specimens collected from Svalbard was strongly biased towards females, which made up 78% of the 140 individuals examined (Berge and Nahrgang 2013). The species was collected 117 times from 22 trawl stations (Byrkjedal and Høines 2007).

habitat:
Eumicrotermus spinosus feeds on pelagic and hyperbenthic prey including pink shrimp, large crustaceans, krill, polcheates, and larval stages of fishes; however, individuals collected from Hinlopen Strait, had an exclusively pelagic diet of Themisto libellula (Roshchin 2006, Berge and Nahrgang 2013). The maximum size for this species is 13 cm at which they are a maximum of three years old (Wienerroither et al. 2011). This species has a flexible reproductive period as spawning  is thought to take place in August to September, but there are findings that may suggest that this period be extended to January /February (Andriashev 1954, Wienerroither et al. 2011). Eumicrotremus spinosus females exhibit an iteroparous lifecycle and become sexually mature at an early age. This species is demersal and occurs over rocky habitats (Wienerroither et al. 2011, Berge and Nahrgang 2013).

threats:
Current threats to Eumicrotremus spinosus are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for E. spinosus; however, the range for this species overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Eumicrotremus spinosus is not a commercially fished species (Haedrich and Barnes 1997).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC Dactylopterus volitans is a widely distributed species occurring from Irish waters to Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira, in European waters. This species is not of major commercial value but is captured incidentally and may have value as an ornamental species. It is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Dactylopterus volitans is restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean, where it is widely distributed on both coasts. In the northeastern Atlantic, D. volitans is known from Ireland, the United Kingdom, to the Iberian peninsula, including the offshore islands (Quéro and Guéguen 1981, Quigley et al. 2004, Calado 2006). It is also found throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Deudero et al. 2007), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). This species occurs to 100 m depth (Sanches 1991).

population:
In a multi-species assessment of fishes in the Lesser Antilles, D. volitans comprised 8.6%, 4.4%, and 13.1% of the total catch weight in Dominica East (59 species), Dominica West (62 species), and Guadeloupe East (90 species), respectively (Gobert 2000).

habitat:
Dactylopterus volitans is associated with a variety of habitats and can be found at depths ranging from 1–100 m (Roux 1986). Dactylopterus volitans has sharp cephalic spines which are covered in venomous/poisonous glands (Begossi and Ramires 2012). Fishes are usually observed foraging in sand channels as opposed to directly on reefs (Kaufman 1983), and mainly feeds on benthic crustaceans, especially crabs, clams, and small fishes. D. volitans is a pelagic spawner. The maximum recorded length for this species is 50 cm SL (Roux 1986).  Outside the region, D. volitans is associated with a variety of habitats, including the estuarine zones of mangrove-reef systems (de Amorim Xavier et al. 2012), in association with rocky reefs (Daros et al. 2012), seagrass beds (Willette and Ambrose 2012), sandy beaches (Gaelzer and Zalmon 2008), outer shelf-edge reefs (Olavo et al. 2011).

threats:
Populations may be undergoing reduction from capture by trawls and seines, and average size of individuals has seen reduction as well (Bannerman pers. comm. 2012). Dactylopterus volitans is incidentally captured by recreational fishing methods due to its size in the Balreaic Islands (Coll et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with a number of Marine Protected Areas throughout its large range (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). Outside the region, D. volitans benefits from the use of bycatch reduction devices, such as those implemented in the roller-frame trawl fishery used in the Florida shrimp fishery (Crawford et al. 2011). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Dactylopterus volitans may have value as an ornamental species in European waters (Calado 2006). This species is caught by boat, shore, and spear by recreational fishing off Majorca (Morales-Nin et al. 2005).

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Robertson, R., Munroe, T. & Buchanan, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Data Deficient as Careproctus aciculipunctatus is only known from the holotype collected from Porcupine Basin in the Northeast Atlantic (50°13.8'N, 14°36.1'W) at a depth of 4,100 m. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.

range:
Careproctus aciculipunctatus is only known from the holoytype from Porcupine Basin in the Northeast Atlantic (50°13.8'N, 14°36.1'W) from a depth of 4,100 m (Andriashev and Chernova 1997).

population:
Population information is extremely limited for this species as it is only known from the holotype.

habitat:
Careproctus aciculipunctatus is a deep water species. The length of the holotype is 21 cm TL (Andriashev and Chernova 1997). Additional information about the habitat and ecology of C. aciculipunctatus is not available.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for C. aciculipunctatus. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.

redListAssessors:
Keskin, Ç., Herrera, J., Papaconstantinou, C. & de Sola, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as Careproctus merretti is only known from its holotype collected from Porcupine Basin, Northeastern Atlantic. There is a need for more information about the biology of this species.

range:
Careproctus merretti is known from the holotype collected from Porcupine Basin, Northeastern Atlantic (49°37'N, 13°49'W) between depths of 3,920–3,990 m (Andriashev and Chernova 1988).

population:
Population information for Careproctus merretti is extremely limited as this species is only known from the holotype.

habitat:
Careproctus merretti is a deep water species. The length of the holotype is 20.5 cm SL (Andriyashev and Chernova 1988). Additional information about this species is not available.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for C. merretti. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Listed as Least Concern as Careproctus reinhardti has a widespread distribution in the waters of the Northeastern Atlantic waters and is common in parts of its range. Threats to this species are currently unknown.

range:
Careproctus reinhardti is widespread and has an arctic-boreal distribution, occurring from shallow waters to 1,750 m depth (Coad and Resit 2004). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, this species occurs from the Faroe-Shetland Channel to the Norwegian Sea, Spitsbergen, Murmansk, throughout the Barents Sea and to the Kara Sea (Pauly and Swartz 2007, Mecklenburg et al. 2011).

population:
Careproctus reinhardti was found to be less common than Liparis gibbus off Spitsbergen but was collected in both Isfjorden, Kongsfijorden, Smeerenburgfjorden, and Woodfjorden with recorded temperatures to -0.6°C. It is still unclear whether C. reinhardti is more abundant in offshore waters (Falk-Petersen et al. 1988).  Outside the region, this species is listed as common comm on Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Careproctus reinhardti is known as a coastal fish species from Isfjorden (Hognestadt 1963). This is an epibenthic species that feeds primarily on pelagic and benthic crustaceans, decapod, amphipods and fishes. Careproctus reinhardti can reach 30 cm length and can live to at least seven years (Coad and Resit 2004, Falk-Petersen et al. 1988). This species prefers high salinity waters and has been found at temperatures from 0°C to 3 to 4°C (Falk-Petersen et al. 1988, Able and McAllister 1980).

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for C. reinhardti.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although there is not a lot of information available on this species, the species has been recorded relatively frequently along the Spanish coast, and there appears to be no major threats towards it. However further research is needed into the distribution, biology and threats. It is, therefore, assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Eutelichthys leptochirus is endemic to the western Mediterranean Sea, where it has been recorded off of Algeria (locality unknown), France (locality unknown), Italy (locality unknown) and Spain (Tortonese 1959, Chernova et al. 2004).  It is found at depths of 500 to 750 metres (Relini et al. 1986).

population:
This is a small, deep-water species that is uncommon and it has been relatively frequently recorded along the Spanish coast (Stein and Able 1986). The population trend is unknown.

habitat:
Eutelichthys leptochirus is a benthopelagic, demersal species (Stein and Able 1986). It apparently occurs peripherally at bathyal depths around the west basin of the Mediterranean Sea (Stein and Able 1986). In the Ligurian Sea this species was caught until 750 m depth (Relini et al. 1986). This species reproductive periodicity is unknown. Fecundity may be 35 to 40 eggs of about two millimetres diameter (Stein and Able 1986). Maximum size for this species is 5.1 cm SL (Stein and Able 1996). The diet and early life history traits of this species are poorly understood.

threats:
This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known, species-specific threats to Eutelichthys leptochirus.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Its range may overlap with marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas 2010). Eutelichthys leptochirus was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Research on the distribution, biology and ecology is needed.

redListContributors:
Keskin, Ç., Golani, D., Papakonstantinou, C., Quignard, J.P. & Palmeri, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
Liparis liparis is widely distributed in the Northeastern Atlantic and utilizes a variety of habitats. There are no major threats impacting it across its full range. It is not utilized and overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Liparis liparis is restricted to the northeast Atlantic Ocean. Liparis liparis is distributed from Norway and Iceland south to the Bay of Biscay (Wheeler 1969, Able 1990, D. Stein pers. comm. 2008, Wienerroither et al. 2011). This species can occur from the sublittoral zone to 300 m depth (Kullander et al. 2012, HELCOM 2013).

population:
Liparis liparis is common in British waters and is the fourth most abundant fish species within the Severn Estuary (Henderson and Holmes 1990). In the Severn Estuary, the sex ratio determined in a study conducted between the years 1973 and 1976, was about 1:1.2 from October to December and in January, when males begin their migration to the spawning area, the ratio of males to females was ~1:4 and rose to 1:10 by mid February. Length-frequency distribution data collected for the Severn Estuary population indicates that a single age class is present between October and January with a minor change in January and February where curves suggest a low presence of older fish (Badsha and Sainsbury 1978). The abundance of this species at Hinkley Point is correlated with temperature but the data can be interpreted in two ways: the size of the population decreases with increasing temperature, or the fish are more inclined to move inshore the lower the temperature (Henderson and Holmes 1990). Henderson and Holmes (1990) observed great stability in the L. liparis population over a ten year period. In order for the population to stay below the carrying capacity of the Bristol Channel, tight, temporally constant constraints much be acting within the first five months of life prior to the juveniles entering the channel (Henderson and Holmes 1990). Towards the southern reaches of its range, this annual species appears to reduce extinction risk due to its low between-year recruitment variation (Henserson and Seaby 1999).  Population Structure: The Baltic Sea and Kattegat populations are sometimes considered separate subspecies (Kullander 2012). Liparis liparis barbatus is the name given to the Baltic Sea population/subspecies.  Population Information by Region: Baltic Sea: This species is rare in the Kattegat and the southern parts of the Baltic Sea. It becomes more common north of the Kattegat and in the Northern Baltic Proper and the Bothnian Sea (HELCOM RedList Assessment 2013). In the Kattegat (cooling water intake at Ringhals powerplant) there is no trend in population numbers (HELCOM FactSheet).

habitat:
Liparis liparis is a small, benthic, inshore species with a short lifespan of one year in the most southerly reaches of its range, and to two and three years in more northerly waters. A mature adult can grow to 18 cm TL (Wienerroither et al. 2013). Spawning takes place in the winter, the eggs are benthic and are attached to hydroids, bryozoans and algae. The larvae are pelagic (Muus and Nielsen 1999, Wienerroither et al. 2013). This species feeds primarily on crustaceans and occasionally fishes and polychaetes. This species is found in the subtidal zone to the epipelagic zone, and is reported to have a broad depth range, from just beneath the surface down to 300 m (Stein and Able 1986, Kullander et al. 2012). A generation length of under three years was estimated by the HELCOM Red List Assessment Project (2013).

threats:
The near-shore habitat of Liparis liparis has been impacted by pollution discharges, such as sewage and industrial waste, over much of the last century or more. However, these impacts are thought to be localised and not impacting the species across the full extent of its range. It could be threatened by eutrophication (HELCOM Fact Sheet 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Liparis liparis. Further research is needed to determine the current extent and severity of threats to this species. It is not considered globally threatened (Stein 2010) and was assessed by the HELCOM RedList project as Least Concern, since it has a wide distribution, broad depth range, and a lack of confirmed species-specific threats (HELCOM Red List Assessment 2013). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Liparis liparis is not of commercial interest (Henderson and Holmes 1990).

redListAssessors:
Florin, A., Lorance, P., Keskin, Ç. & Herrera, J.


redListCategoryRationale:
Liparis montagui is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is common. Liparis montagui is not of commercial interest and current threats are unknown; however, it may be impacted by localized threats such as eutrophication. This is not considered a major threat at this time. Therefore, Liparis montagui is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Liparis montagui is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it occurs from Norway and Iceland south to Portugal (Lindeberg 1973, Matallanas 1983, Bañon et al. 2010). This species can occur from intertidal areas to depths of 30 m (Stein and Able 1986).

population:
Liparis montagui is a common species off Irish coasts and other parts of its range; however, its occurrence is sporadic (Duune 1981). Occurrence was under nine percent in the Solent coastal region, of England (Pickett et al. 2002). This is a strictly marine species which is found in the Kattegat basin and in the Sound in the HELCOM area. Swedish monitoring by Isaac-Kidd trawl in Ringhals nuclear power plant in the Kattegat 1981–2011 shows low numbers with only a few individuals every other year, but no indication of decline. The HELCOM Red list project found that population data for this species were scarce but there were no indications of population trends (HELCOM 2013). This species is rare around the British Isles (Rogers and Millner 1996).

habitat:
Liparis montagui inhabits the sublittoral fringe and clings to fronds and holdfasts of macroalgae. This species can live for a least three years and individuals become sexually mature at the age of two. Spawning takes place in the winter. Liparis montagui lays its eggs in clumps under rocks or in crevices (Wheeler 1969). The exact number of eggs depends upon the size of the individual but a few hundred eggs are usually produced. The larvae of L. montagui is planktonic until they attain 1.6 cm in length and have settled to a benthic habitat and are 2.3 cm in length (Dunne unpublished). This species is a carnivore and feeds on isopods, amphipods, ostracods, copepods and polychaetes (Dunne 1981). The maximum length of the species  is 12 cm TL (Muus and Dahlström 1978).

threats:
Eutrophication in the area may impact the population of this species as its needs clean water and sediments for spawning, egg deposition and larval habitats (HELCOM Red List Assessment 2013). However, no species-specific threats have been identified for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Paraliparis abyssorum is only known from the types collected off the coast of Ireland at 3,852 m depth. Information about the life history characteristics and ecology of this species are needed. Paraliparis abyssorum is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Paraliparis abyssorum is known from 49°54'N, 13°56'W in the northeast Atlantic Ocean from a depth of 3,852 m (Andriashev and Chernvoa 1997).

population:
Population information is not available for this species as it is only known from the types.

habitat:
Paraliparis abyssorum is a deep water species. The maximum recorded length is 11.3 cm SL (Andriashev and Chernova 1997). Additional information about the habitat and ecology of this species is not available.

conservationAction:
There is are no species specific conservation efforts in place for P. abyssorum. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as Paraliparis bathybius is an epi-benthic species that occurs in deep, cold seas beyond the Polar Fronts. This species dominates the fish fauna on the deep cold slope waters of the eastern Norwegian Sea and is widespread in the European region. There are no major threats to this species.

range:
Paraliparis bathybius is widely distributed on Arctic Ocean slopes and basins (Mecklenburg et al. 2011) but is restricted to the cold seas beyond the Polar Fronts (Krefft 1976). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, P. bathybius occurs in the Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, north of the Faore Islands, and west of Bear Island. This species can occur to depths of 2,500 m (Mecklenburg et al. 2011) but its recorded depth range in the northeastern Atlantic is 1,000–1,850 m (Stein and Able 1986).

population:
Paraliparis bathybius is a dominant fish species in the deep cold slope waters of the eastern Norwegian Sea (Bergstad et al. 1999).

habitat:
Paraliparis bathybius is a stenohaline deep-sea endemic species that permanently lives at negative temperatures (Chernova 2004). This species is epibenthic and hovers above the bottom, with the elongated rays of the lower lobe of the pectoral fin pointing to or touching the substrate (Lannoo et al. 2009). The maximum length for this species is 25 cm and the depth range recorded in Europe is 1,000–1,850 m (Stein and Able 1986). The maximum recorded depth for this species outside of the region was recorded at 4,009 m in Canadian waters (Coad and Reist 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for P. bathybius. 

useAndTrade:
Paraliparis bathybius is not of commercial importance (Karamushko 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
Paraliparis bipolaris is only known from the types collected off the coast of Ireland. Information about the life history characteristics and ecology of this species are needed. Paraliparis bipolaris is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Paraliparis bipolaris is known from 50°12'N, 13°40'W in the northeastern Atlantic (southwest of Ireland) between 3,000 to 3,040 m depth (Andriashev 1997).

population:
Population information is not available for this species as it is only known from the type specimens.

habitat:
The maximum length for this species is 9.2 cm (Andriashev 1997). Additional habitat and ecology information is not available.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for P. bipolaris. Additional information about the biology of this species is needed.


taxonomicNotes:
Paraliparis copei consists of three subspecies: Paraliparis copei copei, P. c. wilsoni and P. c. kerguelensis.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). In terms of the global distribution, Paraliparis copei copei can be found in both the north and south Atlantic; from the Azores to the northwest Atlantic, and off Cape Point in South Africa. Paraliparis copei kerguelensis is distributed around the Kerguelen and Crozet Islands. Paraliparis copei wilsoni is only known from off the coast of Gabon, Namibia and South Africa.

population:
There is no population information available for Paraliparis copei. However, species from the Liparidae family are thought to have low population densities (Stein 2006).

habitat:
Paraliparis copei is an epibenthic species that feeds on comb jellies and cnidaria. Specimens have been collected at a depth range of 200 -1,976 m.

threats:
There is no commercial fishery for Paraliparis copei or any other Liparidae, although species within this family are often taken as bycatch. Due to their small size, they are easily damaged and overlooked among the masses of invertebrates and fishes with which they are collected (Stein 2006). It is therefore unknown whether Paraliparis copei is being significantly impacted by fisheries within its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Paraliparis copei. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the impact of threats such as incidental or accidental mortality (by-catch).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is listed as Data Deficient as Paraliparis hystrix is only known from latitudes 49'20 '-59'43.2 'N and longitudes 07'12.5'-18'00' W to a depth of 1,140 m. Additional information about the biology of this species is needed.

range:
Paraliparis hystrix is known from the eastern north Atlantic bounded by latitudes 49°20'—59°43.2' N and longitudes 07°12.5'—18°00' W to a depth of 1,140 m (Merrett 1983).

population:
Paraliparis hystrix is a common species and is represented by an imbalance of females while males only occur in samples taken north of 55°N in May and October (Merrett 1983).

habitat:
Paraliparis hystrix occurs over the upper to mid slope and is a benthopelagic feeder. Females close to ovulation have been collected in all seasons and have an estimated mean fecundity of 83 eggs. Males of this species can reach 8.8 cm and females can reach 11.4 cm (Merrett 1983).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.

redListAssessors:
Keskin, Ç., Herrera, J., de Sola, L. & Papaconstantinou, C.


redListCategoryRationale:
Paraliparis murieli is only known from one record in the Catalan Sea (Mediterranean Sea) and there is no information on the population size and trend, habitat, ecological requirements and threats. Further research is needed on this species. Therefore, this species is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species is known from one record from Blanes, in the Catalan Sea (west Mediterranean Sea) at a depth range of 500 to 600 m (Matallanas 1984, Chernova et al. 2004). Several additional, uncatalogued specimens from the western Mediterranean at depths of 500 to 700 m were provided for a morphological and meristic study of Liparidae (Matallanas 2000), but point localities were not available.

population:
Paraliparis murieli a small deepwater species that has been only recorded once. The population trend is unknown.

habitat:
Paraliparis murieli a bathydemersal species. There is no information on the habitat, spawning pattern, fecundity, early life history traits or ecological requirements of this species.

threats:
Paraliparis murieli is not commercially exploited. The threats to this species are unknown.

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Paraliparis murieli was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Exploratory research in all aspects of its biology, ecology, population and threats is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as the species is only known from three specimens collected at two localities. Further research is needed on the distribution, population size, trend and ecology of the species.

range:
Paraliparis nigellus is known only from three specimens collected at two localities (42ºN and 51ºN) on the northern part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, between the Azores and Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone, at depths of 1,950 and 2,107 m (Chernova and Moller 2008).

habitat:
Paraliparis nigellus is a deep sea, most probably benthopelagic species, feeding on small invertebrates, as other close members of this genus.


redListCategoryRationale:
Psednos spirohira is only known from the holotype collected from 41°56.2'N, 16°50.1'W in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Additional information about the habitats and ecology of this species are needed. Psednos spirohira is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Psednos spirohira is only known from 41°56.2'N, 16°50.1'W, about 570 km off northern Spain, at depths of 985 to 1,010 m (Chernova and Stein 2002).

population:
Population information is not available for this species as it is only known from the holotype.

habitat:
The maximum size for this species is 3.9 cm (Chernova and Stein 2002). It has been collected at depths of 985 to 1,010 m (Chernova and Stein 2002). Additional information about the habitat and ecology of this species is not available.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for P. spirohira. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Least Concern as Rhodichthys regina is a circum-Arctic species that occurs at depths of 2,341 m and is one of the most abundant on Arctic basin. Further research should be conducted to estimate the population trends of this species.

range:
Rhodichthys regina is a circum-Arctic species. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, R. regina occurs  north of the Iceland-Faroes Ridge (Stein et al. 2005), the Skandskoy Depression and the continental slope north of Svalbard. It is typically found from 1,080 to 2,341 m depth (Chernova 1991) and has a maximum recorded depth of 2,365 m (Chernova et al. 2004).It has also been described from Baffin Bay, Canada.

population:
Rhodichthys regina is one of the most abundant snailfish species in the Arctic basins (Mecklenburg et al. 2011).

habitat:
Rhodichthys regina is an epi-benthic species that hovers above the bottom and allows the elongated rays of the lower lobe of the pectoral fin point to or touch the substrate (Lannoo et al. 2009). The maximum recorded size for this species is 31 cm SL (Stein and Able 1986)

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for R. regina. There is a need for additional information about the biology of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as, even if the species is considered abundant in Mediterranean basins, its population trend is not known and there is also a lack of data on captures and landings both by Mediterranean and Atlantic fisheries. The species could be threatened by overfishing in some areas, such as the Sicily Channel, as it is a slow growing species. It is a by-catch species of bottom trawlers in many locations, suggesting that the species population could be affected by impact from bottom trawling activity.

range:
In the Atlantic Ocean, the species is present from the British Isles and English Channel to Madeira (Fishbase 2014), including Galicia (NW Spain), Azores, Portugal and the Gulf of Cádiz (Bañon et al. 2010, Santos et al. 1997, ICES, 2005). However, all British records of the species seem to be from the early 19th century (Wheeler 1992, Wheeler et al. 2004). It was recently cited from waters in the Canary Islands for the first time (Aguilar et al. 2010).  In Turkey, the species is been collected in Marmara, Aegean and Levantines Seas (Bilecenoglu et al. 2014). It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer et al. 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is found in all parts of the basin: records include northeast Mediterranean Sea (Machias et al. 2001), Italian and Greek coasts (D'Onghia et al. 2003), north Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004), Balearic Islands (Moranta et al. 1998), Corsica, Sicily Strait, Algerian coasts and coasts of Morocco (Maurin 1962), Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), east Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 2006), and Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). Its depth range is from 50 to 850 m.

population:
The species was considered abundant in the Mediterranean basin and today it  is a by-catch species of bottom trawlers in counted locations (Bottari et al. 2010), suggesting the species population could be affected by impacts from bottom trawling activity. The current population trend is unknown.

habitat:
This species is present between 300 and 850 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005) and between 300 and 700 m in the Greek Ionian Sea (Politou et al. 2003). It is gregarious and it occurs on muddy or rocky bottoms of the shelf. It digs into the mud with its rostrum, searching for prey, and stands and walks on the bottom with its free pectoral rays. Juveniles live in coastal waters before migrating to deeper waters (Hureau 1986). It is found on various bottom surfaces, where it feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly gastropods and other molluscs, as well as crustaceans (Fischer et al. 1987). Fishbase (2014) estimates medium resilience, with a minimum population doubling time of 1.4-4.4 years, and moderate vulnerability (38 of 100) for this species. In Gristina et al. (2006), the species is given a vulnerability category II, as it is considered a medium teleost according to its body length (maximum total length ≥ 30 ≤ 49.9 cm).

threats:
The species is being fished as by-catch in the Sicily Channel and could be threatened by overfishing in this area (UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA 2014), but there are a lack of data on its population in the area and all along its distribution at European waters. It is a by-catch species of bottom trawlers in many locations (Bottari et al. 2010), suggesting that the species population could be affected by impacts from bottom trawling activity.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists and it is not the target of any conservation action. It is unknown whether it occurs in any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted on the population size and trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
Peristedion cataphractum is regularly present in markets of Spain, the Tyrrhenian Sea and Sicily, and occasionally is sold fresh and chilled. Although is locally abundant in Morocco, it is not consumed there (Fischer et al. 1987). It is a by-catch species of bottom trawlers in many locations (Bottari et al. 2010), and it is caught through Maltese trawling activities and sold in Maltese markets (ICES 2008) and by the commercial trawl fleet in the Alboran Sea (Abad et al. 2007),It is a species of commercial interest in some ports int the South of Spain (Junta de Andalucía 2001).

redListContributors:
Blanco, J., Papakonstantinou, C., Quignard, J.P., Golani, D., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


taxonomicNotes:
Cottunculus konstantinovi is not clearly distinguished from C. microps (Parin et al. 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
Cottunculus konstantinovi is only known from the holotype collected from 80°26'N, 13°03'E, north Spitzbergen at 300 m depth. Additional information about this species is extremely limited. Cottunculus microps, C. sadko, and C. konstantinovi have yet to be clearly distinguished from each other. Further taxonomic work is needed for this species. It is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Cottunculus konstantinovi is only known the holotype from north Spitzbergen from 80°26'N, 13°03'E at 300 m depth (Myagkov 1991).

population:
 Population information about C. konstantinovi is not available.

habitat:
 Cottunculus konstantinovi is known from 300 m depth. Additional information about the habitat and ecology of this species is not available.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Additional information about the biology of this species is needed.


taxonomicNotes:
Cottunculus sadko is likely the same as C. microps (Møller et al. 2010). Further taxonomic work is needed for this complex.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: DD Data Deficient as the species has yet to be clearly distinguished C. sadko, and C. konstantinovi. Additional information about the habitat, ecology, and population size and trends of this species are limited. Cottunculus microps is a primarily Arctic species that can withstand temporary temperature increases to its habitat. Additional information about taxonomy of this species is needed.

range:
Cottunculus microps is primarily distributed in the Arctic region (Mecklenburg et al. 2011) and in the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, C. microps occurs on the English Channel, North Sea, Norwegian coastline, Svalbard, southwestern Barents Sea, Bear Island, the Faroes, and Iceland (Fedorov and Nelson 1986). The depth range for this species is 165–1,342 m (Coad and Reist 2004) and has a maximum depth 1,458 m (Jorgensen et al. 2005).It has also been described from  New Jersey, USA to Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada and Greenland (Federov and Nelson 1986).

population:
A Norwegian longline survey of Hatton bank recorded 3.9 kg of this species (ICES 2000). Additional population information for this species is not available.   

habitat:
Cottunculus microps is bathydemersal and able to withstand high temperatures for a period long enough to at least survive a temporary warming of their environment (Kotthaus and Krefft 1967). This species feeds on polychaetes, mysids, amphipods, pycnogonids and spawns from June to July (Fedorov and Nelson 1986). The maximum recorded length for this species is 30 cm SL (Muus and Nielsen 1999) but is common to 14 cm SL (Fedorov and Nelson 1986).

threats:
The major threats to this species are unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). There is a need for additional information about the biology and taxonomy of this species.

useAndTrade:
Cottunculus microps is not a commercially fished species (Haedrich and Barnes 1997). This species is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC There is little population data available for Cottunculus thomsonii, however it is fairly frequent off the coast of Ireland and widely distributed in the north-eastern Atlantic. It is not utilized, and not believed to have any major threats affecting it. It is listed as Least Concern with a need for more information about its population and habitat/ecology.

range:
Cottunculus thomsonii is widely distributed throughout the Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, it is found from Greenland to South Carolina (Nelson 1990). In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, C. thomsonii ranges from the Faroe-Iceland Ridge to Guinea-Bissau and has been found to greater than 1,500 m depth (Møller et al. 2010, Byrkjedal and Orlov 2007, Priede et al. 2009, Bañón et al. 2010). It has a depth range of 100–1600 m (Nielsen and Bertelsen 1992).

population:
This species was collected from Rockall Basin and Porcupine Seabight at frequencies of 39% (962–1,545 m) and 45% respectively (1,016–1,446 m) (Massuti et al. 2004). Additional population information is not available.

habitat:
Cottunculus thomsonii is a deep-water demersal species found at 100–1600 m and feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Fedorov and Nelson 1986). The maximum recorded size for this species is 43 cm TL (Deep Sea Creatures of the North Atlantic 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)Listed as Least Concern as it is an abundant predominantly Atlantic species, and exploitation rates are probably too low to significantly affect the size structure. However, research should be conducted on the Mediterranean population as its status is fairly unknown in the area.

range:
The geographic range of the species extends from Portugal to São Tomé Island in the Gulf of Guinea (Afonso et al. 1999). In the east Atlantic, this species is present from in Portugal, Madeira, and the Azores south to 8°30'S including Canary Islands, Morocco to Mauritania (Menezes et al. 2004) and Cape Verde (Hureau and Litvineko 1986). There are no known records from northwestern European waters (Quigley 2011a,b). The presence of this species in the Mediterranean has been controversial. It has been sporadically reported in the Mediterranean Sea (Catarino et al. 2013), and it is present in Sicily and the Spanish coasts (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). It has been recently caught in Sardinian waters (Pais et al. 2005). Its depth upper limit is 600 metres, while its lower limit is 100 metres below sea level.

population:
This is a predominantly Atlantic species, where it is relatively abundant and therefore it is fished. It is seldom recorded in the Mediterranean Sea, where it has a patchy distribution, probably due its rarity in the region (Merella et al. 1998). The degree of geographical population differentiation across the three Atlantic archipelagos (Azores, Madeira and Cabo Verde) reveals no evident genetic structure, suggesting the existence of one panmictic population. Despite very different exploitation rates between archipelagos, the size structure of P. kuhlii is very similar and inter-annual variation is also low. Although the population trend is unknown, the offshore rockfish is abundant in Azorean waters and it is an important species landed in the harbours of the archipelago (Catarino et al. 2013).

habitat:
Pontinus kuhlii inhabits hard bottoms at depths between 100 and 600 metres, and it appears to have a relatively sedentary behaviour. This, together with its restricted vertical distribution, result in a patchy distribution across islands and seamounts (Catarino et al. 2013). In the Azores region, this species is more abundant on seamounts. However, bigger fishes tend to occur on island slopes, rather than on seamounts (Catarino et al. 2013). It feeds on fishes and shrimps (Maigret and Ly 1986). Females appear to remain smaller, up to 38.4cm TL in the Canary Islands (López Abellán et al. 2001). Males are heavier and larger (Monteiro et al. 1991). In López Abellán et al. (2001), the growth parameters for males were: K= 0.132, L¿ = 46.7 and to= 1.74; for females: K= 0.094, L¿= 46.3 and to= 0.05; and for the total: K= 0.095, L¿= 52.2 and to= 1.01. Significant sex-related difference in mercury accumulations were found, since this rate is significantly faster in females than in males, and mean mercury levels were higher in females (mean:0.16µm/g ± 0.092 S.E.; range= 0.05-0.50 µg/g ) (Monteiro et al. 1991). Its maximum size (TL) is 52 cm. In the Azores, this species spawns between June and November, with a peak between July and October (Isidro 1996).

threats:
This is a commercial species in the Atlantic and it may occasionally be caught in the Mediterranean Sea, typically with trawls. It forms part of the bottom longline by-catch in the Canary Islands fisheries, within setting operations ranging from 200 to 400 metres depth (López Abellán et al. 2001). In the Azores, the overall stock structure for Pontinus kuhlii remains unclear, although based on the current knowledge it is considered to constitute a single resource pool (Borja and Sebastián 2012). Exploitation rates are probably too low to significantly affect the size structure, even in the Azores where the species is a secondary target of the commercial fishery (Catarino et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted to determine the population trends and conservation actions in order to facilitate management for the species.

useAndTrade:
The offshore rockfish is one of the widespread and commercially exploited demersal fish in the temperate eastern Atlantic archipelagos. It may occasionally be caught in the Mediterranean Sea.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size and trend of the Azorean species, although it has been described as rare within its relatively small range and it is likely to be affected by habitat degradation. Further research and monitoring are needed in order to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
Scorpaena azorica is only known from the Azores.

population:
Although there are no population data for Scorpaena azorica, a survey of demersal fish assemblages around the Azores classed this species as rare (Menezes et al. 2006). However, this rarity trait was related to the methodology used in the surveys (which included longlines and covered deep depths), and not to the natural abundance of the species, which still remains unknown.

habitat:
Scorpaena azorica is a demersal species that has been found on hard bottoms. Its depth range remains poorly known, but is mainly distributed on the shelf no deeper than 100 m depth. Species from the Scorpaena genus occur at depths of zero to 800 m, but this is not the case for this small Scorpaenid species. Its maximum size is 9.8 cm (SL).

threats:
There are growing problems around the Azores with marine sand extraction, agricultural run-off and discharge of untreated sewage from tourist resorts and towns. Fishing limitations are in place, but enforcement is lacking (Depledge et al. 1992). Although the full impact of these threats on the marine environment is unknown, Scorpaena azorica is likely to be suffering from significant habitat quality declines. It is unlikely that this species is of commercial importance, although like a large number of congeners, it may be consumed locally.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Scorpaena azorica. However, its distribution may overlap with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs) around the Azores. Further research and monitoring of the habitat status and population size of this species is needed, together with the impacts of the mentioned threats on the species.

useAndTrade:
It is unlikely that this species is of commercial importance, although like a large number of congeners, it may be consumed locally.

redListContributors:
Motomura, H., Smith, J., Sears, J., Lewis, S., Jopling, B., Lutz, M., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Collen, B., De Silva, R., Ram, M., Chenery, A., Milligan, H.T., Batchelor, A., Kemp, J.R., Lintott, P. & Wilson, P.J.


redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size and trend of this littoral benthic species, which is endemic to the Macaronesian archipelagos of Madeira and the Canary Islands. Further research is needed to establish the status of the species throughout its range.

range:
Scorpaena canariensis endemic to the Macaronesian archipelagos of Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008) and the Canary Islands (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990, Brito et al. 2002). In the Canary Islands, its depth ranges vary from 20 to 130 m below sea level.

population:
There is no information available on the population size and trend of the species. However, insular populations are scarce.

habitat:
Scorpaena canariensis is a littoral benthic species, frequently found on rocky bottoms from 20 to 130 m depth in the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002). Its maximum size has been recorded as 14 cm (TL) for males.

threats:
There are no major threats to the species, although it is subject to fishing for local consumption.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. It is not the target of any conservation action, and it is unknown whether it is found in protected areas. Further research is needed on the population size, trend, ecology and life history of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is subject to fishing for local consumption.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scorpaena elongata is widespread in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the Mediterranean Sea south to northern Namibia. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. elongata occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and off the coast of Spain. This species is found in minor commercial fisheries and no major threats are known. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scorpaena elongata is widespread in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Morocco to northern Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1993, Saad 2005, Golani et al. 2006). This species occurs  throughout the Mediterranean Sea, from the Balearic Islands (Massuti and Renones 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004), Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), including the Ionian (Mytilineou et al. 2005) and Aegean seas (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Machias et al. 2004), to the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 2006), including the coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). The depth range for this species is 50–300 m (Keskin et al. pers. comm. 2013)

population:
This species is rare in the eastern Mediterranean (C. Papaconstantinou and C. Keskin pers. comm. 2013) but in the western Mediterranean, this species is fairly common (Accessed through MEDITS portal 2014).  According to Gristina et al. (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm code-nd mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 1 to 13 specimens/km2, from 62 hauls (trawls). Mytilineou et al. (2005) mentioned that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.9 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300–500 m (44 hauls), 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500–700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range 700–900 m (36 hauls).

habitat:
Scorpaena elongata can  attain 30 years of age (Ragonese et al. 2003). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 57 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 23.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). This is a demersal, sedentary species which occurs in rocky areas (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990) but is mainly found in soft sandy and muddy substrates (Golani et al. 2006). It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other benthic invertebrates (Maigret and Ly 1986).The common length for this species is 30 cm TL (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species in European waters or the Mediterranean, although it may be taken as bycatch in addition to minor commercial use.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for S. elongata; however, the range of this species overlaps with marine protected areas (IUCN and UNEP WCMC, accessed April 2014). Scorpaena elongata was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Scorpaena elongata has minor commercial interest and is occasionally harvested. The main fishing methods are trawls and trammel nets. This species is not targeted and it is not likely that this species is extensively utilized outside European waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there are no population data available for this rare species. Further research is needed in order to establish the status of the species in its European range, the Azores Islands.

range:
Scorpaena laevis is an eastern Atlantic tropical species (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990). In European waters, it has been recorded only from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997). It is found at depths ranging from 15 to 90 m.

population:
There is no information available on the population size and trend of this species, although it appears to be uncommon in collections and it is therefore presumed to be rare.

habitat:
The species is found in rocky waters at depths of 15-90 m. It feeds on octopuses (Cadenat 1954), other invertebrates and small fishes. Its maximum size is 35 cm (SL).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scorpaena loppei is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and is common in at least parts of its range in the western Mediterranean Sea. It is a small scorpaenid (up to 15 cm TL) that occurs in subtidal sand/muddy habitats. It is not utilized and there are no major threats although may be taken as bycatch in parts of its range. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scorpaena loppei is widespread in the east Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to Morocco and Western Sahara (Stanford et al. 2001, Bañón et al. 2010). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is common and widespread in the western basin, including the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998) and Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004). It is rarer in the eastern basin (Keskin and Eryilmaz 2008), with records from the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Cyprus and Israel (Golani et al. 2006), and Turkey (Keskin and Eryilmaz 2009). This species has a depth range of 50–300 m (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). 

population:
Scorpaena loppei is common in the west Mediterranean Sea and rarer in the east. This species is the most rare scorpaeniform in the Greek Seas, with one record in the Aegean sea (Filiz et al. 2010) and two specimens from the eastern Mediterranean (Mersin Bay, along the Turkish coast: Keskin and Eryilmaz 2009). Scorpaena loppei is rare in the Spanish Mediterranean with 11 records over 20 years (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013). In a survey conducted in the western Mediterranean, Scorpaena loppei occurred in 26.8% of trawl samples and had a mean abundance of 36.3 individuals per km2; the maximum abundance was recorded at a depth of 141 m and had 495 individuals per km2. This species was most abundant in the deep shelf of the Menorca Channel and least abundant in west and east Mallorca. The population structure of this species showed a greater number of females at the smaller sizes and more males among the larger individuals (Ordines et al. 2012).

habitat:
This is a demersal species that usually measures less than 15 cm TL (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990). It occurs on muddy sand and gravel. It mainly feeds on crustaceans (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). In the western Mediterranean this species is restricted to sandy-mud bottoms which occur in this area around 90 m to 100 m depth. Scorpaena loppei has a specialized feeding strategy with a diet primarily comprised of crustaceans but also includes teleost fishes. Most females reach sexual maturity in their first year of life which is thought to be facilitated by reduced interspecific competition as S. loppei was the only small scorpion fish inhabiting the benthic habitat of the Balearic Islands (Ordines et al. 2012).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species but it may be taken as bycatch in parts of its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, accessed April 2014). Scorpaena loppei was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in European or Mediterranean waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scorpaena maderensis is a benthic inshore species that ranges throughout the Mediterranean as well as the Azores, Las Canarias, and Cape Verde. This species is not commercial but is targeted by local fisheries. There are no major threats known for this species although it may be caught as bycatch in parts of its range. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scorpaena maderensis is widespread in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the Iberian peninsula to the coast of West Africa (Schneider 1990, Macpherson et al. 2002, La Mesa et al. 2005). Scorpaena maderensis occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, though it prefers the warmest areas (La Mesa et al. 2005). It has been recorded from the western basin (Louisy 2002), the Balearic Islands (Morato et al. 2001), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999; La Mesa et al. 2004, 2006), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988) to the coasts of Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002) and Lebanon (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 2005).

population:
There are more records available in the southern Mediterranean (Italy and Greece) than in the north. This species is uncommon (Ç. Keskin et al. pers. comm. 2013); however, it is particularly abundant off Sicily (La Mesa et al. 2004). Studies conducted in Sicily, Italy collected and utilized 182 specimens between 4.8 cm to 10.9 cm TL (La Mesa et al. 2007) and 353 specimens between 3.8 cm and 13.1 cm TL (La Mesa et al. 2005).

habitat:
Scorpaena mderensis is a demersal species that inhabits shallow coastal waters (Schneider 1990) and feeds on crustaceans and small fishes (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986, La Mesa et al. 2007).  In the Mediterranean, Scorpaena maderensis females tend to live longer and attain their maximum size more rapidly than males. Scorpaena maderensis is a benthic inshore species that occurs on rocky substrates and can reach 15 cm TL for males and 9 cm TL for females. Individuals of this species from the Mediterranean seem to reach a smaller size than those of Atlantic populations which can attain 18 cm TL (La Mesa et al. 2005).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species although, it may be taken as bycatch.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, accessed April 2014). Scorpaena maderensis was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Scorpaena maderensis is a component of local artisanal fisheries in Sicily and the Azores (Potoschi et al. 2000, Morato et al. 2001), but it is not a highly commercial species. This species is rarely present in markets (Fischer et al. 1987). It is likely more frequent in local markets in the west African portion of its range than in European waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scorpaena notata is a widely distributed species found in the eastern Atlantic at depths of 10–500 m. It is common and abundant in the Mediterranean, where it is an important bycatch species. Its habitat (e.g., seagrass and red algae) may be impacted by habitat degradation in parts of its range. However, there are no known widespread threats thought to be negatively impacting this species. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scorpaena notata is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it occurs from the Bay of Biscay south to Cape Verde and Senegal, including the offshore islands of the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found almost everywhere in suitable habitats. Records include Iberian coasts (Valle et al. 2003, Coll et al. 2006), Balearic Sea (Herler et al. 1999, Moranta et al. 2006, Deudero et al. 2007), French coasts (Gaertner et al. 1998, Ruitton et al. 2000, Claudet et al. 2006), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2006), south Adriatic Sea (Ungaro et al. 1999, Bussotti et al. 2002), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999) and the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988, Kallianiotis et al. 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak et al. 2006, Ozaydin et al. 2007). It is rare in the north Adriatic Sea but does occur there. It is also present in the Black Sea (as Scorpaena notata afimbria). it is found to depths of 700 m (Muñoz et al. 2005).

population:
Scorpaena notata is the most abundant scorpaenid species that inhabits the shallow continental shelf off the Balearic Islands (Ordines et al. 2009). Scorpaena notata, along with two other scorpaenid species, made up 25% of the survey catch in terms of abundance and 20% in terms of biomass. In the Cap de Crues MPA, a total of 240 (15%) individuals of this species were captured with a total weight of 26 kg (4%) (Muñoz et al. 2013). Scorpaena notata is common and abundant in Greece (C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2013), and is also common in the Gulf of Cadiz based on the ARSA bottom trawl surveys (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013) and in the north Aegean Sea (Keskin et al. 2011). This is the most common scorpaenid juvenile over Posidonia habitat in the north Aegean Sea (Keskin et al. 2011). This is a widespread and moderately common species. Aggregated catch statistics for all scorpaenid species show a more or less stable catch of 1,500 to 3,000 mt per year since the 1960s (FAO 2011, FishstatJ accessed 2013 September).

habitat:
Scorpaena notata is nocturnal and feeds on crustaceans and small fishes (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). The growth rate of  S. notata individuals is higher in those that inhabit substrata with high amounts of algal biomass off the Balearic Islands thus, the red algae habitats seem to be an essential habitat for this species (Ordines et al. 2009). Scorpaena notata can reach at least 16 years of age (Scarcella et al. 2011) and had a maximum recorded length of 24 cm TL (Bauchot 1987). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 27.7 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 8.8 cm to 14.0 cm TL and for males ranges from 9.2 cm to 14.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Reproduction In the northwest Mediterranean, the spawning period for Scorpaena notata occurs between July and October. The fecundity of female S. notata ranges from 6,000 ova to 33,000 ova and the total number of eggs decreases as the spawning period continues. The absolute fecundity of this species increases proportionally to the square of individual length. The maximum egg diameter is ~500 mm. This species exhibits determinate fecundity and is considered to be a multiple spawner a group-synchronous ovarian organization. Most individuals of this species are sexually mature at one year old (Muñoz et al. 2005, Ordines et al. 2009).

threats:
The red algae habitats substrates are an essential habitat for S. notata and are disrupted by trawling activities. A trawling ban on these habitats is highly recommended, as it is an important anthropogenic threat in the Mediterranean Sea (Ordines et al. 2009).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, accessed April 2014). Scorpaena notata was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Scorpaena notata is an important bycatch species for commercial trawlers that operate over the shallow continental shelf off the Balearic Islands; annual landings are estimated to be 10 tonnes to 15 tonnes (Ordines et al. 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scorpaena porcus is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and is the most common scorpaenid in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. This species is found in a variety of habitats including seagrasses, as well as sandy, muddy, and rocky substrates. Scorpaena porcus is a commercially important species in some areas and is also susceptible to chronic coastal pollution in other parts of its range. Major threats are not significant enough to reach decline thresholds for a threatened category. It overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is listed as Least Concern. However, we recommend careful monitoring of this species.

range:
Scorpaena porcus is widespread in the eastern Atlantic, from the British Isles to Morocco including the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in suitable habitats throughout the basin. Specific records include the Balearic Sea (Herler et al. 1999, Moranta et al. 2006, Deudero et al. 2007), Iberian coast (Valle et al. 2003), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur et al. 2001, Claudet et al. 2006), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2006), Adriatic Sea (Bussotti et al. 2002, Lipej et al. 2003), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Fernandez et al. 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988, Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Karakulak et al. 2006, Ozaydin et al. 2007) and Lebanon coast (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 2005).  In the northwestern Mediterranean, this species has a depth range from 10 to 30 m (Harmelin-Vivien et al. 1989, Koca 1997).

population:
Scorpaena porcus is the most common scorpaenid in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Kerskin et al. pers comm. 2013) but is uncommon in the Gulf of Cadiz (12 surveys) over half the 20-year ARSA survey series (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). Scorpaena porcus, along with two other scorpaenid species, made up 25% of the survey catch in terms of abundance and 20% in terms of biomass. In the Cap de Crues MPA, a total of 630 (38%) individuals of this species were captured with a total weight of 99 kg (17%) (Muñoz et al. 2013). This species is widespread and moderately common, it is very common in some parts of its range. Aggregated catch statistics for all scorpaenid species show a more or less stable catch of 1,500 to 3,000 mt per year since the 1960s (FAO 2011, FishstatJ accessed 2013 September). The sex ratio of the S. porcus population in the Black Sea from Bilgin and Çelik (2009) was biased towards females. This bias has been previously mentioned in other studies as well (Bradai and Bouain 1988, Ünsal and Oral 1996, Silvestri et al. 2002). From 1995 to 2009, the occurrence frequency of S. porcus during experimental fishing off Komiza, Croatia in the Adriatic Sea was 83.3%, with no clear trend through time (Matic-Skoko et al. 2011).

habitat:
Scorpaena porcus is a demersal, non-migratory, solitary and sedentary species. It is common among rocks and algae, but has a broad habitat tolerance, occurring on soft and hard substrata, in vegetation and in open areas. It feeds on small fishes (gobies, blennies), crustaceans and other invertebrates (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). In the Mediterranean Sea, S. porcus was found associated with Posidonia oceanica beds (Macpherson et al. 2002, Fernandez et al. 2005, Moranta et al. 2006, Deudero et al. 2007) and inside marine caves (Herler et al. 1999). Age and Growth Scorpaena porcus can live up to 12–18 years of age (Aksiray 1987). The oldest age estimates for this species varies between regions; in the Adriatic Sea S. porcus can live to 11 years, six years in the Mediterranean, and seven years in the Sea of Marmara (Bradai and Bouain 1988, Jardas and Pallaoro 1992, Ünsal and Oral 1996). Reproduction  The spawning season of S. porcus in the Black Sea lasts from June to September (Bilgin and Çelik 2009). Other studies suggest the reproduction period is between June/July and August in the Black Sea (Koca 1997), in Dardanelles (Çelik and Bircan 2004), in the Gulf of Gabes (Bradai and Bouain 1991), and in the Sea of Marmara (Ünsal and Oral 1996). Sexual maturity is attained at the age of two in males and three in females with lengths at maturity at 17.5 cm and 16.7 cm respectively (Bilgin and Çelik 2009). In the Gulf of Gabes the length at maturity is 10.8 cm SL (Bradai and Bouain 1991) and 8.5 cm to 15.0 cm in the Sea of Marmara (Ünsal and Oral 1996). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 38.5 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 13.8 cm to 17.5 cm TL and for males ranges from 15.5 cm to 16.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Scorpaena porcus exhibits sexual dimorphism and the growth rate of females is higher than that of males (Bilgin and Çelik 2009). The presence of eggs of S. porcus in spring and summer was underlined by Satilmis et al. (2003) in the south Black Sea, while it was found among ichthyoplankton in the Marmara Sea by Yuksek et al. (2006). 

threats:
Scorpaena porcus exhibits life history traits that make it vulnerable to exploitation including low mobility, long life span, and slow growth (Harmelin 1987, Reñones et al. 2001).Longevity estimates of this species vary between regions which may be due to geological factors and fishing pressures (Bilgin and Çelik 2009). If current fishing pressures are not reduced on S. porcus and existing regulations not revised, the stock may be in danger (Bilgin and Çelik 2009). In Sevastopol Bay, highly polluted area of the Black Sea, the growth rate of S. porcus is lower and over half of the studied females had anomalies of oogenesis. An increase in the activity of superoxiddismutase (SOD) was also observed; SOD is a key enzyme of the antioxidant blood protection (Oven et al. 2000). Kuzminova et al. (2011) also revealed a low growth rate of S. porcus in the Sevastopol coastal zone. This study also determined that the decreased number of older adult individuals could not be attributed to overfishing in the area but is primarily due to chronic pollution.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are no length regulations for catching this species in Turkey; however, Bilgin and Çelik (2009) recommend a minimum fishing size of 18 cm TL and that fishing with trammel nets should be prohibited between June and September when this species spawns.  The average size in both male and female S. porcus in the Cap de Creus MPA was shown to always be greater than their size at sexual maturity while ~24% of individuals had a smaller size than their size at sexual maturity. Maximum obtained sizes were much larger inside the MPA than in the non-protected areas; however, the largest individuals with the highest reproductive potential are currently not very abundant inside the MPA as they are in non-protected areas (Muñoz et al. 2013). Muñoz et al. (2013) suggests the improvement of the monitoring and management of rockfish species. Scorpaena porcus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Scorpaena porcus is of commercial interest and is an important artisanal species in the Black Sea (Koca 1997). In 2002 in Turkey, the total catch of S. porcus was 240 tonnes (104 tonnes from Black Sea, 36 tonnes from the Sea of Marmara, 88 tonnes from Aegean Sea, and 12 tonnes from the Mediterranean Sea) (Bilgin and Çelik 2009). Scorpaena porcus is the second most frequently caught scorpaenid species in the marine protected area (MPA) of Cap de Creus in the north-western Mediterranean. Between 2008 and 2010, in the Cap de Creus MPA, catch per unit effort (CPUE) peaked in the summer which is concurrent with the spawning of this species. Total scorpaenid landings are very low in the winter which is primarily due to the reduction of trammel net fishing effort (Muñoz et al. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scorpaena scrofa occurs from British waters south to the Mediterranean including Madeira and the Canary Islands to depths of 200 m. This species is of high commercial value. It is found in a variety of habitats from 0–300 m. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Scorpaena scrofa occurs in the eastern Atlantic from the British Isles to Senegal. In the northeastern Atlantic, it ranges from the United Kingdom to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea. Scorpaena scrofa was recently collected from the Irish Sea, which may be the most northern record for this species (Briggs et al. 2008). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is widely distributed. Records include Iberian coast (Macpherson et al. 2002, Valle et al. 2003), Balearic Sea (Deudero et al. 2004, 2008; Moranta et al. 2006), Gulf of Lion (Claudet et al. 2006), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2006), Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Adriatic Sea (Bussotti et al. 2002), Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Ayaz et al. 2006, Karakulak et al. 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin et al. 2007) and all other Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988).  This species occurs at depths from 20 to 200 m  (Briggs et al. 2008).

population:
Scorpaena scrofa is the most frequently caught scorpaenid in the Cap de Creus MPA in the northwestern Mediterranean. Scorpaena scrofa, along with two other scorpaenid species, made up 25% of the survey catch in terms of abundance and 20% in terms of biomass. In the Cap de Crues MPA, a total of 779 (47%) individuals of this species were captured with a total weight of 472 kg (79%) (Muñoz et al. 2013). In a 10 year census of fish fauna on the Loano artificial reef in the Ligurian Sea, S. scrofa increased in frequency; between 1989 and 1998 the frequency of occurrence (FoO) was 16.6±0.5 and in 1998 FoO was 25±0 (Relini et al. 2002). This species is common in the Mediterranean (Ç. Keskin et al. pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Scorpaena scrofa is a demersal, non-migratory, solitary and sedentary species that lives over rocky, sandy, or muddy substrata. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is often associated with Posidonia oceanica meadows (Moranta et al. 2006, Deudero et al. 2007). It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, and molluscs (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). The size at first maturity for this species in the Adriatic Sea is 30 cm TL (Matić-Skoko et al. 2010) and has a maximum size of 53 cm TL in the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).  In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 27 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 19.0 cm TL  and for males is 20.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Matić-Skoko et al. (2010) conducted a study using the "poponica" trammel net method and found that it is non-selective and its use in Croatian artisanal fisheries coincides with the reproductive period of many species. Using this method, ~90% of the S. scrofa specimens collected were immature individuals. The reduction of immature individuals could potentially impact the population of this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, accessed April 2014). Scorpaena scrofa was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Scorpaena scrofa is a commercially targeted species as well as a major bycatch species and is primarily taken with bottom long lines (ICES 2008). This species is of high commercial value (Matić-Skoko et al. 2010).


redListCategoryRationale:
There are very few records for Scorpaenodes arenai. The area of occupancy for this species based on known sites would be small, but it could be more widespread as there is very little information on this species. Therefore this species is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
Scorpaenodes arenai is known only from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it has been recorded from the Azores (Santos et al. 1997) and the Strait of Messina, Italy (Torchio 1962). The depth distribution is likely between 15 and 50 m (Azevedo and Heemstra 1995).

population:
There are only a few records of this species. Additional population information for this species is limited.

habitat:
This is a demersal species which has been observed and captured in rocky caves (J. Azevedo pers. comm. 2007). The maximum recorded size for this species is 11 cm TL but is common to eight centimetres TL (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). The original description was based on specimens washed up on the beach, but it likely occurs at depths of 15 to 50 m (Azevedo and Heemstra 1995).

threats:
Major threats to this species have not been identified.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Scorpaenodes arenai was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Heliocolenus dactylopterus is distributed in the eastern and western Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from the British Isles and Norway south to the Mediterranean Sea, including the Azores, Las Canarias, and Madeira from depths ranging from 200 m to 1,000 m. Helicolenus dactylopterus is primarily found over soft substrates, but is also associated with seamounts. This species may live to be at least 30 years old. It is targeted in commercial deepwater trawl fisheries near the Azores and is also taken as bycatch from various other fisheries throughout its range. Large quantities are discarded in some parts of the range. There is no indication of population decline in H. dactylopterus. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for H. dactylopterus, however its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. Therefore, Helicolenus dactylopterus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Helicolenus dactylopterus is distributed in the eastern and western Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from the British Isles and Norway south to the Mediterranean Sea, including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstatninou 1988). It is also found in the Azores, Las Canarias, and Madeira from depths ranging from 200 m to 1,000 m (Wheeler 1978, Heessen et al. 1996). This species has been captured in the North Sea and was previously thought to be rare, however, it has recently spread throughout North Sea (Heessen et al. 1996).

population:
There are two Atlantic sub-species of Helicolenus dactylopterus: H. dactylopterus dactylopterus and H. d. lahillei. H. dactylopterus dactylopterus is comprised of four separate populations: the northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean, the Gulf Guinea, South Africa, and the northwest Atlantic; H. d. lahillei occurs off Uruguay and Argentina (Muñoz et al. 1999). Helicolenus dactylopterus is a widespread and moderately common species which may occur in high densities in certain parts of its range (reference?). It is an abundant species on the continental slope west of Ireland and Scotland (Kelly et al. 1999). As it occurs in rocky and sedimentary bottoms and reefs, it may be difficult to take this species in trawls. Abundance indices in ICES zone VII (Celtic Sea) and subarea VIII (Bay of Biscay) varied without a clear trend (Ifremer 2014, accessed 2014 May). Landings are reported from the following Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fishing regions: Northeast Atlantic (NEA), Northwest Atlantic (NWA), Southwest Atlantic (SWA), Southeast Atlantic (SEA), Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA), Western Indian Ocean (WIO), and the Mediterranean and Black seas. From 1950 to 2011 landings have fluctuated with the SWA driving the trends since 1966, followed by the SEA and NEA. The Mediterranean Sea, WIO, and ECA do not exceed 200 t at any point in the times series. NEA catches peaked in 2007 at 3,224 t then dropped in 2008 to 2,129 t and subsequently increased again in 2011 peaking at 4,534 t (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed 2013 September).

habitat:
Helicolenus dactylopterus is a bathydemersal species which can be found in soft bottom areas of the continental shelf and upper slope, usually at depths between 150 and 600 m. This species feeds on both benthic and pelagic organisms such as crustaceans, fishes, cephalopods and echinoderms. It is viviparous, larvae and juveniles are pelagic. In the western Mediterranean, Helicolenus dactylopterus spawns during January and February. This species can reach 30 years of age and has numerous age-classes in the population (Muñoz et al. 1999). In the North Sea Heessen et al. (1996) indicated that H. dactylopterus can reach 12 years of age and a length of 30 cm. In the Mediterranean, the maximum age observed was seven years for individuals between 2 cm and 26 cm in the Ionian Sea (D'Onghia et al. 1996). Romanelli et al. (1997) aged individuals at 10 years for fish between 5 cm and 34 cm in the lower Adriatic Sea and also aged a 41 cm fish and estimated an age of 25 to 30 years. Helicolenus dactylopterus is a slow growing species that has low fecundity and relatively large eggs (M.H. du Buit, pers. comm. from Massutí et al. 2000). In southern Portuguese waters this species is associated with seamounts and steep-sided canyons (Figueiredo et al. 1995). Helicolenus dactylopterus spawns on the northern slope of the Porcupine Bank in early summer (Kelly et al. 1999). Information about the fecundity and reproductive cycle of this species in the Northeast Atlantic is limited (Kelly et al. 1999). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 32 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 14.2 cm to 14.5 cm TL and for males ranges from 13.0 cm to 15.1 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Helicolenus dactylopterus is targeted in some commercial fisheries and is also caught as bycatch in many fisheries, large quantities of which are discarded. This species inhabits seamounts and also has life history traits that may make it more vulnerable to exploitation including a slow growth rate and long life span.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. Helicolenus dactylopterus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean regional assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Helicolenus dactylopterus is not explicitly targeted, however it may be taken as bycatch and consumed in artisanal fisheries. Helicolenus dactylopterus is an important deep-water commercial species in the eastern Atlantic which is also commonly caught as bycatch by various other fisheries including the trawl fishery for Coryphaenoides rupestris in ICES subareas VI and VII Kelly et al. 1999). It is taken in longline fisheries of the Azores. Helicolenus dactylopterus is typically discarded when taken as bycatch in the Molva molva and Bromse bromse longline fisheries in ICES subareas II, IV, V, VI, VII and XIV (Kelly et al. 1999). This species is targeted by handline and longline fisheries near the Azores as well as artisanal fisheries in ICES Division IX (Kelly et al. 1999). Large quantities of this species have been discarded within the past seven years from the commercial deepwater trawl fishery on the eastern slope of the Rockall Trough; 413 tonnes were discarded in 1995 which is ~7.5 million individuals (Connolly and Kelly 1996).

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Cook, R., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Papaconstantinou, C. & Florin, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Endangered (EN) Sebastes mentella is widely distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean and the adjacent Arctic Ocean. It has has a slow growth rate, age of first maturity of around 11 years, and a longevity of at least 75 years of age. Generation length is estimated to be 20–22 years; however spawning stock biomass (SSB) trend data for all four stocks present in the assessment region are only available for the last 12–25 years. In three of the four stocks, population declines ranging from 30–95%; only the Norwegian stock has been increasing. After weighting the population trend of each stock by the recent maximum SSB estimate for that stock, there has been an estimated 70% decline of S. mentella in the assessment zone over the past 12–25 years. There is no current indication that all of these stocks are being fished sustainably. However, the Norwegian stock has shown much improvement in SSB and recruitment over the past 10 to 20 years, and there is no current indication of decline in this stock. This species is listed as Endangered under Criterion A2bd.

range:
Sebastes mentella has a range that extends across the northern Atlantic, from Baffin Bay down to Nova Scotia on the western coast, across to the Norwegian Sea down to the Møre-Shetland area. It is found from the western Barents Sea up to about 82°N, including Spitzbergen, the Iceland-Faroes Ridge, Iceland, and Greenland (Mecklenburg et al. 2011, Johansen et al. 2000). The southern limit of the distribution for this species is not well defined, but is thought to be on the slope west of Shetlend (Saborido-Rey and Nedreass 2000).  Off the coast of Canada, its range coincides with the closely related species, S. fasciatus. Sebastes mentella occurs between depths of 300 m to 1,400 m in the North Atlantic, but when pelagic in the Irminger and Norwegian seas and as juveniles, S. mentella also occurs shallower than 100 m (ICES 2013).

population:
Taxonomic Issues and Population Information: Sebastes spp. are often misidentified and there is a need for proper identification courses, keys (ICES 2009). Low levels of inter-population genetic variation were suggested by variations in hemoglobin and polymorhic enzymes (Johansen et al. 2002).  A genetic divide between the populations on either side of the Atlantic is lacking, meaning that overfishing by North America or European countries would likely impact the reproduction of all the stocks (Roques et al. 2002). Sebastes fasciatus and Sebastes mentella are hard to distinguish and within fisheries they are occasionally considered the same stock (Roques et al. 2002). This species is known to hybridise with Sebastes fasciatus (Roques et al. 2001). Sebastes fasciatus is, however, not found in the assessment zone.Stock Structure:There are four biological stocks of S. mentella: a "Deep pelagic" stock (NAFO Areas 1–2, ICES Subareas V, XII, and XIV >500 m); a "Shallow pelagic” stock" (NAFO Areas 1–2, ICES Subareas V, XII, and XIV < 500 m); an “Icelandic slope” stock (ICES Division Va and Subarea XIV); and S. mentella in the Norwegian and Barents Seas (ICES Subareas I and II).Biomass Trends:In the “Deep Pelagic” stock in Irminger Sea, scientific biomass surveys from 1999—2003 show an average of 1 million tonnes estimated spawning stock biomass (SSB), and 400,000 estimated SSB in 2009—2013, indicating a 60% decline over the past 15 years. In the “Shallow Pelagic” stock in Irminger Sea, scientific surveys from 1990—2013, show a greater than 95% decline in biomass indices (surrogate for SSB) from approximately 2500000 to less than 100000 tonnes.In the “Icelandic Slope” stock, the ICES advice recommends catches of no more than 10,000 tonnes, and that this stock is considered to be data limited (ICES Advice 2013). Based on scientific survey of total biomass (reported as biomass index) over the past 12 years (2000—2012) shows approximately 40% from 140,000 tonnes to 80,000 tonnes, and a 30% decline in individuals greater than 45 cm (surrogate SSB) from 24000 tonnes to 16000 tonnes. In the Norwegian stock, SSB estimates have been increasing over the past 20 years (150,000 tonnes in 1992 to approximately 750,000 tonnes in 2012).Summary: The population decline for the entire assessment zone was estimated by weighted the estimated decline in SSB for each region by the recent maximum SSB estimates. This results in an estimated decline of 70% for S. mentella.Global Landing Statistics: The overall trend in declared species-specific landings is one of increase with fluctuations. The trend of this fishery is driven primarily by the reported landings from the Northeast Atlantic fishing region, which contributed over 75% of the landings. Reported landings in the Northeast Atlantic increased dramatically from 4,619 t in 1998 to 25,043 t in 1999, followed by a decline from 83,980 t in 2004 to 48,188 t in 2005 (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed 2013 September). In northeast Newfoundland and Labrador Shelf, both mean size and CPUE of this species declined from 1979—1993 (Haedrich and Barnes 1997). In Canada, reference points were established for S. mentella occurring within Canadian EEZ in the late 2000s, well after a period of intense fishing in the 1990s. The median modeled mature biomass in this region declined from about 500 kt in 1960 to less than 50 kt from the 1990s to 2010 -it is well below the mean of 1979-1982 of 395 kt, the established Bmsy reference point. The S. mentella biomass index has been below this reference point consistently since the mid 1990s (Duplisea et al. 2012). 

habitat:
Habitat and Ecology Sebastes mentella is a benthic/mesopelagic species that typically inhabits deep water from 300 to 750 m, though it may be found shallower than 100 m as juveniles and deeper than 1,000 m. This species forms aggregations over seamounts (Morato et al. 2006). Catch and survey data indicate that spawning occurs from mid-March to mid-May (e.g., Sigurdsson et al. 2006). Females release live larvae which are transported widely through planktonic drift (Pikanowski et al. 1998). The preferred temperature S. mentella in the Northeast Atlantic is 4.5°C and the preferred salinity is 34.87 (Núñez-Riboni et al. 2013). Sebastes fasciatus and Sebastes mentella are hard to distinguish and within fisheries they are occasionally considered the same stock (Roques et al. 2002). This species is known to hybridize with Sebastes fasciatus (Roques et al. 2001). Life History and Reproduction The southwestern Barents Sea and Spitzbergen areas are primarily used as nursery ground for this species where the fish then migrate westwards and southwestwards towards the continental slope as they grow. Sebastes mentella from the Northeast Arctic begin to mature at seven to eight years of age (25 cm to 29 cm) and ~50% of individuals are considered to be mature at 11 to 12 years (30 cm to 34 cm) (Saborido-Rey and Nedreaas 2000); however it has also been suggested that this species is not mature until 15 to 17 years of age and 18 to 20 years off Faroe Islands (ICES 2000, Reinert 1998). In the Barents and Norwegian seas this species reaches maturity at a size of 31 cm and age of 11 years (ICES 2013). Larval extrusion grounds for this species are along the slope from north of Shetland to west of Bear Island and the peak in larval extrusion occurs during the first half of April (Saborido-Rey 2000). There is evidence that S. mentella migrate seasonally from Svalbard and the Barents Sea to areas outside Lofoten, which is probably related to spawning. This species is viviparous and peak parturition in for S. mentella occurs at the end of March and in April (Saborido-Rey and Nedreaas 2000). The small larvae of S. mentella have a longer planktonic period than most viviparous species and they can disperse to a variety of habitats, far from the location of extrusion (Mangel et al. 2007). The seasonality of gonad development in S. mentella is suggests that copulation occurs ~6months before extrusion (Anonymous 2004 from Cadrin et al. 2010). Males and females of this species have different distributions during larval extrusion which suggests that copulation takes place in a different location (Magnússon and Magnússon 1995, Cadrin et al. 2010). This species can live to a maximum age of 75 years (ICES 2013). Based on age class data in the Norwegian stock, this species is estimated to have a generation length of approximately 20—22 years (ICES AFWG 2013, ICES NWWG 2013). Longevity was determined from isotope ratios and estimated to be at least 65 years for most subpopulations, and at least 75 years in the waters off Nova Scotia.

threats:
Exploitation Sebastes mentella is a major commercial species that is harvested as a food source throughout its range. It is among the most important Sebastes spp. Landing statistics are typically aggregated for Sebastes spp. Trends in landing statistics show declines in both the Northeast and Northwestern Atlantic in excess of 80% (see population). Although improving, unreported effort has been significant, and may range from 15-33% (ICES Advice 2013 book 2). Additionally, this species is often taken as by-catch in the demersal cod/haddock/Greenland halibut fisheries, as juveniles in shrimp trawl fisheries, and occasionally in the pelagic blue whiting and herring fisheries.   Documented Population Declines This species has undergone severe population declines in the western Atlantic which have been attributed to over-exploitation (see population). Proper identification/aggregated catch statistics Sebastes spp. are often misidentified and there is a need for proper identification courses and keys (ICES AFWG Report 2009). As a result, landing statistics are often aggregated for the genus. Inherent vulnerability A genetic divide between the populations on either side of the Atlantic is lacking, meaning that overfishing by North America or European countries would likely impact the reproduction of all the stocks (Roques et al. 2002). Additionally, Sebastes mentella exhibits life history traits that make it more vulnerable to over exploitation including slow a growth rate, late maturity, and long life span (Joensen and Nielsen 2004). Nuñez-Riboni et al. (2013) found that water temperature is a main factor that determines the geographical distribution of redfish. A severe depletion of S. mentella occured off East Greenland in in the 1980s and early 1990s followed by a rapid increase in abundance from 1995 to 1997. Abundance indices returned to the low levels observed before 1995 in 1998 and even more so in 1999 (Rätz 1996, Rätz and Stransky 1999, Stranksy 2000). Males and females of this species aggregate to mate (ICES 2013) which can make S. mentella more susceptible to exploitation.

conservationAction:
There are country-specific management plans in place for Sebastes mentella.  In 1996, the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) established a total allowable catch limit of 153,000 t for the NEAFC Convention Area.  In 2001, this was revised to 95,000 t. This species is continually assessed and managed by ICES and NAFO. Further research is needed on the population dynamics of stocks within fishing zones to establish if particular stocks are being over-exploited. Sebastes mentella is classified as a threatened species on the Norwegian Red-List (ICES 2010). ICES advised fishery managers to close the shallow pelagic S. mentella stock fishery because of the poor state of the stock and that the deep pelagic stock fishery should implement total catch limits of no greater than 20,000t in 2010 because of the reduced abundance of the living resource (Cadrin et al. 2010, ICES 2009). In the Western Atlantic, this species has undergone extinction risk assessment by COSEWIG. Northern Populations were considered "Threatened"  - although this population met the criterion for Endangered, it was downlisted to Threatened because of its wide distribution and apparent stability of the population since the 1990s. The Gulf of St. Lawrence - Laurentian Channel population was assessed as "Endangered".

useAndTrade:
Sebastes mentella is a major commercial species that is harvested as a food source throughout its range. The fishery for oceanic S. mentella in the Irminger Sea has been established since 1982. During the first three years of this fishery, annual catches reported for the oceanic stock were ~60,000t to 65,000t and reached a maximum in 1986 with 105,000 t. Annual catches subsequently declined to 91,000t in 1987 and 1988 then decreased to 37,000 t in 1989. In more recent years, annual catches have increased back to its former maximum and since 1994 up to ten countries have participated in the oceanic S. mentella fishery (Johansen et al. 2000).The only directed fisheries for S. mentella today are pelagic trawl fisheries in the Norwegian Sea. The S. mentella fishery south of Bear Island towards Spitzbergen peaked in 1976 at 269,000 t and dropped to 80,000 t in 1980/1981 then peaked again in 1982 at 115,00 t and subsequently decreased during the mid 1980's down to 10,500 t in 1987. Spatial analysis of survey data revealed a shift in the Irminger Sea fishery to the southwest since 1996 which reﬂects a similar change in the distribution of the resource coincident with environmental changes (Sigurðsson et al. 2006, ICES 2005). "Icelandic Slope" stock: This is a data-limited stock. This species is taken by Icelandic trawlers using a bottom trawl on the continental slope between 450 m and 700 m depths. Landings from this fishing region have decreased by nearly 80% from a peak of roughly 49,000 t in 1995, to around 10,000 t in 2011 (ICES 2013). Sebastes norvegicus (reported as S. marinus) may have accounted for < 2% of landings here. "Deep Pelagic" stock: This is a data-limited stock. There has been a marked decrease in landings since 2004, indicating that this stock may have been reduced in the last decade. Landings began to be reported from these regions in the early 1990s. "Shallow Pelagic" stock: This is a data-deficient stock which lacks reference points and management plans. The biomass index from acoustic surveys in 2009—2013 indicates that the stock has declined to less than 5% of the estimates from the early 1990s. The overall trend in landings from the region for this stock is one of dramatic oscillations, with peaks of around 100,000 tonnes occurring in the mid-late 1980s and again in the early 1990s. Current landings are at an all-time low.  Norwegian stock: This stock lacks reference points. There are two components to the fishery in this region. A pelagic fishery operates outside EEZs (accounted for 67% of landings in 2012). This fishery has occurred since 2004 and is managed by the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission. Landings increased to a series high of 28,770 tonnes in 2006, followed by a gradual decrease to 7,317 tonnes in 2012. All other reported landings originate as bycatch from other demersal fisheries in the Barents Sea. These landings increased to a peak of nearly 300,000 tonnes in the early 1970s, followed by a gradual decrease to less than 11,000 tonnes in 2012.

redListContributors:
Acero, A., Gordon, J., Murdy, E., De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Livingston, F., Lintott, P., Kemp, K., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Lewis, S., Sears, J., Wilson, P. & Smith, J.


taxonomicNotes:
Sebastes norvegicus could not be accurately identified before 1982 (Moran et al. 1996). The current name used by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) for this species is Sebastes marinus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Vulnerable (VU) Sebastes norvegicus occurs from Greenland to Iceland and the Faroes south to the Kattegat and north and east to Svalbard and Novaya Zembla to depths of 300 m. This species has a slow growth rate, age of first maturity of around 12 years, and a longevity of at least 50 years of age. Generation length is estimated to be 18–22 years, however SSB trend data for both the Norwegian and Icelandic stocks are only available for the last 30–35 years. There has been an estimated 40% decline in this species population based on estimates of Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) and relative biomass declines weighted by current landing estimates. For the Norwegian stock, there has been an estimated 80% decline over the past 30 year based on estimated SSB and for the Icelandic stock, there has been a 27.5 % decline over the past 30 years based on an estimate of relative biomass index. Based on SSB and average landings reported in both stocks over the past 30 years  (1980s to present), it was estimated that the Icelandic stock is approximately 4 times the size of the Norwegian, and therefore represents 75% of the population within the assessment region. Therefore, it is inferred that the population has declined by approximately 40% over the past 30–35 years. As there is no formal management agreement between Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroes, and current fishing mortality is higher than Fmsy in the Norwegian stock, there is no current indication that either of these stocks are being fished sustainably. Therefore, Sebastes norvegicus is listed as Vulnerable under Criterion A2bd.

range:
In the northeast Atlantic, Sebastes norvegicus occurs from Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands to Norwegian waters, south to the Kattegat in the North Sea, the Barents Sea, north to Svalbard, east to the Kanin Banks and Novaya Zembla, and the White Sea where it is rare. This species occurs at depths ranging from 100 m to 300 m and more rarely to 500 m (Stransky 2005 to FAO 2013).

population:
Taxonomic Issues and Population Information: Sebastes spp. are often misidentified and there is a need for proper identification courses, keys, and courses (ICES AFWG Report 2009). Low levels of inter-population genetic variation were suggested by variations in hemoglobin and polymorphic enzymes (Johansen et al. 2002). This species is often referred to by the synonym S. marinus. Regional population information: There has been an estimated 40% decline in this species population based on estimates of Spawning Stock Biomass (SSB) and relative biomass declines weighted by current landing estimates. For the Norwegian stock, there has been an estimated 80% decline over the past 30 year based on estimated SSB (70,000 tonnes in 1987 and 14,000 tonnes in 2012) (ICES AFWG 2013), and for the Icelandic stock, there has been a 27.5 % decline over the past 30 years based on an estimate of relative biomass index (14.5 in 1980 and 12.5 in 2012) (ICES NWWG 2013). Based on average landings reported in both stocks over the past 30 years  (1980s to present), it was estimated that the Icelandic stock is approximately 4 times the size of the Norwegian, and therefore represents 75% of the European region population. Comparisons of SSB between the two stocks from the late 1980s and 2012 also indicate a that Icelandic stock is 4 times the size of the Norwegian stock (ICES AFWG 2013, ICES NWWG 2013) Iceland and East Greenland  The fishing mortality MSY and Precautionary approach (Fpa,Flim) are unknown and the qualitative evaluation shows a decreasing trend. Spawning stock biomass MSY (Btrigger) is unknown but the precautionary approach (Upa,Ulim) shows full reproductive capacity and the qualitative evaluation shows an increasing trend in the main area. The spawning stock biomass was its lowest in 1995 but is now estimated around 60% in 2013 which is two times higher. Fishing mortality has decreased by ~40% since the 1990s in 2012. Landings from this region have been ~41,000t since 1995 and a major part of the catches is comprised of the 1998-2003 year classes with the 1985 and 1990 year class diminishing proportionally (ICES 2013). The 1990 year class of S. norvegicus in the Iceland fishery will sustain the stock in the short term and the 1996 to 2001 year classes are above average and have been recruiting to the fishery since 2006. An exploratory assessment based on the Gadget model indicates that the fishing mortality has decreased since the early 1990s and is currently close to Fmax (ICES 2012). Surveys conducted in waters off Greenland have shown negligible abundances of both juvenile and adult individuals which confirms the poor state of S. norvegicus in the area  (Bjornsson and Sigurdsson 2003). There is no formal agreement on the management of this species among the three coastal states, and regulations in these states have previously resulted in catches well above scientific recommendation (ICES NWWG 2013).  Many of the TACs in this region are not species-specific. Barents Sea and Norwegian Sea If recruitment is similar to the average from 2001 to 2011 the stock size will be very low by 2017. The current low SSB provides little hope of any improvement over the next three years (ICES 2013). Fishing mortality of the 2010 to 2012 stock is above MSY (Fmsy) and has been increasing since 2005. The natural mortality of S. norvegicus is around 0.05 but the current fishing mortality is around 0.33. Based on modelling simulations, a sustainable Fmsy for this species lies around 0.08 and this would require a stop and reversal of the ongoing stock decline. The qualitative evaluation shows an increasing trend and fishing mortality is well above a sustainable level for a redfish stock. The SSB of the 2011 to 2013 stock is the lowest in the time-series and has been decreasing since the 1990s. This species is caught by both a directed gillnet and longline fishery and is also caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries. Commercial catches for 2012 were 5,479 tonnes - 36% from gillnet, 62% by longline and trawl combined, and 2% other types of gear. ICES advises that there should be no fishing on this stock and that all catches are assumed to be landed (ICES 2013). On the Norwegian continental shelf and upper slope north of 62°N, Sebastes spp. were the 7th most abundant demersal fishes landed. The advice for this region is zero catch (ICES Advice 2013). Baltic Sea: This species is occasionally found within the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) area as a visitor from reproductive cites in northern Norway. However, there is no reproduction in the Baltic Sea/HELCOM area, so this species was considered to be Not Applicable for Assessment in that region (2013 HELCOM RedList Assessment Project). Summary of FAO landing Statistics: Landing statistics for all Atlantic Sebastes spp. are aggregated, and reported to FAO as "Atlantic Redfish nei". Landings for Sebastes spp. are reported from the following FAO fishing regions: Northwest Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic. Although landings are roughly evenly divided between fishing regions early in the timeseries (1950-mid 1970s), more recent landings are landings reported in the NEA. The overall trend in declared landings is one of ocillation around a mean of 450,000 tonnes from 1950 to the early 1990s. Beginning in the early 1990s, reported landings global landings decline by 86%, to 46616 tonnes in 2010. The trend in global landings is mirrored in both the NEA and the NWA, with slight variations in the time at which the declines begin; From 1990-2010, landings in the NEA decline by roughly 93% to 15600 tonnes. From 1990-2010, landings in the NWA decline by roughly 81%, to 31016 tonnes in 2010.

habitat:
Juvenile S. norvegicus live in the fjords, bays, and inshore waters between 50 and 350 m (ICES 2012) while adults occur off the coast and increase in size at greater depths. This species primarily feeds on euphausiids in the summer, herring in autumn and winter, and capelins, herrings, euphausiids, and ctenophores in the spring. Sebastes norvegicus has a slow growth rate and is ovoviviparous. The insemination of females takes place from August to September in the Barents Sea and from October to January off Iceland and Greenland. Fertilization of the ripe oocytes occurs in February and March and larvae are released from April to August. Sebastes norvegicus can reach 100 cm length and 15 kg in weight, however, they are commonly found from 35 cm to 55 cm as there are few specimens that live long enough to exceed 50 cm (FAO 2013). The only known nursery grounds for this species are located in Greenland. When these individuals become close to sexual maturity they begin to move out of the area and it is reported that the fish begin to emigrate from the East Greenland Shelf at lengths of 29 cm and 30 cm. The migration of juveniles occurs along the north coast of Iceland towards the most important fishing areas off the west coast (ICES 2012). This species reaches sexual maturity between 10 and 14 years of age and can exceed 50 years of age (ICES 2012). The growth rate for S. norvegicus is about 2 cm to 2.5 cm per year in the first years (Bjornsson and Sigurdsson 2003). The generation length for this species is not known precisely. It was estimated at 26 years for the Baltic Sea Red List Assessment (HELCOM 2013). The Norwegian Red List used 18 years, but is likely to be closer to 21 years due to lack of recruitment (K. Nedreaas pers. comm. 2013).

threats:
Sebastes norvegicus is a commercial species which can only sustain low rates of exploitation. It can attain a length of 100 cm at a considerable age but is more commonly found to 55 cm because individuals do not live long enough to reach the maximum length (FAO 2013). The life history traits exhibited by this species, including slow growth rate and late maturity lead to a higher intrinsic vulnerability to over-exploitation.

conservationAction:
This has undergone Red List Assessment at the National Level in Norway, where it was listed as Endangered. In the Barents and Norwegian Sea, all directed fisheries are closed between December 20th to July 31st and in September with the exception of handline fisheries. Directed trawl fishery is prohibited and there are also regulation on minimum size and percentage of bycatch from other fisheries (ICES 2013). Additionally, sorting grids have been mandatory in the shrimp fisheries in ICES Division XIVb since 2002 and in Division Va since 1 September 1995 (ICES 2012). The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) advises on the basis of precautionary considerations that catches should be no more than 40,000 tonnes from Iceland and East Greenland (subareas V, VI, XII, and XIV) (ICES 2012). A formal agreement on the management of S. norvegicus between Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands does not yet exist, however, in both Greenland and Iceland the fishery is regulated by total allowable catch and in the Faroes by effort limitation. A quick closure system was implemented in 1977 to regulate S. norvegicus juvenile catches. This system indicated that if over 20% of a catch on board is below 33 cm then a small area could be closed for at least two weeks. These quick closure average about three per year but the effects of this system have not been evaluated since 2001. Between 1991 and 1995 quick closures occurred frequently and because of this, large areas southwest and west of Iceland are closed permanently or temporarily  for trawling to protected juveniles (ICES 2012). ICES advises that catches of S. norvegicus should be no more than 51,980 tonnes in Greenland and Iceland (ICES 2013).

useAndTrade:
Sebastes norvegicus is an important commercial species which is caught in large numbers by vessels from northern Europe. The total catch reported to FAO for S. norvegicus in 1999 was 7,264 tonnes and the countries with the largest catches were the Faroe Islands (7,129 t) and France (128 t) (FAO 2013).   The trend of the S. norvegicus fishery is driven by Northeastern Atlantic (NEA) catches and even more specifically by the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland fisheries which have contributed to over 70% of landings since 1973 (FAO 2011). This species is captured as bycatch in the shrimp fishery and has bycatch rates of 0.5% in 2006 to 2007 most of which were less than 15 cm (ICES 2012). The majority if catches of S. norvegicus is taken in ICES Division Va and has contributed 95 to 98% of the total landings since 1990. Between 90 to 95% of the catch in Division Va is taken by bottom trawlers that target redfish. The remaining catches are from by catch, gillnet, longline, and Nephrops fishery. Between 2000 and 2011, average annual landings have been 40,000 tonnes (S. norvegicus in Division Va is caught mixed with the S. mentella fishery to a small extent) (ICES 2012). The strong year class of 1990 has been in the Icelandic fishery for a decade and will sustain the stock in the short term (ICES 2012). The most important fishing grounds for S. norvegicus are off southwest and west Iceland and Rosengarten (the area between Iceland and the Faroe Islands), however, the catches in these areas have declined in recent years. Catches off East Greenland have decreased drastically in the past few decades. In 1976 the average annual catch was 60,000 tonnes and 15,000 tonnes to 31,000 tonnes between 1978 to 1983 but decreased in the 1990s with an average annual catch under 1,000 tonnes (Bjornsson and Sigurdsson 2003).

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Cook, R., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Costa, M. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Sebastes viviparus occurs along the Norwegian coast from the Kattegat to Tanafjord in Finnmark. This species is rare off Bear Island, in the northern part of North Sea, around the Shetland Islands, Scotland, northern England, Wales and Ireland, and the English Channel. it is found along Rockall Bank and is common around Faroes and Iceland. This species occurs sporadically off East Greenland depths of 40 m to 600 m and has been reported to depths of 760 m. It is found over rocky bottoms, rocky reefs and deep-water coral reefs. Population trends appear to be mixed. Landings for Sebastes spp. from the northeast Atlantic have declined 86% since the early 1990s, and although S. viviparus is likely to be taken in fisheries targeting other congeners it is the least commercially important of these species due to its small size. Declines in landings prompted  the Swedish National Red List to assess this species as Near Threatened. In contrast, there are signs that this species is increasing in abundance off the coast of Iceland. Sebastes viviparus is relatively long-lived and slow growing, and therefore may be more intrinsically vulnerable to overexploitation. Additionally, it may rely on deep-water coral reefs for parts of its life cycle. Sebastes viviparus is of minor commercial importance, and is mostly taken as bycatch species in Norway and Sweden, and the Icelandic directed fishery is relatively small. It is also taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls. There are no clear signs of population decline in this species, therefore it is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sebastes viviparus is found along the Norwegian coast from Kattegat to Tanafjord in Finnmark. It is rare off Bear Island, in the northern part of North Sea, around Shetland Islands, Scotland, northern England, Wales and Ireland, and the English Channel. It is found along Rockall Bank and is common around Faroes and Iceland. This species occurs sporadically off East Greenland depths of 40 m to 600 m and has been reported to depths of 760 m (Templman 1961, Johansen et al. 2002, Johansen and Dahle 2004). It is an occasional visitor in the Kattegat from reproduction areas in the Skagerrak (HELCOM 2013).

population:
Low levels of inter-population genetic variation were suggested by variations in hemoglobin and polymorhic enzymes (Johansen et al. 2002). Landing statistics for all Atlantic Sebastes spp. are aggregated, and reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as "Atlantic Redfish nei". Landings for Sebastes spp. are reported from the following FAO fishing regions: Northwest Atlantic (NWA), Northeast Atlantic (NEA). Although landings are roughly evenly divided between fishing regions early in the time series (1950-mid 1970s), currently, more landings are reported from the NEA. The overall trend in declared landings is one of oscillation around a mean of 450,000 tonnes from 1950 to the early 1990s. Beginning in the early 1990s, reported global landings declined by 86%, to 46616 tonnes in 2010. The trend in global landings is similar in the NEA and the NWA, with slight variations in the time at which the declines begin. From 1990 to 2010, landings in the NEA declined by roughly 93% to 15600 tonnes. From 1990 to 2010, landings in the NWA declined by roughly 81%, to 31016 tonnes in 2010. Of the three species of Redfish which are commonly exploited in European waters, this species is the least commercially important (ICES Advice 2013). The total abundance index for S. viviparus decreased from 1988 to 1989 (Jakobsen et al. 1989). The frequency of occurrence of S. viviparus in Norwegian waters in a survey conducted in 1984 was 24.3% at < 200 m and 57.8% at 205 m to  450 m (Bergstad 1990). In Iceland, this species has occurred at an increasingly greater number of stations between 1996 to 2007 (Stefansdottir et al. 2010).

habitat:
Sebastes viviparus can reach 40 years of age (Muus and Nielsen 1999). A generation length of 21 years was used in the Baltic Sea Red List Assessment (HELCOM 2013). Sebastes viviparus is a marine species which inhabits rocky bottoms, close to the shore at depths ranging from 10 to 150 metres, though it has been recorded to depths of 760 metres. It has been reported that this is a shoaling species, however it has also been reported that this species is relatively stationary. Shoaling behavior may be linked to sex-dependent migrations tied to reproductive behavior, such as have been observed over deep-water coral reefs (Kutti et al. 2013). There was a variation in sex ratio observed among samples of S. viviparus, which has been attributed to sex-dependent migration and activities due to reproductive behavior. Underwater camera observations indicate that this species hardly seems to move from reefs and other structures (Pal Bull Mortensen, Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway, pers. comm.). This species gives birth to live young. It reaches maturity at a size of 10 to 15 cm, and is reported to have a maximum total length 35 cm (HELCOM 2013). It is the smallest of the Atlantic Sebastes species (Johansen et al. 2002). Pregnant Sebastes viviparus may use deep-water reefs as a refuge or as a nursery ground to raise their offspring (Fosså et al. 2002).

threats:
Sebastes viviparus is threatened by fisheries as target species, and also by other demersal fisheries, mainly as bycatch in shrimp trawls. In Norway and Sweden, S. viviparus is a bycatch species (HELCOM 2013). In Iceland, there is a relatively small directed fishery.

conservationAction:
Sebastes viviparus has undergone extinction risk assessment in the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) Region. It was assessed as Not Applicable for assessment because there is no reproduction within the HELCOM area, and not a significant part of their lifetime is spent within the HELCOM area (HELCOM 2013). The Swedish Red List Assessment of this species in the Baltic Sea (2013), where is was assessed as Near Threatened due to 10 to 25% reduction in landings. In the Norwegian Red List Assessment, this species was listed as Least Concern. This species was assessed as Near Threatened by the Swedish National Red List Project, based on a rate of population decline of 10 to 25% in the last 60 years, based on actual or potential rates of exploitation. Justification for the assessment is as follows: this species is long-lived and slow growing. It is among the most coastal of the Sebastes spp., which, as a group have undergone large declines in landings in the late 1980s to 1990s. This species is taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls, and fishing is unregulated in parts of its range, particularly the Skaggerak and Kattegat.

useAndTrade:
Sebastes viviparus has minor commercial value in Icelandic waters and is exploited in two small areas south of Iceland at depths of 150 m to 250 m. This is a species of growing economic interest importance to fisheries (Johansen et al. 2002).

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Cook, R., de Sola, L., Costa, M., Florin, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Trachyscorpia cristulata is found in the eastern and western Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic this species is found from Ireland south to Cape Verde, including the Azores. It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, to the Balearic Islands. It has been reported at depths ranging from 140 to 2330 m. It appears to be abundant in some areas. It is not a targeted species, however it appears to be retained when taken as bycatch in industrial trawl fisheries and industrial long-line fisheries. Landings are reported in small numbers to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) by France and the United Kingdom. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for T. cristulata, however its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas and it is likely to benefit from general fisheries management in the region. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Trachyscorpia cristulata is found in the eastern and western Atlantic. In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from Ireland south to Cape Verde (ICES 2007, Sánchez et al. 2008), including the Azores (Desbruyeres et al. 2001). It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, to the Balearic Islands. The depth range of Tachyscorpia cristulata is 140 to 2330 m (Ragonese and Giusto 1999).

population:
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) common name of this species is Atlantic Thornyhead. The standardized biomass of T. cristulata in Baca otter trawls at Le Danois Bank, Cantabrian Sea, N. Spain, was 1383.6 (g per ha−1), with an abundance of 2.083. It was the 8th most abundant species taken in Baca trawls in Fall and Spring surveys. The average biomass of T. cristulata in a survey conducted in Le Danois Bank (Cantabrian Sea, N. Spain) was 1,462.16 g from depths of 550 m to 650 m and 2,670.07 g from depths of 800 m to 1,050 m (Sánchez et al. 2008). A single specimen of this species was collected from the Porcupine Seabight in a survey conducted in 1996 (Gordon et al. 1996). The species is thought to have migrated north from the west coast of Africa, and into the Mediterranean through the strait of Gibraltar.

habitat:
Trachyscorpia cristulata is a demersal species which is found on mud and sand bottoms at depths ranging from 140 to 2230 m. This species likely feeds on mobile invertebrates and small fishes (Colling and Aloncle 1960). This species primarily inhabits muddy bottoms of the continental slope to 2,000 m depth (Ragonese and Giusto 1999). It is found in association with seamounts, where it is characteristic of the lower slopes at depths below 800 to 850 m. This species is a benthic carnivore which is typically solitary (Porteiro et al. 2013). The maximum length is 50 cm. It is considered a characteristic species of the bottoms influenced by the Atlantic current (Fredj and Maurin, 1987, Massutí et al. 1993).

threats:
There are no confirmed species-specific threats to T. cristulata. It is likely to be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its range. Trachyscorpia cristulata is taken as retained bycatch in Spanish deepwater long-line fisheries, which were established in the mid-1990s in the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) divisions VIIIa,b,d b (Bay of Biscay) and divisions IXa (Piñero and Bañíon 2001).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for T. cristulata. Its distribution likely overlaps marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
Trachyscorpia cristulata is not a targeted species, however it is likely taken as bycatch in industrial trawl fisheries. Landings for this species are only reported from France and the United Kingdom. Total catch quantities are very low and peaked at 57t in 2006 (FAO 2011).

redListAssessors:
Lorance, P., Cook, R., Herrera, J., de Sola, L., Costa, M., Florin, A. & Keskin, Ç.


range:
In Europe, this species is found in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is distributed circumglobally on the continental shelf in tropical and warmer temperate waters.

population:
This species is very common throughout its range particularly at depths of c. 400 m. It may occur at high densities where it is found.

habitat:
This species is found over soft-bottom substrate at depths of 150-800 m. They feed on pelagic invertebrates and mainly on zoobenthos such as shrimp and prawns of the genus Oplophorus and various amphipods (Eschmeyer and Collette 1966). It has anterolateral glandular grooves with a venom gland and can be venomous to humans (Schneider 1990).

threats:
There are no major threats known to be currently affecting this species.

redListContributors:
Russell, B., Poss, S., Nunoo, F. & Bannerman, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chelidonichthys cuculus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is known from the British Isles south to Mauritania, including Madeira and Azores and the Mediterranean Sea. It has a depth distribution ranging from 15 to 400 m. Chelidonichthys cuculus has a wide distribution and appears to be generally common throughout its range, although not particularly abundant. This species is taken in commercial fisheries throughout its range, however species-specific landings statistics are generally not considered reliable. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. cuculus, however it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Chelidonichthys cuculus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway and the British Isles to Mauritania, including Madeira and Azores. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is found throughout the basin. Specific records include Spain (Coll et al. 2006), France (Gaertner et al. 1998), Italy (Ungaro et al. 1999; Colloca et al. 2003, 2004; Carpentieri et al. 2005; Gristina et al. 2006), Greece (Kallianiotis et al. 2000, Machias et al. 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005). It is also present in the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). It has a depth distribution ranging from 15 to 400 m.

population:
Chelidonichthys cuculus is widespread, but has a patchy distribution. It is common and more abundant in the eastern Mediterranean Sea but less common in the western Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean, this species appears to be common, but not abundant, in the International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) surveys over the last 20 years. Individuals ranged in size from 4 to 24 cm (TL), with an average size of 15.8 cm (TL). Larvae are rare in Greek Sea (C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2013). According to Gristina et al. (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 1 to 3 specimens/km2, from 62 hauls (trawls). Carpentieri et al. (2005) reported that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (4 ind/24 h), November 2001 (12 ind/24 h), March 2002 (4 ind/24 h) and May 2002 (0) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea.

habitat:
Chelidonichthys cuculus is a demersal species which occasionally forms schools. It is found over sand, gravel, crag and rocks on the continental shelf to depths of 400 m (Blanc and Hureau 1979). This species feeds on benthic crustaceans and other invertebrates and bottom-dwelling fishes (Hureau 1986). The maximum age of this species in Greek Seas is 5 years. The maximum size is 22 cm (FL), while the common length is 16.4 cm (FL) (Papaconstantinou 1983). In Greek waters, this species reaches a common length of 16.4 cm (FL), and a maximum size of 22 cm (FL) (Papaconstantinou 1983). In the Gulf of Cadiz, maximum sizes of 32 cm (TL) have been recorded (J. Gil Hererra pers. comm. 2013). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 27.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 15.1 cm to 16.7 cm TL and for males ranges from 15.0 cm to 15.4 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
Chelidonichthys cuculus is listed as a minor commercially fished species (Crec'hriou et al. 2012). There are no other specific threats to Chelidonichthys cuculus in the eastern Atlantic or Mediterranean. Smaller-sized individuals may be caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries (L. de Sola pers. comm. 2013). This is a species with minor commercial interest. It is typically caught with trawls and trammel nets. This species regularly present in the markets of Spain, Morocco, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Sicily, Cyprus and Egypt, occasionally in France, Greece and Turkey, rarely in Tunisia (Fischer et al. 1987). Semi-industrial fishing (Sicily, Adriatic Sea, Cyprus and Egypt) and craft  with trawls, gillnets and longlines, handlines and sometimes beach seines.

conservationAction:
Chelidonichthys cuculus is considered a data-limited stock in the northeast Atlantic by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). Catch data for this species are considered highly unreliable. ICES advises a 20% reduction in catch (ICES 2013). Its distribution likely overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Regional Mediterranean Red List Assessments (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chelidonichthys cuculus is a species with minor commercial interest (Crec'hriou et al. 2012). In the Mediterranean this species is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Morocco, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Sicily, Cyprus and Egypt, occasionally in France, Greece and Turkey, rarely in Tunisia. It is marketed fresh, chilled and frozen (Fischer et al. 1987). Catch statistics are mixed with other species of Triglidae. The largest sizes are caught by the artisanal fleet throughout the Mediterranean (L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chelidonichthys lucerna is widely distributed from Norway to Mauritania, and is found throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea at depths ranging from 20 m to 300 m. This species is migratory and inhabits estuaries during parts of its life cycle. This species is commercially exploited and, although some regulations have been suggested by researchers, there are no species-specific regulations in place. It is an important commercial species and is the most valuable and frequently landed species of gurnard. This species is common in mixed fisheries of Triglidae. Population trends in the Gulf of Cadiz show stable and increasing trends. In the French Mediterranean, landings show a 10% decline in the past 11 years. Trends in CPUE in the Atlantic show that this species, which is generally associated with southern biogeographic areas, has been increasing in abundance the last 10 years. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) aggregate statistics show indicate that landings are driven primarily by France and the Netherlands fisheries. At this time, population declines have not reached the thresholds for a threatened category. Therefore, C. lucerna is listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway south to Ghana, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It has not been recorded in Madeira or the Azores (FAO 2013). This species is found at depths ranging from 20 m to 300 m. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is found throughout the basin in suitable habitats. Specific records include Spain (Raventos et al. 2006), France (Letourneur et al. 2001), Italy (Colloca et al. 2004, Malavasi et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005), Greek Seas (Labropoulous and Papaconstantinou 2005), Turkey (Ayaz et al. 2006, Deval et al. 2007) and Egypt (Abdallah 2002). This species is found at depths ranging from 20 to 320 m. 

population:
The biomass by trophic group was studied in the Cantabrian Sea, off the Atlantic coast of northern Spain, in 2004. The biomass for C. lucerna was 0.28 (Sánchez and Olaso 2004). Mondego estuary of Portugal under went long term monitoring and documentation of changes in the fish assemblage between June 2003 and March 2010. Chelidonichthys lucerna was a dominant species in some years of the study (Nyitrai et al. 2012). Two-hundred and two individuals of C. lucerna were collected from the French Catalan coast, from February 2007 to July 2010 with a minimum length and weight of 14 cm and 35 g, respectively, and a maximum length and weight of 67 cm and 3,460 g (Crec'hriou et al. 2012). The International Bottom Trawl Survey of the Mediterranean Sea (MEDITS) suggests that this species is rare in the Spanish Mediterranean and the Greek Seas. There were only three records in the Alboran Sea (L. Gil de Sola and C. Papaconstantinou pers. comm. 2013).  In contrast, the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) in the Gulf of Cadiz found this species to be common, with population trends over the last 20 years appearing to be are stable and increasing (J. Gill Herrera pers. comm. 2013).  Chelidonichthys lucerna is a species with southern biogeographic affinities. An analysis of a long series of CPUE from survey data bases has suggested that in Division IVb, the abundance of this species has tended to rise in the last decade. An analysis of LPUE from French otter trawlers in the eastern Channel from 2000-2008 have shown that LPUEs generally increased with fluctuations throughout the series (ICES WGNEW 2010). In Atlantic waters off the southern European coast (ICES divisions VIII and IX), official landings have fluctuated at low levels and were on average 63 tonnes since 2000 (ICES 2012). In northern Portugal, Rocha (2007, 2008) determined the composition and proportion of Triglidae landings in artisanal fleet and Feijó et al. (2008) studied the mixture of Triglidae species in the trawl fleet. This work revealed that Eutrigla gurnardus may represent as little as 0.5% of all Gurnard landings, and it is the tub gurnard (Chelidonichthys lucerna) that is the most valuable and frequently landed species of gurnard (ICES WGHMM Report 2013). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Aggregate catch statistics show fluctuating trends in landings. It is worth noting that landings in the French Mediterranean, landings show a 10% decline over the last 11 years. 

habitat:
Chelidonichthys lucerna is a demersal species which occurs at temperatures ranging from 8.0 to 24.0°C (Moreira et al. 1992). This species inhabits sand, muddy sand, or gravel substrata. It is found to a depth of 320 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It feeds on fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. It has three isolated rays on the pectoral fin which function as legs on which the fish rests (Frimodt 1995). This species is benthic and inhabits mud, sand, and gravel substrates on the continental shelf. Chelidonichthys lucerna occurs at temperature between 8.0°C to 24.0°C. Fish, crustaceans, and mollusks primarily comprise this species diet. This species has been reported to reach 14 years of age, and a maximum size of 75 cm and 6 kg but is more commonly found to 35 cm (FAO 2013). Results from a study on the growth and reproduction of C. lucerna in the Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia, revealed that the length and age at which 50% of specimens were mature was 21.6 cm and 3 years for females and 19.2 cm and 1.5 years for males. Females in the Gulf of Gabès attain longer lengths than males (Boudaya et al. 2008). Ismen et al. (2004) reported that in the eastern Mediterranean, males of this species were mature at a length of 18 cm and females at a length of 20 cm. Chelidonichthys lucerna is a migratory species and its overall depth ranges throughout the year. This species tends to be highly concentrated in shallow waters during the spring and summer and moves to deeper waters in the winter (Ismen et al. 2004). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 41.5 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 17.0 cm to 25.5 cm TL and for males ranges from 15.6 cm to 23.8 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Feeding habits of C. lucerna change as the fish grows. Chelidonichthys lucerna is an opportunistic predator, feeding on a variety of prey items and does not have a species specific diet. Smaller individuals feed on benthic crustaceans, amphipods, and decapods while larger individuals feed increasingly on decapods and teleosts (Stagioni et al. 2012). Chelidonichthys lucerna is a marine migrant of European tidal estuaries (Nicolas et al. 2010). In Portuguese waters, mysids were found to be the most important prey for C. lucerna while natantids contributed to a large portion of the diet as well. This species consumed the highest proportion of teleosts (Castro et al. 2013). The largest individual of this species seen in IBTS trawl data from the Gulf of Cadiz was 80 cm (TL) (J. Gil Hererra pers. comm. 2013).

threats:
Chelidonichthys lucerna is a commercial species. It is a component of semi-industrial fishing in Spain, Sicily, Egypt, Cyprus, and is also taken in artisanal fisheries. This species is typically caught with trawls, gillnets and longlines, handlines and beach seines (Fischer et al. 1987). This species has been reported with skeletal deformities most likely attributed to chemical water pollution in the southern North Sea (Dethlefsen 1988).

conservationAction:
The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) does not generate species-specific advice fro C. lucerna. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It has been listed as Vulnerable in Turkish waters by Fricke et al. (2007). Ismen et al. (2004) suggests that the fishing season be close from May to December.

useAndTrade:
Chelidonichthys lucerna is primarily caught with bottom trawls (FAO 2013). The main fishery operates in the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone, with some catches from the Mediterranean and Black sea fishing zones. In the Northeast Atlantic fishing zone the catch trend is driven by France and the Netherlands fisheries (FAO 2011). This species is used for human consumption and is also reduced to fishmeal and oil by offshore fleets (FAO 2013).

In the Mediterranean, Chelidonichthys lucerna is caught mainly by trawl and trammel nets. The price is dependent on sizes (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013). In the Mediterranean, about 360 t of gurnards are landed along the coast of Tunisia and about 32% of those catches are caught in the Gulf of Gabés (Boudaya et al. 2008).
This species has been considered for use as an aquaculture species and is in the experimental stages (Roncarati  2013).
et al.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chelidonichthys obscurus is present in the eastern Atlantic from south coasts of the British Isles to to Mauritania, including the Azores and Madeira and in the Mediterranean. It is found at depths ranging from 40 to 400 m. This species is common in parts of its range and in the Gulf of Cadiz populations appear to be increasing over the last 20 years. Chelidonichthys obscurus is a commercial species; however, catches are aggregated with other species of Triglidae. There are no significant population declines recorded from exploitation in commercial fisheries. Additionally, this species is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, C. obscurus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Chelidonichthys obscurus is restricted to the eastern Altantic, where it is known primarily from south of the Iberian peninsula to Mauritania (Richards in press), though there are occasional records north to the southern British Isles. In the Mediterranean Sea, this is a very common gurnard species in the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia (Boudaya et al. 2007). It is also found in the upper part of the Cretan Shelf (Kallianiotis at al. 2000), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004), Catalan Sea (Colloca et al. 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998, Letourneur et al. 2001), and Aegean Sea [including all Hellenic Seas] (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005). It is absent from the Black Sea and the Levant Sea (Golani 2005, Golani et al. 2006). It is found at depths ranging from 40 to 400 m.

population:
Chelidonichthys obscurus appears to be common in the northeast Atlantic. It is considered to be common in the Galician, Cantabrian, Biscay Bay, and Gulf of Cadiz (L. de Sola and J. Herrera pers. comm. 2013). Data from the International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) the Gulf of Cadiz show that the biomass (gms/hr) of C. obscurus has been increasing over the last 20 years. In the eastern north Atlantic, this species was collected with an abundance of 2.8 n/1000 m of trammel net in Basque Country, Spain and up to 3.8 n/1,000 m of trammel net in Algarve, Portugal (Stergiou et al. 2006). Between 2007 and 2010 along the southern coast of Portugal C. obscurus was found with a CPUE of 8.14 n/1000 m of trammel net (Sousa 2011). This species is considered rare in the eastern Mediterranean (C. Papaconstantinou and C. Keskin pers. comm. 2013). Data from the International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) confirm the rarity of this species. There are only 17 records, with individuals ranging in size from 8 to 24 cm (TL). The average length of this species is 16.2 cm (TL) (J. de Sola pers. comm. 2013). According to Letorureur et al. (2001), it was collected during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed, soft-substrate zone located near the delta of the Rhone River. A small beam trawl was used with an opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size. A mean density of 5.88 ± 4.98 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: 2 knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m2 at depth of 5 to 8 m. Boudaya et al. (2007) reported that 555 specimens (265 males and 290 females), with lengths ranging from 2.4 to 29.8 cm SL, were taken by commercial catches landed at the port of Sfax, the most important port in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia). Specimens were caught in the period between February 2000 and July 2002 at depths ranging from 80 to 150 metres in the Gulf of Gabes using trawls equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 40 mm stretched mesh size.

habitat:
Chelidonichthys obscurus is a demersal species which can be found on the continental shelf and inhabits mud, gravel, crag and rocky bottoms down to 400 m (Hureau 1986). It feeds primarily on crustacea (Serrano et al. 2003). This is a demersal, benthic species which is present on the continental shelf and inhabits soft substrata and fallen rocks (Hureau 1986). This species mainly feeds on crustaceans. It can be found in the shelf-break associated with Lepotmetra crinoid habitat (Colloca et al. 2004).

threats:
Chelidonichthys obscurus has only minor commercial importance. There are no other major threats known. Fricke et al. (2007) list habitat degradation, eutrophication and fishing as threats in Turkish waters. This species is taken in semi-industrial fisheries off Sicily and Cyprus. It is taken by beach seines, trawls, gill nets, longlines and handlines. This species is regularly present in the markets of the Tyrrhenian Sea, Sicily and Morocco occasionally in France, Adriatic, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus, rarely in Tunisia (Fischer et al. 1987).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. obscurus, however, it has a range that may extend through several marine protected areas. There are no conservation measures in place for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. It is considered as Vulnerable in Turkey by Fricke et al. (2007). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Regional Red List Assessments (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chelidonichthys obscurus is commercially fished off the French Catalan coast (Crec'hriou et al. 2012). It is caught in mixed fisheries with other species of Triglidae. In the Mediterranean, this species has only minor commercial importance. In the Mediterranean, this species is regularly present in the markets of the Tyrrhenian Sea, Sicily and Morocco occasionally in France, Adriatic, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus, rarely in Tunisia. It  is marketed fresh and chilled (Fischer et al. 1987).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Eutrigla gurnardus is a widespread and common species in the northeast Atlantic and is one of the most abundant gurnard species in the North Sea. This species is benthic and is common over sand, mud, and rock bottoms to 191 m depth. It is is taken as bycatch, and is of minor commercial importance in parts of its range. Significant quantities of E. gurnardus have been landed by industrial fleets; however, this species is of low value and is generally discarded when landed. While decreases in abundance have been noted in some areas, such as the Bay of Biscay, in other areas such as the North Sea this species has greatly increased in abundance, and there is no overall trend. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has made management recommendations for this species for three regions in the northeast Atlantic, icnluding the reduction of catches throughout the region. Additionally, E. gurnardus is likely to be found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, E. gurnardus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Eutrigla gurnardus is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from Iceland, Norway, the southern Baltic Sea, and the North Sea to Morocco, including Madeira and the Mediterranean (FAO 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs from Catalan Sea (Bahamon et al. 2006), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005), Adriatic Sea (D. Golani pers. obs. 2007), Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Ozaydin et al. 2007), Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). It is also known from the Black Sea (Hureau 1986). It is found at depths ranging from 0 to 340 m.

population:
Eutrigla gurnardus is by far the most abundant gurnard species in the North Sea (Heessen and Daan 1996). This species ranks among the 10 dominant species of the North Sea (Daan et al. 1990). Eutrigla gurnardus in the North Sea, has made a notable increase in International Bottom Trawl Surveys (IBTS) since the 1980s (ICES 2002). IBTS data in the North Sea revealed that larger size individuals occur in high abundances along the 50 m depth contour as well as the Doggerbank, Fisher Banks, Jutland, and the German Bight (Heessen and Daan 1994). This species has undergone large reductions in abundance in the Bay of Biscay due to excessive groundtrawling in that region. In 1924 this species accounted for 35.4% of landings, while in 1994 this species accounted for 1.2% of landings (Quero 1998).  In the Greek Seas this species is common and abundant in some areas (Papakonstantinou pers. comm. 2013). Papakonstantinou (1982) stated that this species was abundant in shallow area of the Mediterranean. In the Gulf of Cadiz there was one record, in 2012, of a 13 cm individual from bottom trawl surveys over the last 20 years (J. Hererra pers. comm. 2013). The International Bottom Trawl Survey of the Mediterranean (MEDITS) in the Spanish Mediterranean found that this species was relatively rare, represented by 15 records over 20 years. Individuals ranged in size from between 13 and 18 cm (TL) for males, and 15 to 27 cm (TL) for females, and 4 to 12 cm (TL), and 4 to 12 cm (TL)  for indeterminate individuals. The average size was 13.7 cm (TL). In the Sea of Marmara and the north Aegean Sea this species is abundant and frequent on the shelf (C. Keskin pers. comm. 2013). Significant quantities of E. gurnardus have been landed by industrial fleets (Heessen and Daan 1996). The overall trend in landings declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a series of large peaks in landings followed by stabilization at relatively low numbers. Landings are are declared by the following fishing regions: Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean. The overall trend in landings is one of increase to a large peak in landings of 47,580 tonnes declared in the early 1990s, a second peak in the early 2000s of 26909 tonnes. Landings have since stabilized to between 1500 to 5000 tonnes. Historically, the trend of this fishery is primarily driven by northeast Atlantic countries. However, in the mid to late 2000s Mediterranean landings accounted for the majority of declared landings (FAO 2011). According to the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 2013 Report of the Working Group on the Assessment of Southern Shelf Stocks adn Hake, Monk and Melgrim, in the past, gurnards were often not sorted by species when landed and reported into one generic category of “gurnards”. In recent years the official statistics seem to improve gradually, however, catch statistics are incomplete for several years. This species is mainly taken as a bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries for flatfish and groundfish. However, the market is limited and the larger part of the catch appears to be discarded. Owing to the low commercial value of this species, landings data will usually not reflect the actual catches very well.In the South European Atlantic (VIII and IX), official landings have fluctuated at low level and were on average 63 tonnes since 2000 (ICES 2012). In North Portugal, Rocha (2007, 2008) determined the composition and proportion of Triglidae landings in artisanal fleet and Feijó et al. (2008) studied the mixture of Triglidae species in the trawl fleet. This work revealed that grey gurnard may represent as little as 0.5% of all gurnard landings and it is the tub gurnard (Chelidonichthys lucerna) that is the most valuable and frequently landed species of gurnard.

habitat:
Eutrigla gurnardus is a common demersal species on sandy, muddy, sometimes rocky, substrata. It can be found up to depth of 340 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). This species feeds on crustaceans (mostly shrimps and shore crabs) and fishes (mostly gobies, flatfish, young herring and sand eels). The young are pelagic until reaching a length of 3 cm. The presence of juveniles in the coastal waters of the northwest Mediterranean Sea coastal waters occurs between November and January (Tunesi et al. 2005). It makes croaking sounds (Frimodt 1995), and the acoustic behavior of E. gurnardus changes with fish size. Larger individuals tend to be less vocal and exhibit a scrambling behavior when competing for food while smaller individuals are active sound producers. Agnostic behavior also decreased in frequency with increased fish size (Amorim and Hawkins 2005). This species demonstrates a shift in seasonal distribution where in the winter it is primarily concentrated in the western part of the central North Sea and disperse during the spring and summer (Knijn et al. 1993). This species is benthic and is common over sand, mud, and rock bottoms to 191 m depth. During the summer E. gurnardus migrates towards shore and enters estuaries. The spawning period takes place from January to June from depth of 25 m to 50 m. Eutrigla gurnardus eggs are pelagic and larvae remain pelagic until they reach 3 cm in length. Individuals of this species attain sexual maturity at three to four years of age. The maximum length for E. gurnardus is 50 cm but it is more commonly found around 30 cm.  In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 25.3 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 15.0 cm TL  and for males is 12.2 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014)This species primarily feeds on shrimps, shore crabs as well as gobies, flatfishes, young herring, and sand eels. This species reaches a maximum age 8 years (FAO 2013). This species reaches maximum lengths of up to ~20 cm and feeds primarily on invertebrates. Once it exceeds this length, it is able to feed more a greater variety of prey items (Floeter and Temming 2005). Weinert et al. (2010) found three different diet categories for E. gurnardus which were favorable to for one of the three condition factors (Fulton condition). Eutrigla gurnardus fish predators have the highest Fulton condition, the mixed diet predators had the highest hepatosomatic indices, and invertebrate predators have the highest gonadosomatic indices (Weinert et al. 2010).

threats:
This is a minor commercial species in the Mediterranean. It is taken in semi-industrial fishing operations in Spain, Cyprus and the Adriatic Sea and crafts (12 tonnes annually in Cyprus). The species is mainly caught with trawls gillnets and longlines, handlines. It is also taken in industrial trawl fisheries. It is regularly present on markets in the western Mediterranean and Turkey, and occasionally elsewhere. This species is marketed fresh (Fischer et al. 1987). The Portuguese discard observer program in the period 2004 to 2011, recorded E. gurnardus in less than 3% of the hauls sampled in the demersal fish bottom trawl fleet. For the crustacean bottom trawl fleet there was no occurrence of E. gurnardus in this period. Discarding of this species by Spanish trawl fleet has declined from 500 tonnes to 80 tonnes in recent years (ICES WGHMM Report 2013).

conservationAction:
The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has proposed the following recommendations. In the North Sea, catches of this species should not increase from the average catches of the past three years. Due to the unreliability of catch data for E. gurnardus, ICES is not able to quantify the results (ICES 2013). In the Celtic Sea and to the West of Scotland, ICES advises that catches of E. gurnardus for 2013 and 2014 should be reduced by 20% (ICES 2013). ICES advises that catches of E. gurnardus for 2013 and 2014 should be reduced by 20% (ICES 2013). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Red List Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Eutrigla gurnardus is a minor commercial species. It is regularly present on markets in the western Mediterranean and Turkey, and occasionally elsewhere. It is marketed fresh (Fischer et al. 1987). Eutrigla gurnardus is a largely discarded species and landings data do not reflect the actual catches. Only data collected at sea supported by the European Union (EU) Data Collection Framework can provide an accurate estimates of catches (ICES 2013). This species is caught with bottom trawls, trammel nets, and line gear (FAO 2013). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Lepidotrigla cavillone is widespread in the eastern Atlantic, where it is known from Portugal and the Mediterranean south to Mauritania. It is considered a common species in Portuguese and Mediterranean waters. This species is one of the most common gurnard species in the Mediterranean. Due to its small size, L. cavillone is of minor commercial value and is usually discarded at sea. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, L. cavillone is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Lepidotrigla cavillone is widespread in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs in Portuguese waters and into the Mediterranean (Colloca et al. 1997). Specific records from the Mediterranean Sea include the Cretan shelf (Labropoulou and Machias 1998), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 1997, Colloca et al. 2003, Carpentieri et al. 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), Aegean Sea (Tserpes et al. 1999, Kallianiotis et al. 2000, Lamprakis et al. 2003, Kallianiotis et al. 2004, Machias et al. 2004, Ozaydin et al. 2007), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998, Letourneur et al. 2001). It is also found in the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002), but it is not found in the Black Sea. This species occurs from 30 to 400 m depth (Golani et al. 2006).  Outside of the region, this species occurs to Mauritania (Bauchot 1987). Lepidotrigla cavillone is not found along the southern coast of central and eastern Mediterranean Sea.

population:
Lepidotrigla cavillone is common in the region. Biomass (kg km-2) for L. cavillone was 0.217 from the continental shelf off Galicia in the Cantabrian Sea (Sánchez et al. 2004). Lepidotrigla cavillone is the most common gurnard species in the Mediterranean Sea (Colloca et al. 1997). Two bottoms trawl surveys conducted off the Balearic Islands captured 1,067 individuals of L. cavillone between 44–167 m depth with a frequency of occurrence of 49% in the spring and 1,785 individuals between 41–146 m depth with a frequency of occurrence of 30% in autumn (Massutí and Reñones 2005). This species was very common in bottom trawl surveys over the last 20 years (International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (Spanish Mediterranean) at depths from 46–120 m. Individuals ranged in size from 5–15 cm TL with an average of 10.3 cm TL (L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013). The relative abundance of L. cavillone in the north Aegean Sea had a mean of 4,729 specimens/km2 on the shelf area by bottom trawl per seasonal survey (Keskin et al. 2011). In the Gulf of Cadiz the population trend is stable based on bottom trawl surveys over 20 years (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).  According to Ozaydin et al. (2007), 1,517 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with FL ranging from 3.8 and 15.7 cm. Gristina et al. (2006) reported that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values ranged from 2–88 specimens/km2, from 62 hauls (trawls). Lamprakis et al. (2003) recorded 262 specimens (4.4 to 13.0 cm TL) collected in the Thracian Sea during 1996–1998 using two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365 m. According to Carpentieri et al. (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24 hour surveys conducted in July 2001 (304 individuals/24 hours), November 2001 (1736 individuals/ 24 hours), March 2002 (484 individuals/ 24 hours) and May 2002 (1370 individuals/ 24 hours) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout a 24 hour period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30–40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.

habitat:
This is a demersal species and mainly feeds on benthic invertebrates (Labropoulou and Machias 1998). In the Tyrrhenian Sea, juveniles migrate deeper from the coastal nursery in their first year of life, while adults migrate to shallow spawning grounds at 60–100 m depth. Individuals between 5–8 cm SL migrate offshore during growth and individuals over 9 cm SL migrate to spawning grounds. More than half of the growth in L. cavillone is complete during the first two years of life. Females are 7 cm in length at first maturity. Individuals in the Tyrrhenian Sea grow more slowly than those in the Gulf of Lions and in the Greek seas (Colloca et al. 1997, Campillo 1992, Papaconstantinou 1983). In Greek Seas, lengths raged from 4.5–16.5 cm FL (Papaconstantinou 1983). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 16.0 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females ranges from 8.2 to 10.6 cm TL  and for males is 10.6 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). A large biomasses of benthopelagic fishes, such as Lepidotrigla cavillone, were found associated with shelf-break areas containing Leptometra phalangium (Colloca et al. 2004). It is found between 30–400 m, usually on soft substrata (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
This species is caught with trawls but is usually discarded because of its small size. May be caught as bycatch in parts of its range (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). In Spain and Cyprus, this species is taken in semi-industrial fishing. It is caught with trawls and bottom gillnets, beach seines and hand lines (Fischer et al. 1987).

conservationAction:
Although there are no species-specific conservation measures in place for L. cavillone, raising the cod-end mesh size normally used by the commercial fleet (22–24mm) to the legal size of 40 mm. this could reduce the number of L. cavillone individuals captured near age at first maturity (Colloca et al. 1997). This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Red List Assessments (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Lepidotrigla cavillone is usually discarded at sea and is not of commercial value in the assessment zone; however, there are some inconsistencies between catch data reports as some countries do not or have not until recently specify gurnard species (Feijó et al. 2008). In Portugal, most individuals are discarded (Olim and Borges 2006).   This species is regularly in the markets of the western Mediterranean, Cyprus and Turkey, and occasionally elsewhere. It is marketed fresh (Fischer et al. 1987).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Lepidotrigla dieuzeidei is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known primarily from Spain, Portugal and the Mediterranean Sea. It is common in parts of its range. Although it may be caught as bycatch, it is not of commercial importance. There are no known major threats; therefore, L. dieuzeidei is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Lepidotrigla dieuzeidei is distributed throughout the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Gibraltar south to Guinea Bissau, including the western Mediterranean Sea (Richards in press). This species has a depth range of 60–600 m (Mytillineou et al. 2005).  In the Mediterranean Sea, this species has been recorded from the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998), Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004), the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988) and Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006). It is also present in the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani et al. 2006), Aegean Sea and all Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), the Mediterranean coasts of Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002) and the Marmara Sea (Eryilmaz 2002), but this species is very difficult to separate from L. cavillone (Richards in press).

population:
In the Greek Ionian Sea, CPUE (kg/hr) for L. dieuzeidei between 300–500 m was 0.81, 0.82, and 0.19 for spring, summer, and autumn, respectively and 0.01 between 500–700 m in the summer (Politou et al. 2003). This species is less common than L. cavillone and L. carolae but is often confused with these species, so its distribution and abundance may be underestimated. Lepidotrigla dieuzeidei is more common in deeper waters (about 300 m) (C. Papaconstantinou pers comm. 2013). In the Gulf of Cadiz the population is stable and increasing (both autumn and spring bottom trawl surveys) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). This species was rare in the International Bottom Trawl Survey in the Mediterranean (MEDITS) (Spanish Mediterranean) with only nine records from 65–160 m depth (L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013).  According to Gristina et al. (2006) this species was sampled during two trawl surveys carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod end mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 6 to 628 specimens/km2 from 62 hauls (trawls).

habitat:
Lepidotrigla dieuzeidei is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata (Richards 1981). Its depth ranges from 60–250 m (Hureau 1986) and from 300–600 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It feeds on crustaceans, mainly amphipods (Hureau 1986). This species is found in the sublittoral sedimentary habitats with Spatangus purpureus (MEDITS Spanish) (L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013). The maximum recorded size for this species is 20 cm TL (Bauchot 1987).

threats:
This species may be caught as bycatch in parts of its range. 

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for L. dieuzeidei. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Red List regional Mediterranean Assessments (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Lepidotrigla dieuzeudei is not a targted species but is indirectly caught in trawl fisheries and may be sold in limited markets (Ç. Keskin et al. pers. comm. 2013). In Portuguese records, L. dieuzeidei has only been separated from other Lepidotrigla spp. in trawl survey data since 2008 (ICES 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information available on the population trends. Research should be conducted in order to determine the status of this species, as it is a species of major commercial importance and it is threatened by overfishing, which has been responsible for the decline of the species in the north of the Bay of Biscay.

range:
In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the north of British Isles and the North Sea to Madeira and Walvis Bay, Namibia. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in suitable habitats throughout the region. Specific records include the south Adriatic Sea (Ungaro et al. 1999), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004), Turkish lagoons (Akin et al. 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina et al. 2006), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), Tracian Sea (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005), Catalan Sea (Colloca et al. 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner et al. 1998), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000) and Egyptian coasts (Abdallah 2002). Its depth lower limit is 700 metres, while its upper limit is 30 metres.

population:
This species is moderately common. Aggregated catch statistics for all Triglidae species show a more or less stable catch of 3,000-8,000 mt per year since the 1970s (FAO Fishstat). According to Gristina et al. (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily, using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod-end mesh opening. Mean density values ranged from three to 115 specimens/km2, from 62 hauls (trawls). Although the population trend is unknown, overfishing with most fishing gears, but especially bottom trawls, is responsible for the reduction of the species North of the Bay of Biscay. While the species was very common in 1957 (Bauchot et al. 1957), it was rare in 1998 (Quero 1998). It is considered to be common locally in Irish offshore waters, particularly off the south and southwest coasts of Ireland (Went and Kennedy 1976).

habitat:
This is a bathydemersal species, found on rocky and soft and subtrata, including sand and mud (Bianchi et al. 1993) off the coast at depths of up to 700 m (Muñoz et al. 2002). While in the Ligurian Sea this species was recorded in depth ranging from 30 to 350 m (Relini et al. 1986), elsewhere it has been recorded to 700 m. Its lifespan is of seven years, and its maximum size is 60 cm (TL).  The dietary preferences of this species is mainly composed by ophiures and crustaceans (Brachiura, Macrura and Natantia) and in less proportion by hydroids, polychaetes, fish and small crustaceans. Certain variation on dietary composition preferences is observed during the fish development. Ophiuroids gradually diminish as length increases, while Brachiura and Natantia increase. Significant seasonal variation has not been observed in the diet composition. More common preys are benthic and generally not highly mobile (eg. brittle stars). It was observed in captive specimens that the use of the spines of pectoral fins is directed to detect their prey (Macpherson 1979).Drops of oil in the mature oocyte indicate that spawning is pelagic. Almost all aspects of its reproduction are still unknown (Muñoz et al. 2002).

threats:
Since this is a species with major commercial interest, it is impacted by semi-industrial fishing in Spain, Sicily, Yugoslavia, Cyprus and Egypt, and craftsmanship. It is mainly caught with trawls, beach seines, gill nets, longlines and handlines (Fischer et al. 1987). Overfishing with most fishing gears is responsible for the reduction of the species in the North of the Bay of Biscay.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species, but its distribution overlaps with protected areas throughout its range, such as the Natura 2000 area El Cachucho, in Spain. Further research should be conducted to determine the population trends of the species.

useAndTrade:
This is a species with major commercial interest, and it is regularly or occasionally present on markets in Morocco and Turkey, being sold fresh or chilled (Fischer et al. 1987). Also, it is the most commercially important Gurnard in Greece (Caragitsou and Papaconstantinou 1994, Muñoz et al. 2002). It is not commercially targeted in Irish waters and most likely discarded and/or not identified to species level in Gurnard landings (Quigley 2005).  Olim and Borges (2006) reported discards of several species of triglids, T. lyra among them, caught by three different methods (crustacean trawl, fish trawl and purse seine) off the Algarve coast.

redListContributors:
Garcia, S., Golani, D., Palmeri, A. & Keskin, Ç.


redListCategoryRationale:
European and regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as there is no information on the population size, trends and other threats apart from fishing activities affecting the species are not well known. Research should be conducted to establish the status of this species throughout its range.

range:
In the eastern Atlantic, the species is present from England and Norway through the Canary Islands and the Azores southwards to Cape of Good Hope and Mozambique (Tortonese 1975, İlhan 2013). Heemstra (1982) recognizes two valid subspecies: Chelidonichthys lastoviza lastoviza, which ranges south to Angola, and Chelidonichthys lastoviza africana, which occurs in South Africa (Heemstra 1986). It is also present through the Mediterranean Sea, and in the Greek Mediterranean it shows a restricted bathymetrical distribution, being present between 32 and 191 m in May and between 32 and 106 m in September (Terrats et al. 2000). It reaches a maximum depth of 240 metres (Fischer et al. 1987), and its depth upper limit is 10 metres.

population:
There is no information available for the population size and trend of this species. However, it has been suggested that the Rock Gurnard stock was overfished in Saronikos Gulf (Papaconstantinou 1986).  

habitat:
Gurnards are demersal and inhabit the continental and insular shelves of tropical and temperate seas to depths of 240 metres, found on sandy, muddy or rubble substrates (Fischer et al. 1987). In Crete, it occurs in association with species like Arnoglossus thori, Boops boops, Bothus podas podas, Diplodus annularis, Mullus surmuletus, Pagrus pagrus, Scorpaena porcus and Serranus cabrilla (Tsimenides et al. 1992).  The most important prey items in the diet of the Rock Gurnard in terms of weight are benthic invertebrates (Labropoulou and Machias 1998) like Mysidacea and Decapoda (Terrats et al. 2000). In May, the main species were Decapoda reptantia (28.9%) Mysidacea (24.2%), Cephalopoda (23.3%) and Decapoda natantia (18.6%). In September, Decapoda reptantia (44.4%) and D. natantia (26%). Among the identified Mysidacea in May, Paramysis hellery and Lophogaster typicus were the most abundant species. Crangonidae and Pomacentridae were the most abundant Decapoda preys (Terrats et al. 2000).  Reproduction was observed to take place between winter and early spring and occasionally in early winter. Males began to mature after completion of the second year and the females after the third (Papaconstantinou 1986). Long 4.5/42cm (İlhan 2013) and from 5 to 25 cm according to Terrats et al. (2000). Data on diameter (mm) of egg (1.23-1.32 in nature; 1.29 artificial), diameter of oil globule (0.17-0.18 in nature; 0.22 artificial), hatched yolk-sac larvae (3.5-3.6) and larvae start of active feeding (around 4.7) (Dulcic et al. 2001). A table with Trigloporus lastoviza's preferences on salinity, depth and temperature is included in Labropoulou and Machias (1998). At the time of the study in waters around Crete, the species was present among 30 and 165 meters below sea level, between temperatures of 14.6 and 24ºC (the maximum available during the study) and salinities among 38.12 and 39.75‰.

threats:
The species is being caught as by-catch, discarded or as a target species in some fishing areas. The species is part of the discards in bottom and beam trawling, although there are not statistics to evaluate the level of threat that this poses to the species (Rocha 2007). However, it has been suggested that the Rock Gurnard stock was overfished in Saronikos Gulf (Papaconstantinou 1986).

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range, but it is likely. Further research should be conducted to determine the population trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is significant both for the Greek trawl and small scale fishery (Terrats 2000). The exploitation rate was considered rather high, and suggests that the Rock Gurnard stock was overfished in Saronikos Gulf (Papaconstantinou 1986).Gurnards are considered bycatch in bottom trawl and beam trawl fisheries although, due to decrease of traditionally targeted species, their interest and value has increased. They are residual occurrences of the species in artisanal catches (Rocha 2007). In Málaga (Spain), the species takes part of the fleet catches, reaching its maximum values in April, although in general is a small amount of them (Chapuli et al. 1979). In Irish waters, it is not commercially targeted, and most likely taken as a by-catch which is discarded and/or not identified to species level in (Quigley 2005). Although there has been a significant increase in French landings over the last decade, the data are not related to fishing effort and the species is currently not subject to TAC/Quota. Nevertheless, the species may be increasingly targeted in the future elsewhere throughout its range.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Melamphaes falsidicus is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores, Madeira, and Ireland. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
This species is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean. Within Europe, it is known from Madeira and the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014), and Ireland.

habitat:
This is a marine, bathypelagic, deep-water species.


range:
Circumglobal in tropical through warm temperate seas, including Hawaiian islands, but except eastern Pacific (Eschmeyer 2015). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
There is no information about the population of this fish.

habitat:
Melamphaidae eat gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (Moore in press).

threats:
There are no species specific threats but they can get caught in deepwater trawls.

useAndTrade:
There are no species specific fisheries.


range:
This fish is found in tropical waters worldwide (Moore in press). This species is found between 55ºN and 11ºS in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, young are taken in waters as shallow as 150m (Ebling 1962). Fish of the Melamphaidae family are found in depths between 200 and 2,000 m (Moore in press). Kotlyar (2011) sampled for M. polylepis by using open-mouth nets at depths to 4,228 m. Juveniles often are found deeper than 200-300 m. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
Species of the Melamphaidae family eat gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (Moore in press). Kotlyar (2011) sampled for M. polylepis by using open-mouth nets at depths of 0-4,228 m. Juveniles often are found deeper than 200-300 m. The largest specimen found was 6.8 cm including previously sampled specimens.

threats:
There are no species specific threats but may be caught in deep-water trawls.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place.

useAndTrade:
This species is not targeted by any fisheries but may get caught in deep-water trawls.


range:
Can be found in tropical and subtropical waters in the north Atlantic Ocean (Moore in press) between 40° and 10°N. Fish of the Melamphaidae family can be found in depths of 200-2,000 metres (Moore in press). It was also found that a greater percent was found to be caught deeper during the day (Cradock et al. 1990). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
Species in the family Melamphaidae eat gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (Moore in press). Melamphaes pumilus has been caught at depth intervals between 0-200 m down to 800-1,000 m. It was also found that a greater percent was found to be caught deeper during the day. At night, it was equally dispersed between 0 and 600 metres. During the day M. Pumilus were found between 600 and 1,000 m.

threats:
There are no species specific threats but it can be caught in deep-water trawls.

useAndTrade:
This species is of no commercial importance.


range:
Melamphaes simus is found in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, including the eastern Pacific. Adults are found at depths below 150-200m and juveniles are found at depths of 35-40 m (Kotlyar 2004). M. simus is also found in the oceanic regions of the Brazilian coast between Bahia and Rio de Janeiro (Campos et al. 2008), in waters of the Azores (Santos et al. 1997), and in the eastern Gulf of Mexico within a 30 km radius of 27Â°N 86Â°W (Hopkins et al. 1996).  It likely occurs off of West Africa, however, it has not yet been captured there unless further information is found (Iwamoto pers comm 2013). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (off the mainland coast, the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes et al. 2009).

population:
Eastern Central Atlatnic: Melamphaes simus can be common, but is not abundant (Hopkins et al. 1996). More research is needed regarding the population status and trends of Melamphaes simus.

habitat:
M. simus is a dwarf species, maturing at less than 3 cm (Moore and Paxton 1999). In the Gulf of Mexico, M. simus primarily feeds on copepods, and has been shown to feed in deeper waters compared to other members of the Melamphaidae family (Hopkins et al. 1996). This is an epi-mesopelagic species (Iwamoto pers comm 2013).

threats:
There are no known threats faced by Melamphaes simus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Melamphaes simus.


range:
Found in subtropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean (Moore in press). Elsewhere, it is found off the southeastern coast of Australia. Species of the family Melamphaidae can be found between 500 and 2,000 m deep (Moore in press). This species stays between 150 and 200 m deep when young. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
There is no information about this species population.

habitat:
Species in the Melamphaidae family eat gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (Moore in press).

threats:
There are no species specific threats but they can get caught in deep-water trawls.

useAndTrade:
This species is not commercially important.


range:
This fish can be found in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean (Moore in press) and in the north Atlantic Ocean between 10°N and 45°N; however, there have been two specimen caught further south (MCZ 20º S 9ºW). The adults are found at depths below 500–600 m and the juveniles below 50 m (Kotlyar 2004). Species in the Melamphaidae family can be found between 200 and 2000 metres (Moore in press). Likely migrators as vertically at night upper limit is between 500-1,000 m at night, taken by hooks to 1,600 m (Maul 1986). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (off the mainland coast, the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
Species in the Melamphaidae family eat gelatinous fish and small crustaceans (Moore in press). The adults are found at depths below 500–600 m and the juveniles below 50 m (Kotlyar 2004).

threats:
There are no species specific threats but they can be caught in deep-water trawls.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Poromitra capito occurs in the Azores, off mainland Portugal, Madeira and in the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Poromitra capito occurs in the Azores, off mainland Portugal, Madeira (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Poromitra capito can be found in subtropical and temperate North Atlantic Ocean to off Greenland and South to about 10º N.  Species from the family Melamphaidae can be found between the depths of 200 and 2,000 metres. Adults are found most commonly from 800-1,000 metres and are bathypelagic (Maul 1986).

population:
There is no information about the population.

habitat:
Species from the Melamphaidae family eat gelatinous fish and small crustaceans.

threats:
There are no species specific threats but they can get caught by deep-water trawls.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regaionl Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Poromitra crassiceps has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, though it is absent from the Mediterranean Sea and the Arctic Ocean. It can be abundant in areas of its distribution. There are no known threats. Therefore, P. crassiceps is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Poromitra crassiceps has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, excluded only in the Mediterranean Sea and the Arctic Ocean. However, the exact distribution needs to be defined, as it was formerly assigned as the senior synonym of eight nominal species: P. atlantica, P. coronata, P. cristiceps, P. frontosa, P. nigriceps, P. nigrofulva, P. rugosa, P. unicornis (Kotlyar 2008). Typically, P. crassiceps occurs at depths of 700 to 3300 m (Garcia and Morgan 2002).

population:
Poromitra crassiceps is relatively abundant (Parin and Ebeling 1980).

habitat:
Poromitra crassiceps is a bathypelagic species that is typically found over slope areas (Garcia and Morgan 2002, Pusch et al. 2004). Poromitra crassiceps is found most abundantly at approximately 800 m depth, with lesser catches by day than by night, suggesting a vertical migration to the depth horizon at night (Willis and Pearcy 1982). The presence of P. crassiceps in some demersal trawls may indicate a benthopelagic feeding strategy, feeding primarily on copepods, amphipods and salps (Mauchline and Gordon 1984).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to Poromitra crassiceps.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Poromitra crassiceps.

useAndTrade:
Members of the Melamphaidae family are often caught on deep-water trawls, but are of no commercial importance (Moore and Paxton 1999). There is currently no speices-specific information regarding the use and/or trade of Poromitra crassiceps.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Poromitra megalopscan be found in the Azores, off mainland Portugal and in the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Poromitra megalopscan be found in the Azores, off mainland Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) and in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, Poromitra megalops can be found in tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean. This species is considered a circumtropical species with two morphotypes (Kotlyar 2010).  Adults are often caught below 400 metres, while the fry can be found at depths of 150 to 2,000 metres (Kotlyar 2010). Fish from the family melamphaidae can be found between depths of 200 and 2,000 metres. This is a mesopelagic species.

population:
There is no information about the population of P. megalops.

habitat:
The largest specimen found was 6.2 cm long (Kotlyar 2010). Species in the family of Melamphaidae eat gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans.

threats:
There are no species specific threats to this species but it can be caught in deep-water trawls.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation threats.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) The fish is a near-endemic to the European region, distributed in the northeastern Atlantic from Greenland to the Azores. It is a bathypelagic fish occurring from 0 - 3,000 m. There are no known major threats and is not utilized. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The fish is distributed in the northeastern Atlantic, from northwestern Ireland south to the Azores (Kotlyar 2009). In the western Atlantic, it is found from off Nova Scotia south to New York, USA (Kotlyar 2009).

population:
Poromitra nigriceps appears to be rare in museum collections (Kotlyar 2004).

habitat:
Poromitra nigriceps is seined with non-closing fishing gear in the range of depths 0 - 3,000 m and with bottom fishing gear is seined at 1,640– 2,000 m (Kotlyar 2009). There is limited information available on its life history characteristics.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Scopeloberyx opisthopterus is found in the Canary Islands, the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Scopeloberyx opisthopterus is found in the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002), the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Scopeloberyx opisthopterus is widely distributed in the tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

population:
There is no population information available for Scopeloberyx opisthopterus.

habitat:
Scopeloberyx opisthopterus is a bathypelagic, oceanic species which generally occurs at depths of 500–600 m (Kotlyar 2004).  However, it can sometimes be found down to depths of 1,450 m. Species from the family Melamphaidae primarily feed on gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (FAO 1999).

threats:
Due to the small size of this species, it is unlikely that it is being taken as by-catch in significant quantities. There are no known threats to Scopeloberyx opisthopterus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Scopeloberyx opisthopterus.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Scopeloberyx robustus occurs in the Canary Islands, the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Scopeloberyx robustus occurs in the Canary Islands (Brito et al. 2002), the Azores, Madeira and off mainland Portugal (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Scopeloberyx robustus can be found in tropical and subtropical (and temperate) waters of all oceans besides the Arctic and Mediterranean Sea (Moore in press).  Scopeloberyx robustus can be found at depths between 0 and 4,740 m and is bathypelagic. Adults are typically found below 500 metres. 

population:
There is no information about the population. 

habitat:
Species from Melamphaidae eat gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (Moore in press).

threats:
This species is not commercially important but it can be caught in deep-water trawls. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Scopelogadus beanii is widely distributed globally. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is known from Greenland to Madeira. Little is known about its ecology or population status, but there are no known major threats. Therefore, S. beanii is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Scopelogadus beanii is known from the Atlantic, southern Indian, and western South Pacific Oceans (Maul 1996). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Iceland to the northwestern coast of Spain (Gartner and Zwerner 1988), as well as off the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).

population:
Scopelogadus beanii is relatively abundant in the lower meso-bathypelagic in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean (Gartner and Musick 1989).

habitat:
Scopelogadus beanii is a deep-sea species, found typically at 800—1,000 m or deeper (Maul 1986). Primary prey items include gelatinous zooplankton (mainly salps) and associated amphipods, although calanoid copepods were important for mid-water individuals (Gartner and Musick 1989).

redListAssessors:
Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Carpenter, K.E., de Morais, L., Harold, A. & Knudsen, S.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Acanthochaenus luetkenii is found in subtropical and temperate waters worldwide, but within Europe is only recorded from the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Acanthochaenus luetkenii is found in subtropical and temperate waters worldwide (Moore et al. 2003). Within the European region, it has been recorded from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014, Santos et al. 1997). Larvae Specimens have been collected or seen from depths of 951 to 5,400 m (Moore in press).

population:
Acanthochaenus luetkenii is a rare demersal species (Moore et al. 2003).

habitat:
Little is known about the habitats and ecology of A. luetkenii. Individuals of A. luetkenii are sexually mature by 8.0 cm, and the maximum recorded size is 14.1 cm (Moore in press).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place for A. levisquamosus.

useAndTrade:
There are no known uses of A. luetkenii.


redListCategoryRationale:
Bonapartia pedaliota is a circum-global species. In the European region, B. pedaliota has a strong presence in the southern most European waters and is rare north of Spain. Bonapartia pedaliota is an abundant species in the Atlantic and was the second-most abundant species associated with the Mid-Atlantic ridge. There is no use and trade information available for B. pedaliota, and it does not appear to be utilized. There are no species-specific threats to B. pedaliota, and its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Bonapartia pedaliota is widely distributed in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, B. pedaliota is known from Rockall Trough south to the Canary Islands; however, it is rare north of Gulf of Cadiz, Spain. It is found at depths ranging from 100–1,200 m (Bogutskaya 2007).

population:
Bonapartia pedaliota was the second most abundant species, contributing 7.5% in numbers, of the total catch collected at depth interval of 200–1,500 m near the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Sutton et al. 2008). While its distribution favors southern North Atlantic waters, four of 26 trawls conducted between the coordinates 48–54°N, 25–32°W (ten degrees south of the Rockall Trough) contained B. pedaliota (Lipinski and Janusz 1985). Day time catches in the waters between the Azores and the Canary Islands, at depths of 100–300 m, yielded 23 post larval specimens. Night catches had similar results, though juveniles were caught at depths of 200–300 m and adults at depths of 200–500 m (Badcock and Merrett 1975). A taxonomic breakdown of fish larvae collected in 1991 from the Canary Islands shows B. pedaliota representing only 0.02% of the 8,699 collected specimens (Rodriguez 2000). This species was collected three times in bottom trawl surveys (total seven specimens) off the Gulf of Cadiz over 20 years. However, this is not representative of the species' abundance as there are issue with the identification and also the sampling methodology (bottom trawl) in Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Bonapartia pedaliota is a midwater species which has been associated with deepwater coldseeps at depths exceeding 1,000 m. It was collected by trawl in this habitat in numbers ranging from 1–3 individuals (Ross et al. 2010). The maximum recorded length for this species is 7.2 cm SL (Quéro et al. 1990). 

threats:
There are no species-specific threats documented for B. pedaliota.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts for B. pedaliota; however, its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014). There is a general rule mandated by the European Commission to avoid discards (Accessed through the European Commission portal, http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/reform, April 2014).

useAndTrade:
There is no use-and-trade information available for B. pedaliota from European waters.

redListAssessors:
Kobyliansky, S., Herrera, J. & de Sola, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC Cyclothone acclinidens, a circumglobal meso-bathypelagic fish, is found throughout Atlantic waters in depths ranging from 300–1,200 meters. Its population favors southern European waters around the Canary Islands. Species of the Gonostomatid genus Cyclothone, are very abundant and wide spread and are numerically dominant in the meso-and bathypelagic zones in all major oceans. In midwater trawls at depths greater than 300 meters, adults are frequently collected. This species is not utilized and has a widespread range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cyclothone acclinidens is a circumglobal meso-bathypelagic species. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, C. acclinidens is known from south of Iceland to the Canary Islands (Badcock 1984) and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997). It is typically found at depths ranging from 300–1,200 m (Moore et al. 2003). It is most prevalent in tropical to temperate waters (Badcock 1984).

population:
Species of the Gonostomatid genus Cyclothone, of which C. acclinidens is one of the most abundant and wide spread, are numerically dominant in the meso-and bathypelagic zones in all major oceans. In midwater trawls at depths greater than 300 meters, adults are routinely collected (Smith and Laver 1981). Over the course of eight months, samples collected weekly from six sampling stations off the Canary Islands showed C. acclinidens as representing 0.16% of all collected larvae (Moyano et al. 2009). Cyclothone species are very common in the open ocean (S. Kobylianski pers comm. 2013).

habitat:
Cyclothone acclinidens is a midwater fish that feeds on herbivorous species such as copepods (DeWitt and Cailliet 1972). The maximum recorded length for this species is 6.5 cm SL. This species is often observed floating motionless and nearly vertical (Smith and Laver 1981).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats documented for C. acclinidens.  It is caught as bycatch in parts of its range and competes for resources with various species of shrimp, showing no niche differentiation within their shared midwater habitat (Hopkins and Sutton 1998).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts in place for C. acclinidens. However, this species has a circumglobal range that overlaps with numerous Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Cyclothone acclinidens is not utilized (Nevenzel and Menon 1980).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC In Europe, Cyclothone alba is widely distributed and occurs to over 4,000 m depth. This species is semelparous, releasing approximately 200 to 650 eggs at the end of its life and staying in the egg and larval stages for two to three months and feeds on copepods and ostracopods. Cyclothone alba is abundant throughout its range. This species is not utilized and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Cyclothone alba is a circumglobal species that is primarily distributed in tropical to temperate waters, occurring most frequently between 40o N and 40o S (Miya and Nemoto 1986, Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, C. alba has been observed as far north as just below the Arctic circle, off the Norwegian coast, but is primarily known from south of Iceland (Pethon 1981, Gislason and Astthorsson 1992) to Madeira and the Canary Islands (Miya and Nemoto 1986). This species has been recorded at depths ranging from 25–4,938 m (Mundy 2005). This species appears to concentrate at depths between temperatures of about 5–8°C (Miya and Nemoto 1986).

population:
Cyclothone alba is common and abundant in most parts of its range (S. Kobylianski pers comm. 2013). The genus Cyclothone is one of the most abundant groups of fishes in the ocean, and is the most speciose genus of the family Gonostomatidae. These fishes are dominant components of the midwater deep-sea fish assemblage, comprising 50-70% of the midwater fish catches across various parts of the world's oceans (Miya and Nishida 1996, Berry and Perkins 1966, Goodyear et al. 1972, Maynard et al. 1975, Badcock and Merret 1976, Miya et al. 1995).

habitat:
Cyclothone alba is a mesopelagic species, usually concentrated between 300 and 500 meters, with a peak abundances occurring at 350 m both day and night. This species does not undergo diurnal migrations. Relative to other Cyclothone species, C. alba is a more shallow-water species (Miya and Nishida 1996). This species exhibits sexual dimorphism. The size over which 90% of males are mature is 15.6 mm, and for females, 19.7 mm. All males and females are mature by two years of age, at lengths of 21 mm for males and 26 mm for females. This species is semelparous, releasing approximately 200 to 650 eggs at the end of its life. Egg and larval stages last approximately 2 to 3 months (Miya and Nemoto 1986). This species feeds on copepods and ostracopods (Gordon et al. 1985). The maximum recorded size for this species is 3 cm (Badcock 1984). Sexual dimorphism and/or hermaphroditism is present in many species of this family (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to C. alba. However, this species is caught as bycatch in parts of its range but does not appear to be a major threat.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. alba; however, this species’ broad range overlaps with numerous Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized on European waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC Cyclothone braueri is a circumglobal species which is found in subtropical to temperate waters. In European waters, this species occur to about 66°N, including the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the most commonly captured midwater species in the northeastern Atlantic ocean and is also very abundant in museum collections. This species is not utilized in European waters and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Cyclothone braueri is a circumglobal species which is found in subtropical to Antarctic and Arctic waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, C. braueri is widely distributed, occurring to about 66°N (Badcock 1984). It is known from the Mediterranean Sea (Goodyear et al. 1972), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). This species has a recorded depth range of 10–2,000 meters (Reiner 1996) although it is more typically found at depths between 200– 900 m (Fricke 1999).

population:
Cyclothone braueri is one of the most commonly caught species in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean (Mauchline and Gordon 1985). The population of C. braueri has two peaks in length-frequency distribution in the northeastern Atlantic, one corresponding to males and immature females of smaller standard length and the other to larger, mature females. In autumn a third peak, representing a large influx of juveniles, was evident. Although the overall trend of the length-frequency distribution did not vary with latitude (conducted from 20-60–N) (McKelvie 1989), the size distribution was found to be latitudinally-dependent, with peak abundances occurring at lower standard lengths for both males and females, and maximum size at maturity tending to decrease with decreasing latitude (McKelvie 1989). Throughout the Mediterranean, C. braueri was reported to have a catch rate from trawling of anywhere from 120–564 specimen per hour at its depth of maximum abundance (500–600 m) (Goodyear et al. 1972). The genus Cyclothone is one of the most abundant groups of fishes in the ocean, and is the most speciose genus of the family Gonostomatidae. These fishes are dominant components of the midwater deep-sea fish assemblage, comprising 50-70% of the midwater fish catches across various parts of the world's oceans (Berry and Perkins 1966, Goodyear et al. 1972, Maynard et al. 1975, Miya et al. 1995, Miya and Nishida 1996).  Population structure The population of C. braueri has two peaks in the length-frequency distribution in the eastern North Atlantic, one corresponding to males and immature females of smaller standard length, and the other to larger, mature females. In the autumn, a third peak which represented a large influx of juveniles was evident. Although the general shape of the length-frequency distribution did not vary with latitude (study performed from 20-60N), the (McKelvie 1989), the size distribution was found to be latitudonally-dependent, with peak abundances occuring at lower standard lengths for both males and females, and maximum size at maturity tending to decrease with decreasing latitude  (McKelvie 1989). Partial sequences taken from widely separated localities in the western South Pacific, the western North Atlantic, and the Mediterranean Sea showed virtually no intraspecific variation for the 12S and 16S rRNA genes (Miya and Nishida 1996).  Centers of abundance In the eastern North Atlantic, Cyclothone braueri was present at greatest densities at 30N in both the Spring and the Autumn (McKelvie 1989).Cyclothone alba is abundant in museum collections (1117 lots), and the majority of collections contain many individuals (>15 specimens per lot)(FishNet2 Database searched February 2013).

habitat:
The diet of C. braueri is characterized by low diversity of prey items, feeding primarily on copepods (Palma 1990). Cyclothone braueri is a short-lived, semelparous species; females mature and spawn for the first time in their second year. Maximum size and size at maturity tend to decrease with decreasing latitude and size at maturity has been reported from 20–22 mm SL. Spawning occurs seasonally at high latitudes and tends to be more protracted at lower latitudes. Observations from 30–N indicated that spawning was almost continuous at this latitude. Juveniles occurred in the greatest numbers in Autumn in higher-latitude areas where spawning occurred seasonally (McKelvie 1989). In the Mediterranean, this species is associated with deep water canyons (600–800 m) (Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to C. braueri. However, it is caught as bycatch in parts of its range but this does not appear to pose a major threat.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Cyclothone braueri. However, this species’ broad range overlaps with a number of Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in European waters. 


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC Cyclothone livida is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean. In European waters, this species occurs from the Azoresto about 60°N. This species occurs to 2,000 m depth but is more concentrated at or just below 800 m during the day. Cyclothone livida appears to be an uncommon member of the genus Cyclothone, and there is little information available concerning its biology. This species is not utilized in Europe and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Cyclothone livida is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical eastern Atlantic (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, C. livida occurs from south of Iceland and Faroe Islands (Badcock 1984) to the Azores (Santos 1997), Madeira and the Canary Islands (Badcock 1984). It is found at depths ranging from 300–2,000 m, though it is usually taken from between 500–800 m (Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
Cyclothone livida appears to be an uncommon member of the genus Cyclothone. Cyclothone livida is not often seen in European waters, as suggested by a French study conducted in 1966 concerned with identifying rarely encountered species off the French Atlantic coasts. Only three specimens were found (Quero and Vayne 1966). Data obtained from vertical tows indicated that the population tended to be centered below 800 m depth during the day (Badcock 1970). However, this species was commonly found in pelagic trawl surveys in 2009 off Eastern Central Atlantic near the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010).  The genus Cyclothone is one of the most abundant groups of fishes in the ocean, and is the most speciose genus of the family Gonostomatidae. These fishes are dominant components of the midwater deep-sea fish assemblage, comprising 50-70% of the midwater fish catches across various parts of the world's oceans (Berry and Perkins 1966, Goodyear et al. 1972, Maynard et al. 1975, Miya et al. 1995, Miya and Nishida 1996).

habitat:
The family Gonostomatidae consists of primarily mesopelagic and bathypelagic oceanic species. Sexual dimorphism and/or hermaphroditism is present in many species (Harold in prep 2013). Life history variables, such as size at maturity, age at first reproduction, number of spawnings during lifespan, and fecundity, were found to increase with increasing depth range in three species of Cyclothone (Miya and Nemoto 1991). Species of this genus do not exhibit diurnal migratory behavior (Miya and Nishida 1996). The family Gonostomatidae consists of primarily mesopelagic and bathypelagic oceanic species. Sexual dimorphism and/or hermaphroditism is present in many species (Harold FAO ECA Guide in prep). The maximum recorded size for C. livida is 5 cm SL (Badcock 1984). 

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to C. livida. However, it is caught as bycatch in parts of its range but this does not appear to pose a major threat.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. livida. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is not utilized in European waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cyclothone microdon is a common species, occurring throughout the eastern North Atlantic Ocean to over 5,000 depth. Cyclothone microdon undergoes protandrous sex reversal, and is known to have a long spawning period. Juveniles and adults do not tend to co-occur, and are either spatially or temporally separated. This species is not utilized in European waters and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Cyclothone microdon is a circumglobal species, found from subtropical to polar waters (Harold in press). This species is widespread in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it has been found from Norway and the Faroe Islands south to Madeira and the Canary Islands (Badcock 1984). This species has a broad depth distribution of 0–5,301 m (Coad and Reist 2004, Cook et al. 2012). Spanish trawl surveys have not recorded this species in 20 years (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

population:
Cyclothone microdon is a common species (Kobylianski et al. 2010). Cyclothone microdon is an abundant species in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and over the mid-Atlantic ridge (Sutton et al. 2008). It was found to be a component of a large, northern (65–45°N) low-diversity, high abundance assemblage. It was also characteristic of two discreet deep-meso/upper bathypelagic asssemblages which were found near the Azores (Sutton et al. 2008) and was the single most dominant species collected over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the area of the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone, accounting for 30% of the total. At depths of 1,900–2,900 m, C. microdon represented 96% of the total. At northern latitudes, the population generally consisted of a unimodal peak of adult females. Cyclothone microdon was found to be most abundant at higher latitudes of 60 and 50°N, and decreased in abundance until around 20°N, where none were captured. At 60 and 50°N, large adult females dominated the population, with males occurring in small numbers. There is little change in the mean size of females with decreasing latitude in the eastern North Atlantic (McKelvie 1989). Males did not make up more than 10% of the total catch at any latitude, and the number of males per female decreased with latitude and by season. Small individuals accounted for only a very small proportion of the catch at 60°N and 50°N, but were very abundant at 40°N in the autumn. Adults and juveniles do not appear to co-occur, and are partitioned either spatially or, if they occur in roughly the same geographic location, temporally. A greater number of individuals at advanced stages of maturity occurred at lower latitudes, and spawning appears to be somewhat protracted and not entirely seasonal (Sutton et al. 2008). Cyclothone microdon is also very abundant in the Rockall Trough (Mauchline and Gordon 1984). However, Spanish trawl surveys have not recorded this species in 20 years (G. de Sola pers. comm. 2013)

habitat:
Cyclothone microdon possesses a degree of plasticity in life history traits which is dependent on location. In the eastern North Atlantic, this species is thought to have a prolonged spawning period from spring to autumn. Females are sexually mature at 3.0 cm SL, and live through at least two spawnings. Spawning occurs later in life due to protandrous sex change (McKelvie 1989). Females in the more advanced stages of maturity occur in deeper waters than males and less advanced females (Merrett 1994). Life history variables, such as size at maturity, age at first reproduction, number of spawnings during lifespan, and fecundity, were found to increase with increasing depth range in three species of Cyclothone (Miya and Nemoto 1991). Average fecundity ranged from 2,000 to 10,000 eggs/ovary pair, increasing in higher latitudes (Badcock 1984). The maximum recorded size for this species is 6.6 cm SL (Badcock 1984).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to C. microdon.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. microdon. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Cyclothone obscura is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Cyclothone obscura is circumtropically distributed. Its northern-most occurrences in the Pacific are from Hawaii (23oN) and Japan (18oN) (Miya and Nemoto 1987). In Europe, it is known only from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). This species is the deepest-dwelling member of the genus Cyclothone, occurring at depths ranging from 900-3500 m (Mundy 2005).

population:
In Japan, tows in shallow (200-600 m) and deep (600-1000 m) waters collected 20,840 individual Cyclothone specimens, only one of which was C. obscura (Miya and Nemoto 1991). However, in the Gulf of Mexico, C. obscura was one of them most abundant species collected at 1149 m depths (Ross et al. 2010). Cyclothone obscura is moderately abundant in museum collections (100 lots), and many of  the collections contain many individuals (>15 specimens per lot) (FishNet2 Database searched February 2013).

habitat:
Cyclothone obscura is bathypelagic and reaches a maximum size of 6.6 cm SL (Quero et al. 1990).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats to C. obscura.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. obscura, however its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas (World Database of Protected Areas 2010).

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for C. obscura.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cyclothone pallida is distributed throughout the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and can occur to over 4,000 m depth. This species is sexually dimorphic and has not been confirmed as protandric. It feeds primarily on copepods. This species is not utilized in European waters and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cyclothone pallida is circumglobal, and is found in tropical, subtropical waters and sub-arctic waters (Beamish et al. 1999). Cyclothone pallida is widespread throughout the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it has been found from Iceland south to Madeira and the Canary Islands. It typically occurs at depths of 16–4,663 m (Mundy 2005).

population:
Cyclothone pallida is a common species (Kobylianski et al. 2010). Additional species-specific information about the population trends of this species in the region is unavailable. The genus Cyclothone is one of the most abundant groups of fishes in the ocean, and is the most speciose genus of the family Gonostomatidae. These fishes are dominant components of the midwater deep-sea fish assemblage, comprising 50-70% of the midwater fish catches across various parts of the world's oceans (Berry and Perkins 1966, Goodyear et al. 1972, Maynard et al. 1975, Badcock and Merret 1976,  Miya et al. 1995, Miya and Nishida 1996).

habitat:
Cyclothone pallida is sexually dimorphic and has not been confirmed as protandric (Miya and Nemoto 1986). It feeds primarily on copepods (Maynard 1982). Species in the genus do not exhibit diurnal migratory behavior (Miya and Nishida 1996). The maximum recorded size of this species is 7.5 cm SL (Gon 1990). Outside of the region in Sagami Bay Japan, male of this species attain maturity at about three to four years of age and length of 3–3.5 cm SL while females reach maturity at five to six years of age and between 4–4.5 cm SL (Miya and Nemoto 1986). 

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to C. pallida.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. pallida. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Cyclothone parapallida is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Cyclothone parapallida is a circumglobal meso-bathypelagic fish that is distributed throughout tropical areas in the Pacific and Atlantic ocean with greatest abundance in the equatorial regions. Its Northern limit in the Atlantic ocean appears to be around 25°N (Badcock 1982). Within Europe, it is known only from Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).  Located at depths within 800 to 1500 meters below sea level (Badcock 1982).

population:
There is little to no information on the population of Cyclothone parapallida.

habitat:
Cyclothone parapallida has a maximum size of 8.4 cm. Females of this particularly species are usually larger than males (Badcock 1982).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats for Cylothone parapallida.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation efforts in place for Cylclothone parapallida.

useAndTrade:
There are no known uses for Cylothone parapallida.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Cyclothone pseudopallida is circumglobally distributed in tropical, temperate and sub-arctic waters. In the region, this species occur off the Canary Islands but rarely north of them. This species can occur to over 4,000 m depth. Cyclothone pseudopallida is a common and abundant species in many parts of its range. Cyclothone pseudopallida is sexually dimorphic, with smaller males and larger females. This species is not utilized in European waters and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Cyclothone pseudopallida is circum-globally distributed in tropical, temperate waters, and sub-arctic waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, C. pseudopallida occurs off the Canary Islands and is rare farther north (Badcock 1984). It is found at depths ranging from 0–4,938 m, but is more typically found at depths of up to 1,000 m (Chernova 2011).

population:
Cyclothone pseudopallida is a common spcies (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). The genus Cyclothone is one of the most abundant groups of fishes in the ocean, and is the most speciose genus of the family Gonostomatidae. These fishes are dominant components of the midwater deep-sea fish assemblage, comprising 50 to 70% of the midwater fish catches across various parts of the world's oceans (Berry and Perkins 1966, Goodyear et al. 1972, Maynard et al. 1975,  Miya et al. 1995, Miya and Nishida 1996). About 92% of collected C. pseudopallida were pulled from depths of 900–1,500 meters, notably deeper than the sympatric C. pallida (Badcock 1982).

habitat:
Cyclothone pseudopallida is sexually dimorphic, with smaller males and larger females (Miya and Nemoto 1986). Cyclothone pseudopallida is sexually mature (over 90% of males and females mature) at 19.8 mm for males, and 30.5 mm. for females. Males mature at two years of age, while females mature at three. This species is iteroparous, and egg counts ranged from 313 to 1,542 eggs. There is also evidence that the species is associated with cold seep habitats (McClain-Counts 2011). Larger individuals of this species tend to occur at greater depths (Ross et al. 2010). The maximum recorded size for this species is 5.8 cm (Gon 1990).  Outside the region in Sagami Bay, Japan; recruitment occurs between August and February (Miya and Nemoto 1991) and C. pseudopallida always occurs in the second layer within the genus's depth distribution, regardless of species composition (Miya and Nemoto 1987).  

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to C. pseudopallida.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. pseudopallida. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Cyclothone pygmaea is endemic and widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. Little is known about the population status or trends, but there are no known threats to the deepwater habitat of this species. It is not commercially exploited owing to its very small size. Therefore, C. pygmaea is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Cyclothone pygmaea is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is widespread and records include the Strait of Sicily (Cuttitta et al. 2004), the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin et al. 2003, Rodriguez et al. 2013) and the Algerian basin (Moranta et al. 1998, Golani et al. 2006).

population:
This is a very small, deepwater species. No general information is available on population size or trends. However, it is abundant and common near the Balearic Islands (Torres et al. 2011, Rodriguez et al. 2013).

habitat:
This species lives between 200 and 1,800 m in the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin et al. 2003) and between 200 and 800 m in the Algerian basin (Moranta et al. 1998). Its planktonic stage occurs at 100 m depth (Cuttitta et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Cyclothone pygmaea was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC Diplophos taenia occurs to about 40°N in the eastern North Atlantic but may be distributed farther north in Europe. This species can occur to 800m depth. This species is not utilized in European waters and there are no major threats. It is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Diplophos taenia is circum-globally distributed in tropical and subtropical waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, D. taenia occurs to about 40°N (Ozawa et al. 1990). However, its range may extend more northward in Europe (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013). Diplophos taenia can occur from 15–800 m depth (Yang 1996).

population:
Diplophos taenia is relatively rare in Europe. In Spain, no records were found from 20 years of bottom trawl surveys (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). Five specimens found in 29 cruise vessels in the mid-Atlantic ridge (Kobylianski et al. 2010).

habitat:
Diplophos taenia is a mid-water species that can occur to 800 m depth and is associated with seamounts (Vinnichenko 1997). Meristics of D. taenia are fewer in low latitudes and increase with higher latitudes. This species reaches a maximum length of 27.6 cm SL but is more typically seen to 20 cm (Quéro et al. 1990). Juvenile D. taenia juveniles are found in the surface mixed layer at 0–150 m, and occur in roughly equal numbers throughout the year (Johnson 1972). The species feeds primarily on euphausiids, comprising roughly 85% of their diet (Hopkins et al. 1996).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to D. taenia.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts for D. taenia. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population. This species occurs throughout the Eastern Central Atlantic, however only recorded from the Madeira archipelago and from the Canaries.

range:
The fish is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical Atlantic and Pacific (Harold in prep. 2013). It is found at depths ranging from 50-600 m (Badcock 1984). Occurs throughout the Eastern Central Atlantic. In the European region the fish is known from the Madeira archipelago (Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
In the Eastern Central Atlantic it is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in the region. It is found at relatively low abundances throughout its range. Population trend assumed to be stable.

habitat:
A mesopelagic species which exhibits diel vertical migrations. Juveniles and adults occur mainly at 300-600 m by day, and at 50-200 m by night (Badcock 1984, Schaefer 1990, Mundy 2005).This species feeds on copepods and euphausiids (Badcock 1984). Photophores develop in fishes over 12-20 mm SL. This species is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae (Watson 1996). In the Sargasso Sea, this species was solely taken at depths of less than 1,000 m (Sutton et al. 2010).

threats:
The fish is collected by commercial midwater trawls (Balanov et al. 2009), but it is not known if it is targeted.

conservationAction:
There are no know conservation measure in place for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gonostoma denudatum is distributed from the subtropical to temperate North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. This species has a low frequency of occurrence in the Mediterranean. Gonostoma denudatum exhibits diel vertical migrations and is found at depths of 400–700 m by day, and 100–200 m by night. While G. denudatum is a prey item of both the Sowerby's beaked whale and the Atlantic bluefin tuna, it appears to make up a negligible percentage of either species' diet. This species is not utilized in European waters. There are no major threats to this species although, it is taken as by-catch in deep-water bottom trawls targeting Red Shrimp. It is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Gonostoma denudatum is known primarily from the Atlantic Ocean, where it is widespread. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, G. denudatum is known from Portugal and the Azores south to Madeira and the Canary Islands (Badcock 1984, Carneiro et al. 2014). It is also known from the Mediterranean Sea (Badcock 1984), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). The depth range for this species is 100–700 m (Badcock 1984).

population:
In south Sardinian waters, this species was found to be an inconsequential component of the deep-sea fish assemblage with a frequency of occurrence of 1% reported at a depth range of 995 m (Follesa et al. 2011). A 2010 study conducted in the Mediterranean caught 65 specimens off the Strait of Messina in Italian waters; the specimen collection occurred before sunrise (Bataglia et al. 2010). In the Greek waters of the Eastern Ionian Sea, G. denudatum was reported to have a frequency of occurrence of 1.9% in depths between 500–700 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005). In addition, the species was reported to be uncommon in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and rare between the French island of Corsica and the Balearic Islands of Spain between 40–45°N and in the Ionian Sea (Goodyear et al. 1972). This species is relatively rare (one specimen) in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobylianski et al. 2010). There is a single record (16 specimens) in the Gulf of Cadiz bottom trawl surveys from one fishing operation over 20 years (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). In the Spanish Mediterranean, this species is uncommon (but this could be attributed to the sampling method) (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013). 

habitat:
Gonostoma denudatum exhibits diel vertical migrations; juveniles and adults are found at depths of 400–700 m by day, and at 100–200 m by night (Badcock 1984). This species reaches a maximum size of 14 cm SL (Quéro 1990). The family Gonostomatidae consists of primarily mesopelagic and bathypelagic oceanic species. Sexual dimorphism and/or hermaphroditism is present in many species (Harold in Prep 2013). Gonostoma denudatum is a prey item of the Sowerby’s beaked whales (Mesoplodon bidens) stranded in the Azores islands from 2002–2009; though, its numerical frequency in the stomach of this whale species was found to be inconsequentially low (Pereira 2011). It is also a prey item of the commercially important Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) in the central Mediterranean; similarly, its numerical frequency in the stomach of this tuna was found to be inconsequentially low (Battaglia et al. 2012). In the Atlantic, this species favors waters affected by Mediterranean outflow currents, such as the Azores (Fock et al. 2002). The maximum recorded size of this species is 25 cm TL from bottom trawl surveys in the Gulf of Cadiz (ARSA) (J. Gil pers comm. 2013). Lengths of this species range from 18–22 cm TL in the Mediterranean (L. de Sola pers comm. 2013).

threats:
Gonostoma denudatum is taken as bycatch in deep-water bottom trawls targeting Red Shrimp (Ragonese et al. 2001). However, there are no major threats to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for G. denudatum. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).  This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC In the region, Gonostoma elongatum is distributed from Iceland to the Canary Islands, including a few records from the Mediterranean, and is most abundant south of 40°N. The tropically abundant G. elongatum resides at depths of 100–1500 m, migrating diurnally, at night, to the top 100 m of the water column to feed. It is a short lived species that reproduces semelparously in its less than two year life span. This species is not utilized and other than exposure to pollution, there are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Gonostoma elongatum is a circumglobal species, distributed in tropical to subtropical waters (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, G. elongatum occurs from Iceland to the Canary Islands. It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Bordes et al. 1998, Roman et al. 2000, Potoschi et al. 2009), including the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is most abundant south of 40°N (Roman et al. 2000). Gonostoma elongatum is a deep mesopelagic species with a depth range of 500–1200 m (Roman et al. 2000).

population:
Gonastoma elongatum is found throughout most of the world's oceans, reaching maximum abundances in tropical and circumtropical waters (Lancraft et al.1988). This species is rarely caught in trawl surveys and this could be attributed to its non-schooling behavior (S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013). However, a single specimen was caught off the Sicilian coast by bottom trawl between 600–700 m (Potoschi et al. 2009) and five specimens were caught in pelagic trawl surveys (four trawls) in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). Bottom trawl surveys in the Gulf of Cadiz recorded four specimens in three surveys (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Gonostoma elongatum is an important mesopelagic species. It undergoes diel migrations and is found from 25–325 m depth at night, and from 425–725 m depth during the day (Fisher 1983). The species exhibits size stratification based on depth, with smaller individuals being found in shallower water (Roman et al. 2000). Gonostoma elongatum is a protandric hermaphrodite and breeds throughout the year, with females reproducing once in their lifetime. Breeding peaks occur in the spring and summer. This species lives less than two years and feeds on zooplankton, particularly zoocrustaceans such as ostracopods and copepods. Most feeding occurs in the 25–250 m zone at night (Lancraft et al. 1988). The maximum recorded length for this species is 27.5 cm TL (Quéro et al. 1990). 

threats:
Although, there are no major, species-specific threats to G. elongatum, gene expression of this species is impacted by exposure to pollutants such as Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and Halogenated Aromatic Hydrocarbons (HAH) (Stegeman et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for G. elongatum. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


range:
This fish is found in the tropical to temperate Atlantic (Harold in prep.). It undergoes vertical migrations, and is found at depths of 400-800 m during the day, to near surface depths at night (Schaefer et al. 1986). In the Eastern Atlantic, it has been recorded in  Senegal, Madeira, and Cape Verde and off southern Africa, c.19°S, 5°W (Schaefer et al. 1986). In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded off the eastern coast of the United States, in the Bahamas, Straits of Florida, Gulf of Mexico, Suriname, and Brazil (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (off Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Rare off the coast of the Canaries (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

habitat:
This is an off-bottom pelagic fish which remains near the bottom during the day, and in the upper layers of the water column at night. It is found near seamounts (Pakhorukov 2008).

useAndTrade:
The fish does not appear to be utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Overall, published work on M. obtusirostra is sparse. In the European waters of the north Atlantic, the species is restricted to temperate and tropical areas. It is not in any museum collections registered with Fishnet2, and was found to be the 6th most abundant fish in the meso-pelagic assemblage of the Mid-Atlantic ocean. Uncommon in trawl surveys Gulf of Cadiz and mid-Atlantic Ridge. There is no species-specific use and trade, conservation. or threat information available for Margrethia obtusirostra. It is listed as Least Concern. 

range:
Margrethia obtusirostra is distributed throughout tropical and temperate waters of the North Atlantic Ocean (Harold in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, it has been recorded from off Portugal south to the Canary Islands, including the Azores and Madeira (Schaefer 1986, Carneiro et al. 2014). It occurs at depths of 100-300 metres by day, and 200 to 500 meters by night (Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
Margrethia obtusirostra was not a very abundant component of the Atlantic mid-ocean ridge deep-pelagic fish assemblage but it was the 6th most abundant Gonostomatid (Sutton et al. 2008). Total number of six specimens were recorded in three bottom trawl surveys over 20 years in the Gulf of Cadiz (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). Two specimens in one pelagic trawl survey were recorded in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010).

habitat:
Margrethia obtusirostra is a mesopelagic species. Metamorphosis in M .obtusirostra occurs gradually, between 5.8–19.0 mm (Ahlstrom 1976). The maximum recorded size of this species is 8.3 cm SL (Quéro et al. 1990). It feeds primarily on copepods and, at larger sizes, on euphausiids (Hopkins et al. 1996). This species is usually associated with continental and island slopes (Badcock 1984).  The family Gonostomatidae consists of primarily mesopelagic and bathypelagic oceanic species. Sexual dimorphism and/or hermaphroditism is present in many species (Harold in Prep 2013).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to M. obtusirostra.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for M. obtusirostra. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Assessment: LC Sigmops bathyphilus is a circumglobally distributed species that is known throughout most of the Atlantic. It is present in European waters from Iceland to the Canary Islands to 3,000 m depth. This species inhabits deep, well-oxygenated waters. The hermaphroditic S. bathyphilus does not appear to spawn seasonally, and the sex reversal that occurs in this species may be a response to critical density levels of ripe females. This species is not utilized in the region and there are no major threats. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sigmops bathyphilus is a circum-globally distributed species found at depths ranging from 700–3,000 m (Quéro et. al 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, S. bathyphillus occurs from off Iceland (Badcock 1984) south to the Canary Islands, including the Azores (Biber et al. 2013).

population:
Sigmops bathyphilus was one of the most abundant species found at the Rockall Bank, Hatton Bank, Belgica Mount, with 157 combined specimens (Biberet al. 2013). Outside the region, it is a common deep-water species in Greenland (Møller et al. 2010).

habitat:
Sigmops bathyphilus is a bathypelagic species. Sigmops bathyphilus (as Gonostoma bathyphilum) is a protandrous hermaphrodite; however, sex change is not obligatory. It is also sexually dimorphic, with ripe males developing large olfactory lobes and reaching smaller maximum sizes. Males reach a maximum size of 15 cm SL (Badcock 1986). Not all males develop into females; those females which develop directly, together with those derived from prematurely changing males, may form an early maturing female group, spawning for the first time at about 11–12 cm SL. Hermaphrodites range in size from 5.2–13.3 cm SL, but most are <10 cm SL (Badcock 1986). Sex-change of ripe males may be a response to critical population density levels of ripe females. Spawning does not appear to be seasonal and at any given moment, all sexual categories are present in the population. Sexually mature individuals tend to be restricted to depths greater than 1,500 m (Badcock 1986). In the Azores, this species was collected at depths ranging from 896–1179 m (Menezes et al. 2012). In northern European waters, specifically those of the Rockall Bank and Hatton Bank, this species has been associated with deep, cold water corals (Biber et al. 2013).

threats:
There are no major, species-specific threats to S. bathyphilus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for S. bathyphilus. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database of Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Ichthyococcus ovatus is an epi- to benthopelagic fish that occurs from Portugal, the Azores, the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean to at least 500 m depth. It is uncommon in trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Cadiz and mid-Altantic Ridge. There are no known major threats and it is not utilized. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Ichthyococcus ovatus is circumglobal in subtropical to temperate waters (Grey 1964, McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, I. ovatus is known from Portugal, Azores, the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean including southeast Crete, the Adriatic Sea (Grey 1964), and the Spanish Mediterranean (Garcia-Ruiz et al. in press). Larvae are present throughout the Hellenic Seas (C. Papaconstantinou pers. obsv. 2014). Ichthyococcus ovatus usually occurs from 200–500 m (Schaefer et al. 1986).

population:
Ichthyococcus ovatus in the central Mediterranean, was found to have a frequency of occurrence of 0.4% between the years 1998–2007 (Busalacchi et al. 2010). In the western Mediterranean, larvae from the species was found to have a frequency of occurrence of 1.6% (Rodriguez et al. 2013). One specimen was collected from the Gulf of Cadiz over 20 years of bottom trawl surveys (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013) and four specimens found in four trawls in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010).

habitat:
Ichthyococcus ovatus is an epi- to benthopelagic species that does not exhibit diel vertical migrations (Badcock 1984). The occurrence of spawning is probably year-round, peaking from late spring to early summer (Badcock 1984). Photophore complement is complete at about 15–17 mm standard length (Badcock 1984). The maximum recorded standard length SL is 5.5 cm (Quéro et al. 1990).

threats:
There are no known major threats to Ichthyococcus ovatus.

conservationAction:
There are known species-specific conservation measures for Ichthyococcus ovatus. Ichthyococcus ovatus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no available use/trade information for I. ovatus.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Polymetme corythaeola is a widely distributed bentho-pelagic species in the eastern Atlantic and is recorded from off the coast of the United Kingdom to Portugal. It occurs in depths from 165-800 m. It is common in trawl surveys in the Gulf of Cadiz. It is not utilized and although it is identified as a common bycatch species in Portugal, declines attributed to this threat are not reaching thresholds of threatened listing. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Polymetme corythaeola can be found in all three major oceans (Marques 2001). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, this species occurs from the Porcupine Seabight area south to the Canary Islands, including the Bay of Biscay. The northernmost record is 51°39.7' N, 14°16.5' W (Badcock 1984). Polymetme corythaeola is absent in the Mediterranean Sea (Quéro et al. 1990), except for rare individuals in the Alboran Sea (L. Gil de Sola pers. obsv. 2014). The species can be found between 165–800 m in depth (Badcock 1984, Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
Polymetme corythaeola is common in bottom trawl surveys off the Gulf of Cadiz (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Polymetme corythaeola is meso- and benthopelagic, occurring off continental and island slopes and sea-mounts in depths usually from 300–500 m (Badcock 1984). It is not known to undergo diel migrations (Badcock 1984). The maximum standard length SL is 26.0 cm (Quéro et al. 1990). Its diet is largely, if not entirely, comprised of crustaceans, namely the benthopelagic euphausid M. norvegica (Marques 2001).

threats:
Polymetme corythaeola has been noted as a bycatch species of commercial fisheries on the Portuguese slope (Marques 2001). However, major threats have not been identified for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Polymetme corythaeola.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Polymetme thaeocoryla occurs from Ireland to the Canary Islands in the Northeastern Atlantic. This species occurs to over 1,000 m depth and is associated with continental and island slopes and seamounts. No major threats have been identified for this species. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Polymetme thaeocoryla occurs on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Ireland to the Canary Islands (Harold 2002). It is found from depths of 213–1,400 meters (Parin and Borodulina 1990).

population:
Polymetme thaeocoryla is rare in European waters (L. Gil de Sola and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013)

habitat:
Polymetme thaeocoryla is a benthopelagic species and is very closely related to P. corythaeola, sharing its affinity for continental and island slopes and sea-mounts. The maximum recorded size for this species is 21.6 cm SL (Parin and Borodulina 1990).

threats:
No species-specific threat information is available for P. thaeocoryla. This species is caught as bycatch in parts of its range. Given its affinity to P. corythaeola, it may taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries in Portugal.

conservationAction:
No species-specific conservation efforts are in place for P. thaeocoryla.

useAndTrade:
Polymetme thaeocoryla is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Vinciguerria attenuata is widely distributed in the Mediterranean and extend southward to the Canary Islands, including Madeira and the Azores. It is a common and locally abundant species in parts of its distribution range. There are no known major threats although it may be caught as bycatch in parts of the Mediterranean. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Vinciguerria attenuata is circumglobal in subtropical waters (Badcock 1984). This species is widely distributed in the Mediterranean and its distribution extends southward to the Canary Islands, including Madeira and the Azores. Vinciguerria attenuata is found from 25 m (Badcock 1984, Quéro et al. 1990) to over 1,000 m (Grey 1964). 

population:
Trawl records from a study performed across the Mediterranean show catch rates as high as 15.5 specimens per hour (Goodyear et al. 1972). Vinciguerria attenuata is common in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (pelagic trawl survey) (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). Additionally, three specimens were captured between 100–600 m (sizes ranging from: 4.0–4.5 cm TL) in the Mediterranean (bottom trawl survey) (MEDITS) (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013) and no specimen was captured in bottom trawl surveys off the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Vinciguerria attenuata is a epi- to bathypelagic species (Grey 1964, Quéro et al. 1990). Both juveniles and adults undergo short diel vertical migrations (Badcock 1984). The adult photophore complement is attained at about 2 cm SL (Badcock 1984). The maximum recorded total length TL is 4.5 cm (Schaefer et al. 1986). Specimens collected from the Strait of Messina were found to have a standard weight of 22–54 mg (Mallefet and Shimomura, 1995). Vinciguerria attenuata diet consists of small crustaceans (Badcock 1984). It spawns from early spring to early summer (Grey 1964). This species spawns from spring to early summer (Grey 1964) and its diet consists of small crustaceans (Badcock 1984).

threats:
There are no known major threats to Vinciguerria attenuata.

conservationAction:
This species was assessed at Least Concern in the Mediterranean Sea Regional Assessment. There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Vinciguerria attenuata. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Vinciguerria attenuata is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Vinciguerria nimbaria occurs to about 42°N in the Northeastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean Sea. The species is an important prey item for commercially important tuna, comprising close to 80% of their diet. Vinciguerria nimbaria isn't utilized and there are no known threats. There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Vinciguerria nimbaria and it overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Vinciguerria nimbaria is a circumglobal species that occurs in tropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, this species occurs to about 42°N (Grey 1964). It is not present in the Mediterranean Sea. The species occurs at depths ranging from 20–5,000 meters (Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
A study performed in the Strait of Messina in 2007 found V. nimbaria to be among the four most abundant species caught, with 136 individuals collected from a single beach (Battaglia et al. 2010). An examination of the larval fish community off the Canary Islands shows V. nimbaria making up 0.32% of the total larvae collected and having a frequency of occurrence of 16.7% (Rodriguez et al. 2004). Vinciguerria nimbaria was also the most dominant species (schooling species) in pelagic trawl surveys in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (making up 90% of total trawl daytime catch)  (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). No specimen of this species was captured in bottom trawl surveys off the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Vinciguerria nimbaria is epi- to abyssopelagic (Mundy 2005), but usually mesopelagic, mainly occurring between 200-400 m by day and upper 100 m by night (Badcock 1984). Both juveniles and adult Vinciguerria nimbaria take part in diel vertical migration (Badcock 1984). However, there is some evidence that adult V. nimbaria change the nature of their diel migration during spawning, schooling close to the surface at dawn and remaining there through midday. This increases their vulnerability as a prey item of commercially important tuna (Marchal and Lebourges, 1996). Adult photophore complement attained at about 18 to 20 mm standard length SL (Badcock 1984). The maximum recorded length is 4.8 cm SL (Quéro et al. 1990). Vinciguerria nimbaria diet consists mainly of copepods, feeding intensively in the afternoon to early evening (Badcock 1984). The diet of this species consists mainly of copepods, feeding intensively in the afternoon to early evening (Badcock 1984). Vinciguerria nimbaria and the Genus of Vinciguerria as a whole, are a very common prey item of tuna species (Marchal and Lebourges 1996, Lebourges-Dhaussy et al. 2000). Marchal and Lebourges (1996) sampled 66 tuna species (Skipjack and Yellowfin) stomach contents in the Atlantic Ocean, north of the equator, between 10°W and 20°W. Vinciguerria nimbaria accounted for 82% by number and 71% in volume.

threats:
There are no known major threats to Vinciguerria nimbaria.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Vinciguerria nimbaria. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (World Database on Protected Areas, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
Vinciguerria nimbaria isn't utilized in the region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Vinciguerria poweriae occurs from off the coast of Portugal to the Canary Islands, and throughout the Mediterranean. This species can occur to 1,000 m depth. This species is not utilized in the region and there are no major threats. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Vinciguerria poweriae is circumglobal in subtropical waters (Badcock 1984). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Portugal to the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean (Quéro et al. 1990, Papaconstantinou 1988). It is found from depths of 50–1,000 m though it is most abundant at a depth range of 300–600 m (Yang et al. 1996).

population:
An assessment of mesopelagic fish larvae in the Strait of Sicily found V. poweriae to be among the three least abundant members of the family, together accounting for less than 6% of specimens collected (Cuttitta et al. 2004). This species is common in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010) and no specimen was captured in bottom trawl surveys off the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers comm. 2013). The MEDITS Survey collected six specimens between 50–600 m (L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Vinciguerria poweriae is epi- to bathypelagic, with adults and juveniles undergo diel migrations (Badcock 1984). Adult photophore complement attained at ~1.9 cm standard length (SL). The maximum recorded SL is 4.3 cm (Badcock 1984). Vinciguerria poweriae diet consists of small crustaceans (Badcock 1984). Peak spawning of the species occurs from the spring and summer (Badcock 1984). Its diet consists of small crustaceans (Badcock 1984). 

threats:
There are no known threats to Vinciguerria poweriae.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Vinciguerria poweriae. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean Sea Regional Assessment. Vinciguerria poweriae was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Vinciguerria poweriae isn't utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores, Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014) and the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Globally, it also occurs in the Western Atlantic in the Bahamas and the Caribbean Sea, and in the Eastern Central Pacific in Hawaii (FishBase 2015).

population:
There is no information on the population of this species.

habitat:
This is a pseudoceanic and benthopelagic species (Quéro et al. 1990). It is found off oceanic islands and banks at depths of 200-500 m (Badcock 1984, Quéro et al. 1990). The maximum length recorded is 7.7 cm SL male/unsexed (Quéro et al. 1990). It feeds on crustaceans and the spawning season is unknown (Badcock 1984).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Argyropelecus aculeatus occurs from about 25–35°N with a northern record to 45°N in the Northeastern Atlantic. It is a common species. This species is not utilized and there are no major threats. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Argyropelecus aculeatus is a circumglobal species, occurring in tropical to temperate waters (Harold 2002). In the northeastern Atlantic, it is found from southern Iceland to the Canary Islands. Argyropelecus aculeatus is found from 50 m (Badcock 1970) to 842 m (Ross et al. 2010). Outside the region, A. aculeatus is found abundantly in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. In the western North Atlantic Ocean, it is found to about 40°N and 35°W. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is found south of about 35°N along the North African coast and the associated islands. Argyropelecus aculeatus is essentially absent from the tropical Atlantic. Small to moderate catches of A. aculeatus have been recorded from the southwestern Atlantic. Argyropelecus aculeatus is present in the Indian Ocean from about 10°S to 40°S. It has been reported as being abundant off the South African coast. Argyropelecus aculeatus is present in the western Pacific from north of New Guinea to Japan. This species has also been caught off Chile and Sidney, Australia (Baird 1971).

population:
Argyropelecus aculeatus has been reported as being abundant in numbers from some regions of its distribution range (Baird 1971). Argyropelecus aculeatus was found to be the fifth most abundant species at the Great Meteor Seamount to the west of the Canary Islands, but was found to be much less abundant at the Atlantis Seamount to the north (Pusch et al. 2004). It is a common species in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010) and bottom trawl surveys off the Gulf of Cadiz captured 26 specimens over 20 years (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
During the daytime hours, Argyropelecus aculeatus can be found from 200–550 m, with the greatest concentrations from 350–450 m. At night, A. aculeatus is found in the greatest concentrations from 80–200 m, indicating diurnal vertical migrations (Baird 1971). However, these migrations are less pronounced than many other midwater fish, and, as a result, A. aculeatus can live in shallower waters (Pusch et al. 2004). Argyropelecus aculeatus primarily feeds in the epipelagic zone early at night, with the primary food items being ostracods and copepods for smaller individuals, and pteropods, euphausiids and fish for larger individuals (Hopkins and Baird 1985).

threats:
Argyropelecus aculeatus faces no species-specific threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Argyropelecus aculeatus. However, this species’ range overlaps with Marine Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC 2010, accessed April 2014).

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Argyropelecus aculeatus.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Argyropelecus affinis is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the waters off the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Argyropelecus affinis is a circumglobal species, occurring in tropical to temperate waters (Harold 2002). A. affinis occurs from 170 m (Baird 1971) to 627 m (Balanov et al. 2009). Within Europe, it has been reported from the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (Carneiro et al. 2014, Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Argyropelecus affinis can be locally abundant in areas of its distribution range (Baird 1971). Baird (1971) reported this species in some abundance with more than 20 specimens per tow at two localities in the Eastern Central Atlantic. It is not known whether there is substantial immigration/emigration from outside the region that will significantly affect populations in the Eastern Central Atlantic.

habitat:
In the Eastern Central Atlantic, Argyropelecus affinis is concentrated from 350-600 m by day, with its greatest concentrations being around 400 m. Its major concentrations are from 170-400 m by night, indicating diurnal vertical migrations (Baird 1971).

threats:
There are currently no known species-specific threats faced by Argyropelecus affinis in the region.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Argyropelecus affinis in the region.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Argyropelecus affinis.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Argyropelecus gigas is recorded from Iceland, Portugal southward to the Canary Islands and Madeira. Although it can be common in some areas of its disribution, it is uncommon in the assessment zone. It is a mesopelagic species and can be found between depths 400 and 600 m. There are no major threats. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Argyropelecus gigas is a circumglobal species (Harold 2002). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Iceland southward to Portugal, Madeira and the Canary Islands but is absent from the Mediterranean (Quéro et al. 1990). Argyropelecus gigas occurs primarily at depths of 400-600 m (Baird 1986).

population:
Argyropelecus gigas can be found in abundance in some areas of its distribution (Baird 1971). There are two records in two bottom trawl surveys (total of six specimens) over 20 years (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). It is therefore inferred to be uncommon in the assessment zone.

habitat:
Argyropelecus gigas is a mesopelagic species with greatest concentrations of Argyropelecus gigas can be found between depths 400–600 m (Baird 1971). The diet of members of this family generally consists of small fishes and zooplankton, including crustaceans, annelids, chaetognaths, and molluscs (Harold 2002). The maximum recorded size of this species is 12 cm SL (Quéro et al. 1990).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Argyropelecus gigas. It is taken as bycatch in parts of its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Argyropelecus gigas. More research is needed regarding its population size and trends, life history and ecology.

useAndTrade:
Argyropelecus gigas is not utilized commercially (Wayte et al. 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Argyropelecus hemigymnus occurs to about 60°N in the Northeastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean Sea. More research is needed regarding its current population size and trends. It is a common and locally abundant species. There are no known threats and it is not utilized. Although taken as bycatch, this is not thought to be causing population declines at present. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Argyropelecus hemigymnus is broadly distributed species that occurs circumglobally in tropical and subtropical regions. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from Iceland and the Faroe Islands south to the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean (Baird 1971, Quéro et al. 1990, Papaconstatinou 1988). Adults are commonly found at depths of 200–600 m, and larvae are often found deeper than 100 m (Jumper and Baird 1991).

population:
Large populations of Argyropelecus hemigymnus can be found in parts of its distribution, including the Mediterranean (Baird 1971). A study of deep sea fish in the Bay of Biscay found A. hemigymnus to be of considerable importance by number and weight in their catch of fish (Clarke and Maddock 1986). This species is common in pelagic trawl surveys in the mid-Atlantic Ridge and was caught in all trawls (Kobyliansky et al. 2010). This species is common in the Gulf of Cadiz and the Mediterranean in bottom trawl surveys (ARSA, MEDITS) (J. Gil Herrera and L. Gil de Sola pers comm. 2013). 

habitat:
Argyropelecus hemigymnus is a mesopelagic species with greatest concentrations found between depths 400–600 m (Baird 1971). The diet of members of this family generally consists of small fishes and zooplankton, including crustaceans, annelids, chaetognaths, and molluscs (Harold 2002).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Argyropelecus hemigymnus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Argyropelecus hemigymnus. Argyropelecus hemigymnus was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). More research is needed regarding its current population size and trends.

useAndTrade:
Argyropelecus hemigymnus is not utilized, and is usually discarded when caught during commercial fishing efforts (Machias et al. 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Argyropelecus olfersii is widely distributed in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs between 35°N–65°N, and east of 35°W, and can be locally abundant. There are no major threats and it is not utilized. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
Argyropelecus olfersii occurs in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the northeast Atlantic, this species occurs from Iceland and Norway south to at least the Azores (Badcock 1984), though there are also records from the Canary Islands. There is a single record from Italy (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). The depth range for this species is 100–800 m (Badcock 1984).

population:
Argyropelecus olfersii is present in 44 museum lots that contain specimen from European waters (Accessed through FishNet 2 Portal, www.fishnet2.net, 7-1-2013). The species was found to have a percent occurrence of 78.6% in waters west of, and in, the Bay of Biscay. It was the second most abundant species found in a pelagic trawl survey in the Bay of Biscay (Spitz et al. 2010). Three records over 20 years of bottom trawl surveys in the Gulf of Cadiz (total of 20 specimens) (ARSA) (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013). A single specimen was recorded in pelagic trawl surveys in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (Kobyliansky et al. 2010).

habitat:
Argyropelecus olfersii can be found at depths between 200–750 m during the day while at night, most records are between 180–300 m (Baird 1971). The species has been cited as a prey item of the common dolphin in the Bay of Biscay (Spitz et al. 2010). The maximum recorded size for this species is 9 cm TL (Reiner 1996).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Argyropelecus olfersii.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for A. olfersii.

useAndTrade:
Argyropelecus olfersii is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Argyropelecus sladeni is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the Azores and Madeira. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Argyropelecus sladeni has a circumglobal distribution, occurring in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Within Europe, it is known only from the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014). Its depth range is 100-600 m. During the day, it is found between 350-600 m. At night, it is concentrated between 100-375 m (Baird 1971).

population:
Argyropelecus sladeni can be found in abundance in some areas of its distribution (Baird 1971).

habitat:
Argyropelecus sladeni is a mesopelagic species, found from 100-600 m. During the day, it is found between 350 and 600 m. At night, it is concentrated between 100 and 375 m (Baird 1971). It feeds on copepods (Watson 1996). The species is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae (Watson 1996).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Argyropelecus sladeni in the region.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Argyropelecus sladeni. More research is needed regarding its current population size and trends.

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Argyropelecus sladeni.


taxonomicNotes:
Sutton et al. (2013) report that recent molecular analyses suggest this species may be aheteromorphic synonym of Maurolicus muelleri.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This fish is distributed in the eastern and northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. It is a mesopelagic species, residing from near the surface to 1,100 m. Little is known of its population or ecology, however there are no known major threats, and the fish is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Little is known of this species. They are mesopelagic fishes known to be distributed in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, Iceland to the Azores, and the Mediterranean Sea (Sutton et al. 2013), and also reported from the western Atlantic and off Chile (Eschmeyer 2015). Depths range from 0-1,100 m, although the largest numbers are found within the upper 500-600 m (Pakhorukov 2008). In the European region of the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the fish is known from Portugal (off the mainland, the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Distribution in the Mediterranean Sea is not well documented, however MCZBase (2015) present records from throughout the Mediterranean Sea, except for the eastern parts. Specimens, possibly vagrant, are reported from the Orkneys (northern Scotland and Ireland) and Somerset, southern England (EDF Energy 2011).

population:
There is little to no population information, although apaprently known from numerous records (MCZBase 2015).

habitat:
Extremely rare and little ecological information is known. The average size spotted was from 3 to 5 cm in length, but nothing is known about maximum length or length at sexual maturity for either sex (Pakhorukov 2008).  Species of the Sternoptychidae family have a diet consisting of small fish, crustaceans, annelids, chaetognaths, and molluscs (Harold in press).

threats:
There are no species-specific threats known for this fish.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation efforts currently in place this fish.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Maurolicus muelleri is found worldwide on continental slopes. In the northeastern Atlantic, it occurs in the North Sea and Norwegian waters south to the Mediterranean. Maurolicus muelleri can be abundant in parts of its range, including Norwegian waters and the Mediterranean. There are no major threats to this species. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Maurolicus muelleri is found worldwide on continental slopes (Strand et al. 2002). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs to about 70° N, off Norway and in fjords, Iceland, southward to the Gulf of Cadiz and the Mediterranean including the Alboran Sea and the Sea of Marmara (Quéro et al. 1990), as well as the Hellenic Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988). It is also found from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Namibia (Wheeler 1992). The depth range for this species is 10–400 m (Quéro et al. 1990).

population:
Maurolicus muelleri can be abundant in areas of its distribution (Strand et al. 2002). Maurolicus muelleri is abundant in Norwegian waters (Lopes 1979). Common in bottom trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Cadiz and abundant in Mediterranean (J. Gil Herrera and L. Gil de Sola pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Maurolicus muelleri is a planktivorous fish that feeds primarily on copepods and euphausiids (Rosland and Giske 1994). M. muelleri is typically found in waters over continental slopes (Strand et al. 2002). The species was also found to be a prey item of the striped dolphin in the Ligurian Sea, accounting for 23% in numbers of the stomach contents of studied dolphin (Wurtz and Marrale 1993). The maximum recorded size for this species is 8 cm TL (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

threats:
There are no major threats to Maurolicus muelleri; however, overfishing is a potential future threat to this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Maurolicus muelleri. More research is needed regarding its current population size and trends. Maurolicus muelleri was regionally assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Maurolicus muelleri is of minor commercial importance (Weitzman 1986) and the development of its fishery is likely due to a collapse of other fisheries (Rihan et al. 2011). Landings of M. muelleri were reported to FAO only from the Faroe Islands (2008 and 2009) and Iceland (2009 to 2011), and varied from 1,482 mt to 46,203 mt (FAO 2011, FishStatJ accessed September 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Sternoptyx diaphana is widely distributed in the Northeastern Atlantic with records from about 52°N to the Canary Islands. Although S. diaphana can be abundant in parts of its distribution, it is relatively rare in the assessment zone. It inhabits waters to 1,500 m depth. This species is not utilized and major threats have not been identified. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sternoptyx diaphana occurs in subtropical to tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean (Quéro et al. 1990). In the northeastern Atlantic, this species occurs from 45° N to the Canary Islands, including the Azores, with the northernmost captures from off Ireland (Quéro et al. 1990, Santos et al. 1997). However, it is rare north of Spain and its area of abundance is the south Atlantic (Baird 1971). Sternoptyx diaphana can be found in waters ranging from 300–1,500 m in depth, but is commonly found in waters between 600–900 m in depth (Hopkins and Baird 1973).

population:
Sternoptyx diaphana can be abundant in some areas of its range (Baird 1971). However, there are no records from bottom trawl surveys off the Gulf of Cadiz (J. Gil Herrera pers. comm. 2013) and is relatively rare in the mid-Atlantic Ridge (based on pelagic trawl surveys) (Kobyliansky et al. 2010).

habitat:
Sternoptyx diaphana is a non-migrating mesopelagic species, occurring from 300–1,500 m. In regions with cooler waters, S. diaphana feeds on fewer but larger food items. Sternoptyx diaphana has prominent eyes and displays a photophore and pigment pattern that can maximize invisibility in the mesopelagic zone, which may indicate that it is a visually oriented predator (Hopkins and Baird 1973). Sternoptyx diaphana feeds primarily on copepods, ostracods and amphipods as juveniles, and amphipods and euphasiids as adults (Hopkins and Baird 1985). The maximum recorded length for this species is 5.5 cm SL (Figueiredo et al. 2002).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats faced by Sternoptyx diaphana.

conservationAction:
There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place for Sternoptyx diaphana. More research is needed regarding its current population size and trends.

useAndTrade:
Sternoptyx diaphana is not utilized in the northeastern Atlantic.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Sternoptyx pseudobscura is curcumglobally distributed in subtropical to tropical waters. In the northeastern Atlantic, S. pseudobscura occurs from 40° N to the Canary Islands, including the Azores. This species is rare in the assessment zone. However, it is not utilized and there are no major threats. Therefore, S. pseudobscura is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Sternoptyx pseudobscura inhabits subtropical to tropical waters of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, S. pseudobscura occurs from the Birish Isles south to the Canary Islands, but is absent from the Mediterranean (Baird 1971, Quéro et al. 1990, Zamarro and Lloris 1990). Sternoptyx pseudobscura is found from depths of 500–1,500 m, but is in its highest concentrations between 800–1,500 m (Baird 1971).

population:
Sternoptyx pseudobscura is a rare species (absent in the Gulf of Cadiz bottom trawl surveys and pelagic trawl surveys in the mid-Atlantic Ridge) (J. Gil Herrera and S. Kobyliansky pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
Sternoptyx pseudobscura occurs in waters below 800 m, and feeds primarily on copepods, polychaetes and euphausiids as juveniles, and mainly on amphipods and smaller fish as adults (Hopkins and Baird 1985). S. pseudobscura has been shown to be the deepest living sternoptychid (Kinzer and Schulz 1988). In areas where the range of S. pseudobscura and S. diaphana overlap, S. pseudobscura is almost always taken from deeper waters (Badcock and Baird 1980). The maximum recorded length for this species is 6 cm SL (Quéro et al. 1990).

threats:
There are no known threats faced by Sternoptyx pseudobscura.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Sternoptyx pseudobscura. More research is needed regarding its population size and trends.

useAndTrade:
Sternoptyx pseudobscura is not utilized in the Northeastern Atlantic.


