# European_Red_List_2017_December

taxonomicNotes:
Preliminary molecular studies suggest that the genus Schedophilus is not monophyletic (Milana et al. 2011)

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Schedophilus ovalis has a wide distribution and is relatively common in occurrence throughout most of its range. It prefers deep water over the shelf and around oceanic islands. It is of local commercial interest, but harvesting does not seem to adversely affect the population status of this species (at least at current harvest rates). There are no known threats to this species outside of the fisheries, and its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas. Therefore, S. ovalis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Schedophilus ovalis is restricted to the eastern Atlantic, where it is distributed from north-western Spain and Portugal to the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands, including throughout most of the Mediterranean (Haedrich 1986, Brito et al. 2002, Porteiro et al. 2010, Carneiro et al. 2014). In the western Atlantic, S. ovalis is known from a single small specimen has been recorded from Bermuda (Haedrich 1990) and in the Southwest Pacific, S. ovalis has been recorded off New South Whales, Australia (Relini et al. 1994, Haedrich 1981, 2002, Corsini-Foka and Frantzis 2009). The species that reportedly occurs in southern Africa (Haedrich 1986, 1990) are thought not to be Schedophilus ovalis but rather S. velaini (Heemstra 1995).  The depth range for S. ovalis lies between 70 and 700 m (Piotrovsky 1994, Uiblein et al. 1996). However, it is most often associated with depths ranging between 80 and 240 m (Bianchi et al. 1999).

population:
It is widely distributed and it is probably not uncommon. The population trend is unknown. FAO landing statistics summary FAO reports landings from the Northeast Atlantic. The first landings were first reported in 2002, peaked in 2008 at 9 tonnes, and declined to 2 tonnes in 2010. Landings are reported by Spain and Portugal (FAO 2011 FishstatJ Accessed 2014 April). Corsini-Folka and Frantzis (2009) considered S. ovalis to be rare in the Mediterranean. In a study published in 1999, S. ovalis was found to be relatively common, yet not overly abundant around the Canary Islands (Castro et al. 1999).

habitat:
Schedophilus ovalis is benthopelagic and occurs at the edge of continental shelves, around oceanic islands, sea-mounts and submarine canyons (Haedrich 1996).  Juvenile S. ovalis associate with jellyfishes and floatsam (Relini et al. 1994, Massutí et al. 1999, Kells and Carpenter 2011). The maximum total length (TL) is 106 cm (Francour and Javel 2003). The diet of S. ovalis consists of Pyrosoma and other tunicates (Haedrich 1986). Juveniles and young S. ovalis are often epipelagic and associate with floating jellyfish, including Physalia (Haedrich 1986). The depth range for S. ovalis correlates with the size of the fish. Schedophilus ovalis between 25 and 45 cm (TL) are found from the surface to 40 m, while S. ovalis between 60 and 106 cm (TL) are at > 500 m (Francour and Javel 2003). Also, juvenile and young S. ovalis were found to be heavily associated with fish aggregating devices (Deudero et al. 1999). Juvenile growth is very rapid (Haedrich 1986). Schedophilus ovalis is probably a spring spawner (Haedrich 1986).  Little else is known about the ecology, fecundity, and maturation processes of this species.

threats:
The white flesh of S. ovalis is a highly esteemed food-fish in parts of its range (Haedrich	1986). Schedophilus ovalis is incidentally taken in artisanal and commercial deep-water long-line fisheries in the eastern Atlantic at Madeira (Haedrich 2002); however, it is not known if this is a threat to the species. Specimens are caught occasionally by sportsfishermen.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Schedophilus ovalis. Its distribution overlaps with protected areas. Research is recommended on biology and ecology.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Schedophilus ovalis is taken as incidental catch in deep-line fisheries in Madeira (Haedrich 2002). In the mid 1980s, the fishery for S. ovalis was the largest fishery in Madeira (Haedrich 1986). It is also taken in fisheries of the Canary Islands; there are no minimum size restrictions in the Canaries (García-Martín 2011). It is taken in Mediterranean fisheries (Vandeperre et al. 2008). Schedophilus ovalis does not appear to be utilized in the Western Central Atlantic.


taxonomicNotes:
There is confusion as to whether C. rubescens is the true valid species name.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Cepola macrophthalma is widespread and locally common at times.  This midwater carnivore is of small-scale and minor commercial importance, but the harvesting levels are not thought to be causing population declines at this time. There are no other serious threats at present. It is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Cepola macrophthalma is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from the British Isles south to Mauritania or perhaps Senegal; the southern limit of C. macrophthalma is poorly known (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press). In the northeastern Atlantic, C. macrophthalma occurs from the British Isles (Orkney Islands) to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea (Quéro 1981, Tortonese 1986, Brito et al. 2002). In the Mediterranean, C. macrophthalma occurs in the Catalan Sea (Coll et al. 2006), the Gulf of Lions (Gaertner et al. 1998), the Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca et al. 2004, Carpentieri et al. 2005), the Cretan Sea (Kallionitis et al. 2000) and the Aegean Sea (Stergiou 1999, Lamprakis et al. 2003, Kallionitis et al. 2004, Machias et al. 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak et al. 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin et al. 2007). It is most often associated with depths from 15 to 400 m (Quero 1990).

population:
The species is common but the population trend is unknown. Population information by region: This species is apparently common in the Mediterranean, as 881 specimens were collected by Ozaydin et al. (2007) from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005, with TL ranging from 16.2 and 50.9 cm. Lamprakis et al. (2003) caught 1,021 specimens in the Thracian Sea during 1996 to 1998 at depths ranging from 19 to 365 m. Total length (TL) ranged from 10.3 cm and 53.2 cm. Gokce and Metin (2007) caught only one specimen over 39 artisanal fishing operations between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. Karakulak et al. (2006) collected one specimen from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.  Cepola macrophthalma is practically nonexistent where there is marine sea grass or submerged vegetation (McDowall 1982). FAO landing statistics summary: Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions: Mediterranean, Northeast Atlantic. The majority of landings are from the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing region. The overall trend in landings, which were first declared in the late 1980s, is one of sharp increase to a peak of 341 tonnes in 2005, followed by a decline to 168 tonnes in 2010.

habitat:
Cepola macropthalma is a demersal species that can be found on sand and mud substrata (Sanches 1991). It typically lives in vertical burrows but may be found swimming in mid-water. Occurs singly or in groups (McDowall 1982). The maximum length is 80 cm (TL) (Sanchez et al. 1995). Cepola macrophthalma is a benthic predator,  feeding mainly on small crustaceans and chaetognaths (Tortonese 1986) and residing on muddy and/or sandy bottoms, often inhabiting vertically oriented burrows as a lie-in-wait zooplaktivore (Sanches 1991). It can occur singly or in small, loose shoals (McDowall 1982). Its diet consists mainly of copepods and euphausids (combining for approximately 90% of its diet (McDowall 1982).  The remainder of its diet consists mainly of cladocerans, decapods, and mysids (McDowall 1982). It also feeds on chaetognaths (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press).  The eggs of C. macrophthalma are oviparous (Tortonese 1986). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 60 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 21.9 cm TL  and for males is 29.9 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Little else is known about the ecology and life history of this fish.

threats:
Cepola macropthalma is a species with minor commercial interest. It is mainly caught in trawls, seines and fixed nets (Quero 1990).  In the Mediterranean Sea, FAO figures are only available from recent years and are insufficient to show trends. No serious threats are known at present. Along the West African coast, they are often taken as by-catch in the trawl fisheries; they are consumed occasionally, and also utilized for fishmeal and oil (Smith-Vaniz FAO ECA Guide in press). FAO landing statistics for this species of fish were first reported in 1991, with France landing 3 tonnes. By 2006, Spain was landing nearly 300 tonnes annually from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. By 2012, just over 90 tonnes was reported to the FAO globally, with Spain landing 74 of the 90 tonnes (FAO 2011, FishStatJ Accessed 2014 April).

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures for Cepola macropthalma. Its range overlaps with protected areas. Research on biology and ecology, population size and trends, as well as harvest levels and potential threats is needed.   This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Cepola macropthalma is a species with minor commercial interest. It is mainly caught in trawls, seines and fixed nets. FAO landing statistics summary: Landings are declared from the following FAO fishing regions: Mediterranean, Northeast Atlantic. The majority of landings are from the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing region. The overall trend in landings, which were first declared in the late 1980s, is one of sharp increase to a peak of 341 tonnes in 2005, followed by a decline to 168 tonnes in 2010.


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of C. niger does not appear to be resolved; while Melo (2009) recognizes 7 species in the genus, Prokofiev and Kukuev (2009) placed many of these species in synonymy with C. niger, only recognizing 2 species in genus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Chiasmodon niger is a widely distributed, deep water species. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, it appears to be expanding its range northward into subarctic waters. It can be fairly common throughout parts of its range. It may be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries over seamounts, but not at high frequency. There are no other known widespread threats. Therefore, C. niger is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Chiasmodon niger is nearly circumglobal, inhabiting the meso and benthypelagic waters of both tropical and temperate waters in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans (Melo 2009). In the northeastern Atlantic, C. niger is known from the Bay of Biscay south to Madeira and the Canary Islands. It appears that C. niger is extending its northern range, into subarctic waters near Norway (Mauchline and Gordon 1984), but it is not certain if these records represent stable populations. This species is most associated with deep depths, between 700 and 2745 m (Coad and Reist 2004).

population:
The taxonomy of C. niger does not appear to be fully resolved; while Melo (2009) recognizes 7 species in the genus, Prokofiev and Kukuev (2009) placed many of these species in synonymy with C. niger, only recognizing 2 species in genus. Eschmeyer follows the treatment of Prokofiev and Kukuev (2009). Chiasmodon niger seems to be relatively common in its natural habitat (Melo 2009). Chiasmodon niger appears to tend towards the outer and inner periphery of subtropical gyres and to frontal zones in regions of large boundary currents (Prokofiev and Kukuev 2009).

habitat:
Chiasmodon niger is a mesopelagic to bathypelagic species, with juveniles most frequently being found in the shallower portion of its depth range, from around 0-1050 m. Fish > 10 mm are most frequently found at greater depths (Melo 2009). It is a piscivorous species, sometimes ingesting fish with greater lengths than themselves (Mooi and Paxton 2001). The maximum recorded length of C. niger is 25 cm (Johnson and Keen 1990).

threats:
Chiasmodon niger was taken as low-frequency by-catch in an experimental orange roughy fishery over seamounts in the Azores (Melo and Menezes 2002).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for C. niger.


range:
The fish is found in equatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate and subpolar regions of oceans worldwide. In the Atlantic Ocean, from about 40° N to 40° S, although some specimens have been reported from as far north as 51°. In the Indian Ocean, from the type locality, 16°56’ N, 92°33’ E, and in the Pacific Ocean, from 31° N to 43° S, although there have been specimens described from as far north as 37°. In the Southern Ocean, it can be found from approximately 50° S-60° S (Melo 2008). Kali indica is found between the depths of 1,000-3,300 m, but it is most commonly located between 1,400 and 2,500 m (Melo 2008).  In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014).

population:
Relatively common in tropical to temperate waters of its range (Melo 2008) but is less common towards the northern reaches of its range (Moore et al. 2002).

habitat:
A bathypelagic fish, the adult spending almost their entire lives on the rocky and muddy bottoms. Adults are mostly piscivorous, sometimes consuming prey longer than themselves. Juveniles are often associated with shallower depths in the water column than adults, the larvae inhabiting deeper depths as they grow larger (Melo 2008). Kali indica has been measured at 26.1 cm (Johnson and Keene 1990). There is little else known about the fecundity, reproductive habits, life history or ecology of this species.

threats:
There are no known threats to the fish in European waters.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species.

useAndTrade:
The meso- to bathypelagic species of the family Chiasmontidae are caught occasionally in deep midwater trawls (Smith in prep), but is not a targeted species.


range:
Circumglobal in tropical to warm temperate seas. The depth range for this species is 200–4,465 m (Melo 2008). In the European region the fish is only known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago; Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
The maximum recorded size for this species is 19.3 cm SL (Melo 2008). Additional information about the habitats and ecology of this species is limited. Species of the family Chiasmontidae are meso- to bathypelagic fishes with most broadly distributed in multiple oceans (Smith in prep).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Additional information about the population size/trend and biology of this species is needed.

useAndTrade:
Chiasmontids are occasionally collected in deep midwater trawls (Smith in prep), but not targeted.

redListContributors:
Carpenter, K.E., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & de Bruyne, G.


range:
Specimens of Kali macrodon have been found at a number of patchy locations, including the Indian Ocean off Indonesia, eastern Pacific near Ecuador and California, the south Atlantic off South Africa, the west Atlantic in the Gulf of Mexico, and four individuals in the eastern Atlantic from 24°N to 19°S (Johnson 1969, Johnson and Keene 1986). It is likely that this species appears in the tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans (Johnson and Keene 1986). In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
A deepwater, bathypelagic species typically caught at depths ranging from 1,500-2,500 m (Johnson 1969).

threats:
Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species, or reports of it being taken as by-catch


range:
Occurs in tropical and subtropical waters of the three major oceans, except the eastern Pacific (Eschmeyer 2014) but is only known from a few scattered localities from Sargasso Sea to the Eastern Pacific of Baja, California. In the European region the fish is known from Portugal (the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014).

habitat:
A bathypelagic species that can attain 27 cm TL (Smith in prep). The exact depth range for this species is not known but all adult specimens have been collected from depths exceeding 1,000 m (Johnson and Keene 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. Additional information about the population size/trend and biology of this species is needed.

useAndTrade:
Chiasmontids are occasionally collected in deep midwater trawls (Smith in prep), but the fish is not targeted.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Pseudoscopelus altipinnis occurs in the Canary Islands, off mainland Portugal, Madeira and in the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Pseudoscopelus altipinnis occurs in the Canary Islands (Bordes Caballero et al. 2009), off mainland Portugal, Madeira and in the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014). Pseudoscopelus altipinnis has a circumglobal distribution and occurs between 45°N and 45°S (Prokofiev and Kukuev 2006) although this species has been described as being found as far north as 56° in the Atlantic Ocean and may also occurs in the Western Pacific (Smith in prep).  This species has been recorded at depths ranging from 30 to 2,309 m (Prokofiev and Kukuev 2005).

population:
This species is most common from equatorial waters of the Atlantic Ocean (Prokofiev 2011).

habitat:
Pseudoscopelus altipinnis is a bathypelagic species that can attain 20 cm TL (Smith in prep).

useAndTrade:
Chiasmontids are occasionally collected in deep midwater trawls (Smith in prep).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Pseudoscopelus obtusifrons is widely distributed in the tropical Atlantic and western Pacific and southeastern Indian Ocean. Pseudoscopelus pierbartus, considered a synonym (Prokofiev 2011), may represent this species' distribution in the European region. Its geographic range in the region will need to be verified as well as its taxonomic status. This   species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in   Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of   the global population.

range:
Pseudoscopelus obtusifrons is widely distributed in the tropical Atlantic and western Pacific and southeastern Indian Ocean, and apparently only recorded in the4 european region from the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Pseudoscopelus pierbartus, considered a synonym (Prokofiev 2011), may represent this species' distribution in the European region. Its geographic range in the region will need to be verified as well as its taxonomic status.

population:
There is no information available on its population status and trends.

habitat:
This deep-water species occurs in depths between 124 - 2,250 m. There is limited information available on its biology, life history characteristics, and habitat preferences.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation actions in place for this species. Research, especially taxonomic, is required.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Pseudoscopelus scutatus occurs only in the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Pseudoscopelus scutatus occurs only in the Azores (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Pseudoscopelus scutatus occurs in the tropical to subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and western Pacific oceans (Nakabo et al. 1992, Moore et al. 2003, Prokofiev and Kukuev 2006).  The depth ranges from zero to 100 m.

population:
Population information is limited for this species.

habitat:
Pseudoscopelus scutatus is a epipelagic species that can attain at least 12 cm TL (Moore et al. 2003, Smith in prep).

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation efforts in place for this species. There is a need for additional information about the population size and biology of this species.

useAndTrade:
Use and trade information is not available for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Clinitrachus argentatus is widely distributed throughout shallow inshore waters in the Mediterranean and adjacent eastern Atlantic coast (Portugal and Morocco). Although specific population data are not available, C. argentatus is common and the population is considered stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, C. argentatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
A near Mediterranean endemic, Clinitrachus argentatus occurs in adjacent eastern Atlantic waters from southern Portugal to northern Morocco. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Wirtz and Zander 1986, Relini and Lanteri 2010). Clinitrachus argentatus is a shallow water species, typically inhabiting waters less than 1 m (Wirtz and Zander 1986).

population:
This species is common throughout the Mediterranean and populations are considered stable.

habitat:
Clinitrachus argentatus is a demersal species which inhabits shallow inshore waters amongst dense algal growth. It feeds on benthic invertebrates. Individuals of C. argentatus are typically less than 10 cm (Wirtz and Zander 1986).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species, as it does not have any commercial interest and is not caught by any fishing techniques.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Clinitrachus argentatus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Bizsel, K., Kara, M., Craig, M.T., Williams, J.T., Goren, M. & Pollard, D.


taxonomicNotes:
This species is frequently misidentified as juvenile or female of Coryphaena hippurus.  The specific name is sometimes misspelled as equisetis instead of equiselis (Gibbs and Collette 1959).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Globally, this species is widespread and is very prolific. In the European region the species is known from the eastern Atlantic, including Macaronesia; in the Mediterranean the species is probably a vagrant and it is only known from four records from here. Given its small size, it is of less commercial importance than Coryphaena hippurus, although no catch statistics are available for this species. There are no major threats. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. In Europe the species is found in the eastern Atlantic, including Macaronesia. There are four unverified records of Coryphaena equiselis from the Mediterranean: one from the Algerian coast (Djabali et al. 1993), one from the Ligurian Sea north of Corsica, one from the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Sicily, and one from the southern Aegean Sea, east of Peloponisos. There are large catches of Coryphaena species in the Mediterranean, but the vast majority comprise C. hippurus. If present, C. equiselis is likely a vagrant in the Mediterranean Sea. It has been found to depths of 119 m (Nóbrega et al. 2009).

population:
This species is smaller and less important to commercial fisheries than C. hippurus. There are no catch statistics for this species. In the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC 2010) catch statistics this species is grouped with C. hippurus. The juveniles of C. equiselis are more common than C. hippurus (Gibbs and Collette 1959).

habitat:
This pelagic, oceanodromous species is primarily oceanic but may enter coastal waters. It usually forms schools. It follows boats and may be found under floating objects. It feeds on small fishes and squid. This species is fast-growing and short-lived. Maximum size is 75 cm, but more commonly is found to 50 cm. The all-tackle gamefish record is of a 3.86 kg fish taken in Baltimore Canyon, Maryland in 2008 (IGFA 2014). This species is much smaller and less important to fisheries than C. hippurus. Age at first maturity is 3–4 months. Spawning is probably year-round at water temperatures greater than 21°C (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Ditty 2005, Collette 2010).

threats:
Although there is no directed commercial fishery, it is taken incidentally and found in markets. There are no major threats to this species. It is widespread and very prolific.

conservationAction:
This highly migratory species is listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Anywhere that there are minimum catch size or limits for C. hippurus, this species would also receive protection as it is smaller.

useAndTrade:
This is a minor commercial species that is marketed fresh and considered an excellent food fish.

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Acero, A., Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Canales Ramirez, C., Cardenas, G., Carpenter, K.E., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Di Natale, A., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Viera Hazin, F.H., Juan Jorda, M., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Montano Cr


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Coryphaena hippurus is harvested throughout its circumglobal range, and is present in the European region throughout most of the Mediterranean. It can be locally abundant, is fast-growing, early maturing and short-lived. There are some localized declines in catch that may be related to overfishing. However, there is no indication that this species is undergoing significant population declines. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is widespread in tropical and temperate waters and occurs in the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific Oceans and the Mediterranean, though it is most common in waters between 21–30°C. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been recorded north into Irish waters (c.600 km southwest of Ireland, and off the coast of France (Bay of Biscay and the Gulf of Gascony) (Quigley and Flannery 1996).

population:
From 1961 to 2006, the reported worldwide landings for this species from FAO have gradually increased from 17,000 metric t, to a peak of 59,000 metric t (in 2005). In 2005, Japan reported 10,000 tonnes and Taiwan Province of China approximately 15,000 t. In the Eastern Pacific, this species can be locally abundant. Data from the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC 2008) from 1976–2005 widely varies from 200 to 22,000 metric t, with a maximum of 22,000 metric t in 2001. Although there are no data on fishing effort, demand has not decreased. However, there have been many regional fishermen reporting that catches are decreasing, especially in Costa Rica and Ecuador where there are possibly localized declines in catch rates. In Peru, catch of this species is highly fluctuating; there was a catch in 2005–2006 of 2,000 and 4,000 mt by the artisanal fleet, but in 1998 21,000 t were caught after an El Niño event. There is some evidence of multiple populations based on biological and morphological characteristics (Oxenford and Hunte 1986, Lessa et al. 2008, Duarte-Neto et al. 2008), however there is genetic connectivity between migratory groups in the Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM 2006) stock assessment recognized the uncertainty about stock structure and conducted separate analyses (one that recognizes separate north and southern stocks and one combining both). The conclusion from all of the assessments was that there was no decline in catch per unit effort (CPUE) indices and therefore the fishery appears sustainable at current levels. They did note the uncertainty and the need for more data from other countries within the stock area. The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism 2010 stock assessment (CRFM 2010) analysed data from the Caribbean, Venezuela, Brazil and the U.S. that corroborates that this species migrates from northern Brazil to the eastern Caribbean and may also enter the southeastern Caribbean Sea. The standardized CPUE indices for the eastern Caribbean corroborates that the stock is not declining. In Brazil there is evidence of at least two stocks, one in northern Brazil (shared with the Caribbean) and one in the northeastern Brazilian coast (Lessa et al. 2008). Although there is uncertainty in the data, the stock assessment in the northeast indicated that the stock is fully exploited (Lessa et al. 2009). This species is widespread and is very common in the Mediterranean, and catches are increasing. The average catch from 2000 to 2009 was about 8,000–10,000 t per year (FAO 2009). Off the coast of Turkey it is seasonally common. FAO landing figures are available from Tunisia, Malta and Spain. Most of the current catch figures are from Tunisia and Spain and are currently increasing. Catches from Malta have remained relatively stable since 1950. The distribution of this species is expanding to the northern part of the western Mediterranean. Catches are much higher in late summer and early autumn.

habitat:
Schools of Coryphaena hippurus can be found in open waters and near coastal areas. This species is found to a depth of 85 m. Diet consists of smaller fishes, zooplankton, crustaceans, and squid. Juvenile teleosts were the dominant prey item by frequency of occurrence in the Ionian and southern Tyrrhenian seas (Castriota et al. 2007). Epipelagic fishes, particularly flying fishes, were the predominant prey in the Arabian Sea followed by cephalopods and crustaceans (Varghese et al. 2013). This species is fast-growing, and matures relatively early. Maximum size is 200 cm, but more commonly is found to 100 cm.The all-tackle game fish record is of a 39.46 kg fish caught in Papagayo Gulf, Costa Rica in 1976 (IGFA 2014). Longevity can reach four years but is usually less than two years (Oxenford and Hunte 1983, Oxenford 1999, Lessa et al. 2008). Age at first maturity is three to four months in the Gulf of Mexico, four months in the Caribbean (Oxenford 1999), six to seven months in the northeastern North Atlantic, and four months in northeast Brazil (Lessa et al. 2008). Off North Carolina, males reach 50% maturity at 476 mm, 100% at 645 mm; females reach 50% maturity at 458 mm, 100% at 560 mm (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Oxenford 1999, Ditty 2005, Schwenke and Buckel 2008). In the eastern Caribbean, males reach 50% maturity at 91 cm fork length (FL) (four to five months old) and females at 83.5 cm FL (four to five months old) (Oxenford 1999). In Puerto Rico, 50% maturity is reached at 45 cm FL (greater than seven months old) (Perez and Sadovy 1991). Spawning early and often should make C. hippurus resilient to overfishing (McBride et al. 2012). Spawning is probably year-round at water temperatures greater than 21°C, and spawning occurs in the open water when water temperature rises. In temperate areas such as North Carolina, peak spawning occurs from April through July. In East African waters, spawning season may last from March to early June and spawning occurs inshore. In tropical regions spawning likely occurs year round. Batch spawning occurs at least two or three times per spawning period. Batch fecundity estimates in the west central Atlantic range from 58,000 to 1.5 million eggs and are strongly influenced by size (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Ditty 2005, Schwenke and Buckel 2008, Oxenford 1999). In southern Brazil, spawning occurs from November to February, at least between 20–28°S (A.F. Amorim pers. comm. 2010).

threats:
There are no major threats known to this species. However, it is of high commercial value, with a global catch of 58,076 t in 2005, and is extensively harvested throughout its range. There have been observed declines in catch in the Eastern Pacific, but this is thought to be a consequence of higher catches during El Niño events. This species is caught in various types of fishing gear, including longlines, purse seine vessels, and recreational fishing vessels (Palko et al. 1982). It is one of the most important species in artisanal fisheries around the world. In the Mediterranean, this species is caught in association with fish attracting devices (FADS), trolling line and sport fisheries. These attracting devices such as floating bundles of bamboo reeds or cork planks are used to concentrate Dolphinfish before nets are set. The use of FADS are increasing the bycatch of this species (Nelson pers. comm. 2010). Small quantities are taken as bycatch in longline and driftnet fisheries. They are taken as by-catch in the swordfish fishery from spring to summer in the western Mediterranean  (Massutí et al. 1998). The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) recognizes that the lack of any institutional framework or regional body for collaborative or shared management of this resource is a concern given the increasing catches of this species in the region (CRFM 2006).

conservationAction:
It is considered a highly migratory species under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. In the past, there have been conservation measures implemented by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC 2008) for no purse-seine fishing. In the U.S., there are bag limits and size limits in the recreational fishery and size and trip limits in the commercial fishery (SAFMC 2003). This species' distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of populations trends is recommended.

useAndTrade:
A very highly appreciated sportsfish and foodfish, frequently marketed under the Hawaiian name 'Mahi-mahi'. It is marketed frozen and fresh and is of high value. There have been a number of attempts to rear the fish in pens.

redListContributors:
Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M.L., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Centrodraco acanthopoma is widely distributed in the north Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic it is known from Portugal to Madeira, and is not known to occur in the Mediterranean. Although specific population data are not available, the population is considered likely to be stable. There are no known threats to this deeper water species. Therefore, C. acanthopoma is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Centrodraco acanthopoma is found in the North Atlantic Ocean, along both the western and eastern coast. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known from Portugal, Meteor Bank, Josephine Bank, Madeira and off Casablanca, Morocco, but it is not known to enter the Mediterranean Sea. The typical depth distribution of C. acanthopoma is 150 to 600 m (Fricke 1986).

population:
Little species-specific population information is available for C. acanthopoma. Populations are considered likely to be stable as it is a deeper water species without impacts from any known threats.

habitat:
Centrodraco acanthopoma is found in deep water, 150-600 m, on muddy bottoms. It feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans (Fricke 1986). Individuals of C. acanthopoma are typically no more than 9 cm total length (Fricke 1986).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to the species as it is found in deeper waters.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, this species is found off mainland Portugal and in the Azores. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, this species is found off mainland Portugal and in the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014).  This species occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters. In the western Atlantic it is known from Massachusetts south along the U.S. to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (Robins and Ray 1986). In the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Iberian Peninsula along West Africa to South Africa. In the Indo-Pacific it is known along East Africa, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, north Australia, and the Hawaiian Islands. In the eastern Pacific it is known from Mexico south along Central and South America to Peru.  It has a depth range of one to 50 m. 

population:
Phtheirichthys lineatus appears to be common in museum collection (Fishnet 2 Portal). This species is considered to be rare (Heemstra 1986).

habitat:
Phtheirichthys lineatus is a pelagic-oceanic species with a maximum size of at least 44 cm (SL) (Collette 2002) but reported to 76 cm (TL) (Eschmeyer et al. 1983). This species attaches to body or enters gill chambers of other fishes, most frequently barracuda (Collette 2002).

redListContributors:
Collette, B.B., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Williams, J.T., Pina Amargos, F. & Curtis, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Previously in Remorina, but is currently placed in Remora (Gray et al. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) In Europe, Remorina albescens is found in Madeira, the Azores and off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
In Europe, Remorina albescens is found in Madeira, the Azores and off mainland Portugal (Carneiro et al. 2014). Globally, Remorina albescens is widely distributed in tropical waters. In the Eastern Pacific area it is found from San Francisco to Chile, but it is rare north of the state of Baja California in Mexico. It is found in the Indian Ocean including waters around Reunion and Mauritius. In the western Atlantic it is found from Florida to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. It is also found in the Western Pacific Ocean around Indonesia and China.

population:
There is no population information available for Remorina albescens.

habitat:
Remorina albescens attaches itself to other species by a cephalic sucking disk on its head. Ninety percent of individuals are found on Manta Rays, but are also associated with four other hosts (O'Toole 2002). It is often found inside the gill chambers and mouth of its host. This species is found to a depth of 50 m.

threats:
This species is used within traditional Chinese medicine, however there is no indication that this is causing a decline in the population. It's association with Manta Rays may result in future population declines should Manta Rays continue to be impacted by anthropogenic pressures.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Remorina albescens. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
Remorina albescens is used in traditional Chinese medicines.


redListCategoryRationale:
Europe regional assessment: NA Remora australis is a widely distributed species and is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters. Only a minor portion of this species' global range is found in the assessment zone. Therefore, R. australis is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Remora australis is found worldwide in tropical and sub-tropical waters and is the most rarely collected member of the family (Collette 2003). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, R. australis is known primarily from the offshore islands. In the Mediterranean, R. australis has been recorded from Trieste (Perugia 1881 as Echeneis scutata), Rhodes (Tortonese 1946), Israel (Ben-Tuvia 1971) and Tyrrhenian Sea (Tortonese 1974). It has recently been recorded in the Saronikos Gulf (Thessalou-Legaki et al. 2012). It is found at depths ranging from one to at least 50 m, depending upon the depth that the host reaches. 

population:
Remora australis is rarely collected because its hosts are whales and dolphins, but it is probably common (B. Collette and J. Williams pers. comm. 2012). This species is rare in the Mediterranean.

habitat:
Remora australis, like all echeneids, attaches directly to larger hosts via modified dorsal fins (Gray et al. 2009). Remora australis is a pelagic and oceanodromous species. It typically reaches as maximum length of at least 40 cm (SL), however there are maximum size records of 76 cm (TL) (Eschmeyer 1983).This species attaches exclusively to whales and porpoises (O'Toole 2002). An adult couple was reported to attach to one spinner dolphin for three months (Silva and Sazima 2003). It has been recorded feeding on spinner dolphins’ feces and vomit (Sazima et al. 2003). Its habitat type is thus wherever host dolphin or whale goes (i.e., over coral reefs, etc.).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (WDPA 2010).This species has undergone regional Red List Assessment in the Mediterranean, and was assessed as Data Deficient.

useAndTrade:
There is no species-specific use and trade information available for R. australis.

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Herrera, J., Fernandes, P. & Heessen, H.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: NA  Remora brachyptera is a widespread, globally-distributed species. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species has been recorded in the Western Mediterranean and Madeira. It is unlikely that greater than 1% of the global population of this species is found within the assessment region. There are no known species-specific threats to R. brachyptera in the assessment region. Therefore, R. brachyptera is assessed as Not Applicable.

range:
Remora brachyptera has a circumglobal distribution throughout all warm waters. Its most southerly limit reaches Otago in New Zealand. In the northeast Atlantic Ocean, R. brachyptera is known only from the offshore islands and the western Mediterranean (Lachner 1986, Wirtz et al. 2008). It has not been recorded in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Golani 2006). Its depth range is host-dependent, and is provisionally accepted as 0 to 200 m.

population:
Remora brachyptera is common, and is one of the most common species within the genus (B Collette pers. comm. 2014). It is considered to be the most derived of the subfamily Remorinae (Gray et al. 2009)

habitat:
Remora brachyptera, like all echeneids, attaches directly to larger hosts via modified dorsal fins (Gray et al. 2009). Remora brachyptera is commonly found attached on to sharks, particularly Blue Sharks and in the gill chambers of Swordfish and billfishes (O'Toole 2002). This is an epipelagic species, like the host species. It is considered a pelagic generalist in its host selectivity (Gray et al. 2009). Remora brachyptera is found to a maximum depth of 200 m.

threats:
There are no major threats to Remora brachyptera. This species may be indirectly impacted due to the harvesting of its host species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas. This species was previously assessed as Data Deficient within the Mediterranean basin (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no species-specific use and trade information available for R. brachyptera.

redListAssessors:
Herrera, J., Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Remora osteochir is found in warm and temperate parts of the northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. It is the most common species of the genus Remora. It is a pelagic-oceanic and oceanodromous species with a strong preference for marlins and sailfish as hosts, but may occasionally cling to other large fishes. There are no major threats to R. osteochir, but it may be indirectly impacted due to the harvesting of its host species and further research is needed on the threats and population trends to determine how it is being impacted by indirect threats. Therefore, R. osteochir is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is found in warm and temperate seas of all oceans. In the northeastern Atlantic, this species has been recorded in the northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Specific records include the Straits of Messina (Fishnet2 Portal 2014), Gran Canaria, Spain (Fishnet2 Portal 2014), Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008), and recently from the northeastern Aegean Sea, Turkey (Tuncer et al. 2012). It is found at depths ranging from 1 to 200 m.

population:
This species is the most common species within the genus, followed by R. brachyptera (B. Collette pers. comm. 2014), and populations are considered to be stable. Investigations of the population structure utilizing mitochondrial control region revealed two distinct lineages for the species: one restricted to the Atlantic Ocean, and one composed of haplotypes from the Atlantic and Pacific. These results reflect patterns seen in hosts of R. osteochir (Gray et al. 2009).

habitat:
Like all echeneids, the species attaches directly to larger hosts via modified dorsal fins (Gray et al. 2009). It is a pelagic-oceanic and oceanodromous species with a strong preference for marlins and sailfish as hosts, although it may occasionally cling to other large fishes (O'Toole 2002). It attaches to the body or the gill chamber of the host. Parasitic copepods form an important part of its diet, with 70% of stomachs with food containing parasitic copepods. This is an epipelagic species, like the host species. It is found to a maximum depth of 200 m. This species reaches a maximum size of 40 cm (Edwards 1990).

threats:
There are no major threats to Remora osteochir, but it may be indirectly impacted due to the harvesting of its host species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for R. osteochir. However, its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range (WDPA 2010). This species was previously assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean Regional Red List Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Herrera, J. & Smith-Vaniz, W.F.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Remora remora is a widespread and common pelagic, offshore species. It is usually associated with sharks but also attaches itself to other large fishes, sea turtles and ships, suggesting weaker host specificity than other Remora spp. There is no species-specific use and trade information available from the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea waters, but it is often harvested for human consumption, especially in Ghana and Senegal. There are no known major threats nor conservation measures in place, and populations are thought to be stable. Therefore, R. remora is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Remora remora has a cosmopolitan distribution in warm waters. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, R. remora occurs from Iceland and the North Sea to the Canary Islands (Lachner 1986, Appleby 1999). It is widespread throughout the Mediterranean, including the western basin, Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, and the Levantine Sea. It also has been recorded in Italy (Tortonese 1974). It is rare in the Eastern Mediterranean, but has been recorded off the coast of Israel (Golani et al. 2006). The depth range is 0 to 100 meters; however, the depth range of this species is dependent on the depth range of the host.

population:
Remora remora is common worldwide (Heemstra 1986). Its occurrence is dependent on the occurrence of suitable host species. It is rare in British marine waters (Swaby and Potts 1990).

habitat:
Remora remora, like all echeneids, attaches directly to larger hosts via modified dorsal fins (Gray et al. 2009). This species is not as host-specific has other species within the family. Remora remora is a pelagic, offshore species which is usually associated with sharks but also attaches itself to other large fishes, sea turtles and even ships (O'Toole 2002). Sometimes it is free-swimming (Cressey and Lachner 1970). It typically reaches a maximum size of 62 cm (SL) but has been reported to 86 cm (TL) (Claro 1994). Younger Remora remora are more active as parasite pickers, feeding on parasitic copepods (Cressey and Lachner 1970).

threats:
There are no known major threats for Remora remora in the waters of the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean or Black Sea. However, Remora remora is often harvested for food in the Eastern Central Atlantic, especially in Ghana and Senegal (Collette in press).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Remora remora. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is no species-specific use and trade information available from the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea waters. Remora remora is often harvested for food in the Eastern Central Atlantic, especially in Ghana and Senegal, where it is marketed dried-salted and smoked (Collette FAO ECA Guide in prep).

redListAssessors:
Herrera, J., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Collette, B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Epigonus constanciae is widely distributed in the Eastern Atlantic including the Mediterranean. This species does not appear to be common or abundant throughout its range. There are no species-specific threats. It is assessed as Least Concern in the region.

range:
Epigonus constanciae is restricted to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is found from the Azores and Mediterranean Sea to Namibia (Gon in press). In the Mediterranean, E. constanciae: has been recorded from southwestern Sardinia and southeastern Sicily; more recently, it has also been recorded in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005) and the Turkish Aegean Sea (Özaydin et al. 2007). This species also occurs off Madeira, the Azores, Cape Verde Islands (Wirtz et al. 2013), and the Canary Islands (Özaydin et al. 2007, Gon in prep). The depth range for E. constanciae is 200 to 742 m (Maugé and Mayer 1990, Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
Mytilineou et al. (2005) collected E. constanciae in the northeastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with densities of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300 to 500 m, 0.3 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700 m, and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range 700 to 900 m. It was absent from survey data in Spanish waters (Northern Spain, Gulf of Cadiz, Mediterranean Spanish waters (Juan pers. comm. 2014). Additional information about the population size and trends of this species is limited.

habitat:
Epigonus constanciae is a bathydemersal species that occurs chiefly on the upper portion of the continental slope (Maugé and Mayer 1990) occurring mainly above the bottom (Abramov 1992, Golani et al. 2006). Adults are strongly associated with the substrate (Tortonese 1986). In the Cape Verde Islands this species has been recorded in cave in shallow water to 20 m depth (Wirtz et al. 2013). The maximum length is 19.7 cm (Parin and Borodulina 1986).

threats:
There are no major threats known for Epigonus constanciae. This species may live outside the depth range of many trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean. However, the presence of juveniles in shallow, coastal waters around the Cape Verde Islands suggests that this species could be exposed to threats from human activities.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Epigonus constanciae. More research is needed regarding the population size and trends and threats for Epigonus constanciae.  This species was assessed as Data Deficient in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Epigonus constanciae.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC In the Northeastern Atlantic, Epigonus denticulatus occurs throughout the Mediterranean and off the Straits of Gibraltar. Use and trade information is not available for this species and no major threats have been identified. More research is needed regarding its population size and trends. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Epigonus denticulatus is a circumglobal species. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, E. denticulatus occurs from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Mediterranean Sea (Tortonese 1973), including the Catalan Sea (Coll et al. 2006), the Adriatic Sea, eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), and there is also a record from the Aegean Sea (Fischer et al. 1987). It has also been recorded from the eastern Mediterranean (Golani et al. 2006). The depth range for this species is 130–830 m (Abramov 1992).

population:
MEDITS trawl survey data from the Spanish Mediterranean coast shows fluctuations in the number of individuals/haul over time. Most years between 5–10 individuals/haul were landed. IBTS survey data from the Gulf of Cadiz reveal that this species occurs regularly in the region, and appears to be less regular during the fall. The size range was from 3–21cm TL in the Gulf of Cadiz, which shows no reduction from the reported maximum size of 20 cm (Golani et al. 2006). Mytilineou et al. (2005) collected this species in the northern eastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with a density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300 to 500 m, and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700 m.

habitat:
Epigonus denticulatus is a bathydemersal species. Adults are benthic, occurring on the continental slope (Maugé and Mayer 1990). Juveniles are pelagic in depths of 130–145 m and 350–425 m (May and Maxwell 1986). The maximum recorded length is 20 cm SL (Gon 1986). Epigonus denticulatus feeds on small fishes and planktonic invertebrates (Webb 1975), pelagic crustaceans, mainly euphausiids, hyperiid amphipods and mysids (Gon ECA FAO in prep).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species in the region.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for Epigonus denticulatus. More research is needed regarding its population size.   This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
There is currently no information regarding the use and/or trade of Epigonus denticulatus.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Listed as Data Deficient as this is a highly vulnerable species which is one of the main deep-sea fisheries target. It is a long lived species, which is slow to recover and has a very low productivity. There has been a substantial decline in the Northeast Atlantic catches during the 2004-2009 period in several European countries including France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Denmark (Faeroe Islands). Research should be carried out to establish the current population size and trend of the species.

range:
The species is present in the southwest Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.  It is found in the Eastern Atlantic from Iceland, the British Isles and Portugal to western Sahara, the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands, and from the Gulf of Guinea to South Africa. In the north-east Atlantic, it is present in seamounts such as Le Danois Bank (Serrano et al. 2005), Seine and Sedlo seamounts (Menezes et al. 2009). Epigonus telescopus is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, where it occurs in the western basin, and in the eastern basin in the Ionian Sea (Madurell et al. 2004, Mytilineou et al. 2005) and the Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). Its depth limits range between 75 and 2,567 metres below sea level, being more commonly found between 300 and 800 m (Tortonese 1986).

population:
Some data on captures are available for E. telescopus: Belhabib et al. (2013) estimated 2.7 kg/trawl/hour discarded in Algeria during demersal and  shrimp trawl for the period 1950-2010. In the Catalan Sea, 36  individuals were captured and preserved (Matallanas and Amich 1985). One hundred and fourteen specimens were caught during experimental trawl surveys in Algerian  coastal deep-sea areas during March 2003 (Massutí et al. 2003). French  landings for 1997 included 57,123 kg of E. telescopus, mainly from ICES  Sub-areas V, VI and VII (ICES 1999). Froese et al. (2004) listed E. telescopus as a seamount species of commercial interest, with global captures among 100 to 500 tons per year. In the Azores, the species is sporadically fished by longline fishing vessels (Pinho and Menezes 2005). Total captures of the species as registered for Eurostat have declined from 289 tonnes in 2004 (maximum registered in the available data time series 1993-2009) to 69 in 2009. The species has declined in several European countries (e.g., France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Denmark (Faeroe Islands)). However, it is not known whether this represents a decline in their population or is the result of changes in fishing effort.

habitat:
The species is considered a mesobenthopelagic species, associated with seamounts (Morato et al. 2006) and it is present through Northeast Atlantic seamounts such as Le Danois Bank (Serrano et al. 2005) and Sedlo Seamount, where large reproductive aggregations were recorded (Menezes et al. 2009). In the Northern Hemisphere (Corner Rise Seamount area) (Pshenichny et al. 1986), spawning takes place in spring-summer. In Azorean waters, specimens in spawning conditions were found in September (Menezes et al. 2009). The species becomes sexually mature at 40–50 cm fork length (FL) (Field et al. 1997, Pshenichny et al. 1986, Tracey et al. 2000). Epigonus telescopus has a very low resilience with minimum population doubling time of more than 14 years and its vulnerability calculated as high to very high (70 of 100), according to Fishbase (2014). It is a long-lived species (39 years according to Vieira et al. (2013)) with slow growth rate, low productivity and high ages at maturity and recruitment (Tracey et al. 2000), also with an estimated full recruit age of 45 years. Its maximum size is 75 cm (TL). The species feeds on mesopelagic fish (lanternfishes, lightfishes, hatchetfishes), squid and shrimp (Pshenichny et al. 1986).

threats:
The species is one of the main by-catch and targeted species in the Northeast Atlantic, with increasing interest as a commercial species in some areas. It is a highly vulnerable species with a low productivity, and it takes 14 years to a minimum population to double in numbers. As a seamount-associated species, threats on these ecosystems could be affecting its population. Dunn (2009), in a review of New Zealand stocks, revised ICES data on E. telescopus captures and noticed a substantial decline in NE Atlantic catches during the 2003-2007 period.  Eurostat catch data from 1993-2009 show a slow declining trend since 2000.

conservationAction:
The species is not listed in any National Red Lists or Red Data Books. However, a proposal for a Regulation on Northeast Atlantic deep-sea fisheries list the species as one of the most vulnerable, amongst others (European Commission 2012). This proposed Regulation aims at the prohibition of targeting deep-sea vulnerable species.It is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range. Further research should be conducted on the population size of the species.

useAndTrade:
This is a commercial species (Fishbase 2014) and a by-catch species in Northeast Atlantic deep-sea fisheries (Zeller et al. 2001, ICES 2001, 2008). In the Azores, the species is sporadically fished by longline fishing vessels (Pinho and Menezes 2005). Froese and Sampang (2004) list E. telescopus as a seamount species of commercial interest, with global captures between 100 to 500 tons per year. There is an increasing interest on the species for some deep-sea fisheries (Vieira et al. 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
Microichthys coccoi is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known only from the Mediterranean and Azores. It was previously thought to be endemic to the Mediterranean. Although nothing is known of population size or trends, it is a small species (to three centimetres) occurring in mid-water and is thus unlikely to be threatened by existing fishing methods. Therefore, M. coccoi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Microichthys coccoi was previously thought to be endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, specifically from the Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005), south of the Strait of Messina, Sicily (Tortonese 1986) and the Aegean Sea. However, more recently there have been reports from the Azores as well (Carneiro et al. 2014, Gon in press). It is known from depths of 145 to 350 m (Gon in press).

population:
Mytilineou et al. (2005) collected this species in the northeastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000 and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with a density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700 m. No other information about population density or trends is available.

habitat:
This is a small, mid-water pelagic species found at depths of 145 to 350 m (Gon in press).

threats:
This is a species of no commercial interest. It is a very small fish (grows to three centimetres) and is unlikely to be caught even as bycatch.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on any specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. Microichthys coccoi was assessed as Least Concern globally in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Bizsel, K., Goren, M. & Kara, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Microichthys sanzoi is known from only one locality in the Mediterranean. Nothing is known of its populations, specific habitats, threats, etc. Therefore, M. sanzoi is listed as Data Deficient.

range:
This species is endemic to the Mediterranean. The only confirmed record is from the Strait of Messina, Sicily (Tortonese 1986). The depth distribution of its congener, M. coccoi, is 145 to 350 m (Gon in press).

population:
Nothing is known of population size or trends for this species

habitat:
This is a pelagic species. It is thought to get to five to six centimetres standard length (Tortonese 1986). The depth distribution is unknown, but M. coccoi is known from 145 to 350 m depth (Gon in press).

threats:
This is a species of no commercial interest. There are no known threats.

conservationAction:
There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean. Microichthys sanzoi was previously assessed as Data Deficient globally as it is only known from one locality in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
Perca robusta (Couch, 1832) was listed as a synonym of “Epinephelus guaza” (= E. marginatus) by Smith (1971), but Heemstra (1991) considered this species a synonym of E. aeneus.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) In the European region the species is found in the Mediterranean Sea and along the Atlantic coast of Portugal and Spain, with its presence in Macaronesia (the Canary Islands and Cape Verde) uncertain. While there is some evidence of decline in the population from FAO landings data, as well as a perceived threat from fishing pressure, more information on its abundance in the European region is necessary, and it is considered as Data Deficient at present. Estimates of fishing effort from European ports, specifically Greece, are urgently needed to assess the noted declines in FAO landings. Given the noted fishing pressure throughout the Mediterranean Sea, this species should be a priority for data acquisition with the European region.

range:
In European waters the species is found in the Mediterranean Sea and along the Atlantic coast of Portugal and Spain. It is found throughout much of the Mediterranean except north of 44°N in the Adriatic Sea and it is absent from central Mediterranean coast of Spain to central Italy. Its global range extends along the west coast of Africa to southern Angola, including the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. The records from the Canary Islands (Spain) and Cape Verde are unsubstantiated (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Glamuzina et al. (2000) suggested that the fish is in the process of colonisation of new areas in the northern Mediterranean and Adriatic.

population:
In the European region, FAO (2014) reported landings of E. aeneus from 1958-2011 show peak landings in 1968 (2,100 mt). The landings were erratic with an overall precipitous decline until the early 1980s (1984 c. three generations = 593 tonnes), where they continued on a steady decline, until in 2011 just 23 mt were landed (FAO 2014; Fishstat J, global capture production, European countries only), a decline of 96%. However, capture data including west African countries show a significant increase in captures. Nearly all landings reported to FAO (2014) were from Israel (estimated), with smaller contributions from Portugal and Greece. With no estimate of fishing effort, it is difficult to pinpoint exact causes of the declines, however the large reduction in landings in indicative of overall population reduction. Bouain et al. (1983) stated that E. aeneus comprised 90% of the landings of fish in Sfax in Tunisia. These data do not appear in FAO landings so are either unreported or unreliable. Akyol et al. (2007) reported on the small-scale longline fishery of Gökova Bay (Turkey) based on landings from September 2002 to August 2003 (vessels six to nine metres in length). During this period, E. aeneus represented the highest landings by weight (41%) for a total landing of 106.1 kg from 187 individuals. The minimum length of a landed individual was 18.6 cm, and the maximum was 71 cm with a mean of 31.2 cm. The minimum weight for an individual landed was 0.07 kg and the maximum was 3.7 kg, with a mean of 0.37 kg. Akyol et al. (2007) also report that 50% of groupers caught (presumably by the longline fishery and discarded prior to landing) are under 30 cm, the stated size limit in Turkey. Nearly all information on the population status of E. aeneus has been gathered from African nations where they are highly exploited, with little information available for areas where this species occurs within the European region. Epinephelus aeneus was previously an abundant species, but has declined significantly in many parts of its range. In Tunisia, more than 90% of female E. aeneus collected from 1970-1973 were sized three to nine kilograms (Bruslé and Bruslé 1976). In the 1950s, E. aeneus was abundant along the Atlantic coast of Morocco (Furnestin et al. 1958). On the basis of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and effort of maximization calculated from fishery data, Gascuel and Ménar (1997) classified E. aeneus in Senegal as an over-exploited species. Froese (2004) suggested that the stock of E. aeneus in Senegal is overfished based on three simple indicators (percentages of mature fish in catch, specimens with optimum length in catch and ‘mega-spawners’ in catch. Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) described E. aeneus as very frequently found in African-Mediterranean waters, but significantly rare in central areas, and not found in northern regions of the Mediterranean.

habitat:
General The adults of E. aeneus occur on rocky or mud-sand bottom up to depths of 200 m, while juveniles have been taken in coastal lagoons and estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Length and growth Ezzat et al. (1981) revealed a linear relationship between total length (L) and scale radius (S): L = 0.1217+5.4420S. Based on 104 E. aeneus collected from Gulf of Gabès in Tunisia, the von Bertalanffy growth equation was SL (cm) = 204.34 (1-e(-0.039(Age+0.767)) (Bouain 1986).  Feeding In the west African waters, Longhurst (1960) found that its diet comprises of fishes (58%), stomatopods (21%), crabs (10%), and cephalopods (10%). The examination of commercially-caught specimens along the Senegalese shore, stomach contents of E. aeneus (400 to 900 mm TL; n=161) suggested that Sardinella aurita and Octopus vulgaris were the preferential and accessory prey during the cold season, respectively. During the warm season, teleosts were abundantly ingested while molluscs (esp. Sepia officinalis) as an accessory prey with the crustacean Callinectes amincola be an occasional prey in the stomach of E. aeneus (Diatta et al. 2003). Reproduction Epinephelus aeneus is a protogynous hermaphrodite with females maturing first at 50 to 60 cm TL and weighing about three kilograms for Tunisian fish. Most females change sex at about nine kilograms, but smaller males (three to five kilograms) are occasionally found (Bruslé 1985). Based on histological examination off the ovaries, Bouain and Siau (1983) suggested that E. aeneus spawns in June and July along southeast Tunisian seashores. The total potential fecundity was estimated to range from 789,436 ova in a 44 cm SL fish of 2.2 kg to 12,589,242 ova in a 87 cm SL fish of 12.6 kg (Bruslé 1985). Vadiya (1984) estimated “absolute fecundity” of a 93.5 cm, 8.6 kg E. aeneus in the southeastern Mediterranean at 3,873,271 ova. Bouain and Siau (1983) estimated the total potential fecundities of a 43.5 cm SL and 87 cm SL E. aeneus from southeastern Tunisian waters were 789,436 and 12,589,242 ripe oocytes, respectively. 750,000 to 1,200,000 eggs were produced by natural spawning in each of the five experiments (four to five females and three to four males) in captivity, with an average of 80.2% of fertilization rate (Gorshkova et al. 2002). Bouain et al. (1983) found that the largest fish of the Tunisian population was 115 cm TL, 25 kg, and was estimated to be 17 years old; females mature at five to seven years (1.5 to 3.0 kg, 50 to 60 cm TL) and sex change occurs at 10 to 13 years (six to 15 kg, 80 to 110 cm TL). Migration Cury and Worms (1982) suggested a seasonal migratory behaviour of E. aeneus from Mauritania to Senegal. Cury and Roy (1988) noted that E. aeneus migrate and colonize protective areas from Mauritania to Senegal because of the onset of Senegalese upwelling and relaxation of the upwelling off northern Mauritania. Glamuzina et al. (2000) suggested that E. aeneus is the process of colonization of new areas in the northern Mediterranean and Adriatic.

threats:
The major threat to E. aeneus is overfishing by various methods from artisanal to industrial. It is highly esteemed in the market of West Africa (Maigret and Ly 1986) and typically caught with hook-and-line and in trawls (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is consumed as food with considerable economic importance in fisheries of the Mediterranean and the west coast of Africa (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Epinephelus aeneus played an important role on the fish market in Senegal, mainly supplies by artisanal fishing. Fresh E. aeneus was produced in industrial scale and for export (Cury and Worms 1982). Cury and Worms (1982) recorded that E. aeneus only comprised a small amount in weight (83,557 kg, 3.7% of the total landing in Saint-Louis and 439,803 kg, 4.3% of the total in Kayar) but a relatively high monetary value of 11% and 17.6% of the total, respectively in 1980.

conservationAction:
There are currently no conservation or management initiatives for this species. It occurs in a few marine protected areas within its range. The species was assessed as Near Threatened in 2008 both globally and for the Mediterranean region (Thierry et al. 2008).

useAndTrade:
It is an important species in fisheries in the region, with a high market value and its aquaculture potential is being investigated (Cnaani et al. 2012). It is also found in subsistence fisheries. Gorshkova et al. (2002) suggested that broodstock management and larval culture seem to be the main deterrents for successful domestication of E. aeneus. Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) noted that juvenile E. aeneus (about 200 g) were adapted to aquarium conditions in Dubrovnik. Particularly good results from the aquaculture of the species have been achieved in Israel (Hassin et al. 1997).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species occurs in the European region throughout much of the Mediterranean Sea, and the Atlantic coast of Portugal and southern Spain. It is not known from the Macaronesian Islands. In the European region, Epinephelus caninus appears to be a naturally rare species. Whilst overfishing is a perceived threat in a major portion of its European range, the species is not targeted in commercial fisheries, but would be affected by incidental landings by these fisheries. There is very little population information available from fisheries-dependent or fisheries-independent surveys, nor on the impact of fishing pressure, and it is difficult to quantify the level of threat and its affect on population status for this species. At present the fish is considered Least Concern, however ongoing population monitoring is recommended.

range:
The species occurs in the European region throughout the Mediterranean Sea (including the Adriatic Sea but absent from the central Mediterranean coast of Spain to central Italy), on the Atlantic coast of Portugal and southern Spain. It is unknown from the Macaronesian Islands. The fish has recently been recorded from the southwestern coast of the Crimean Peninsula in the Black Sea (Boltachev and Karpova 2013). In the eastern Atlantic the species is found from Portugal to Angola.

population:
There is very little population information for Epinephelus caninus. The fish is not targeted in the European fisheries, although it is occasionally landed. This species is likely naturally rare as there is no indication that it has been abundant in any part of its range. Fishery-independent surveys at protected and unprotected areas in the Mediterranean indicated that it is now rare; the highest abundance observed was 0.2 individual per 250 m2 (Charton et al. 2000).

habitat:
Epinephelus caninus is a demersal species that occurs on sandy mud bottoms from 30 to 400 m. A maximum weight of 78 kg was reported by Jose Manuel, Spain (05/05). The species feeds on fishes and invertebrates.  A single specimen from Majorca was aged at 75 years old, 164 cm TL and 67 kg (Morales-Nin et al. 2005).

threats:
While there is no directed fishery for the species, it is taken incidentally. In areas where overfishing for commercial trade is significant (e.g., in the Mediterranean), it is considered a minor threat to this species.

conservationAction:
Epinephelus caninus occurs in protected areas in the Mediterranean.

useAndTrade:
There is no commercial fishery for the species, although it is occasionally found in landings.

redListContributors:
Heemstra, P., Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H. & Padovani-Ferreira, B.


taxonomicNotes:
The name Epinephelus alexandrinus (Valenciennes 1828) was used for this species from 1895 to 1988, but this name is incorrect, as the holotype of Serranus alexandrinus Valenciennes is a specimen of Epinephelus fasciatus, a well-known species of the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific area.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Epinephelus costae appears to have a large range in the European region comprising the entire Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal, the Canary Islands and the Azores. However, whilst the species is apparently only found in small scale fisheries, there is a severe lack of population data available to form a conclusion as to its degree of exploitation or trends in population. It is therefore listed as Data Deficient.

range:
In the European region, Epinephelus costae occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea (including some of the larger islands), along the Atlantic coast of Portugal and southern Spain, and Macaronesia (the Canaries and the Azores). Elsewhere it occurs in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal south to central coastal Angola, including the Cape Verde Islands. The records of Epinephelus alexandrinus from Madeira (Portugal) are apparently based on misidentifications of Mycteroperca fusca.

population:
The species was mentioned to be fairly common in the Mediterranean Sea in the 1970s (Seret 1981), however there are few data to substantiate this or from which to make a comparison to present day population status, and the population trend is considered unknown. Occasionally it is found in small scale longline fisheries (Akyol et al. 2007).

habitat:
A demersal species found on sand, mud or rock bottoms from 20 to 80 m. The juveniles form small groups and may form spawning aggregations. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs and fish. The total fecundity for a female of 47 cm standard length was estimated to be 879,000 eggs.

threats:
A potential threat to Epinephelus costae is from overfishing, although there are no data to quantify the level this threat poses.

conservationAction:
There are no explicit conservation measures for this species in the European region although it occurs in managed or protected areas (e.g., five recorded Natura 2000 sites in Italy; EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
It is infrequently landed in Gökova Bay (Turkey) by small scale longline fisheries (Akyol et al. 2007). It is does not adapt well to aquariums. The eggs and larvae have been reared in the laboratory in Croatia and there is an attempt to start large-scale aquaculture (Glamuzina et al. 2001).

redListContributors:
Choat, J.H., Padovani-Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A. & Heemstra, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN) In the European region, the species occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the eastern English Channel (exceptionally) to Portugal, Spain and the Macaronesian Islands. The species has undergone historical declines in population as a result of fishing pressures; the species is widely targeted across its European range as adults for food. The fish is long-lived (up to 52 years for females and 61 years for males; Reñones et al. 2007) and extremely slow to reach sexual maturity (around five years in females and 12 years in males). It also forms spawning aggregations that are particularly vulnerable to overfishing, and as such, the fish shows low resilience to fishing pressures. Furthermore, the observed sex ratio of sexually mature males to females in one spawning aggregation was approximately 1:7. The sex ratio is heavily skewed towards females, and may become more so if fishing is targeted towards the largest individuals (i.e., mainly males). The heavily skewed sex ratios may lead to reductions in the species' reproductive output. Landings data can be used as a crude proxy for changes in population size provided fishing effort, gear types, management regulations, etc., do not also change over time in a way that could cause landings to change accordingly. Although fisheries data are not ideal for quantitatively estimating population sizes, E. marginatus has many characteristics that make it vulnerable to fishing pressure, more so than many other marine fish species. The synergistic effects of these intrinsic biological threats coupled with the apparently high level of exploitation in the past demands a precautionary approach when assessing the global threat of extinction in this species. There has been a decline of nearly 89% in reported landings from the European region for 1993–2011; although these declines could possibly be partially explained by changes in fishing effort/management, the drastic reduction in landings prior to the establishment of regulations strongly suggests that a significant population reduction has occurred. It is inferred that population declines of well over 50% have occurred over the last three generation lengths; therefore, E. marginatus is assessed as Endangered under A2d.

range:
In the European region, the species occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the eastern English Channel (Mahé et al. 2012) to Portugal, Spain and the Macaronesian Islands. Outside the European region, the species is known from the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean and the western Indian Ocean: from the Mediterranean Sea southwards, and around the southern tip of Africa, except for Namibia (S. Fennessy pers. comm. 2004) to southern Mozambique. In the western Atlantic Ocean it is known from southern Brazil, and from Uruguay and Argentina. It is also reported from southern Oman (Randall 1995). The species was reported from the south of Madagascar (Randall and Heemstra 1991), with an underwater photograph taken by Pierre Laboute in 2010 (not seen by the assessors; M. Harmelin-Vivien pers. comm. 2014). For this species, which aggregates to spawn, the area of occupancy (AOO) is taken as the area of all aggregation sites. This area, which will occupy less than 10% of the extent of occurrence (EOO), is not however known. The known or suspected reproductive sites in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea include: Corsica (Revellata, Lavezzi Islands), Var (Les Embiez, National Park of Port-Cros), Pyrénées-Orientales coasts (Bodilis et al. 2003), Medes Islands (Zabala et al. 1997a) and Lampedusa Island (Marino et al. 2001). In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, spawning sites are known or suspected in the Macaronesian Islands and on the Portuguese coast.

population:
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) capture production statistics show a marked decline in landings for Europe from the early 1990s when fishery production peaked at 7,699 metric tonnes in 1994, to 869 mt (estimated) in 2011 (FAO 2014; assessment region countries only), representing an approximately 89% decline. However, landings data are a poor proxy for population declines, particularly as changes in fishing effort or reporting can change through time, such that a 89% decline in landings does not necessarily mean that there has been a decline of more than 80% in the population, but an overall population decline of at least 50% is suspected within the region. The largest producers of Dusky Grouper were Italy, Spain and Portugal (in decreasing order of contributions to the European production). Numerous studies have documented increases in population trends over the past decade given an increase in the establishment of marine protected areas (e.g., Reñones et al. 1999, Hackradt et al. 2014), however these increases are small relative to the presumed abundance of the species prior to its exploitation in the European region. Reñones et al. (2010) claimed that the dusky grouper was considered to be overexploited over its entire [presumably European] distribution range. Therefore, the species is thought to be declining in Europe. The population of E. marginatus has never been very numerous along the French Mediterranean coast, but a dynamic population of groupers has been recorded in the northern Mediterranean for 20 years (Harmelin and Robert 2001, Harmelin 2013). Visual censuses conducted around Ustica Island off the northern coast of Sicily revealed a high abundance of the grouper in protected coastal areas (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999). A recovery in the Dusky Grouper population has been observed in France, first in MPAs and now even in unprotected areas. A more than five-fold increase was observed in the French National Park of Port-Cros over the last 18 years (1996-2014). The increase is believed to be related to several factors acting in synergy: increased number of MPAs, spearfishing bans, and warming of the Mediterranean Sea (Harmelin 2013). The presence of small groupers is constantly observed in the south of Spain, around the Balearic Islands, and along the North African coast. The presence of many small Dusky Groupers was also observed in Corsica in 1990, 1992, 1996 and 2001 (Bodilis et al. 2003), and at Porquerolles Island in 2008 (France, mainland) (Cottalorda et al. 2009). However, a decline in populations has been observed in Tunisia and southern Spain due to overfishing as reported by scientists of these countries at the Second International Symposium on the Mediterranean Groupers (Francour and Gratiot 1998).

habitat:
The species inhabits rocky reefs and bottoms from one to c. 300 m (Reiner 1996, in the Cape Verde Islands), and to c. 250 m (Bruslé 1985, in European waters), but maximum densities are found more usually to 50 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Harmelin and Harmelin-Vivien 1999, Louisy 2005, Andrello et al. 2013). It is a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite, changing from female to male with increase in size. The females in Tunisian waters reached sexual maturity at age five, while sex reversal of females to males takes place between the ninth and sixteenth years with a maximum at the twelfth year (Chauvet 1988). In the Balearic Islands, females reached sexual maturity at 49 cm (TL) and six years, while the occurrence of some of them in the largest and oldest classes indicated that sex reversal can be notably delayed, inducing a greater oocyte production due to the increase of fecundity with size and age (Reñones et al. 2010). In Brazil, 50% of females reach sexual maturity at 49 cm while the largest female was 79 cm and the smallest male was 80 cm. The species matures in spring and spawns in summer with a peak in July and August in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea (Hereu et al. 2006, Reñones et al. 2010) and December in Brazil (Andrade et al. 2003). The species can live for 52 years for females and 61 years for males, but exploited populations in Spain are dominated by four to eight year-old individuals (Reñones et al. 2007).  The species forms small spawning aggregations of a few tens of individuals (Zabala et al. 1997a,b). In European waters, aggregation sites are known in the Mediterranean Sea from the Medes Islands Marine Reserve, Spain (Zabala et al. 1997a, Hereu et al. 2006), off Lampedusa Island, Italy (Marino et al. 2001), and the National Park of Port-Cros, France (Chauvet and Francour 1990); and in the Atlantic Ocean from the Azores (Barreiros 1995). Spawning sites certainly exist around other Atlantic islands (Madeira, Canaries) and probably also in southern Portugal, but there are no formal records.  In the Medes Island Marine reserve in Spain, the density of Dusky Grouper was low in winter and maximal in summer, which took place from late June to late August (up to an eight-fold increase). The number continued to increase before spawning in mid-August, then dropped rapidly afterwards. During this period, dominant males developed territorial behaviour and displayed aggressively towards neighbouring males and smaller females. The observed sex ratio was approximately 1:7 (sexually active males versus adult females) (Zabala et al. 1997a).

threats:
The over-exploitation from commercial fishing and leisure (spearfishing) is the primary threat. The slow growth rate and the complex reproductive style of the species compounds its inability to withstand high fishing pressure (Fennessy 1998, 2000). In the past, spearfishing has been the main cause of mortality in France. Furthermore, the possible removal of legal protection of dusky groupers and a resumption of spearfishing will further impact the re-established juvenile population (Bodilis et al. 2003).

conservationAction:
A spearfishing ban has been imposed on the species in France, Monaco, and the Azores. A number of marine protected areas (MPAs) have been established to protect the habitat of the fish throughout various parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and the species is recorded from 25 Natura 2000 sites in Italy, France and Spain (EUNIS 2014). Renones et al. (2010) recommended a “slot” size limit for capture of individuals between 50 and 80 cm TL, and suggested that sanctuary zoned MPAs may be the most effective management measure to facilitate its population recovery. The species was assessed globally in 2004 as Endangered (Cornish and Harmelin-Vivien 2004).

useAndTrade:
This is one of the most targeted groupers in fishery activities (including spearfishing).

redListReviewers:
Pollard, D.A., Harmelin, J.-G., Kemp, J.R. & Allen, D.J.


taxonomicNotes:
Likely to have been confused with Epinephelus marginatus under the names of E. guaza and E. gigas (Heemstra 1991). A recent publication changed the generic name of this species to Hyporthodus (Craig and Hastings 2007) and a change of family name to Epinephelidae (Smith and Craig 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Hyporthodus haifensis does not appear to be utilized to a large extent. However its known distribution (Mediterranean Sea) is known to have high fishing pressure, although fisheries data and hence population status and information on the species' utilization is minimal. The species is currently listed as Data Deficient, and further research and monitoring is required.

range:
Hyporthodushaifensis is found in the southern Mediterranean and occurs south along the north and west African coast to southern Angola (Heemstra 1991). There is a recent report of the species from Lampedusa Island in Italy (Azzurro et al. 2000), which extends its range to the central Mediterranean, where it is also recorded from Palermo (Sicily), Syria and Lebanon (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and Turkey (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002).

population:
There is very little population information available for this species, as it is a deep-water species, and there is no information on current population trends.

habitat:
A large species, reaching a maximum total length of 110 cm and 25 kg (Poll 1954). It is found in depths from 80 to 220 m over mud, sand or rock bottoms (Poll 1954), rocky reefs with encrusting coraline algae, and most commonly found between the depths of 80 to 160 m (Azzurro et al. 2000).

threats:
The species is probably important in local fisheries in the Mediterranean but there is insufficient data to quantify its importance or impact on the species.

conservationAction:
Hyporthodus haifensis probably does not occur within many protected areas because it prefers deep waters, however it has been recorded from the Natura 2000 site Fondali delle Isole Pelagie (Isole Pelagie Natural Marine Reserve and Natural Protected Marine Area), the Pelagie Islands (Italy; EUNIS 2014). Further information is required on populations and fishery trends. The species was assessed as Data Deficient in 2008 (IUCN 2008) at both the global and Mediterranean regional scales.

useAndTrade:
The species is probably important in local fisheries in the Mediterranean but there are insufficient data to quantify its importance. It is frequently taken by long line fisheries, which target Epinephelus caninus around Lampedusa Island, Italy (Azzurro et al. 2000).

redListContributors:
Choat, J.H., Heemstra, P., Padovani-Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L.A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)Mycteroperca fusca is listed is endemic to the Macaronesian region, being present in the four European archipelagos. The species is assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion B2ab(v) because it has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 2,000 km2, it is present in under ten locations, and it has been fished throughout most of its range such that there are suspected declines in the numbers of mature and larger individuals. Additionally, the species is a protogynous hermaphrodite that forms spawning aggregations, rendering it high vulnerability. Larger individuals (mostly males) and aggregations are targeted by fisheries, some of the latter apparently having now been extirpated.

range:
Mycteroperca fusca is endemic to the Macaronesian Region in the northeastern Atlantic. In the European region, it is known with certainty only from the Portuguese archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and Savages, and from the Canary Islands (Spain). It also occurs in the Cape Verde Islands further to the south (Heemstra and Randall 1993). This species can be found at depths ranging from 10-100 m. Based on the area of rocky sea bottom down to the 100 m isobath, its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km2.

population:
Mycteroperca fusca has a limited distribution range, in parts of which it was previously abundant but, most possibly due to fishing pressure, it is now locally rare. There seems to have been local extirpation from the most intensively fished areas in the Canary Islands Archipelago (Bas et al. 1995) The species has an heterogeneous and clumped distribution, with significant differences in abundance and biomass among and within archipelagos surveyed. In the Canary Islands (the southernmost European location), M. fusca had the greatest mean area biomass among all groupers surveyed (464.63 ± 1464.25 g/100 m2, mean ± SD; n=768 transects) and a mean abundance of 0.32 ± 0.76 ind/100 m2 (mean ± SD, n = 768 transects) (Tuya et al. 2006). In contrast, the Azorean subpopulation (the northernmost European distribution) presents much lower densities (0.10 ± 0.40, ind/250 m2, 7.5% avg presence in transects, 0-26.7% N=520 transects). These differences apparently reflect the species being naturally rarer in its northernmost distribution limit (unpublished data, M. Schmiing and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2014), given that the Canaries has a traditional targeted fishery to this species and the Azores does not. Overall, there seems to be a decline on the number of mature individuals of the European populations of M. fusca, based on spawning aggregation declines and Tuya et al. (2006).

habitat:
Mycteroperca fusca is a demersal species that occurs near the bottom in rocky areas at depths from one to 200 m, but it usually occurs from 10 to 50 m. Two specimens collected from the Cape Verde by J. Cadenat were from a depth of 50 m. It recruits to rock pools and very shallow rocky reefs; and juveniles are present in shallow waters, including sheltered bays and harbours. Adults grow up to 80 cm TL and occur essentially at more exposed and deeper (20-40 m depth) reefs across its range, and specifically at reefs away from shore (known as ‘baixas’, or ‘bajas’). It is essentially piscivorous and feeds mostly on the water column. Adults (greater than 35 cm TL), which are protogynous hermaphrodites (Bustos et al. 2010), and subadults are known to aggregate at specific reefs in tens of individuals, notably at offshore reefs during the summer spawning season, and these are thought to constitute spawning aggregations as in many other studies of Epinephelinae.

threats:
Fishing is often targeted at its preferred habitats (offshore reefs) and summer spawning aggregations, which for other serranids of similar life history has resulted in population declines, altered sex ratio and extirpation of spawning aggregations. It is particularly vulnerable to capture by spearfishing or fishing with live bait and jigging. Mycteroperca fusca (along with Epinephelus marginatus) showed the strongest spatial responses to variations in fishing intensity and human population density across the Canary Islands, thus supporting the hypothesis that major human intervention has affected the abundance and biomass of both species across the archipelago (Tuya et al. 2006).Presently, individuals are rarely observed across its range and even more at lengths greater than 40 cm TL, approximately half of the known maximum size (e.g. Tuya et al. 2006, Ribeiro et al. 2005, Schmiing et al. 2013, unpublished data M. Schmiing and P. Afonso, pers. comm. 2014). In several historical aggregation sites, adults are now very rare although regularly seen at depths below 30 m. Some of these sites still show various tens of immature individuals or smaller adults aggregating during the short spawning season in the summer (e.g. sites in Santa Maria and Graciosa Islands in the Azores), but rarely or never larger adults (J.P. Barreiros pers. comm. 2014, unpublished data P. Afonso pers. comm. 2014). This trend is of major concern given that the species is hermaphroditic and hence the combination of fishing at aggregations and the selectivity for larger size individuals (e.g. spearfishing) should result in a disproportionate reduction of the most reproductively productive portion of the population.

conservationAction:
The range of M. fusca includes multiple protected areas across its preferred habitat (e.g. Monte da Guia, Ilhéu da Vila and Formigas in the Azores; Garajau and South shore of Porto Santo in Madeira; Savages; El Hierro, La Restinga or El Cabrón in the Canary Islands), including numerous EU Natura 2000 marine sites. However, most of these sites do not have management plans in place, do not have no-take regulations (i.e., only restrict specific fishing such as gillnetting), or are still frequently poached (e.g. Tuya et al. 2006, Schmiing et al. 2014). It is recommended that 1) MPAs include properly enforced and managed (including appropriate monitoring) no-take areas in exposed reefs, 2) that such MPAs include spawning aggregation sites, or that these sites be protected by temporal closures, and 3) fishing of this species either cease or be greatly reduced, especially using techniques of greater catchability for this species. Further research should be conducted on the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is commercially important in Madeira and the Canary islands, and highly appreciated throughout its range.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has been erroneously recorded from Brazil, where it was misidentified as M. acutirostris, a species that occurs in the Western Atlantic. Records of the species from the Macaronesian Islands and Cape Verde refer to M. fusca (Heemstra 1991).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the European region, the species is considered to occur throughout the Mediterranean Sea (although records are absent from some parts of the northern Mediterranean coast), and also in the eastern Atlantic from far southern Portugal and Spain. Although population data are not available, the species is listed as Least Concern since it is very widespread, with a considerable depth range, and is not specifically targeted by any fishery because of its apparent natural rarity.

range:
In the European region, the species occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic around the mouth of the Mediterranean Sea in far southern Portugal and far southern Spain. It has also been recorded in the Adriatic Sea (Glamuzina et al. 2002). The species likely exists in other areas of the Mediterranean Sea for which we have no specimens or good documentation; it is considered likely that the fish is also present in waters around Sicily, parts of the Adriatic, the coast of Italy, and the Mediterranean coasts of France and Spain. The fish is also present in the eastern Atlantic southwards to southern Angola. The specimens from Madeira and the Azores (Portugal), the Canary Islands (Spain), and Cape Verde were examined by Heemstra (1991) who identified them as Mycteroperca fusca. The species is replaced by Mycteroperca acutirostris in the western Atlantic (e.g., Brazil).

population:
The species is a widespread, but a generally uncommon species. It appears commonly along the coast of Senegal (Séret and Opic 1981), but it is rare in Tunisia (Bou-Ain et al. 1983). Siau and Bou-Ain (1983) report that fewer than two specimens occur in the markets at Sfax (Tunisia) annually.

habitat:
This is a demersal species that occurs over rocky reefs and adjacent sandy bottoms from 15 to 200 m depth (Heemstra and Randall 1993), although it is more generally found at shallower depths (i.e., from around 15 to 30 m depth). It feeds on molluscs (presumably cephalopods) and small fishes (Freitas 1982, Diatta et al. 2003). Sex reversal for the species occurs at nine years old, and 53 cm (TL) (Siau and Bou-Ain 1994). Siau and Bou-Ain (1994) indicated that the species began spawning at the end of spring in the southern Mediterranean, with sexual maturation occurring at a size and age of about 27 to 32 cm (TL) for females, and between four and five years. Maximum size 140 cm (TL), however usually seen and caught at much smaller lengths, especially where commercially exploited.

threats:
Fishing pressure may pose some threat to this species, however the species is not commonly captured due to its apparent natural rarity.

conservationAction:
The species is likely to occur in several marine protected areas and is recorded from two Natura 2000 sites in Spain and Italy (EUNIS 2014). In Turkey, there is a 30 cm minimum legal size limit.

useAndTrade:
A minor commercial fish in the Mediterranean Sea.

redListContributors:
Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Heemstra, P., Padovani-Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L.A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Diplospinus multistriatus is a widespread species, which within Europe is known only from Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Diplospinus multistriatus has a circumglobal distribution in tropical through warm temperate seas. This species is considered rather rare in the eastern Central Atlantic, but relatively abundant in the northwest and southeast Atlantic and southeast Pacific (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Within Europe, it is known from Madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries (Carneiro et al. 2014, Bordes Caballero et al. 2009).

population:
Ghana Diplospinus multistriatus is very common in museum collections (709 lots with several lots containing over 30 specimens) (Accessed through the Fishnet 2 Portal, www.fishnet2.org, 2013-03-06). Parin (in press) considered D. multistriatus to be common in the northern and southern parts of the Eastern Central Atlantic, but absent in the equatorial waters east of 20°.Gulf of Mexico Diplospinus multistriatus is rather rare throughout most of its distribution, but relatively abundant in the northwest and southeast Atlantic and southeast Pacific (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Diplospinus multistriatus larvae were collected during a survey of the Florida Keys waters from 31 May to 5 June 1989.  Larvae of this species was collected at 12 of 29 stations and had a mean abundance of 6.7 no. per 100 m-2 (Limouzy-Paris et al. 1994). One specimen each of this species was collected via Tucker trawl from two sites (four sites total) in the Gulf of Mexico from 9 to 29 August 2007.  Site GC852 was located off the coast of Louisiana and was defined as a cold seep site.  This specimen was collected at 406 m and had a standard length of 95 mm.  The second site (VK826) was located off the coast of Alabama and was defined as a deep-sea coral site. The specimen collected here was taken at 232 m with a standard length of 66 mm (Ross et al. 2010). This species was considered a dominant species in monthly MOCNESS surveys of a 17-station, 80-km long transect crossing the straits of Florida from 2003-2004.  It represented and abundance of 6.96 individuals per 100 m-2, was collected from 199 positive stations, and had a total of 1002 specimens that were identified during the study.  The abundance of this species was considered to be an underestimate because it was likely to have occurred below the deepest sampled depth (Richardson et al. 2010).

habitat:
Habitat and ecology Diplospinus multistriatus is oceanic, mesopelagic and likely forms schools during the daytime. Diplospinus multistriatus is found to depths of 1,000 m, but migrates upward from 100 to 200 m at night (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Diplospinus multistriatus diet consists of crustaceans and small fishes (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Life history and reproduction Female Diplospinus multistriatus mature at ~16 cm. Diplospinus multistriatus reproduce throughout the year with fecundity of ~1,200 eggs (Nakamura and Parin 1993). The maximum recorded standard length (SL) is 33 cm (Boltachev 1986). This species produces pelagic eggs and larvae (Parin 1986). Common standard length for this species is 20 cm male/unsexed (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Maximum weight for this species is 1 kg (Richardson et al. 2010).

threats:
There is a lack of information on potential threats to this species in Europe.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures for Diplospinus multistriatus. Worldwide, there are numerous marine protected areas that this species may have access to due to its wide distribution, however the effectiveness of MPAs at its depth range is questionable (Bailey et al. 2009).

useAndTrade:
There is a lack of information regarding use and trade of this species in Europe. In some areas of its distribution worldwide it is of no importance to fisheries (e.g. Ghana; Parin in press) whilst in other it is of importance to local subsistence fisheries (e.g. Mexico; Froese and Pauly 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)   In the European region the fish is known from the Azores and Madeira archipelago, and from the Canaries. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
The fish occurs worldwide in the tropical and subtropical seas. In the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Iberian Peninsula south to South Africa. In the western Atlantic it is known from Canada south to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil including throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. In the Indo-Pacific it is known from along East Africa to India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the Hawaiian Islands. In the eastern Pacific it is known from California south along Central and South America to Chile. Its depth range is 0-950 m, but is usually recorded shallower than 200 m (Cervigon 1994, Parin and Nakamura 2002, McMillan et al. 2011).  In the European region the fish is known from the Azores and Madeira archipelagos (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014), and from the Canaries (Rodríguez et al. 2004).

population:
No information for the European region, but assumed to be stable.

habitat:
The fish is an oceanic, epi- and mesopelagic species and occurs from surface to depths of at least 950 m (Cervigon 1994, Parin and Nakamura 2002). It is usually solitary.  Adult Gempylus serpens occur close to the surface at night (nyctoepipelagic), while larvae and juveniles remain at the surface during the day (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Maximum size to 100 cm (SL), common to 60 cm (SL) (Parin and Nakamura 2002). Prey items include fishes (myctophids, exocoetids, sauries, scombrids), squid, and crustaceans (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Males mature at 43 cm (SL), females at 50 cm. Spawns in tropical waters throughout the year. Fecundity of about 300, 000 to 1,000,000 eggs (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Maximum recorded weight for this species is 3 kg (Richardson et al. 2010).

threats:
Gempylus serpens occasionally appears as bycatch in the tuna longline fishery, however, there are no major threats known for this species. Gempylus serpens was recorded as one of the top ten most common fishes caught by the U.S. Atlantic coastal pelagic longline fishery that targets swordfish in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, during a study conducted from January to April 2004.  Equivalent bycatch data for the European region are not available.

useAndTrade:
The fish has a minor commercial uses in fisheries and it is used as bait, occasionally. It can be found in markets sold frozen, as sausages or fish cake (Nakamura 1995), although trade within the European region is uncertain.  It is not eaten raw, but cooked in any way, also can be found in dried form (Titcomb 1972).

redListContributors:
Grijalba Bendeck, L., Curtis, M., Pina Amargos, F., Williams, J.T., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Collette, B.B.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional workshop: DD   Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is widespread in  tropical and temperate seas of the world. The population within the Atlantic basin appears to have a degree of reproductive isolation from populations in the Indo-Pacific.Within the assessment zone comprising the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea there is little species-specific population information available. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is a secondary commercial species which is taken by long-line fisheries targeting tuna and other large pelagics throughout its range, as well as at offshore islands such as the Canary Islands, where it is taken as bycatch in fisheries targeting Black Scabbardfish (Aphanopus spp.). Many aspects of this species' biology are poorly understood. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum may undergo large migrations to specific feeding and reproductive grounds, similar to other large pelagic species; however, these movements are poorly understood. It is worth noting that there appears to be increasing interest in the management of this species in recent years in parts of its range. Localized population declines which have been attributed to commercial fishing have been recorded within the Atlantic Ocean. This species is therefore assessed as Data Deficient. 

range:
Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is a cosmopolitan species which is distributed between 40°N and 40°S (Nakamura and Parin 1993). In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, L. flavobrunneum is known from the Bay of Biscay south to Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is found at depths ranging from 1 to at least 2,000 m (Accessed through the Fishnet2 Portal 2014 January).

population:
Regional population information: Population structure of Lepidocybium flavobrunneum was examined using mitochondrial control region, revealing two highly-divergent clades that were predominantly restricted to the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific basins. This information corroborates morphological differences between Atlantic and Indo-Pacific specimens (Brendtro et al. 2007). Landings are reported from the following Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fishing regions, in order of decreasing current landings: Southwest Pacific, Western Central Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic, Western Indian Ocean, Eastern Central Atlantic, South West Atlantic, Eastern Indian Ocean, Southeast Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic. The overall trend in landings is one of continual increase from 1997 to 2011. In the Northeast Atlantic a total of 39 tonnes were declared by Spain and Portugal in 2011 (FAO 2011).  There is little species-specific information available from the northeast Atlantic. It is worth noting that seasonal pulses in landings suggest that this species may, like other large pelagics, be a highly-migratory species, and that fishing activity outside the region may impact the regional population (Milessi and Defeo 2002). This species appear to be at the limit of its distribution near the Gulf of Gascogne (Casamajor and Morandeau 2013). Global population information: Significant declines in mean weight of L. flavobrunneum in pelagic longline catches over a 16-year period in the western South Atlantic Ocean suggest that the population size is declining due to commercial fishing (Milessi and Defeo 2002, Levesque 2010). A similar study in the western Central Atlantic off the coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico did not indicate that overfishing was occurring from 1993-1999 (Levesque 2010).

habitat:
Lepidocybium flavobrunneum  is a mesopelagic species which is predominantly distributed over the continental slope, down to 2000 m and more. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is uncommon offshore. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum often migrates from deep (200–885) to shallow waters (< 150 metres) at night to feed (Nakamura and Parin 1993, 2001). It is found in deep water, and its lifespan likely extends beyond 11 years (Froese and Kesner-Reyes 2002). Lepidocybium flavobrunneum diet consists of squid, fishes (bramids, coryphaenids, scombrids, etc.), and crustaceans. The maximum recorded standard length (SL) is 200 cm (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Lepidocybium flavobrunneum appear to have a habitat preference for nearshore waters that have bottom ridges, steep drop-offs, or ledge features (Nishikawa 1982).  Many aspects of this species' biology are poorly understood. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum exhibits seasonal oscillations in catch rates, suggesting migratory patterns similar to those of other large pelagic species (Milessi and Defeo 2002). Possible reasons for migrations include feeding and reproductive behavior. This species appears to migrate to frontal zones high in productivity for feeding during a portion of the year, then travel to lower latitudes to spawn (Milessi and Defeo 2002) This species is thought to reach maturity by 30–35 cm or earlier (Brendtro et al. 2008).

threats:
Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is an incidental species in tuna long-line fisheries. Although it is not directly targeted, it is a valuable secondary market species. This is cause for concern, as there has been little attempt to manage this species throughout its range, and there is a paucity of necessary biological information (Levesque 2010). Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is considered to be a low-resilience species. It is found in deep water, and its lifespan likely extends beyond 11 years (Froese and Kesner-Reyes 2002). An analysis of harvesting patterns of this species in the southwestern Atlantic ocean (data from 1981 to 1996) revealed a decrease in mean individual weight of 40%, suggesting over-exploitation risk in this species (Milessi and Defeo 2002). A similar investigation in the northwestern Atlantic ocean showed stable catch rates, however there was a shift towards smaller size-classes. Inherent biological characteristic such as inferred late maturity may render this species vulnerable to overexploitation (Rodger and von Zharen 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. Due to its increasing importance as a secondary-market species, L. flavobrunneum has recently received some research attention.

useAndTrade:
In the eastern Atlantic L. flavobrunneum is taken as bycatch on Madeiran long-lines fishing for Black Scabbardfish (Aphanopus spp.) off the Canary Islands. There are no targeted fisheries, however this species appears as bycatch in tuna longline fisheries (Parin and Nakamura 2002). Landings have recently began being reported from Spain and Portugal. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum is considered a secondary market species, and have thus received little research attention. It is not generally targeted by any fishery, and catches were extremely rare prior to the expansion of pelagic longline fisheries in the 1960s. In the mid-1970s, when many long-line vessels began to fish at depths exceeding 200 metres, bycatch of Escolar became more common (Levesque 2010). Lepidocybium flavobrunneum flesh is oily and has purgative properties (Bianchi et al. 1993).  

redListAssessors:
Collette, B., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Herrera, J.


range:
In Europe, this species occurs in the Azores and Madeira (Carneiro et al. 2014).  Overall, it has a circumglobal distribution through tropical and temperate seas (G. Ralph pers. comm. 2015).

habitat:
Nealotus tripes is an oceanic, epi- mesopelagic species (Nakamura and Parin 1993) found from surface to about 1,646 m depth (Scott and Scott 1988). Nealotus tripes migrates to surface at nights. The maximum size recorded standard length (SL) is to 25 cm and it matures at 15 cm (SL) (Nakamura and Parin 1993). The maximum recorded weight of this species is 1 kg (Richardson et al. 2010). The diet consists of myctophids and other small fishes, squids and crustaceans (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Nealotus tripes produces pelagic eggs and larvae (Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute 2014).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Nealotus tripes.

redListContributors:
Collette, B.B., Smith-Vaniz, W.F., Williams, J.T., Curtis, M., Pina Amargos, F. & Grijalba Bendeck, L.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Nesiarchus nasutus occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. In the eastern Atlantic is is distributed from Ireland to the Canaries (Parin and Bekker 1973).  There is little species-specific information for Nesiarchus nasutus within the assessment zone, and this species is considered naturally rare. It has been recorded at depths ranging from 200 to 1200 metres. There are no known species-specific threats. It is found in marine protected areas throughout its range. Therefore, this species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Nesiarchus nasutus probably occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, N. nasutus is distributed from Iceland and Norway to the Canaries (Parin and Bekker 1973). Large-sized strays are found in temperate waters (Nakamura and Parin 2001). It is found at depths ranging from 200 to 1200 metres.

population:
Nesiarchus nasutus is considered rare (Nakamura et al. 1983)

habitat:
Adult Nesiarchus nasutus are bentho- to mesopelagic on the continental slope or underwater rises.  Nesiarchus nasutus migrate to mid-water at night. Nesiarchus nasutus reproduces year-round in warm waters. The maximum standard length (SL) is 130 cm. Nesiarchus nasutus migrate to mid-water at night. This species feeds on squid, fish and crustaceans. The maximum standard length (SL) is 130 cm (Nakamura and Parin 1993).

threats:
There are no known major threats to Nesiarchus nasutus.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for Nesiarchus nasutus; however, its distribution may overlap marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for N. nasutus.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: LC Promethichthys prometheus is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans. It is oceanodromous and widespread throughout the Eastern Atlantic. Within the assessment zone consisting of the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is described as locally common in parts of its range, and is frequently taken as bycatch in long-line and hook-and-line fisheries but there is no targeted fishery. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Promethichthys prometheus. Its distribution overlaps with marine reserves in parts of its range. Therefore, P. prometheus is listed as assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Promethichthys prometheus is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans, except the eastern Pacific. In the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, P. prometheus is known from the Bay of Biscay south to Azores, Madeira and the Canary islands (Nakamura and Parin 1993, Santos et al. 1997). Promethichthys prometheus is found between 100–800 m in depth (Schneider 1990) .

population:
Promethichthys prometheus landings are declared from the following Fisheries and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fishing regions: Eastern Central Atlantic, Eastern Tropical Pacific. There are no declared landings from within the assessment region. This species is described as abundant in the Canary Islands (Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1995).

habitat:
Promethichthys prometheus is an oceanodromous, benthopelagic species (Riede 2004) which is found over the continental slope, around islands and submarine rises (Nakamura and Parin 1993) at depths ranging from 100 to 800 m (Schneider 1990). It migrates into midwater at night (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Promethichthys prometheus' diet consists of fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans (Nakamura and Parin 1993). The maximum recorded standard length (SL) for this species is 100 cm (Nakamura and Parin 1993). In the Canary Islands, P. prometheus ranged in size from between 42.1 and 78.9 cm. The overall ratio between males and females was 1:1.48. The spawning period extended from April to August, with a peak in July. Size at 50% maturity was reached at 51.1 cm total length (TL). Fish aged 3 to 10 years were present in the samples (Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1995). Promethichthys prometheus was most concentrated at depths of 300 to 700 metres (Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1995).

threats:
In the Canary Islands, P. prometheus is frequently taken as bycatch in hook-and-line and longline demersal artisanal fisheries (Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1995).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Promethichthys prometheus. Its distribution may overlap with marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
This species does not appear to be targeted within the assessment region consisting of the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea. There is no fishery for this species in the Canary Islands (Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1995).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Ruvettus pretiosus is a widely-distributed species in tropical and warm-temperate seas of the world. In the northeast Atlantic, the northern-most extent of this species' range appears to be the western coast of Scotland. It is also found in the Mediterranean. This species is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, including the swordfish long-line fishery and various bottom trawls. Landings originating from the assessment region, which comprise 1 to 3% of global landings, have been declared to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) since 2000 and have increased continuously. This species is assessed as Least Concern within the assessment region.

range:
Ruvettus pretiosus is widely distributed in the tropical and warm-temperate seas of the world. In the northeast Atlantic, R. pretiosus is known from the western coast of Scotland south to Madeira and the Canary Islands (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Ruvettus pretiosus is distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, where it has recently been recorded from the Northern Adriatic Sea (Bettoso and Duli 1999) and in Libyan waters (Elbaraasi et al. 2007). The depth range of this species is 18 to at least 1,100 m (Nakamura and Parin 1993).

population:
There is little species-specific population information available for R. pretiosus. In the eastern Mediterranean it is the second most abundant species caught by drifting surface long-line fleets targeting swordfish in terms of weight and frequency, but is still not often caught (Vasilakopoulos et al. 2009). The majority of global landings of R. pretiosus declared to FAO originate from the Eastern Central Pacific Fishing Zone. The overall trend in landings is one of gradual increase until the early 2000s, when declared landings began to rise sharply to a peak of 42923 tonnes declared in 2006. Landings then drop by 75% to 10746 tonnes. Landings from the Mediterranean and Black Sea fishing zone and Northeast Atlantic fishing zone account for 1 to 3% of global landings. The overall trend in landings from the NEA and Med/Black Sea is one of increase from the late 1990s, when landings were first declared, to roughly 300 tonnes per region at the end of the data series 2011 (FAO 2011).

habitat:
Ruvettus pretiosus is an oceanic and benthopelagic species on continental slope and sea rises (Nakamura and Parin 1993). Ruvettus pretiosus is usually solitary or found in pairs near the sea bottom (Nakamura and Parin 2001). The maximum recorded standard length (SL) is 300 cm (SL) (Scott and Scott 1988). In the eastern Mediterranean, spawning is expected to occur during mid and late summer (Vasilakopoulos et al. 2009). This species can reach sizes of 2 m in length and over 50 kg in weight. However, individuals under 150 cm and 30 kg in weight are more common (Pakhorukov and Boltachev 2001). This species is primarily found at depths of 100 to 700 meters. It undergoes vertical migrations to the epipelagic zone at night (Pakhorukov and Boltachev 2001).

threats:
In the eastern Mediterranean, R. pretiosus is the second most abundant species caught by drifting surface long-line fleets targeting swordfish in terms of weight and frequency, but is still not often caught (Vasilakopoulos et al. 2009). It is also taken as incidental bycatch of demersal longline and gillnet fisheries targeting hake in the northeastern Atlantic (Erzini et al. 2001, Santos et al. 2002) and is also occasionally caught by other gears such as demersal trawls (Elbaraasi et al. 2007) and purse seines (Romanov 2002). Although this species is taken in fisheries within the ICES region, catch statistics are not collected (Zeller et al. 2001).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for R. pretiosus. This species does not appear to be managed or regulated in any way within the northeast Atlantic or Mediterranean waters. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Ruvettus pretiosus is an incidental bycatch of the drifting surface long-line fishery targeting swordfish and Thunnidae in the Mediterranean and elsewhere (Vasilakopoulos et al. 2009). It is the main bycatch species of Greek swordfish fisheries which use drifting surface longlines to exploit species in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin (Tserpes et al. 2006). Its flesh is very oily, with purgative properties (Nakamura and Parin 1993).


taxonomicNotes:
De Buen (1931) described two subspecies of Aphia minuta, Aphia minuta atlantica, the larger Atlantic subspecies, and the smaller Mediterranean Aphia minua mediterranea (Miller 1986). However, A. minuta mediterranea should be considered as a lesser synonym of A. minuta minuta (Risso 1826), on the basis of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (La Mesa et al. 2005).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Aphia minuta is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic, from Norway and the western Baltics to Morocco, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. There is a small-scale, seasonal fishery in the Mediterranean Sea. This fishery resulted in localized population declines in the 1990's and the fishery was stopped in some areas (e.g., the Balearic Islands). Although A. minuta has a short generation length with a high reproductive capacity, ongoing monitoring of population and harvest trends is suggested. As threats are considered localized as present, A. minuta is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Aphia minuta is distributed in the eastern Atlantic, from Morocco in the south to Trondheim in Norway and the western Baltic in the north. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean from Gibraltar to Israel and Egypt (Miller 1986, Ibrahim and Soliman 1996, La Mesa et al. 2005), but absent from parts of the north African coast. It is also present in the Black Sea and Azov Sea (Miller 1986, La Mesa et al. 2005). Aphia minuta is typically found to 100 m (Iglesias and Morales-Nin 2001).

population:
No estimation of size and trend of the global population of this species has been published, however some data are available from the Mediterranean, where the species is subject to fishery exploitation.The sub-population in the Tyrrhenian Sea was estimated as fairly stable with an annual variation of 40-60 tonnes (Auteri et al. 2000). The sub-population in the Alboran Sea (western Mediterranean) was drastically reduced by fishery, and, as result of this population collapse, the species fishery is forbidden in this area (Iglesias and Morales-Nin 2001). The species is only fished in the Mediterranean (in Spanish and Italian waters), and here the populations have been reported to have declined (La Mesa et al. 2005) as a result of the fishery for the species. There is ongoing monitoring in Italian waters but these data are not available.It is not an abundant species off the coast of Portugal (Da Cunha and Antunes 2008).

habitat:
Aphia minuta is a small transparent pelagic and neritic species, widely distributed in inshore and estuarine waters from the surface to 80–100 m depth over sand, mud or eelgrass (Zostera marina) and sea-grass (Posidonia oceanica) or large thalus algae (Cystoseira) (Miller 1986, La Mesa et al. 2005). It is an annual species that lives less than one year, with a maximum size of less than 60 mm.The breeding season is quite long and spawning takes place at least twice during its short lifespan. Just after spawning, all breeders quickly die probably as a consequence of the degeneration of the intestinal epithelium by apoptosis, marking the end of the entire cohort. Sexual maturity of A. minuta is reached at variable sizes, between 28–30 and 42–45 mm total length. The range of absolute fecundity is approximately between 900 and 7,000 oocytes per female. Spending most of its life in the water column, it is a planktotrophic feeder, relying mainly on small copepods. In turn the transparent goby is preyed on by several species of fish and larger cephalopods. During ontogenesis, three phases characterize the species: a ‘pelagic phase’, composed of larval stages hatched from demersal eggs that inhabit shallow coastal waters; an ‘aggregated phase’, composed of juveniles that gather in schools in shallow waters during winter; finally, a ‘demersal phase’, composed of adults that in spring migrate offshore with a more dispersed distribution in proximity of the bottom (La Mesa et al. 2005). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 4.4 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 3.8 cm TL  and for males is 3.4 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
The main threat to A. minuta is the fishery throughout parts of its range in the Mediterranean; however recent data are lacking, with catch data for the Italian and Spanish waters referring to the 1990's. In Spain, the total catches of A. minuta generally account for less than 100 tonnes per year, employing overall about 70 vessels. In Italy, total catches are about 160 tonnes per year, most of them in the southern Adriatic, and the fishing fleet is constituted of about 400 vessels (La Mesa et al. 2005). The trend of total landings per fishing season is annually highly variable, being strongly affected by the strength of recruitment (La Mesa et al. 2005). The overexploitation of the resource of A. minuta by the fishery or the environmental disturbances negatively affecting recruitment of A. minuta can cause, in the very short-term (i.e. in the next fishing season), the rapid collapse of the stock biomass available to the fishery.

conservationAction:
Conservation measures for this species are mainly based on regulation of fisheries activities (e.g., Murcia Region Ministry of Agriculture and Water 2012). Further research is required to estimate the size and trends of various populations. Bearing in mind the biological characteristics of the species, fishing effort should be decided locally and seasonally, possibly on the basis of previous biomass estimates at sea made before the fishing season (La Mesa et al. 2005). Daily catches of the species are limited to 25 kg per day in Mallorca (Morales-Nin et al. 2010). The fishery is currently permitted in the Balearics with ongoing monitoring. Although the species has a short generation length with a high reproductive capacity, ongoing monitoring of population and harvest trends is suggested.

useAndTrade:
Despite its small size, this species is largely exploited by local smallscale fisheries developed mainly in the western and central Mediterranean. The fishing fleets, harboured in several sites in Spain and Italy, are generally composed of small vessels. Most of them use very selective gear such as purse-seine nets to catch schools of the transparent goby during winter (i.e. November to March).  For these artisanal fisheries, the transparent goby represents, although seasonally, a very important source of income, yielding locally up to more than 100 tonnes per fishing season and 75 kg/vessel/day (La Mesa et al. 2005). The main fishing areas are in the Alboran Sea, Mar Menor, Balearic Sea, Catalan Sea, Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea and in the central and south Adriatic (Iglesias and Morales-Nin 2001). The data on the fishery were summarized in La Mesa et al. (2005). In the Alboran Sea fishing gear comprised both semi-pelagic and small bottom trawls, but the fishery collapsed in 1980 and is forbidden (La Mesa et al. 2005, anon. pers. comm. 2014). The gear in Mar Menor is a small mesh seine net. Fishing operations consist of a preliminary search of schools using an echosounder, which are then surrounded by the net and hauled onboard the vessel. The fishing fleet has 26 vessels and total annual landings of A. minuta ranged from 7.2 to 23.1 tonnes (1986-1991). In the Catalan Sea the species is captured by a local type of seine net used by 11 vessels and there were no published data on catches (in 2001). In the Balearic Sea the species is captured by a type of boat seine net hauled over the bottom. The fishing fleet was composed of 30–53 vessels and total landings of A. minuta ranged between 4.8 and 79 tons per season (1982-1994). In the Ligurian Sea the fleet is consisted of 80 vessels and the fishery is conducted by means of a purse-seine net with small mesh size (5 mm) set. Official statistics of total annual landings of A. minuta of 0.5–2.5 tons (1993-1997) were probably largely underestimated. In the Tyrrhenian Sea two types of fishery are present in this region. The bottom trawl fishery has the fleet was composed of 15 vessels and probably underestimated total landings of A. minuta reported by the official statistics between one and four tonnes per season. The other fishery is conducted by means of a special Danish purse-seine net with about 30 vessels involved and total landings quite variable during fishing season, ranging approximately between 5 and 29 tons (1980-1999). In the Southern Adriatic Sea two types of semi-pelagic trawls are used, the data for season 1990-1991 reported 299 vessels and total landings of 119 tonnes. In the Central Adriatic Sea the small-meshed semi-pelagic trawl is used with 8-10 vessels and total landings ranged 4.4 to 4.7 tons (1996-1997). Market prices can be high, from 20-40 Euros per kg (La Mesa et al. 2005).

redListAssessors:
Kovacic, M., Herler, J. & Williams, J.T.


taxonomicNotes:
The two juvenile specimens that are known for this species in the Mediterranean Sea, off Banyuls, France, may be juveniles of Buenia jeffreysii (Kovacic and La Mesa 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
Buenia affinis is present in the west-central Mediterranean Sea and apparently only known from three areas (southern France, southern Italy, and along the coast of Croatia). It is likely to have a much wider distribution within this range. It is abundant where known. There are no major threats, and it is considered Least Concern at present.

range:
Buenia affinis is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is found along the western and central shores. It is widespread in the Adriatic Sea with other confirmed records only from Banyuls-sur-Mer (France) and Naples (Italy) in the northwestern Mediterranean (Kovačić and Patzner 2009). Buenia affinis is typically found from five to 25 m (Kovačić 2002).

population:
In the north Adriatic Sea, Buenia affinis is abundant in its typical habitat (Kovačić 2002). There were 240 specimens identified from one locality in the Adriatic Sea, which may imply that it could be locally common in some areas (Kovacic and La Mesa 2010). However, no other estimation of population has been published. Based on the present number of known records and until more data are available, B. affinis should be considered rare.

habitat:
Buenia affinis is a small, epibenthic goby from inshore benthic habitats, at depths of 1.5 to 25 m; it occurs most frequently from five to 20 m. Buenia affinis inhabits sandy areas that were mostly clear, although at places scarcely covered with cobbles (six to 20 cm) and boulders (>20 cm) (Kovačić 2002, Kovačić et al., 2012b). Average sand particle sizes are coarse (0.7-0.8 mm) and medium (0.2-0.4 mm). Sediments are mostly coarse biogenous fragments (calcite skeleton remains) mixed with finer lithogenous material (Kovačić 2002). Specimens were present exclusively on the sandy sediments. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 3.8 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 2.6 cm TL and for males is 2.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). The spawning season extended from February to July. The absolute fecundity ranged from 457 to 714 eggs per individual (mean + SE, 556 + 25). Based on the length frequency distribution analysis throughout the year and seasonal growth bands on sagittal otoliths, B. affinis is assumed to be an annual species (Kovačić and La Mesa 2010).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are required for this species. Buenia affinis was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). It is not listed in the Red List of Marine Fishes of Croatia or the Red Book of Sea Fishes of Croatia. 

useAndTrade:
Buenia affinis is not traded or exploited commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
Buenia jeffreysii is a widely distributed, epibenthic goby found throughout much of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Little is known about its habitat, ecology or population. There are no known major threats to this species. Therefore, B. jeffreysii is considered Least Concern.

range:
Buenia jeffreysii is known only from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from Iceland and Norway to the Celtic Sea, excluding the southern North Sea, from five to 330 m depth (Miller 1996). The single record of Buenia jeffreysii in the Mediterranean Sea at Banyuls-sur-Mer, France was reidentified as Buenia affinis (Kovai and Patzner 2009).

population:
No estimate of population size and trend of B. jeffreysii has been published. Miller (1979) noted that species is “fairly common”. 

habitat:
Buenia jeffreysii is a small epibenthic goby found usually offshore, typically five to 330 m on sand, mud, shell debris, gravel and corallines (Miller 1986). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986). The maximum recorded size is 6.0 cm (Miller 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for Buenia jeffreysii and it occurs in marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
Buenia jeffreysii is not traded or exploited commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
Chromogobius britoi is known from the eastern Atlantic, where it has only been recorded from Macaronesia (Madeira and the Canary Islands), and from a single coastal site on the Atlantic coast of Portugal. There are no known widespread threats and C. britoi occurs in marine protected areas. Chromogobius britoi has been recorded from widely separated sites, though only rarely, and is assumed to be under represented in surveys. Although further information is needed to quantify the population size and distribution, C. britoi is considered Least Concern.

range:
Chromogobius britoi is known from the eastern Atlantic, where it is recorded from Macaronesia (Madeira and the Canary Islands) and from Portugal (Arrabida Marine Park, south of Lisbon) (Beldade et al. 2006). Chromogobius britoi has been found at depths of six to 65 m (Van Tassell 2001).

population:
No information available on population status of C. britoi.

habitat:
The species is usually found in small crevices in rock outcrops, but also found in small tidepools; always associated with rocky bottoms (Van Tassell 2001). The known depth range for C. britoi is six to 65 m (Van Tassell 2001).

threats:
The species is not thought to have any threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Additional research on the distribution, population size and threats to C. britoi is needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
Chromogobius quadrivittatus is distributed throughout the northern and eastern Mediterranean Sea and from parts of the western and northern Black Sea. Little data are available on the population size, but there are no known major threats to C. quadrivittatus. Therefore, C. quadrivittatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Chromogobius quadrivittatus is known from the northern and eastern Mediterranean and from the Black Sea. It has not been recorded from the south-central and southwestern Mediterranean (Miller 1986). The most western record is from Barcelona, Spain, and the most eastern from Sochi (Russian Federation) in the Black Sea. The most southern record is from Caeserea (Israel; Miller 1971). Chromogobius quadrivittatus is typically found only in shallow intertidal areas, less than about two metres (Van Tassell 2001).

population:
No estimation of population size and trend of C. quadrivittatus has been published. Ahnelt (1991) noted that “records of this species are still scattered and infrequent” and that “the species is only rarely found”. The largest collected sample of this species was of 34 specimens (Pampoulie and Bouchereau 1996). Based on the present number of known records and the number of collected specimens in these records, and until more data are available, the species should be considered uncommon.

habitat:
Chromogobius quadrivittatus is a small cryptobenthic goby observed at inshore bottom, under stones or between weed tufts, and into mid-tide pools, occurred most frequently from zero to two metres (Miller 1971, 1986; Ahnelt, 1991). Chromogobius quadrivittatus has tolerance for brackish water and in the Black Sea was recorded also in the small coastal lagoon (Miller 1971). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986). The studied population from Corsica was composed of one year class adult female and juveniles (Pampoulie and Bouchereau 1996), suggesting that the generation length is one year or longer.

threats:
Chromogobius quadrivittatus may be impacted locally, but is not considered threatened across its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed, however it does occur in marine protected areas. Chromogobius quadrivittatus was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chromogobius quadrivittatus is not known to be utilized.

redListContributors:
De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Livingston, F., Acero, A., Murdy, E. & van Tassell, J.


taxonomicNotes:
Miller (1971) described two subspecies of Chromogobius zebratus, Chromogobius zebratus zebratus (Kolombatović, 1891) and Chromogobius zebratus levanticus Miller, 1971. Ahnelt and Patzner (1996) showed that there is no real morphological differences in supposed subspecies populations of C. zebratus, and that separation into two subspecies is not justified.

redListCategoryRationale:
Chromogobius zebratus is present throughout the northern and eastern Mediterranean Sea and off the coast of Spain in the Atlantic. There is no specific population information for C. zebratus, but it appears to be common in parts of its range. There are no major threats towards this species at this time. Therefore, C. zebratus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Chromogobius zebratus was previously considered a Mediterranean endemic, but is now known from Cádiz Bay on the Atlantic coast near the strait of Gibraltar (Alberto and Nieto 1993). Records of C. zebratus are scattered across the northern Mediterranean Sea, including Catalonia (Mercader 1994), Lavezzi Island, France (Bouchereau and Tomasini 1989), Gulluk Bay in Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007) and Arsuz in Turkey (Engin and Dalgiç 2008). There are no records from the Ionian Sea and west Aegean Sea (Kovačić et al. 2011). Chromogobius zebratus has been collected to 12 m depth (Patzner 1999).

population:
There is no specific population information for C. zebratus. However, a recent study of cryptobenthic fishes suggested that this species is relatively common in the northern Adriatic Sea and may be underestimated during typical visual surveys (Kovacic et al. 2012).

habitat:
Chromogobius zebratus is a small cryptobenthic goby that lives on inshore rocky or rocky sandy bottoms, including intertidal pools, at depths of less than one to 12 m depth (Patzner 1999). It mostly lives hidden among cobbles and boulders, also in small cavities in rock or in interstices of coralline nodules (Alberto and Nieto 1993, Ahnelt and Patzner 1996, Patzner 1999, Kovačić et al. 2011, Miller 1986). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986). The studied population from Corsica was composed of one year class adult female and juveniles (Pampoulie and Bouchereau 1996).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for C. zebratus. It occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range. Chromogobius zebratus was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Chromogobius zebratus is not traded or exploited commercially.

redListContributors:
Francour, P., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Tunesi, L. & Goren, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Corcyrogobius liechtensteini is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is known widely from the Adriatic Sea and with scattered records from the northwestern and central Mediterranean. It appears to have a patchy distribution, although it is likely to have been under recorded in typical surveys. The full distribution of C. liechtensteini is not well understood and further research is needed. There are no known widespread threats to C. liechtensteini. Therefore, C. liechtensteini is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Corcyrogobius liechtensteini is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, with records from the northwestern and central Mediterranean (Balearic Islands, Spain; Marseille and the Golfe-Juan marine protected area (Alpes-Maritimes coast), France (Pascaline et al. 2011); Isola del Giglio, Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy, the eastern Adriatic Sea, and a recent finding at Crete (Miller 1972, Ahnelt et al. 1994, 1998, Scsepka and Ahnelt 1999, Ahnelt and Dorda 2004, Kovačić et al. 2011). The full range of the species is not well understood. Corcyrogobius liechtensteini is typically found from three to 25 m, but has been collected from 0.5 to 40.5 m (Patzner 1999).

population:
No estimations of population size and population trends of C. liechtensteini have been published. The largest collected sample of this species included 101 specimens collected at Ibiza, where it was frequent at depth five to 25 m and attained abundances of 14.2 individuals/m2 (Herler et al. 1999). Corcyrogobius liechtensteini was the seventh most frequently collected species in the cryptobenthic fish community in the northeastern Adriatic Sea (Kovačić et al. 2012). Corcyrogobius liechtensteini can be locally abundant and may be underestimated during typical visual surveys (Kovacic et al. 2012).

habitat:
Corcyrogobius liechtensteini is found at depths of 0.5 to 40.5 m as a microcave inhabitant, (i.e., in cavities, hollows and crevices in the bedrock), either in open bedrock microcaves, or in microcaves on the walls and ceilings of large sea caves (Ahnelt et al. 1994, Herler et al. 1999, Patzner 1999). It also occurs among particles in multilayered bottom consisting of boulders and cobbles (Kovačić et al. 2012). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986).

threats:
There are no known major threats to C. liechtensteini. Disturbance and accumulation of air produced by scuba divers may affect the population presence and abundance. There is not enough information to estimate other threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Corcyrogobius liechtensteini was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Additional research on the distribution and population size of C. liechtensteini is needed.

useAndTrade:
Corcyrogobius liechtensteini is not utilized.

redListAssessors:
Kovacic, M., Williams, J.T. & Herler, J.

redListContributors:
Francour, P., Bariche, M., Goren, M., Tunesi, L. & Bilecenoglu, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
Crystallogobius linearis is found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the northern Mediterranean Sea as far East as the Aegean Sea, where it can be locally common. The traditional targeted fisheries are considered well managed, with no evidence for declines in the population. There are no other known major threats. Therefore, C. linearis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Crystallogobius linearis is known in the eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar in the south to Lofoten in Norway in the north. In the Mediterranean, C. linearis ranges from Gibraltar along the coasts of the northern and eastern Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea (Miller 1986, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). It has been recorded from Madeira Island (Wirtz et al. 2008). Crystallogobius linearis has been collected from one to 400 m (Miller 1986).

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of C. linearis has been published. It is a widely distributed species, but without data on abundance for any of the areas within its distribution. Considering that it is the target species of some fisheries in northeastern Spain off the coast of Catalonia and in Italy in the Ligurian Sea, at least for these areas the species could be considered common (La Mesa 2001). In Italy, this species is fished by beach-seine (artisanal fishery) and locally sold (as “bianchetto di fondo”) only in the Ligurian Sea and specifically by the fishing fleet of Camogli and Sestri Levante. Data are available for two periods (1993-1994 and 1994-1995), showing a total catch of about 115 kg during January (Relini et al. 1999). Data for this species are too poor and incomplete for any reliable analysis. It seems that this species is also sold in Barcelona (General Fisheries for the Mediterranean, GFCM 2007). There are no declines in the population.

habitat:
Crystallogobius linearis is a nektonic species, found in coastal to offshore waters up to 400 m depth on sand-mud bottoms (Miller 1986). In the central Adriatic Sea, C. linearis is found between 30 and 40 m depth (La Mesa 2001). This is an annual fish that probably dies after its first breeding season. The data on age at maturity confirm the early maturation of this species, whose females are already mature at four months. The long breeding season, along with the early maturation of gonads, seems to indicate that a fish could be born and reproduce in the same spawning season, supporting the presence of more than one cohort per year. The range of absolute fecundity is up to 340 oocytes per female (Miller 1986, La Mesa 2001). Spawning takes place at one year of age and adults die after spawning. Eggs are laid in the empty worm tubes and are guarded by the male (Muus and Nielsen 1999). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 3.3 cm TL and the length at maturity is 2.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
There are some traditional fisheries targeting this species in the Mediterranean Sea. The fisheries are thought to be well managed (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2007).

conservationAction:
The fisheries are well regulated. The species occurs in marine protected areas. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and Data Deficient in the Baltic (HELCOM 2013).

useAndTrade:
In the Mediterranean, C. linearis is the target species of small scale fisheries both in northeastern Spain (off Catalonia) and in the Ligurian Sea (Camogli), whereas it represents a by-catch species in the Aphia minuta fishery carried out in southeast Spain, off the Balearic Islands and in the central Adriatic Sea (La Mesa 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
Deltentosteus collonianus is present throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea and along the southwest coast of Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean. There is no specific population information for this species, but it may be rare. There are no major threats, although is it rarely caught as bycatch. Therefore, D. collonianus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Deltentosteus collonianus is known from southwest Portugal on the Atlantic coast near the strait of Gibraltar to Israel in the southeastern Mediterranean. There are also records from Turkey, Israel and Cyprus. Except for Dieuzeide et al. (1955) where this species was listed in the catalogue of fishes for Algeria, its known distribution is restricted to the northern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea (Miller 1986, Kovačić and Golani 2007). The depth distribution of D. collonianus is about five to 120 m (Miller 1986).

population:
There is no specific population information for D. collonianus. Miller (1973) noted that species was “probably common”, but Tortonese (1975) concluded that “questo Gobide sembra essere raro”.

habitat:
Deltentosteus collonianus inhabits soft substrata and seagrass beds and gets down to about 120 m depth.

threats:
There are no major threats for this species, although it is rarely caught as bycatch.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it is found in marine protected areas. This species was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Deltentosteus collonianus is not directly utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus is present in the eastern Atlantic, from Spain to Mauritania, including the entire Mediterranean Sea. There is no specific population information for D. quadrimaculatus, though is can be locally abundant. There are no known major threats towards it. Therefore, D. quadrimaculatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic, from Mauritania to Spain, including the Mediterranean (Miller 1986, Banon et al. 2010). In the Mediterranean, it ranges from Gibraltar along the northern and eastern Mediterranean to Israel (Miller 1986, Golani 2005). In the southern Mediterranean it has been recorded from Algeria and Tunisia (Dieuzeide et al. 1955, Bradai et al. 2004). Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus has been collected at depths of up to 333 m (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus is locally abundant and is commonly found in bycatch. There is no specific population species for D. quadrimaculatus.

habitat:
Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus is a benthic species living over sand or muddy sand to depth of 90 m (Miller 1990) but it can be collected up to depth of 333 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It is generally found at depths of 10 - 90 m (Metin et al. 2011). The maximum age is five years, and age at 50% maturity is two years (Metin et al. 2011).  In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 9.2 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 6.2 cm TL  and for males is 6.4 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Spawning period started in February and continued until May. The age of the fish ranged from 1 to 5 years (Metin et al. 2011). No data exist for fecundity (Miller 1986).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. This species does get captured as bycatch in trawlers, but is not a target species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place  or needed for D. quadrimaculatus, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Didogobius bentuvii is only known from the type specimen, so nothing can be said of its distribution, ecology or populations trends. Therefore, D. bentuvii is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Didogobius bentuvii is only known from the holotype from Israel (Golani 2005) collected off the mouth of river Rubin on the Mediterranean coast of Israel at 37 m depth (Miller 1965).

population:
As D. bentuvii is only known from one specimen, nothing can be said of its population.

habitat:
Didogobius bentuvii was found offshore on muddy sand substrate. The holotype was collected at 37 m depth (Miller 1965).

threats:
Nothing can be said of the threats to the species.

conservationAction:
Didogobius bentuvii was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Further research is required to estimate the real status of the species throughout its range and size and trend of its populations, to identify the existing threats and to investigate the species life history, habitat preferences and ecological requirements.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Didogobius kochi is known only from Macaronesia, specifically the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands. Although D. kochi has an apparent restricted distribution, it occurs within marine protected areas, has no known widespread threats and is not utilized. Therefore, D. kochi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Didogobius kochi is known only from Macaronesia, specifically the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands (Van Tassell 1988, Miller 1990, Brito and Miller 2001). Didogobius kochi is found between 6 to 30 m in depth (Miller 1990, Brito 1991, Brito and Miller 2001).

population:
Population information for D. kochi is limited.

habitat:
Didogobius kochi is a demersal species found in the sublittoral zone over or within rock outcroppings, at 6 to 30 m (Van Tassell 1988, Miller 1990, Brito 1991, Brito and Miller 2001). It has also been found on coralline algae, sand, and stone substratum (Van Tassell 1988, Miller 1990, Brito and Miller 2001). Van Tassell (1988) described the species typical habitat at the Canaries as consisting of rock outcroppings separated by large areas of sand substratum. The maximum recorded standard length (SL) is 5.8 cm (Miller 1990).  

threats:
There are no known major threats to D. kochi.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for D. kochi, and it occurs in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
Didogobius schlieweni is endemic to the northwestern Mediterranean and the Adriatic Seas but is rarely seen or collected. It is known from fewer than ten specimens. The distribution of D. schlieweni is patchy, but it is probably more widespread than the records suggest because it is difficult to find and collect in its natural habitat. There are no known major threats to this species. Therefore, D. schlieweni is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Didogobius schlieweni is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in the Adriatic Sea and near Marseille and Banyul in France (Ballesta et al. 1998, Louisy 2002, Francour pers. comm. 2007). There are new records of this species in Liguria, Italy (Patzner 2007). It is recorded from a single photographed specimen in the western Mediterranean in Italy and France (Miller 1992, Ballesta et al. 1998, Patzner 2007, Francour 2008). Didogobius schlieweni has been found to 14 m depth (Francour 2008).

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of D. schlieweni has been published. The entire knowledge of the species is based on occasional samples of single individuals (Miller 1992, Ballesta et al. 1998, Patzner 2007, Francour 2008). It has been rarely collected as it lives deep in the mud and emerges at night, and is considered very rare (Francour 2008).

habitat:
Didogobius schlieweni is a small cryptobenthic goby recorded at depths between 1.5 and 2.5 m in the Adriatic Sea, and at 10 to 14 m in the western Mediterranean. It was found in two habitat conditions; during the day it is hidden amongst pebbles in multilayered bottom and at night observed still or slowly swimming on pebbles or among Posidonia oceanica or Caulerpa racemosa (Miller 1992, Ballesta et al. 1998, Patzner 2007, Francour 2008). No data for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern are known (Miller 1992).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species, although further distribution data are required. Didogobius schlieweni was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Didogobius splechtnai is endemic to Mediterranean Sea, where it is known from scattered localities across the northern coast. The full distribution of D. splechtnai is unknown, as it is a cryptic species and difficult to study. It can be locally abundant, based on specimens in collections, but there is little information on the species populations. There are no major known threats. Therefore, D. splechtnai is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Didogobius splechtnai is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it has an apparently patchy distribution. It has been recorded from the south of Spain, Ibiza, northeast Sardinia, Lampedusa (Ahnelt and Patzner 1995, Stefanni 1999), Bodrum (Turkey), Croatia and southeastern France (Ahnelt and Patzner 1995, Stefanni 1999, Herler and Patzner 2002, Francour et al. 2007, Francour 2008). The full range is unknown as it is a difficult fish to see due to its cryptic nature. Didogobius splechtnai has been collected at depths up to 56 m (Francour 2008).

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of D. splechtnai has been published. The largest collected sample of this species was of 21 specimens collected at Ibiza, where it was mainly present at depths from seven to 11 m and attained abundances of about two individuals/m2 (Herler et al. 1999). Didogobius splechtnai is probably under recorded due to its cryptic nature.

habitat:
Didogobius splechtnai is a small cryptobenthic goby recorded at depths from 1.5 to 56 m. It is mostly frequently found in caves, but also closely associated with holes and cavities of the coralligenous formations, outside caves on mud in deep waters and among rhizomes of Posidonia oceanica (Ahnelt and Patzner 1995, Stefanni 1999, Herler and Patzner 2002, Ahnelt and Dorda 2004, Francour 2008). The studies of habitat selection and ecology of this species have found that it prefers the fine sediment bottom in the innermost parts of crevices and caves (Patzner 1999, Herler et al. 1999). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Ahnelt and Patzner 1995).

threats:
There are insufficient data to estimate threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Further information on the species distribution is needed. Didogobius splechtnai was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
This species was redescribed by Scsepka and Ahnelt (1999).

redListCategoryRationale:
Gammogobius steinitzi is known from scattered records from the northern Mediterranean Sea and from a single site in the northern Black Sea. The full distribution of this species is unknown as it is a cryptic species and difficult to study in its restricted habitat of marine, limestone caves. However, G. steinitzi can be locally abundant and is likely under recorded. Although threats to G. steinitzi and its habitat are not well understood, it may be vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts. These are not considered a major threats at this time. Therefore, G. steinitzi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gammogobius steinitzi is a small cryptobenthic gobiid species known from scattered records in the northern Mediterranean (Baleares Islands; Spain, Patzner 1999); Marseille, Port-Cros (Îles d'Hyères), and Corsica (Dufour et al. 2007), France; Isola del Giglio (Tyrrhenian Sea), Sassoscritto cliff (Livorno), Tuscany, and from Sardinia and southern Italy), the Adriatic Sea (Kovačić et al. 2011) and a recent finding from Crete (Bath 1971, Ahnelt and Patzner 1996, Ahnelt et al. 1998, Kovačić 1999). Recently, five specimens have been identified from the northern Black Sea (Cape Tarkhankut, Chernomorsky district, Crimea, Ukraine; Kovtun and Manilo 2013). Gammogobius steinitzi is typically found from three to 43 m depth (Colombo and Langeneck 2013).

population:
This is an apparently rare species. It may be locally common in caves, and is most likely under recorded. No estimations of population size or trend of G. steinitzi have been published. No estimation of abundance in suitable habitat is known except that Kovačić (1999) noted that “During a half hour check of the open rocky surface of walls and roof nearly a dozen specimens were seen, but it may be expected that many more specimens were hidden in holes and cavities”.

habitat:
Gammogobius steinitzi is a small cryptobenthic goby that lives at depths of two to 43 m, mostly found at depths between seven and 25 m. It is found only in caves, where they settle on the walls and the ceilings of deep regions of the caves (Bath 1971, Ahnelt and Patzner 1996, Ahnelt et al. 1998, Kovačić 1999, Patzner 1999). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986, Kovačić et al. 2011).

threats:
The population is present mostly on surfaces of large and small sea caves, where disturbance and accumulation of air produced by scuba divers might impact the population presence and abundance, but not considered a major threat.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or required for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gammogobius steinitzi was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011), but is not listed in the Red List of Marine Fishes of Croatia or the Red Book of Sea Fishes of Croatia. Further research is required to estimate the real status of the species throughout its range and the size and trend of its populations.


taxonomicNotes:
There remains some uncertainty as to the taxonomic status of Gnatholepis thompsoni. It has previously been considered a synonym of Gnatholepis cauerensis.  The taxonomic concept of Gnatholepis cauerensis is undergoing revision. Gnatholepis has often been misidentified and confused for many years. Previously, there were four proposed sub-species (G. c. cauerensis, G. c. australis, G. c. hawaiiensis, and G. c. pascuensis), and G. thompsoni was considered a synonym (Randall and Greenfield 2001). Thacker (2004) shows G. thompsoni to be a separate species and also concludes that G. cauerensis should be synonymised with G. anjerensis. Variation in mitochondrial DNA suggested that G. thompsoni is a valid species that is widespread in the Atlantic Ocean and separate from G. cauerensis (Rocha et al. 2005). However, Randall and Greenfield (2007) consider G. thompsoni a synonym of G. cauerensis. Randall (2009) elevated three sub-species to the species level (resulting in four species: G. cauerensis, G. australis, G. hawaiiensis, and G. pascuensis). During a recent revision of Gnatholepis, the classification presented by Rocha et al. was discussed and validated with meristic and other morphological characters by Larson and Buckle (2012). Larson and Buckle (2012) concluded that G. cauerensis includes sub-species G. c. cauerensis, G. c. australis, and G. c. hawaiiensis, and G. inconsequens is considered a synonym. They elevated G. thompsoni and G. pascuensis to valid species. Gnatholepis thompsoni, as valid in Larson and Buckle (2012), is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean. Rocha et al. (2005) examined genetic differences between the Atlantic G. thompsoni and the Indo-Pacific G. cauerensis, concluding that G. thompsoni is the result of a relatively recent (~ 145,000 years ago) invasion of the Atlantic by G. cauerensis. However, Smith-Vaniz and Collette (2013) recorded G. cauerensis, not G. thompsoni, in Bermuda, as "the meristic and other morphological characters purported to separate these two 'species' have broadly over-lapping values". Despite the issues with the characters used by Larson and Buckle (2012), G. thompsoni likely forms its own monophyletic group in an isolated ocean basin, and with threats and evolutionary trajectory separate from that of G. cauerensis. Therefore, G. thompsoni is retained as a valid species.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Gnatholepis thompsoni is widely distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. In the northeastern Atlantic, G. thompsoni is only known from the Macaronesian Islands (the Canaries, Azores, and Madeira), where it is common and without widespread threats. Although there remains some taxonomic uncertainty within the Gnatholepis cauerensis species complex, all members are widely distributed and relatively common. Therefore, Gnatholepis thompsoni is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gnatholepis thompsoni has recently been separated from the widely distributed G. cauerensis (Larson and Buckle 2012). Gnatholepis thompsoni is known in the western Atlantic from North Carolina through the Lesser Antilles and south to Brazil (Thacker 2004), including Bermuda (reported as G. cauerensis: Smith-Vaniz and Collette 2013). In the eastern Atlantic, it has been reported from Ascension, Madeira, St. Helena, Sao Tome Island, Cape Verde Islands, and the Canary Islands (Larson and Buckle 2012). In the northeastern Atlantic, G. cauerensis is only known from the Macaronesian Islands: Canaries (Brito and Miller 2001), Azores (Araújo and Freitas 2002), and Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008).

population:
There is no population information available for this species, but it is widespread and populations are assumed to be stable.

habitat:
A demersal species with a depth range of 0.5 to 48 m (Larson and Buckle 2012), that occurs on sandy bottoms often near coral reef or coral rubble. It appears to prefer deeper water than its close relative, Gnatholepis anjerensis (Randall and Greenfield 2001).

threats:
There are no known major threats to the species. Due to its coastal nature, it is likely to be affected by coastal development, water pollution and destructive fishing practices in parts of its range; however these would only be localized threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or required for this species and it is found in marine protected areas. Further taxonomic study is required to resolve remaining taxonomic issues in the genus Gnatholepis.

redListContributors:
Acero, A., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Murdy, E., De Silva, R., Milligan, H.T., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P.J., Smith, J. & Livingston, F.


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius ater is endemic to the northern Mediterranean Sea, where it is known from scattered localities from the Isles Baleares eastwards to the Peloponnese in Greece. However, as a cryptic and benthic species, it is likely under recorded. There are no known, widespread threats to G. ater, although it may locally impacted by anthropogenic habitat loss and degradation. Therefore, G. ater is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius ater is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, known from the Isles Baleares (Spain) and the Gulf of Lion eastwards to the Peloponnese, Greece (Miller 1986), and the Adriatic Sea (Miller 1986, Gramitto 1993, Ahnelt 2001). There are few recent records of the species. Gobius ater has been collected from 2.5 to 10 m (Tortonese and Chessa 1982).

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of G. ater has been published, and it is known from occasional samples of one or a few individuals (Tortonese and Chessa 1982, Miller 1986, Gramitto 1993). This is an apparently rare species (Louisy 2002) and is only known from a few records.

habitat:
Gobius ater is a small cryptobenthic goby recorded from the inshore bottom at depths from two to 10 m. It was collected in lagoons and among Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows (Tortonese and Chessa 1982, Miller 1986, Gramitto 1993). It is unclear as to whether G. ater is dependent upon seagrasses for survival, or if it is a heavily preferred habitat for this species. Seagrasses are in decline, globally, including the Mediterranean Sea (Orth et al. 2006, Marbà et al. 2014).

threats:
The species is only found in shallow coastal lagoons and from Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows. Both habitats are subject to anthropogenic impacts, resulting in habitat degradation and loss, although it is not possible to infer the scale of impact on the species. This species in not entirely dependent upon seagrass meadows, as it is also found in shallow coastal lagoon. It is unknown how large a role seagrasses play in this goby's habitat preferences. More research is needed to determine how dependent G. ater is to seagrasses and how the global and Mediterranean declines in seagrasses (Orth et al. 2006, Marbà et al. 2014) may affect the survival of this species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius ater was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011), but it is not listed in the Red Book of Sea Fishes of Croatia (Jardas et al. 2007).

useAndTrade:
Gobius ater is not traded or exploited commercially.

redListContributors:
Francour, P., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M. & Molinari, A.


taxonomicNotes:
Heymer and Zander (1992) concluded that the Yellow Mediterranean Goby, called Gobius luteus by Miller and El-Tawil (1974), is the ‘true’ G. auratus Risso, 1810 and designated a neotype. The species supposed to be G. auratus by Miller and El-Tawil (1974) was designated as an undescribed species and the new name G. xanthocephalus was applied after the investigation of abundant populations of both forms at Banyuls-sur-Mer, France (Heymer and Zander 1992). Herler et al. (2005) redescribed G. auratus Risso, 1810 to extend the morphological characteristics of the species to cover also the northern Adriatic population. Two colour morphs are described: pure yellow colour morph 1 from the Mediterranean and south and central Adriatic and yellow dotted colour morph 2 from the northern Adriatic.

redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius auratus is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is most likely widespread and abundant throughout. Gobius auratus lives in a variety of habitats, and there are no known widespread threats towards it. Therefore, G. auratus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius auratus is a Mediterranean endemic species, known from the northern and eastern Mediterranean, including the Adriatic Sea and with a recent finding from Crete (Heymer and Zander 1992, 1994; Bilecenoglu 2002, Papakonstantinou 1988, Relini 2010, Kovačić et al. 2011). The most western record is from La Fourmigue, France, and the most eastern record is from Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Heymer and Zander 1992, Bilecenoglu 2002). Gobius auratus is found from five to 35 m depth (Herler et al. 2005). Previous records of G. auratus from the Atlantic Ocean, from northern Spain to Madeira, Portugal and the Canary Islands, pertain to another species.

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of G. auratus has been published. However, two studies on the abundance of the species have been performed for the north and south Adriatic Sea. Herler and Patzner (2005) studied its frequency and abundance of using visual counts in the northern Adriatic Sea, where it attained its highest abundance at depths below eight metres and at substrate inclinations between 30 and 90°. The species attained its highest values at the western coast of Cres, where it reached a maximum of 1.5 individuals per m2 over entire transects but up to 3.0 individuals per m2 in certain transect sections. At Krk, the maximum abundance over entire transects was only 0.3 individuals per m2. Bussoti and Guidetti (2005) found much lower values of average density for this species, at 25-30 m depth three to six individuals per 100 m2, and at 12-15 m depth, one individual per 100 m2. The largest collected sample of this species included 54 specimens collected in the Kvarner area, the north Adriatic Sea, Croatia (Herler et al. 2005). Despite the low total number of known records of the species, and the low number of collected specimens in these records, from the studies on abundance in the Adriatic Sea, it could be concluded that the species is probably abundant and common in its typical habitat (Bilecenoglu 2002).

habitat:
The specimens of the colour morph 1 were observed to occur in deeper regions with depths of about 15 to 32 m, while population in the northern parts of the Adriatic (colour morph 2) also occurred in more shallower water of about five to 35 m depth (Heymer and Zander 1992, Herler et al. 2005). Specimens of G. auratus typically hover up to 30 cm above the substratum, mostly over steep bedrock bottom (Herler et al. 2005). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius auratus was previously assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Francour, P., Bariche, M., Molinari, A. & Bilecenoglu, M.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gobius bucchichi is widespread and common throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It is also found in the Black Sea and off the southern coast of Portugal. Although it is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp beam trawl fishery, this is not considered a major threat at this time. There are no other known widespread threats. Therefore, G. bucchichi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius bucchichi is known from southwest Portugal and Morocco on Atlantic coast near the Strait of Gibraltar, and widespread in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Miller 1986). In the Mediterranean it has a continuous distribution from Gibraltar along the coasts of northern and eastern Mediterranean (Miller 1986, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). In the southern and eastern Mediterranean it has been recorded from Egypt, Israel, Libya and Tunisia (Ibrahim and Soliman 1996, Al-Hassan and El-Silini 1999, Bradai et al. 2004, Golani 2005). In the Black Sea it was recorded in Bulgaria, the Russian Federation, Turkey and Ukraine (Svetovidov 1964, Georghiev 1966, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Vasil’eva 2003). It is typically found inshore (Miller 1986), from 0 to 5 m.

population:
Gobius bucchichi is a very common and abundant species.

habitat:
Gobius bucchichi occurs inshore from 0 to 5 m depth over sand and mud with seagrass, taking refuge among tentacles of snake locks sea anemone Anemonia sulcata. Also found in inshore pools (Miller 1986, Sasal et al. 1996). Sexually mature at one year, 3.4-3.8 cm (Miller 1986). Spawning period is June-August, fecundity 1,200 to 10,200 eggs (Miller 1986). The age of the fish ranged from 1 to 5 years (Sasal et al. 1996).

threats:
There are no known major threats for G. bucchichi. It can be a component of the bycatch of the shrimp beam trawl fishery; it was estimated that 11% of the discarded weight comprised G. bucchichi in Turkey (Zengin and Akyol 2009).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or required for this species, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius bucchichi was assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean, in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gobius bucchichi is not traded or exploited commercially.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gobius cobitis is widespread and abundant in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. It is found in a variety of habitats. Although G. cobitis is occasionally marketed, this is not considered a major threat at this time. There are no other known threats. Therefore, G. cobitis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius cobitis is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic (from Morocco in the south to southern England and Ireland; Miller 1986), and throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the Black Sea. It is invasive to the Red Sea. Gobius cobitis is found to about 10 m (Miller 1986).

population:
Gobius cobitis a common and locally abundant species, and the population is assumed stable. No estimation of population size and population trends of G. cobitis has been published. It is a widely distributed species. According to Faria and Almada (1996), it is one of the two most abundant fishes in Portuguese rocky shores. Gibson (1970) collected a large sample (260 individuals) near Roscoff (France) for his research, and Faria and Almada (2001, 2006) observed several hundreds specimens of in their studies.

habitat:
Gobius cobitis occurs inshore in rocky and weedy pools and shallows from 0 to 10 m depth; under Atlantic tidal conditions, found in pools at upper levels of sheltered shores, sometimes in brackish water (Miller 1986). Faria and Almada (2006) found that the species, often viewed as an intertidal fish in the Atlantic, had a wide spectrum of vertical distribution at high tide, including presence in all levels of the intertidal, but also in the subtidal zone. Gobius cobitis attains an age of at least 10 years. Breeding occurs in spring and early summer and females spawn twice each season. Fecundity varies from approximately 2,000 to 12,000 eggs. No data exist on the length and age of first sexual maturity (Gibson 1970, Miller 1986).

threats:
There are no known widespread threats for this species. It is occasionally marketed in the Adriatic, but this is not considered a major threat at this time.

conservationAction:
There are no known widespread threats and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius cobitis was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011), and as Near Threatened on the Croatian Red List (Jardas et al. 2007).

useAndTrade:
Gobius cobitis is of low commercial value. It is sometimes traded in Adriatic fish markets, and the annual catch for the eastern Adriatic Sea was estimated at 3 t (Jardas 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius couchi is known from the eastern Atlantic (around the southern coasts of England and Ireland) and the Mediterranean Sea. Although the full distribution of G. couchi is unknown, it is known from scattered records that are widely distributed. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, G. couchi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius couchi is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, G. couchi is known only from the south coasts of England and Ireland (south Cornwall (Helford) and Lough Ine, Co. Cork and Mulroy Bay, Co. Donegal, Ireland; Miller 1986). In the Mediterranean, G. couchi is known from scattered records along the mainland coasts of the northern and eastern Mediterranean (Gulf of Genova, Finale Ligure and Ischia Island near Naples (Italy), Corfu in the Ionian Sea (Greece), the Adriatic Sea, the eastern Aegean, and the Dardanelles Strait (Turkey). Recent Mediterranean records include Cyprus, Crete, and Malta (Kovačić and Golani 2007, Özen and Tuncay 2009, Kovačić et al. 2011, 2012, 2013). Gobius couchi is typically found in shallow waters (Miller 1986), to about 20 m (Kovačić and Golani 2007, Kovačić et al. 2011). 

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of G. couchi has been published. Costello (1992) studied the abundance of gobies in Lough Hyne, Ireland, and found this species too rarely to provide density estimations. The largest collected sample of this species included 29 specimens collected in the Kvarner area, the northern Adriatic Sea, Croatia (Kovačić 2001).

habitat:
In the Atlantic, G. couchi is an inshore and intertidal species, found under flat stones on muddy shelly sand, with numerous small pebbles overgrown by Ulva and red seaweeds (Miller 1986). The species was found in the Kvarner area at depths between three and 20 m, most frequently from five to 10 m on gently sloping bedrock grooved with channels and pools filled with sand. Individual stones and boulders of different size (from less than 10 cm to more than 50 cm) were rarely present. The bedrock and the boulders were covered with photophilic algae (Kovačić 2001). It was also recorded in shallow waters from 0.6 to 5.0 m depth among Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera marina or on sandy bottoms (Stefanni and Mazzoldi 1999, Liu et al. 2009, Özen 2009) and deeper at the foot of step bedrock at 22 m depth (Kovačić et al. 2011). The lifespan is up to six years. Breeding occurs in the spring (in the western English Channel). The smallest specimens with ripening gonads had standard length of 42 and 42.5 mm and they were two years old (Miller and El-Tawil 1974, Miller 1986). No data exist on the fecundity and the growth pattern (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it is likely found in marine protected areas. Gobius couchi was previously assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gobius couchi is not traded or exploited commercially.


taxonomicNotes:
Gobius strictus Fage, 1907 is considered a synonym of C. cruentatus according to Miller (1986) and Kovačić (2004).

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: LC Gobius cruentatus is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea and in the Black Sea. It can be locally abundant. Little is known about its life history or population status, but there are no known major threats. Therefore, G. cruentatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius cruentatus is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea and in the Black Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, G. cruentatus is known from Senegal in the south to southern Ireland in the north (Miller 1986, 1990). Gobius cruentatus is found throughout the Mediterranean, although absent from Libya and Egypt (Miller 1986). Recently it was recorded in the eastern and northern (Crimea) Black Sea (Engin et al. 2007, Boltachev et al. 2009). Gobius cruentatus is typically found at depths of 15 to 40 m (Miller 1996).

population:
Gobius cruentatus is common throughout its range (Sebastianutto et al. 2008) and can be locally abundant (Deudero et al. 2008). Costello (1992) estimated a density of 0.3 individuals m-2 in Lough Hyne, Ireland.

habitat:
Gobius cruentatus occurs inshore on rocky ground, sand and sea grass from 15 to 40 m depth (Miller 1986). Engin et al. (2007) found the species at shallower depths (1.7 to 5.1 m) on rocky bottoms. Costello (1992) found the species to be positively associated with boulders, and Wilkins and Myers (1992) also confirmed its preference for microhabitats containing a high level of boulder cover, in relatively deep water, and with moderate current. No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986). Maximum size is 18.0 cm (Miller 1996).

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or required, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius cruentatus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gobius cruentatus is of low commercial value. It is sometimes traded in Adriatic fish markets; annual catch for the eastern Adriatic Sea is estimated at 2 t (Jardas 1996).


taxonomicNotes:
 Herler et al. (2005) clarified the status of G. fallax Sarato (1889). 

redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius fallax is known from several localities along the northern Mediterranean coast and from a single Atlantic record from the Canaries. It is reported to be common in parts of its range and is not known to have any major threats. Therefore, G. fallax is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius fallax is known from several localities along the northern Mediterranean coast, including the Adriatic Sea, and from a single Atlantic location, the Canary Islands (Miller 1986). Recently it was also found in Israel (Kovačić and Golani 2007a), Cyprus (Kovačić and Golani 2007b) and Crete (Kovačić et al. 2011). Gobius fallax is typically found at less than 32 m depth (Miller 1990).

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend of G. fallax has been published. A single study on abundance of the species in the northern Adriatic Sea was published by Herler and Patzner (2005) and found the species to be most frequent between two and eight metres depth and on substrates inclining less than 30°. Its highest abundance over entire transects was 0.3 individuals per m2 but within certain transect sections this increased to 1.25 individuals per m2. The largest collected sample of this species included 26 specimens collected in the Kvarner area, the north Adriatic Sea, Croatia (Herler et al. 2005). Despite the low total number of known records of G. fallax and the low number of collected specimens in these records, from the study on abundance of the species in the Adriatic Sea it could be concluded that it is probably abundant and common in its typical habit. This is a common species in parts of the Mediterranean Sea (Herler and Patzner 2005).

habitat:
Gobius fallax is an inshore species, found at depths of less than one down to 32 m on sand near rock crevices and weed-covered stones, and in grottoes (Miller 1986). In the northern Adriatic, the species was found in shallow water, most frequently at two to eight metres depth on little-sloping bedrock coasts. It exhibits a strong benthic behaviour and prefers horizontal slits with sand bottom at the base of rocks as shelter (Herler et al. 2005). In Crete and in the south Adriatic the species was found at gently sloping mixed bottom (Kovačić et al. 2011, 2012). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986).

threats:
The species habitat may be impacted locally but there are no widespread threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for the species and it is found in marine protected areas. Gobius fallax was previously assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and as Least Concern globally (IUCN 2010).

useAndTrade:
Gobius fallax is not traded or exploited commercially.

redListContributors:
van Tassell, J., Milligan, H.T., Batchelor, A., Kemp, K., Lintott, P., Livingston, F., Sears, J., Lewis, S., Jopling, B., Lutz, M. & De Silva, R.


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius gasteveni is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the southern Irish Sea (with records from the Isle of Man), southwards along the southern coasts of England and Ireland, to the coasts of Spain and Portugal, and from the Macaronesian Islands (Canary Islands and Madeira). There are recent records from the western Mediterranean, however it is not known if these records present a range expansion of the species or simply not previously found in surveys. Although G. gasteveni is considered rare, it is widely distributed and there are no known threats. Therefore, G. gasteveni is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius gasteveni is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic and the western Mediterranean. In the eastern Atlantic, G. gasteveni is found from the southern Irish Sea (with records from the Isle of Man), southwards along the southern coasts of England (eastwards as far as Kent) and Ireland. Gobius gasteveni is found along the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal, as well as Macaronesia (Madeira and the Canary Islands) (Miller 1986, Alberto et al. 1999, Carneiro et al. 2014). In the Mediterranean it is known in only three western locations, two from near the Isla de Alborán and Balearic Islands (Ahnelt and Dorda 2004), and a more recent record from the Golfo di Genova (Ahnelt et al. 2011). It is a deeper living species, typically found at depths of 12 to 100 m (Miller 1986, Ahnelt et al. 2011), but down to 180 m in the Atlantic (Miller 1984).

population:
The largest collected sample of G. gasteveni included 81 specimens collected in the Ría de Arousa, on the northwestern Spanish coast, with the species present 'in fairly good numbers'. It is considered 'rare' off the coast of Portugal (De Cuhna and Antunes 2008).

habitat:
Gobius gasteveni is an offshore species, found on muddy sand and coarser deposits at depths from 12 to 120 m. Alberto et al. (1999) collected the species at depths between 12 and 30 m on sea beds covered with trays of mussels. In Mediterranean the samples were collected at depths between 55 and 120 m on partly sandy, partly muddy bottom (Ahnelt and Dorda 2004, Ahnelt et al. 2011). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius geniporus is present throughout the western and northeastern Mediterranean Sea and has been recorded from African coasts. There is no specific population information for this species, but it is common and abundant. There are no major threats known. Therefore, G. geniporus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
A Mediterranean endemic (Miller 1986), G. geniporus has a continuous distribution, including the Adriatic Sea, from the French Mediterranean coast and Balearic Islands in the west to the Turkish coasts in the east (Miller 1986, Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Fischer et al. 2007). In the southeastern Mediterranean, G. geniporus was recently recorded from Cyprus and Crete (Kovačić and Golani 2007, Kovačić et al. 2011). In the southern Mediterranean it has been recorded in Algeria and Tunisia (Dieuzeide et al. 1955, Bradai et al. 2004). Gobius geniporus is found from seven to 22 m depth (Kovačić et al. 2011).

population:
Gobius geniporus is abundant and common (Miller 1973, Jardas 1996).

habitat:
Gobius geniporus occurs inshore, on rocky and pebbly areas and sand or mud near seagrass (Miller 1986). At Crete, specimens were observed on various bottoms: sand covered with Caulerpa prolifera, various combinations of mixed sandy and rocky bottoms, and on bottoms combined of gravel, cobbles and boulders. The depths varied from seven to 22 m (Kovačić et al. 2011). The spawning period is from April-May (Taranto) (Miller 1986). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius geniporus was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Gobius geniporus is of low commercial value. It is sometimes traded in Adriatic fish markets and the annual catch for eastern Adriatic Sea is estimated at two tonnes (Jardas 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius kolombatovici is currently known from the north-central Mediterranean Sea. As a recently described species, and only known from a few specimens, the distribution of G. kolombatovici may be wider than is currently known. There are no known major threats. Therefore, G. kolombatovici is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, G. kolombatovici is found between Marseille, Monaco and Corsica (France). It is also present in north Adriatic Sea in Croatia (Francour and Mangialajo 2007). The distribution may be wider than reported here, as it was only described in 2000 (Kovačić and Miller 2000). It has been observed at depths of 15 to 60 m (Kovačić and Miller 2000, Francour and Mangialajo 2007).

population:
There is no specific population information for G. kolombatovici. Only recently described, G. kolombatovici is only known from a small number of records (Kovačić and Miller 2000). G. kolombatovici has been found at densities of about one specimen per 20 m2, recorded by visual census transects, at depths between 37 and 42 m in Villefranche/Mer, France (Francour and Mangialajo 2007). In Croatia, Kovačić and Miller (2000) reported a higher density with one specimen every one or two metres along the base of a vertical rock face.

habitat:
Gobius kolombatovici is a bottom-dwelling and secretive species. It inhabits localities with a combination of coarse sand and rock, close to coralligenous areas. In the Adriatic, G. kolombatovici was found to inhabit localities with a combination of soft sediment and rock, usually at the base of rock walls, and among nearby boulders and rocks, or on the moderately sloping bedrock with expanses of soft bottom. The soft sediment of these habitats usually consists of detritic coarse sand and fine gravel (shell-gravel), often slightly enriched with silt (Kovačić and Miller 2000). Gobius kolombatovici may be considered as a fish typical in the coralligenous biocoenosis, between 20 to 60 m depth (Francour and Mangialajo 2007), though it has been recorded as shallow as 15 m (Kovačić et al. 2011). No data exist for lifespan, life cycle and growth pattern (Miller 1992).

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species. It is found only in deeper waters where there are few anthropogenic activities.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius kolombatovici was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Gobius niger occurs throughout the eastern Atlantic, from Senegal to Norway, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It is common and can be locally abundant throughout the northeastern Atlantic. There are no known major threats. Therefore, G. niger is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius niger is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, G. niger is known from Senegal in the south to the Norway in north (Miller 1986, 1990), including the west coasts of Britain (from the Shetlands southwards) and Ireland. In the Mediterranean, G. niger has continuous distribution along its coasts (Miller, 1986), and throughout the Black and Baltic Seas (Miller and Murdy in prep). It has invaded the Red Sea through the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Suez. Gobius niger has been collected to 96 m depth (Ahnelt and Dorda 2004).

population:
Gobius niger is abundant and common in its typical habitat: reported to be very common and actively exploited by bottom trawlers in the Adriatic Sea (Fabi and Giannetti 1985, Jardas 1996). It is the dominant gobioid species at Ria de Aveiro, Portugal (Arruda et al. 1993). It was the most common collected gobioid species by Vesey and Langford (1985) in southern England with an estimated abundance of 138 specimens/ha. Vaas et al. (1975) found large populations in the Veerse Meer, Netherlands. The species had dense and abundant population in Oslofjorden, Norway (0.016-0.032 fish/m²) (Nash 1984).

habitat:
Gobius niger occurs in estuaries, lagoons and inshore waters to 96 m (Ahnelt and Dorda 2004), on sand or mud, in seagrass or algae, rarely intertidal (Miller 1986). Amongst European gobies, this species has the most numerous data on growth rates and longevity, but these data are also the most variable: lifespan of three (Arruda et al. 1993) to six years (Fabi and Gianetti 1985), L∞, 96.2 (Nash 1984) to 167 mm (Silva and Gordo 1997), and K, 0.34 (Silva and Gordo 1997) to 0.91 (Vesey and Langford 1985). The reproduction period is long, and variable depending on location and study, from four to seven months, earliest reproduction beginning in March, latest ending in September (Joyeux et al. 1991, Bouchereau and Guelorget 1998). Fecundity varies from approximately 700 to 37,600 eggs (Joyeux et al. 1991, Bouchereau and Guelorget 1998). The length at sexual maturity varies from 5 to 9 cm, and age of sexual maturity from two years in males to three years in females (Bouchereau and Guelorget 1998).

threats:
There are no known threats across its range.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius niger was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean and Baltic in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
The species is of low commercial value. Sometimes traded on Adriatic fish markets, annual the catch for eastern Adriatic Sea was estimated at 5 t (Jardas 1996). In the Mediterranean and Black Seas, between 2000 and 2009, a total of 21 tonnes of the species were harvested. In 2000, one ton was harvested and a peak of 6 tonnes was reached in 2004 with a subsequent decline in catch tonnage to two tonnes in 2009 (FAO 2011 FishStatJ accessed 2014 March).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Gobius paganellus is very widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic, from Scotland to Senegal. In the northeastern Atlantic, G. paganellus is found from Scotland to Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean. It is common and can be locally abundant. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, G. paganellus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius paganellus is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic, and throughout the Mediterranean and the Black seas. In the eastern Atlantic, G. paganellus is known from Senegal to Scotland and to the eastern English Channel (Miller 1986, 1990), and found in all the Macaronesian islands. In the Mediterranean and Black seas, G. paganellus has a more or less continuous distribution along all coasts (Miller 1986). It has been introduced to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. Gobius paganellus has been found to 15 m (Azevedo and Simas 2000).

population:
Gobius paganellus is a widely distributed species, reported as common in its typical habitat (Hajji et al. 2012) and as very common in Italian waters (Tortonese 1975). Costello (1992), in Lough Hyne, Ireland, found the species too rarely to provide density estimations. The largest collected samples were used for the studies of species biology, from several hundreds specimens to 1,680 specimens from the Azores (Miller 1961, Dunne 1978, Azevedo and Simas 2000, Engin and Seyhan 2009; Hajji et al. 2012).

habitat:
Gobius paganellus occurs in inshore and intertidal waters, under stones and in pool on sheltered rocky shores with much weed cover (Miller 1986). In the Azores, the species was found down to 15 m depth, in Europe it occurs in shallwer waters (Azevedo and Simas 2000). It attains an age of at least ten years (Miller 1961). The parameters of growth according to Azevedo and Simas (2000) were L∞= 13.8 cm, K=0.73, t0 -0.22 yr and according to Engin and Seyhan (2009) they were L∞= 13.1 cm, K=0.34, t0 -0.11 yr for males and L∞= 18.2 cm, K=0.18, t0 -0.07 yr for females. In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 14.1 cm TL(Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). Breeding occurs from January to March on the Tunisian coast (Hajji et al. 2012), January to April at Azores (Azevedo and Simas 2000), February to April on the west coast of Ireland (Dunne 1978), from April to June at isle of Man (Miller 1986), and March to May in the Black Sea (Engin and Seyhan 2009). Fecundity varies from approximately 1,000 to 9,000 eggs at the Isle of Man (Miller 1986), 1,000 to 11,000 eggs on the west coast of Ireland (Dunne 1978), 1,550 to 5,839 eggs in the Black Sea (Engin and Seyhan 2009), and 5,280 to 14,320 eggs on the Tunisian coast (Hajji et al. 2012). Sexually mature at one year at Azores (Azevedo and Simas 2000), 2-3 years in Europe (Miller 1961, Dunne 1978, Engin and Seyhan 2009). Observed length at maturity was 5 to 6 cm at Isle of Man (Miller 1961), average length at maturity 5.2 for males and 5.5 cm for females in the Black Sea (Engin and Seyhan 2009), 6 to 7 cm at the Azores (Azevedo and Simas 2000). A much larger length at first maturity was estimated on the Tunisian coast: 11.5 cm for males and 10.4 cm for females (Hajji et al. 2012).  The diet adult G. paganellus consists of crustaceans such as larger amphipods, isopods, small crabs (Azevedo and Simas 2000, also found gastropods), as well as polychaetes, while juveniles feed upon harpacticoid copepods, amphipods, polychaetes, and mites (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius paganellus was assessed as Least Concern in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius roulei is restricted to warm to temperate waters of the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. It can be locally abundant in its preferred habitats. Gobius roulei is not utilized and there are no known widespread threats. Therefore, G. roulei is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius roulei is found in the warm temperate eastern Atlantic and in the Mediterranean Sea. It is a small epibenthic gobioid species known from a few records in the western Mediterranean (Balearic Islands (Spain); Sardinia and Ligurian Sea (Italy) (Miller 1986, Ahnelt and Dorda 2004, Liu et al. 2009), the Adriatic Sea (Kovačić 1995, Lipej et al. 2005) and a recent finding from Cyprus (Kovačić and Golani 2006). In the eastern Atlantic it is known only from Portugal (Miller 1986, Louisy 2002). Gobius roulei has been collected from three to 385 m (Miller 1986, Kovačić 1995).

population:
No estimation of population size and population trend for G. roulei has been published. In the north Adriatic Sea, G. roulei is quite abundant in its typical habitat (Kovačić 1995). Lipej et al. (2003) found average densities in the northern Adriatic of 0.06 and 0.08 specimens per 100 m2. No other estimation of abundance has been published.

habitat:
Gobius roulei is a small epibenthic goby observed at inshore bottom in the Mediterranean at depths of three to 30 m, but found in deeper waters off Portugal, at depths of 320 to 385 m (Miller 1986, Kovačić 1995). In the Adriatic Sea, G. roulei is most frequently found at depths of eight to 20 m on gently sloping sandy substrates and on a mixed bottoms of sand with bedrock and cobbles and boulders at five to 10 m depth. Gobius roulei attains an age of at least seven years. The parameters of growth according to Kovačić (2001) were L∞= 80 mm, K=0.218, t0 -1.19 yr for females and L∞= 90.6 mm, K=0.206, t0 -1.02 yr for males. The smallest length at sexual maturity was 34.1 and 35.4 mm for females and males, respectively. The spawning season extended from April to August. The absolute fecundity ranged from about 1,200 to 8,000 eggs per individual (Kovačić 2001). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 8.8 cm TL and the length at maturity for females is 4.2 cm TL and for males is 4.0 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius roulei was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius vittatus is widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea and is found within a wide depth range. Gobius vittatus is common and can be locally abundant; the population is assumed to be stable. There are no known, widespread threats. Therefore, G. vittatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius vittatus is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is known from the northern Mediterranean, including the Adriatic Sea, and from the eastern Mediterranean, including Israel (Golani et al. 2005), the Alboran Sea and Crete (Miller 1986; Bilecenoglu et al. 2002, Papakonstantinou 1988, Relini and Lanteri 2010, Kovačić et al. 2011). Gobius vittatus has been collected from 15 to 85 m (Heymer and Zander 1978, Miller 1986).

population:
Gobius vittatus is one of the three most abundant epibenthic fishes in its preferred habitat in the northern Adriatic, attaining a mean abundance of 0.12 individuals per m2, with monthly variation across seasons from 0.05 to 0.15 individuals per m2 (Kovačić and Arko-Pijevac 2008). The largest collected sample of this species included 704 specimens collected in the Kvarner area, the north Adriatic Sea, Croatia (Kovačić 2006, 2007). The species is probably abundant and common in its typical habitat.

habitat:
Gobius vittatus is a small benthic goby, found on coralline grounds from 15 to 85 m depth (Heymer and Zander 1978, Miller 1986), although more typically from 15 to 50 m. Gobius vittatus is also found on mixed bottoms of rock and sand, with a steep to medium slope at 5 to 34 m depth (Kovačić and Arko-Pijevac 2008). It attains an age of at least four years (Kovačić 2006). The parameters of growth according to Kovačić (2006) were L∞= 50.96 mm, K=1.02, t0=-0.47 yr for females and L∞= 50.13 mm, K=1.18, t0=-0.42 yr for males (Kovačić 2006). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 5.4 cm TL and the length at maturity  for females is 3.3 cm TL  and for males is 3.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014). The spawning season extended from April to July. The absolute fecundity ranged from about 560 to 3,045 eggs per individual (Kovačić 2007).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobius vittatus was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
This species was previously (prior to 1992) identified as Gobius auratus (Risso 1810). This species is easily misidentified, especially with the yellow morph of G. auratus.

redListCategoryRationale:
Gobius xanthocephalus is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from northern Spain to Madeira and the Canary Islands and in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. It has been recorded from two sites in the Black Sea; however, these records may pertain to another species and require further taxonomic research. Gobius xanthocephalus is common and can be locally abundant. No major threats have been identified and G. xanthocephalus is unlikely to experience significant population declines in the immediate future. Therefore, G. xanthocephalus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Gobius xanthocephalus occurs in the eastern Atlantic from northern Spain to Madeira and the Canary Islands (Wirtz and Herrera 1995), though it is not known from the Atlantic coast of north Africa. Gobius xanthocephalus has been recorded from the northwestern Mediterranean coasts, from Gibraltar to the Ligurian Sea (Relini and Lanteri 2010). It has also been recorded from the northern (Crimea; Boltachev et al. 2009) and northeastern (Vasil'eva and Bogorodsky 2004) Black Sea, but this population requires further study and may pertain to an undescribed species. Gobius xanthocephalus has been collected to 36 m depth (Villegas-Ríos and Bañón 2010).

population:
In parts of its range, G. xanthocephalus is considered common. It is the most abundant species at depths of three to 20 m on the Portuguese coast (Almeida and Arruda 1998). It was also one of the most abundant Gobiidae species off the northwestern coast of Spain (Villegas-Ríos and Bañón 2010). However, it is considered rare in the Black Sea (Vasil'eva and Bogorodsky 2004). On the French Mediterranean coast between one and 10 m, the average abundance was between 0.2 and 0.3 individuals per m2, with the highest abundance found below 15 m on coralligenous substrates (Zander 1996). The population is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Gobius xanthocephalus is an inshore, benthic species that typically occurs at depths from one to 22 m, although it has been found to a depth of 36 m (Villegas-Ríos and Bañón 2010). It is typically seen sheltering in small, sandy caves, fissures and boulders (Heymer and Zander 1992, Almeida and Arruda 1998). Gobius xanthocephalus has a short generation time (Martin and Palumbi 1993).

threats:
It is possibly impacted locally but there are no widespread threats.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, however it occur in marine protected areas. Gobius xanthocephalus was previously assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and Least Concern globally (IUCN 2010).

redListContributors:
Livingston, F., Kemp, K., Batchelor, A., Milligan, H.T., Larson, H., van Tassell, J., De Silva, R., Lutz, M., Jopling, B. & Lintott, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
Gobiusculus flavescens is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, specifically from Norway to Spain. It can be locally common and abundant. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, G. flavescens is assessed as considered Least Concern.

range:
Gobiusculus flavescens is known from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from the Faeroes (Norway), the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2012) and to northwestern Spain, excluding the southeastern North Sea (Miller 1986). It is typically found in the intertidal to 20 m (Miller 1986). It is not known from the Mediterranean Sea (M. Kovačić pers. comm. 2014).

population:
Gobiusculus flavescens is abundant along the coasts of Scotland, though there is considerable interannual and seasonal variation (Magill and Sayer 2002). It is also relatively common along the south coast of England (Rogers et al. 1998) and throughout its range in the Atlantic.

habitat:
Gobiusculus flavescens is an epibenthic goby found from the intertidal to 20 m depth (Miller 1986). It is typically found in groups near biotic structures, such as Laminaria or Zostera beds (Miller 1986). The primary prey items include small crustaceans, chaetognaths and various larvae (Miller 1986). Gobiusculus flavescens grows to about six centimetres (Miller 1986).

threats:
There are no known major threats for the species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Gobiusculus flavescens was previously assessed as Least Concern in the Baltic in 2012.


taxonomicNotes:
This species might have been misidentified as Lebetus scorpioides (Collett, 1874), Herler and Kovacic (2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
Lebetus guilleti has a wide distribution from the northeastern Atlantic (including Madeira and the Canary Islands) and the Mediterranean Sea, but L. guilleti is known from relatively few specimens. Lebetus guilleti may be locally abundant in suitable habitat and it is likely to have been under-sampled in surveys due to its small size. Population trends are unknown, but there are no known widespread threats. Therefore, L. guilleti is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lebetus guilleti is found in the eastern Atlantic, but only from scattered records. Records include the Kattegat Sea (including the Great Belt, Denmark), Britain (from the Shetland Isles through the Irish Sea to the Channel: Miller 1986, Hope and Shucksmith 2010), the west coast of Ireland, from Brittany (France), coastal Portugal and Spain (Miller 1986), and Madeira and the Canaries (Miller 1990, Carneiro et al. 2014). In the Mediterranean Sea, L. guilleti is known from only two localities, from the Banyuls (France) in northwestern Mediterranean, and from the northern Adriatic (Herler and Kovačić 2002). The distribution may be wider than currently known, as it may be overlooked due to its small body size (under three centimetres). It occurs to depths of 30 m (Miller 1986).

population:
There is no specific population information for L. guilleti. It is known from few and scattered records.

habitat:
Lebetus guilleti is found inshore on coarse sandy ground, including coralligenous habitat (Miller 1986, Herler and Kovačić 2002). It is a marine, demersal species found near-shore down to 30 m (Miller 1986). In the northern Adriatic (Herler and Kovačić 2002), the highest abundance was two specimens per m2.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. The species has previously been assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Baltic (HELCOM 2013).


taxonomicNotes:
This species has been confused with Lebetus guilleti, Le Danois, 1913 (Herler and Kovacic 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
Lebetus scorpioides is known from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from southern Iceland, the Faroes, coastal Norway and Sweden, Britain and Ireland, and western France. It is an epibenthic species that is typically found offshore in deeper waters. Whilst little is known of its population status or abundance, it is assumed that it has been under represented in surveys. It has no widespread threats across its range and is considered Least Concern globally. The species was considered Data Deficient for the HELCOM region.

range:
Lebetus scorpioides is known from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from southern Iceland, the Faroes and coastal Norway and Sweden (HELCOM 2012) to western Brittany, France (Miller 1986), including along the western coast of Britain and around Ireland. It is found at depths from two to 375 m (Miller 1963, 1986) but is typically found offshore in deeper waters.

population:
Lebetus scorpioides is uncommon off the coast of the United Kingdom (Baldock and Kay 2012). It is a is a cryptic species and little is known of its population status and abundance. Lebetus scorpioides is rarely recorded in the Skagerrak and Kattegat (Denmark/Norway/Sweden) (HELCOM 2012). The population trend of L. scorpioides is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Lebetus scorpioides is an epibenthic goby found from two to 375 m depth on shell and gravel bottoms. It feeds on small crustaceans (decapods and amphipods), polychaetes and bivalves (Miller 1986). Individuals mature at one to two years and the maximum size is 3.9 cm (Miller 1986).A generation length of 1.3 years was calculated for L. scorpioides (HELCOM 2013).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Lebetus scorpioides was assessed as Data Deficient in 2013 for the Baltic Sea area, as virtually nothing is known about the biology or occurrence of it within the HELCOM area (HELCOM 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and there are no major threats to the species. However, it is being discarded in the Argelian and Tyrrhenian Sea trawl fisheries, and it inhabits trawling bottoms where targeted species of high commercial value are present, so the species could be potentially affected by this activity. Further research should be conducted on the population size and trend of the species.

range:
In the Atlantic, the species is present from Norway and Sweden to Portugal, the Spanish Gulf of Cádiz (Marín et al. 2011, ICES 2005) and the Alborán Sea (Aguilar 2010). The species is also present in the northeast Mediterranean Sea including the Balearic Islands seamounts (Aguilar 2010), and it has also been recorded in Morocco, Argelia, Lebanon, Syria (Fishbase 2014, Paulomäki et al. 2011) and Israel (Galil et al. 2011). The species occurs between 210 and 10 metres of depth.

habitat:
This species is cryptobenthic and inhabits muddy or sandy substrates, where it can burrow, in depths exceeding 10-12 m (Gibson and Ezzi 1978). It is often associated with the decapod crustaceans Nephrops norvegicus (Miller 1990, Sardà and Aguzzi 2012) and Goneplax rhomboides (R. Aguilar pers. obs. 2014). The species is also associated to sea-pens and soft corals, creating characteristic communities (Oceana 2011).  It feeds on polychaetes, small crustaceans and molluscs (Miller 1986). This species is one of the major prey items for the Mediterranean Horse Mackerel. No marked diurnal variation in the feeding pattern was noticed, although the amount of food in the stomachs was lowest in the early hours of the morning (Gibson and Ezzi 1978). It is considered a species with low vulnerability and a medium resilience (1.4-4.4 years of minimum population doubling time) (Fishbase 2014). The generation length of the species is 5.3 years (HELCOM 2013). The species can be aged based on its otoliths weight (İlkyaz et al., 2011). Maximum size of the species is 13 cm, as found by Muus and Nielsen (1999) for the North Sea and Baltic Sea, but 8.1 cm for Turkey, as reported by Filiz and Bilge (2004). In the Catalan Sea, the species peak recruitment is in late summer and autumn (Demestre et al. 2000).

threats:
The species has been reported as discard in Algerian trawl fisheries (Belhabib et al. 2013) and in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Sartor et al. 2003). It is also discarded in bottom otter trawl activity targeting Nephrops in the Adriatic Sea (EC 2011). The species inhabits trawling bottoms where targeted species of high commercial value, such as crustaceans, are present, so the species is discarded and could be threatened by this activity. In the Aegean Sea, the species represents ~0.14% of the total weight of trawl hauls (Gurbet et al. 2013). In the Sea of Marmara, it represents 1-1.5% of the catch by numbers (Bok et al. 2011). In the Clyde (Scotland), there is a high commercial fishing effort which may cause mortality due to the destructive nature of trawls (Nash and Gibson in press), especially the doors of otter trawls, which can damage fish, burrows or the general habitat (Nash 1982).

conservationAction:
The species is listed in the Baltic Sea Red List as Data Deficient (HELCOM 2013) and in the Red List of Sweden as Least Concern (HELCOM 2013). There are no conservation actions in place for this species, but the species is present in protected areas throughout its range, such as the Natura 2000 site Gullmarsfjorden in Sweden.Further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species is exposed at public aquariums (Fishbase 2014) and discarded by commercial fisheries targeting several crustacean species (Sartor et al. 2003, EC 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Lesueurigobius heterofasciatus is a small goby found in the eastern Atlantic from Morocco and the Macaronesian islands of Madeira and the Canaries. Although L. heterofasciatus appears to have a very restricted distribution, it is found at depths of 150 to 345 m and is considered to have no threats either directly or to its habitat. Hence, although very little is known of the species, L. heterofasciatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lesueurigobius heterofasciatus is found in the eastern Atlantic, off Morocco, and from Madeira and the Canary Islands (Floeter et al. 2008), at depths of between 150 and 345 m depth (Miller 1990).

population:
Nothing is known of the species population or trends.

habitat:
Lesueurigobius heterofasciatus is a deep benthic species, found from 150 to 345 m depth, typically on offshore slope areas (Miller 1990). Lesueurigobius heterofasciatus gets to about 4.4 cm (Miller 1986).

threats:
It is assumed that there are no threats to L. heterofasciatus or its habitat given its known locations and the depth at which it is found.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for L. heterofasciatus, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Further research is required into the species distribution.

useAndTrade:
Lesueurigobius heterosciatus is not used.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Lesueurigobius sanzi is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and western Mediterranean Sea. In the northeastern Atlantic, L. sanzi is known from the Iberian Peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. There is no information on the abundance or population trend of the species; however, the population trend is assumed to be stable. Lesueurigobius sanzi appears to be a relatively uncommon species, but it occurs in deeper waters, in habitats not typically sampled, so is assumed to be under-represented in surveys. There are no known, widespread threats, and it is not utilized. Therefore, L. sanzi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lesueurigobius sanzi is found in the eastern Atlantic and the western Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Atlantic, L. sanzi occurs from Portugal to Mauritania (Miller 1986, 1990), and off northern Namibia (Miller 1990). It is also found in the Alboran Sea, in the western Mediterranean (Miller 1986). Lesueurigobius sanzi is typically found between 47 and 117 m depth (Miller 1990).

population:
There is no information on the abundance or population trend of L. sanzi, however the population is assumed to be stable. It is uncommon in museum collections however it occurs in deep waters, in habitats not typically sampled.

habitat:
Lesueurigobius sanzi is benthic (Miller 1990), found over muddy sand or mud bottoms at 47 to 117 m depth (Miller 1986, 1990). The maximum recorded total length (TL) is 11 cm (Miller 1990).

threats:
The species is not known to have any widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for L. sanzi, and it occurs in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)  Lesueurigobius suerii is widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, L. suerii is known from the Iberian Peninsula, the Macaronesian Islands of Madeira and the Canaries, and the Mediterranean Sea. Population data are not available for L. suerii. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, L. suerii is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Lesueurigobius suerii is distributed along the eastern Atlantic, from coastal Morocco, Portugal and southern Spain (Miller 1986), and throughout Macaronesia (Miller 1990, Carnero et al. 2014). In the Mediterranean Sea, L. suerii is present in western and northern coastal areas to the Levant coast (a single record from Israel; Ahnelt and Dorda 2004). Lesueurigobius suerii has not been recorded from Mediterranean coast of mainland France and Spain, and absent from north African coastal areas in the Mediterranean. Lesueurigobius suerii is typically found inshore (Miller 1986), but has been found to 445 m (Miller 1990) and from 322 to 337 in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005).

population:
There is no specific population information for L. suerii.

habitat:
Lesueurigobius suerii is found on sandy muddy substrata at depths to 445 m (Miller 1990), but down to 322 to 337 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). Adults tend to stay in shallower areas, whilst juveniles move to deeper waters. Lesueurigobius suerii is one of the major fish prey for gadiformes in the Aegean and Marmara Seas.

threats:
There are no known major threats to the species. It is a very small component of the shrimp trawl bycatch off Turkey (Gurbet et al. 2013).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species, and it occurs in marine protected areas. Lesueurigobius suerii was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean in 2007 (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Mauligobius maderensis is known from all parts of Macaronesia in the eastern Atlantic. In the northeastern Atlantic, it is known only from the Macaronesian Islands of the Azores, Canaries, and Madeira. Although no population data are available, M. maderensis occurs in marine protected areas and there are no known widespread threats. Therefore, M. maderensis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Mauligobius maderensis is known only from Macaronesia in the eastern Atlantic (Cape Verde and the Azores: Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014, Madeira and Canary Islands: Wirtz et al. 2008, Carneiro et al. 2014). It typically occurs in intertidal pools, to about 2 m (Miller 1986).

population:
No information available on the population status and trends of M. maderensis.

habitat:
Mauligobius maderensis is found in intertidal pools and in shallow nearshore littoral rocky areas, (Miller 1986) to about 2 m. Individuals of M. maderensis get to about 15 cm (Miller 1986).

threats:
The species' habitat is vulnerable to localised impacts from pollution and perhaps disturbance, but it occurs in marine protected areas and there are no known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species, and it occurs in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
Millerigobius macrocephalus was previously considered endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, but it has recently been reported from the Black Sea around the Crimean peninsula. Millerigobius macrocephalus appears to be widely distributed in northern parts of the Mediterranean, with new localities reported in recent years. There is no specific population information for M. macrocephalus, but the population trend is assumed stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, M. macrocephalus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Millerigobius macrocephalus is known only from the Mediterranean and Black Sea. In the Mediterranean, M. macrocephalus is found in northern areas, from east of the Alboran Sea eastwards along the northern coast to the Levant, with a single record from Israel. Records are from the Mar Minor and Ibiza (Spain; Ramos Espla and Perez-Ruzafa 1987), the Lavezzi Islands (Bouchereau and Tomasini 1989), Tremiti isles (Italy, Dufour et al. 2007), off Malta and Crete (Kovačić et al. 2013) and the Aegean Sea (Bogorodsky et al. 2010). It was recently identified from a nearly land-locked brackish water lake in Greece (Vanhove et al. 2011). Previously considered to be restricted to the Mediterranean, M. macrocephalus has recently been recorded from the Crimean peninsula in the northern Black Sea (Boltačëv et al. 2010), however the origin of the species here requires confirmation. Millerigobius macrocephalus has been collected to 10 m depth (Patzner 1999).

population:
There is no specific population information for M. macrocephalus. Considered a rare species, M. macrocephalus has recently been found in additional locations and at relatively high abundances (Kovačić et al. 2012). The population trend is considered stable.

habitat:
Millerigobius macrocephalus occurs in inshore sandy shallows and lagoons, among and under stones (Miller 1986). It has recently recorded from a nearly land-locked brackish water lake (Vanhove et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. It was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Millerigobius macrocephalus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Odondebuenia balearica is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, recorded from eastern mainland Spain to Cyprus. Although O. balearica is known from scattered records within this range, it can be locally abundant and is likely under-represented in surveys. The population is assumed stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, O. balearica is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Odondebuenia balearica is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been recorded from eastern mainland Spain to Cyprus (Kovačić and Gorani 2007). Odondebuenia balearica has been recorded from the Balearic Islands (Miller and Tortonese 1968), Gulf of Lyon (Escoubet et al. 1981), Naples (Ahnelt et al. 1994), Gulf of Taranto (Miller and Tortonese 1968), throughout the Adriatic Sea (Ahnelt et al. 1994, Kovačić et al. 2012b), Aegean Sea (Miller and Tortonese 1968, Koukouras et al. 1985) and Cyprus (Kovačić and Gorani 2007). It is likely distributed along the entire northern Mediterranean coast. Odondebuenia balearica occurs at depths of 11 to 70 m (Miller 1986, J. Herler pers. comm. 2014)

population:
There is no specific population information for O. balearica. This was considered a rare species, but it has recently been found in additional locations and at relatively high abundances (Kovacic et al. 2012a). The population trend is considered stable.

habitat:
The species occurs offshore at depths from 11 to 70 m over coralligenous substrates (Miller 1986, J. Herler pers. comm. 2014), and in crevices and small caves. It is restricted to this type of habitat.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Odondebuenia balearic was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Previously considered endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, Pomatoschistus bathi has recently been recorded from the northern Black Sea. In the Mediterranean, P. bathi is known from scattered records from southwestern France to the Turkish Aegean coast. It is assumed to have a wider distribution within this range as it is likely to be under-represented in surveys. Population data are not available, but the population is assumed to be stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. bathi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus bathi is present in the Mediterranean Sea, from southwestern France (Miller 1986) to the Turkish Aegean coast, and has recently been recorded from the Crimea in the Black Sea (Vasil'eva and Bogorodksy 2004, Boltachev and Karpova 2013). Scattered records of P. bathi are from the Gulf of Trieste (Bonaca and Lipej 2005), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2005), the Lavezzi Islands (Dufour et al. 2007) and eastward into the Sea of Marmara. Kovačić et al. (2012) and  Lipej and Orlando Bonaca (2005) record the species from the eastern Adriatic. Pomatoschistus bathi is found to 14 m depth (Patzner et al. 2011).

population:
There is no population information available for P. bathi. The population trend is assumed to be stable, as P. bathi is not utilized or widely impacted.

habitat:
Pomatoschistus bathi is found on coarse sand and gravel (Miller 1986) and also near estuaries. It is frequently found on macroalgae beds (Lipej and Orlando Bonaca 2005).

threats:
There are no known threats to this species. It may be a minor component of the shrimp trawl bycatch (e.g., in Turkey, Zengin and Akyol 2009).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pomatoschistus bathi was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). The origin of the species in the Black Sea requires confirmation, but it is considered likely that they are native there (M. Kovai pers. comm. 2014). Vasil’eva and Bogorodskii (2004) consider that the species was not found in the Black Sea earlier due to its small size.


redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus knerii is known from the Mediterranean Sea, including the northern part of the basin and the Adriatic Sea. Although P. knerii was previously considered endemic to the Mediterranean, it has also been recorded from the Atlantic coast of Portugal. Whilst the species is currently known from very few records, it is thought to be under-represented in surveys and collections. It is locally abundant, observed in schools of up to 100 individuals, and occurs in marine protected areas. There are no widespread threats to the species or its habitat and it colonizes man-made structures. Therefore, P. knerii is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus knerii is known from the Mediterranean Sea. Records include the north-central part of the basin (Isola Giglio, Italy) and the north and central Adriatic Sea (Kovačić et al. 2012). Previously considered endemic to the Mediterranean, there is also a record from the central Atlantic coast of Portugal (Leitão et al. 2007). Pomatoschistus knerii has been observed to 30 m depth (M. Kovačić pers. comm. 2014).

population:
There is no population information available for P. knerii.

habitat:
Pomatoschistus knerii inhabits soft substrates close to rocky areas and seagrass beds (Miller 1986), and may enter brackish waters in estuaries (Miller 1996). Pomatoschistuc knerii has also been found on artificial marine structures. Although P. knerii is typically found to seven metres depth (Kovačić 2003), it has been observed to 30 m (M. Kovačić  pers. comm. 2014). Pomatoschistus knerii  has been observed in schools of six to 100 individuals in the Adriatic (Kovačić 2003).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pomatoschistus knerii was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Pomatoschistus knerii is not targeted but has been found in trawl nets.


redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus lozanoi is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from the North Sea to Portugal, although the distribution within this range is not continuous. Pomatoschistus lozanoi is abundant where it occurs and the population is assumed to be stable. There are no known, widespread threats. Therefore, P. lozanoi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus lozanoi is found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from the North Sea to Portugal (Miller 1986, Arruda and Azevedo1987, Eick 2012). The distribution within this range is not continuous; P. lozanoi is found in the English Channel, in the Irish Sea and from other scattered coastal localities within its range. Pomatoschistus lozanoi is typically inshore, to 70 or 80 m depth (Miller 1986).

population:
Pomatoschistus lozanoi is abundant (Hamerlynck 1990) and the population is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Pomatoschistus lozanoi is typically found inshore and off mouths of estuaries, associated with soft and sandy substrates (Miller 1986). It eats small crustaceans and nematodes (Miller 1986). Sexually maturity occurs at one year and the maximum age is about two years (Miller 1986). P. lozanoi grow to about eight centimetres (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus marmoratus is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, with a smaller distribution in the eastern Atlantic. Although possible local declines in parts of Turkey may be occurring due to habitat destruction and pollution, the population overall is assumed to be stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. marmoratus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus marmoratus is present in the eastern Atlantic, from the southwestern Iberian Peninsula (from the Algarve in Portugal) eastwards. It is present throughout all coastal areas in the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Miller 1986, Fouda et al. 1993). Records in the southern Mediterranean are confirmed by Dieuzeide (1955), Mejri et al. (2009), and Al-Hassan and El-Silini (1999). It has also been reported from the Suez Canal (invasive). Pomatoschistus marmoratus is typically found inshore, to about 20 m, but has been collected to 70 m during the winter in the Black Sea (Miller 1986).

population:
There is no population information available for P. marmoratus. Possible declines in parts of Turkey may be due to pollution and habitat destruction (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). However, the population is thought to be stable overall.

habitat:
Pomatoschistus marmoratus is found in inshore waters, to 70 m in the winter in the Black Sea over fine sandy substrates (Miller 1986). It is capable of living in areas of high or low salinities and it often enters brackish and hyper-saline waters (Miller 1986). The species feeds on small crustaceans and chironomid larvae (Maugé 1986). Males clean the insides of bivalve shells and cover the outside with sand in preparation for the eggs that will be deposited by the female (Mazzoldi and Rasotto 2001). Nesting males exhibit breeding colouration with four dark bars along the side, a blue spot on the first dorsal fin and dark coloration on pelvic fins and edge of anal fin (Miller 1986). Males defend the nest, cleaning and fanning the eggs until hatching (Gandolfi et al. 1991). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 6.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 2.8 cm to 3.8 cm TL and for males ranges from 2.8 cm to 4.7 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
This species is impacted locally but there are no known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pomatoschistus marmoratus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Pomatoschistus marmoratus is not utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
Stefanni et al. (2003) found that populations from the Atlantic and the western Mediterranean differs from those in the Adriatic (Venice).

redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus minutus is restricted to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and is present in coastal areas of the eastern Atlantic from Norway to Spain, including around the British Isles, Ireland and throughout the Baltic Sea. In the the northern Mediterranean Sea, it is known from more scattered records and is present in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Pomatoschistus minutus is not utilized and there are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. minutus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus minutus is present in coastal areas of the eastern Atlantic from Norway to Spain (Rochard and Elie 1994) including around the British Isles and Ireland. It has been recorded from more scattered records through the northern Mediterranean (Rochard and Elie 1994), including Monaco and the Lavezzi Islands, the north Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Populations from the Adriatic eastwards require further study, with populations in the Adriatic isolated from populations in the western Mediterranean and possibly pertaining to a genetically distinct species (Steffani et al. 2003). Pomatoschistus minutus is present throughout the Baltic Sea (Florin and Haldin 2012).

population:
Pomatoschistus minutus is common along the European Atlantic coast. There is no information on the populations in the Aegean Sea or Adriatic Sea, and it is not abundant in the Black Sea or Sea of Marmara. Populations in the Mediterranean and eastwards are possibly relict and have declined (IUCN 2011), but globally the population is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
This occasionally schooling species is found in inshore sandy and muddy areas. Juveniles are found in lower estuaries and into brackish waters (found in waters with salinity as low as one ppm). The main depth range is two to 20 m although it has been found down to 200 m. Mainly diurnal, this species feeds on small polychaetes, amphipods (corophiids, caprellids), cumaceans and mysids (Miller 1986). It spawns in summer in shallow waters. The male lures the female into an empty bivalve shell where she lays a portion of eggs. The eggs are guarded by the male for ten days until larvae about three millimetres long. Larvae are pelagic at first. Young fish only start to live at the bottom when 17 to 18 mm (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

threats:
Pomatoschistus minutus is taken as bycatch.

conservationAction:
Pomatoschistus minutus is listed in Annex III of the Bern Convention and was assessed as Vulnerable in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and as Data Deficient for the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013).  Further taxonomic study is required to confirm the identity of populations in different parts of the species current range.

redListContributors:
Francour, P., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Molinari, A. & Quignard, J.P.


taxonomicNotes:
Pomatoschistus norvegicus was previously considered a subspecies of P. minutus (P. minutus norvegicus) but has since been elevated to a valid species (Webb and Miller 1975).

redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus norvegicus has a wide but discontinuous distribution in the eastern Atlantic, from Norway to northwestern Spain, including scattered records through out the Mediterranean. Recently, P. norvegicus has been recorded from additional localities and the population is considered stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. norvegicus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus norvegicus is present in the eastern Atlantic from northern Norway and southwestern Sweden to the west English Channel (Miller 1986). It is found in the Skagerrak and in the northern Kattegat. Although P. norvegicus is not known from the Bay of Biscay, it is recorded from northwestern Spain (Galicia; Banon et al. 2010). Pomatoschistus norvegicus is known from scattered records through the Mediterranean; specifically, P. norvegicus has been recorded from the Albaran Sea and the Greek Aegean (Stefanni 2000), northwestern Mediterranean (SW France; Ahnelt and Dorda 2004), from the central-west coast of Italy, and the northern and central Adriatic (Kovačić et al. 2012). Pomatoschistus norvegicus is found in deeper water (down to 325 m) in Atlantic areas, but at shallower depths in the Mediterranean, at six to 20 m in the Adriatic (Stefanni 2000, Kovačić et al. 2012).

population:
Pomatoschistus norvegicus is known from numerous specimens throughout its range, with additional recent records form the Mediterranean part of its range. It is considered to have a stable population (J. Herler pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Pomatoschistus norvegicus is found offshore on mud and coarse sand and shell deposits. Typically, P. norvegicus is found in deeper water (down to 325 m) in Atlantic areas, but at shallower depths in the Mediterranean, at six to 20 m in the Adriatic (Stefanni 2000, Kovačić et al. 2012). It feeds on amphipods and small crustaceans (Miller 1986). Spawning occurs between March and July. Maturity is reached after the first winter and 75% of the individuals survive their first spawning season but all die after their second spawning season (Miller 1986). This species has been known to hybridize with Pomatoschistus lozanoi (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pomatoschistus norvegicus was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013).

useAndTrade:
Pomatoschistus norvegicus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus pictus is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, from Norway to Madeira and the Canary Islands, with scattered records from the northern Mediterranean Sea. There is no population information available; however, it is assumed to be stable. Pomatoschistus pictus is not utilized and no widespread threats are known. Therefore, P. pictus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus pictus is present in the eastern Atlantic from Norway (Trondheim fjord) to northern Spain (Galicia; Banon et al. 2010), including Madeira and Canary Islands (Miller 1990, Wirtz et al. 2008) and around the British Isles and Ireland. In the Mediterranean Sea, P. pictus is known from scattered records from the Gulf of Lion (Bouchereau et al. 2003), the central Adriatic Sea and the Sea of Marmara. Pomatoschistus pictus is found inshore to c. 55 m depth (Miller 1986).

population:
There is no population information available for this species; however it is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Pomatoschistus pictus is a benthic species inhabiting areas of gravel, sand and mud. Juveniles may occur in shore pools and they can school. It feeds on crustaceans, mostly copepods and amphipods (Miller 1986). Individuals of P. pictus can reach about six centimetres (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pomatoschistus pictus was assessed as Data Deficient in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus quagga is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is known from scattered records but can be locally abundant. Populations of P. quagga are assumed to be stable. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. quagga is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pomatoschistus quagga is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is known from scattered records along northern coasts from Albaran Sea to the Turkish Aegean Sea, including the Adriatic Sea and the southern Aegean Sea coast (Fricke et al. 2007). Specific records include the Alboran Sea (Miller 1986), southwestern France, Italy (the central-west coast and western Sicily), the northern Adriatic (Kovačić et al. 2012) and the Turkish Aegean (Fricke et al. 2007). Pomatoschistus quagga has been collected at depths of three to 20 m (Kovačić 2003).

population:
Pomatoschistus quagga is locally abundant, and has been seen to school (up to several hundred individual in all seasons; Kovačić et al. 2003). There is limited population information available for P. quagga, but it is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Pomatoschistus quagga is an hyperbenthic fish living above soft and pebbly substrata and seagrass beds (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pomatoschistus quagga was assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


taxonomicNotes:
Pomatoschistus tortonesei was redescribed and separated from P. bathi (Miller 1982).

redListCategoryRationale:
Pomatoschistus tortonesei is only known from a few localities in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily, and from a small number of clustered coastal lagoons in Tunisia and western Libya), where it is restricted to Zostera seagrass habitat in coastal lagoons. Based on a five metre maximum depth, the area of occupancy (AOO) was estimated to be about 550 km2, but the area of Zostera habitat within that bathymetric limit is likely much less. Further, Zostera is declining in the Mediterranean due to pollution, sedimentation and removal. Therefore, P. tortonesei is retained as Endangered under Criterion B2ab(iii), based on occurrence at two locations, restricted AOO and declining habitat quality and extent.

range:
Pomatoschistus tortonesei is endemic to the south-central Mediterranean Sea. It only known from eight lagoon sites: Sicily (Marsala; Miller 1986), western Libya (abundant in the Farawah lagoon adjacent to the Tunisian border; Miller 1986), and recently recorded from six lagoons in Tunisia (Mejri et al. 2009). Its known distribution is fragmented. The area of occupancy (AOO), based on a maximum depth of five metres, was estimated to be 550 km2. However, given its specific Zostera seagrass habitat, the AOO is inferred to be less than 500 km2.

population:
There are very few records of this species. There is no population information available for this species. Some research in the 1970s showed no change in population, but this information is too out of date to be included in this assessment. Genetic studies suggest that populations in Sicily and from North Africa have been isolated for at least 100,000 years and found no gene exchange between these populations (Mejri et al. 2009).

habitat:
Pomatoschistus tortonesei is a demersal species that is restricted to lagoons, brackish to slightly hypersaline, in shallows on sand near seagrass meadows. This species is restricted to a particularly to Zostera seagrass beds. It feeds on small crustaceans and gastropods.

threats:
Pomatoschistus tortonesei is threatened by loss of seagrass habitat from removal, sedimentation and pollution throughout its fragmented and restricted range. Coastal development is an additional potential threat to the species' habitat.

conservationAction:
The species occurs in a protected area in Marsala Lagoon and Lake Faro. It is listed in appendix II in the Barcelona Convention and Annex II of the Berne Convention for the Mediterranean Sea. Pomatoschistus tortonesei was assessed as Endangered, globally and in the Mediterranean, due to its restricted distribution and threats to its Zostera seagrass habitat (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).  Further taxonomic study is required and additional survey to determine the species current distribution and population trends.

redListContributors:
Francour, P., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Molinari, A. & Di Natale, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
Ponticola cephalargoides is an epibenthic goby, restricted to brackish waters of the Black Sea and Sea of Azov. Although there is some evidence of historical population declines in the northwestern Black Sea in the 1950-60s, P. cephalargoides is now locally abundant and very common in Romanian waters. It is still present in fisheries, but this is not thought to constitute a major threat at this time. There are no other known widespread threats. Therefore, P. cephalargoides is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ponticola cephalargoides is endemic to the Black Sea and Sea of Azov (Miller 1986, Pinchuk et al. 2003). Ponticola cephalargoides has been recorded from three to 20 m depth (Pinchuk et al. 2003).

population:
There is some evidence of historical population declines in the northwestern Black Sea in the 1950-60s (Pinchuk et al. 2003); Ponticola cephalargoides was numerous in the 1950s but by the 1960s a large decline had been observed. However, these data were based on comparisons of single catches. There are no recent data available. Ponticola cephalargoides is very common in Romanian waters (Mihalcescu 2011b).

habitat:
Ponticola cephalargoides is found over rocky and soft substrates in coastal and estuarine waters (Pinchuk et al. 2003). It is an omnivorous species that shows little preference for any particular food type (Mihalcescu 2011a). It has a low fecundity, from 300 to 1,000 eggs (Pinchuk et al. 2003).

threats:
Ponticola cephalargoides is caught in the rod and line fishery. In the 1950s, the population declined, as evidenced by declines in the fishery. It is unclear whether or not the fishery was the cause of the population declines. There is no information on current threats to P. cephalargoides but it is apparently still found in fisheries (Vassilev et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
Unusual for a goby, P. cephalargoides is found in fisheries (rod and line, as well as siene fisheries) of local commercial value (Miller 1986). The fishery caused historical declines and it was (1950s data) an economically important species in Romania and Ukraine (Pinchuk et al. 2003). There are no data on the current size and impact of the fishery for this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
Ponticola platyrostris is known only from the Black Sea. Ponticola platyrostris is one of the most abundant species in the inshore southeast coast of the Black Sea and populations are assumed to be stable. There are no known major threats. Therefore, P. platyrostris is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Ponticola platyrostris is endemic to the Black Sea (Engin and Bektaş 2010), where it is distributed from Crimea to Batum (Miller 1986), and along the northeastern Turkish coast (Kovačić et al. 2008). Ponticola platyrostris is typically found between 0.1 to 10 m depth, though adults have been recorded deeper than 10 m (Engin and Bektaş 2010).

population:
Ponticola platyrostris is the most common inshore fish on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea (Engin and Bektaş 2010). It is considered likely that P. platyrostris has stable populations.

habitat:
Ponticola platyrostris is an epibenthic goby typically found over coarse substrates (Miller 1986). The maximum recorded size is 22.5 cm (Miller 1986). It is typically found between 0.1 to 10 m depth, though adults have been recorded deeper than 10 m (Engin and Bektaş 2010). Adults prefer two to eight metres depth but juveniles prefer less than two metres depth (Engin and Bektaş 2010). The maximum age was found to be five and six years for males and females, respectively. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters were estimated from the mean age-length data for males and females (males: L ∞=21.7 cm; females: L ∞=16.3 cm) and the growth performance indices were calculated for males (=4.21 and for females =4.03). The estimated length at first maturity was 9.29 and 7.50 cm for males and females, respectively. The spawning season was between March and June. Total fecundity ranged from 103 to 990, with an average of 553±82 ripe eggs/fish (Engin and Seyhan 2010).

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to the species.

useAndTrade:
Ponticola platyrostris is caught in some areas by amateur fishing and in the past was speared at night (Miller 1986).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Ponticola ratan is found only in the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea; however, in the Black Sea, it is known from all coastal areas except for the majority of the Turkish coast. The species has been recorded in many collections from numerous sites throughout much of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. It is found in coastal areas, in freshwater rivers, and in a variety of habitats. There are no known widespread major threats, and it is not used commercially, but little is known of its population trends.  Although P. ratan has been placed in threatened categories under national IUCN Red Lists in three countries surrounding the Black Sea (Georgia, Turkey, and Ukraine), and is considered Data Deficient in Romania, here it is assessed as Least Concern due to its wide distribution and lack of known widespread threats. Ponticola ratan should be reassessed if further data on threats or population trends are found.

range:
Ponticola ratan is endemic to the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea (Pinchuk et al. 2003). In the Black Sea, P. ratan is found in all coastal areas except along the southern coast. In the Caspian Sea, P. ratan is only known from central eastern and western coasts. Ponticola ratan is found inshore, to about 11 m (Pinchuk et al. 2003).

population:
Little is known about the population status of P. ratan; however, it has been recorded in many collections from numerous sites throughout much of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Manilo and Didenko 2013).

habitat:
Ponticola ratan is typically found in inshore waters over coarse sediments (Miller 1986). The species enters rivers and is found in both brackish and freshwater (Manilo and Didenko 2013). It feeds on crustaceans and other fish (Miller 1986). The maximum recorded size is 23.0 cm, and it is sexually mature at two years of age and about 7.0 cm (Miller 1986, Manilo and Didenko 2013). There appears to be a seasonal movement related to spawning, where mature individuals migrate to shallow coastal waters in the spring (Manilo and Didenko 2013).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place for the species. Ponticola ratan is listed as VU in Georgia and the Ukraine, EN in Turkey, and DD in Romania.

useAndTrade:
Ponticola ratan is not utilized, but is found in fishery bycatch. Miller (1986) states that fishermen “dislike” this species.


taxonomicNotes:
All freshwater taxa of Proteorhinus were previously included under the name P. marmoratus, but morphological and molecular data show that the real P. marmorata does not enter pure freshwaters (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). As a result, in 2007 the freshwater taxa P. nasalis, P. semilunaris and P. tataricus were split from P. marmoratus and raised to species level. Nielson and Stepien (2009) identified a further freshwater species of the genus, which may be P. semipellucidus, from the Caspian. Therefore any data on P. marmoratus may include data on these four taxa. Further work is required to clarify the taxonimic status of the Caspian Sea Proterorhinus.

redListCategoryRationale:
Proterorhinus marmoratus is present in estuaries and coastal areas of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Sea of Marmara. It has also been reported from the northern Aegean Sea. It is locally abundant, but there is no specific information about the current population trend. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, P. marmoratus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Proterorhinus marmoratus is present in estuaries and coastal areas of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Sea of Marmora, and known from the northern Aegean (Nielson and Stepien 2009). In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs only in the Evros and Strymon systems of the north Aegean Sea. Previous records from the Caspian Sea pertain to another species. All freshwater records of this species now pertain to other species (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007) and as a result it is difficult to confirm the distribution of this marine species.

population:
There is no population information available for P. marmoratus, but it is locally abundant.

habitat:
Proterorhinus marmoratus occurs in coastal area and the lower parts of estuaries over a range of substrates (Miller 1986). It becomes sexually mature at one year (Miller 1986).

threats:
There are no threats to this marine species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Proterorhinus marmoratus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Proterorhinus marmoratus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Pseudaphya ferreri is only recorded from the central, northern and eastern Mediterranean Sea. There is no specific population information for this species, but it is locally abundant in areas of its distribution. For this reason, populations are considered likely to be stable. Pseudaphya ferreri is not utilized, and there are no known, widespread threats. Therefore, P. ferreri is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Pseudaphya ferreri is only recorded from the Mediterranean Sea, including the Balearic Islands and along the whole of the western coast of Italy and southeastern France (Miller 1986), northern Sicily (Relini and Lanteri 2010), the eastern Adriatic Sea (Kovačić et al. 2012) and from Egypt (Kovačić and Golani 2007). It is typically found between two and 15 m depth (Kovačić 2003).

population:
There is no population information available for P. ferreri, but it is locally abundant and the population is assumed to be stable. Breeding occurs in June at least, and life span may not be greater than one year (Miller 1973).

habitat:
Pseudaphya ferreri occurs inshore, nectonic or hyperbenthic, schooling over sand, muddy sand and bedrock (Miller 1979) typically between two and 15 m depth (Kovačić 2003).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Pseudaphya ferreri was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Speleogobius trigloides is currently only known from the Mediterranean Sea, where confirmed records are from the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea. There are no confirmed records from France (Banyuls, Port-Cros and Ajaccio); however, S. trigloides is cryptic, hard to identify and may have a wider distribution in suitable habitat than is currently known. There is no further population information available. Although it is restricted to deep, coralligenous areas and rock crevices, there are no known, widespread threats, and it occurs in marine protected areas within its known range. Therefore, S. trigloides is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Speleogobius trigloides is currently only known from the Mediterranean Sea, where confirmed records are from the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea. There are no confirmed records from France (Banyuls, Port-Cros and Ajaccio) (M. Kovačić pers. comm. 2014). It has been collected from eight to 25 m depth (Miller 1986).

population:
There is no population information available for S. trigloides. It is cryptic species, very small and very difficult to observe. It may be naturally rare.

habitat:
Speleogobius trigloides is restricted to coralligenous areas and rock crevices.

threats:
There are no known major threats to S. trigloides and it occurs in marine protected areas.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for S. trigloides and it is present in some marine protected areas. Speleogobius trigloides was previously assessed as Data Deficient, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Thorogobius ephippiatus is found throughout much of the coastal Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Although population information is lacking, T. ephippiatus can be locally common. There are no known major widespread threats. Therefore, T. ephippiatus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Thorogobius ephippiatus is present in the northeastern Atlantic from the northern British Isles to Macaronesia (Miller 1986a, Carniero et al. 2014) and southwestern Spain. It is also known from the Skagerrak and the Kattegat seas (Norway and Sweden; Miller 1990, HELCOM 2012) and throughout the northwestern and northeastern Mediterranean Sea (Escoubet and Murgia 1981, Vacchi et al. 1999) to Turkey and Crete (Kovačić et al. 2011). It is found from six to 40 m depth (Miller 1986a), most often at about six to 15 m. Specimens from Madeira were from 65-120 m over rocky substrate (Miller 1986b).

population:
There is little population information available for T. ephippiatus, however a dive study in the central Adriatic found the species to be common (Schultz 1975). It is locally abundant throughout its range and populations are considered likely to be stable.

habitat:
Thorogobius ephippiatus is found in or near crevices and caves of a variety of sizes in vertical rock cliffs to a depth of 40 m, usually between 10 to 13 m. Thorogobius ephippiatus avoids strong currents and lighter areas, and is typically associated with caves and crevices with muddy substrates (Miller 1986a). It feeds on crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, decapods), polychaetes, gastropods and algae (Miller 1986a). It spawns up to 12,000 eggs (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas. Thorogobius ephippiatus was assessed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
Thorogobius ephippiatus is not utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Thorogobius macrolepis is restricted to the northern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, where it is known from scattered records. Although data are limited, T. macrolepis is abundant where found, and its population is assumed to be stable. There are no known, widespread threats. Therefore, T. macrolepis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Thorogobius macrolepis is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. Specifically, T. macrolepis is known from scattered records from Ibiza (Baleares; Ahnelt and Patzner 1996), the southeast coast of France (Miller 1986), western Corsica (Dufour et al. 2007). It is also recorded from the southern and southeastern coast of Italy (Guidetti et al. 2006), the northern Adriatic Sea (Ahnelt and Kovačić 1997, Kovačić et al. 2012), and the Turkish Aegean between Bodrum and Fethiye (Francour et al. 2007). The depth distribution of T. macrolepis is six to 45 m (Ahnelt and Kovačić 1997, Francour et al. 2007).

population:
Thorogobius macrolepis is locally abundant, especially in the south of France. In the northern Adriatic the species showed densities from 0.15 to 0.29 individuals per m2 (Ahnelt and Kovačić 1997), suggesting a relatively high abundance. In contrast the densities along the Italian coast was found to range from 0.001 to 0.02 individuals per m2 (Guidetti et al. 2006).

habitat:
Thorogobius macrolepis lives in deeper waters from six (Ahnelt and Kovačić 1997) to at least 42 m (Ahnelt and Patzner 1996) and possibly deeper, on coarse sand close to rocky and coralligenous areas. It is a relatively shy species, associated with caves and crevices.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is present in some marine protected areas. Thorogobius macrolepis was previously assessed as Least Concern, globally and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Vanneaugobius canariensis is known from the Macaronesian islands in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it is known from all islands in the group. The species is widespread, but no specific population data are available. There are no known, widespread threats, and it is not utilized. Therefore, V. canariensis is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Vanneaugobius canariensis is known from the eastern Atlantic, specifically Macaronesia and off Conakry, Guinea (Van Tassell et al. 1988). The species is recorded from Madeira (Debelius 1998, Wirtz 1998, Carneiro et al. 2014), the Cape Verde Islands (Brito and Miller 2001), and the Canary Islands (Van Tassell et al. 1988, Miller 1990). It has been found from 9 to 45 m depth (Miller 1990).

population:
Nothing is known about the population status or trends of V. canariensis.

habitat:
Vanneaugobius canariensis is a benthic species that occurs on mixed substrata of sand, sandy-muddy (Wirtz 1998), stones, calcareous algae, and rock (Brito and Miller 2001). It is also found under loose stones on sandy bottoms (Miller 1990). The maximum recorded total length (TL) is 4.3 cm (Van Tassell et al. 1988). It is found between 9 to 45 m in depth (Van Tassell et al. 1988, Miller 1990).

threats:
There are no known widespread threats to the species.

conservationAction:
No conservation measures are in place or needed for V. canariensis. It likely occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range.


taxonomicNotes:
Vanneaugobius dollfusi Brownell, 1878 was previously considered a synonym of Vanneaugobius pruvoti (Miller 1986), however Pallaoro and Kovačić (2000) collected additional specimens that are thought to belong to the valid species V. dollfusi.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC) Vanneaugobius dollfusi is known from the eastern Atlantic and the central Mediterranean Sea, specifically the eastern Adriatic and Aegean Seas. Population data are not available, but V. dollfusi has no known, widespread threats. Therefore, V. dollfusi is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Vanneaugobius dollfusi is known from the eastern Atlantic and the central Mediterranean Sea. It was described from the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and has also been found from the eastern Adriatic (Pallaoro and Kovačić 2000, Kovačić et al. 2012) and from the Aegean (Ahnelt and Dorda 2004). It has been found at depths of 30 to 160 m (Pallaoro and Kovačić 2000, Ahnelt and Dorda 2004).

population:
There is no information on popaultion or trends.

habitat:
Vanneaugobius dollfusi is a benthic species found from 30 to 160 m on sandy-silt and coralline bottoms (Kovačić 2008), as well as on bedrock. The maximum recorded size is 4.5 cm (Pallaoro and Kovačić 2000).

threats:
The species is not thought to have any widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for V. dollfusi. However, it likely occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range.


taxonomicNotes:
Vanneaugobius dollfusi Brownell, 1878 was considered a synonym of Vanneaugobius pruvoti, however Pallaoro and Kovačić (2000) collected additional specimens that are thought to belong to the valid species V. dollfusi.

redListCategoryRationale:
Vanneaugobius pruvoti is known only from a few specimens from the Balearic and Canary Islands. Whilst little is known about its habitats, ecology or population at this time, the species is known from deeper waters that are considered unlikely to be impacted by fishery activities. It is known from two widely separated sites and is almost certainly under represented in surveys. Therefore, V. pruvoti is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Vanneaugobius pruvoti is known only from the Balearic and Canary Islands (Miller 1990). It has been collected from 60 to 270 m depth (Van Tassell et al. 1988).

population:
The species is known from only a few specimens and little is known about its population status or trends.

habitat:
Vanneaugobius pruvoti is a benthic species that typically occurs over rocky substrates at 60 to 270 m depth (Miller 1990). The maximum reported length is 3.7 cm (Miller 1986).

conservationAction:
No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for V. pruvoti. However, it may occur in marine protected areas.


redListCategoryRationale:
Zebrus zebrus is restricted to the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Recent records from the southern Mediterranean and southern Black Sea suggest that this species may be more common than previously thought. There are no widespread threats and it is assumed to have stable populations. Therefore, Zebrus zebrus is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Zebrus zebrus is restricted to the Mediterranean and Black seas (Kovačić and Engin 2009). Within the Mediterranean Sea, it has been recorded from the northwestern region, the Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean seas, and the Levantine basin (Kovačić et al. 2005). Recently it has also been recorded from Malta (Kovačić et al. 2013) and Tunisia (Meijri et al. 2007). It is found inshore, to about 10 m (Kovačić et al. 2005).

population:
There is no population information available for this species, however it is common where found. The species population trend is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
A habitat generalist, Zebrus zebrus occurs in lagoons and intertidal pools, under stones, amongst algae and seagrass (Miller 1986), and also found on rocky bottoms. This is a shallow water species that occurs mostly between 0.1 to 10 m depth (Kovačić et al. 2005). Reproduction typically occurs in early July (Miller 1986). The maximum size is about 6.5 cm (M. Kovačić pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for Z. zebrus. However, it likely occurs in marine protected areas in part of its range. Zebrus zebrus was previously assessed globally and in the Mediterranean as Least Concern (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

redListContributors:
Bariche, M., Bilecenoglu, M., Francour, P. & Molinari, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
Zosterisessor ophiocephalus is restricted to the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. There is no population information for this species, although it is thought to be locally abundant. There are no known widespread threats. Therefore, Zosterisessor ophiocephalus is listed as Least Concern.

range:
Zosterisessor ophiocephalus is only known from the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov. In the Mediterranean, the species is known from southwestern France, from Sardinia and northern Corsica, along the western coast of Italy, Sicily (Relini and Lanteri 2010), the northern parts of the eastern coast of the Adriatic (Kovačić et al. 2012), from the Aegean, and Mediterranean Turkish coasts (Bilecenoglu et al. 2002). It is also known from Tunisia (Bradai et al. 2004) and western Libya. It has been recorded from most of the Black Sea coastal areas, with fewer records from eastern parts.

population:
The species is locally abundant and assumed to have a stable population, although harvested in some parts of its range.

habitat:
Zosterisessor ophiocephalus is a benthic species living inshore in marine and brackish waters, estuaries and lagoons and on mud and eel-grass meadows. Its habitat is more abundant in the eastern part of its distribution. The primary prey items for Z. ophiocephalus are small fish and larger crustacean (Miller 1986). Individuals of Z. ophiocephalus are sexually mature at two to three years, and the maximum lifespan is five years (Miller 1986). It is iteroparous, with females producing more than one batch of eggs within the breeding season (Franco et al. 2002). In the Mediterranean, the maximum recorded size is 21.0 cm TL and the length at maturity for females ranges from 9.8 to 12.2 cm TL and for males is 13.5 cm TL (Tsikliras and Stergiou 2014).

threats:
The species habitat may be impacted locally but there are no known widespread threats.

conservationAction:
No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for Z. ophiocephalus. However, it likely occurs in marine protected areas. It was assessed globally as Data Deficient in 1996 and as Least Concern in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
This species is harvested for food in some parts of its range. The species has commercial importance in parts of its range, including in the Black Sea and in Sivash (Berg 1965). Miller (1986) documents tissue contaminants (PCBs, DDT etc.) and heavy metal concentrations in fish from Greek and Italian habitats, which may affect consumers.

redListContributors:
Bariche, M., Bilecenoglu, M. & Francour, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the European region, the species is only known from the Straits of Gibraltar and from the Canaries. It is common and locally abundant in insular locations, but apparently rare in the European part of its range (Canary Islands). It is a minor component of artisanal fisheries and found in a number of marine protected areas in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species has been recorded in the eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar to the Canary Islands and along the coast of west Africa southward to Angola (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986). It is a mainly tropical-subtropical species and its distribution in the European region is largely extralimital.

population:
This species is uncommon in the European region, from Gibraltar to Canary Islands.

habitat:
The species is found over sand and rock bottom (Roux 1990). It has also been observed under overhangs (Morri et al. 2000). It feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Sidoumou et al. 2005).

threats:
This species is only occasionally caught and there are no major threats to this species in the EU region.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Parapristipoma humile, but its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.

useAndTrade:
This species is rarely caught in the Canary Islands, and is of no major commercial importance. Elsewhere, outside of the European region, in Sao Tome, it is a component of artisanal beach seine fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in tropical and sub-tropical coasts of eastern Atlantic and the southwestern Mediterranean and is common and locally abundant in insular locations. It is a sought after species and in some parts of its range, fishing is considered to be causing localized declines, but there are no data on landings at present. It is found in a number of marine protected areas in parts of its range. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, considering that it is large species and a potential commercial target, further monitoring of the harvest levels and population status of this species is recommended.

range:
The species is known from the southwestern Mediterranean Sea and into the eastern Atlantic, where it is known from Portugal south to Angola, including Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008) and the Canary Islands (Tenerife, Gomera, and Hierro islands) (Dooley et al. 1985).

population:
The species is widely distributed in the tropical-subtropical eastern Atlantic, but is apparently rare in the European region (Charton and Ruzafa 1998, dos Santos et al. 2002). There is little population information available.

habitat:
This is a demersal species that is found in sandy and rocky shorelines from two to 180 m. Prey items include crustaceans and molluscs (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986).

threats:
This species is commercially sought after as a food fish and is caught on various gears, but is not a target species in European waters. Artisanal fishing may cause localized declines in parts of its range.

conservationAction:
This species' range overlaps several marine protected areas. However, there are no other species specific conservation measures in place for this species. More research on the impacts of commercial fishing on this species' populations is required.

useAndTrade:
This species is sought after as a food fish, and is artisanally fished in many parts of its range, but is rarely caught in the European region.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in the tropical and sub-tropical eastern Atlantic. Annual landings from the Mediterranean and the Eastern Central Atlantic and Mediterranean and Black sea fishing areas from 2001 to 2011 show no clear trends, and there are no data indicating any population declines at present. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. However, because it is a sought after commercial species caught by trawls, continued monitoring of its population status and harvest levels is recommended.

range:
In the Mediterranean, this species is known from the Alboran Sea and along the southwestern coast to Tunisia, and from the Adriatic Sea (Llpej et al. 1996, Dulcic and Grbec 2000). It is also present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Angola, but records from the Canary Islands are doubtful (Dooley et al. 1985), and it is not recorded from Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008). Doubtful records also exist from Greek waters (Papaconstantinou 1988) and from Egypt. These records may be misidentifications of the Lessepsian migrant Pomadasys stridens

population:
Annual landings in the Mediterranean (2001 to 2005) (FAO 2007) for the Balearic Sea, Spain, range from two tonnes (2001), 13 t (2002), 13 t (2003), 19 t (2004) to 15 t (2005). Data (FAO 2014) for the Eastern Central Atlantic and Mediterranean and Black sea fishing areas show fluctuating landings, from 2,638 t (2001) and 5,462 (2006) to 4,655 t (2011).

habitat:
This is a demersal species, inhabiting sandy and muddy substrata. It is found associated with artificial reefs in the north Adriatic Sea (Lipej et al. 1996) and in Portugal (Santos et al. 2005). It occurs at depths of one to 180 m (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986), although it is most common at five to 50 m, on rocky sand and seagrass (Louisy 2002).

threats:
Fishing may cause localized population declines.

conservationAction:
It is found in marine reserves in parts of its range. In Portugal, species regulations are in place.

useAndTrade:
This is a commercial species in the Balearic Sea, Spain, caught mainly with trawls.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is known from southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, with records from France and Greece, and the range extends to the Atlantic coast of Spain, and to Macaronesia. It is a fast growing species that is widespread and very abundant, at least in some parts of it range, particularly over rocky bottoms. It is therefore regarded as Least Concern. However, it is considered over-exploited, primarily as bycatch in the Canaries and Aegean, and possibly over-exploited elsewhere in trawl fisheries and therefore its population levels need to be closely monitored.

range:
In the Mediterranean Sea this species is present along the whole southern and eastern coastlines and present around France, Corsica, Sicily and the Ionian and the southeastern Aegean Sea. Also it occurs in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Namibia, including Macaronesia (Madeira, the Azores and Canary Islands). It is a thermophilic species that apparently is expanding its range into the northern Mediterranean because of increasing temperatures (Chakroun-Marzouk and Ktari 2006, Bodilis et al. 2013).

population:
The species has been observed in relatively high-density schools in the coastal waters of the Canary Islands, and is considered to be among the 20 most abundant demersal species in the area (Pajuelo et al. 2003a). It is listed as one of the five most abundant fish species in underwater surveys of mostly rocky areas across the Canaries with the highest count of any species on one of the transects (Hajagos and Van Tassell 2001). This is a fast-growing short-lived species (Pajuelo et al. 2003a).   A survey of the fisheries of the Canary Islands found that this species was in danger of recruitment-overfishing, as 45% of the individuals caught are below the breeding size (Pajuelo et al. 2003a). In the Canary Islands, an 80% reduction in non-exploited equilibrium rates are inferred from a growth-overfishing model. This rate of exploitation is difficult to interpret because exploited rates of decline are unknown in this type of soft-sediment trawling. Furthermore, this species is abundant over rocky bottoms in the Canary Islands at the same time as growth overfishing is reported. It is abundant in parts of its range in the Mediterranean. Anecdotal information from fishermen suggests that this species is heavily exploited as bycatch in the Aegean Sea.

habitat:
Pomadasys incisus is a demersal species, found over sandy/muddy and rocky bottoms mostly at a depth range of 10 to 50 m, but recorded down to 100 m (Carpenter in press). It is found inshore in estuaries (Kapiris et al. 2008), harbours, to a couple of miles offshore. It feeds on near-bottom invertebrates. Pomadasys incisus is a non-seasonal spawner and breeding occurs year round; maturity is reached in approximately two years (Pajuelo et al. 2003). In the Gulf of Tunisia this species is abundant and its reproductive period is between July and August (Chakroun-Marzouk and Ktarj 1995). Reproduction and feeding habits in the Gulf of Tunis were investigated monthly from January to December 2003 by Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi (2008). An examination of the gonads of 463 specimens showed that this species is a gonochoric species and the sex ratio was not significantly different from 1:1. The monthly variations of the gonadosomatic index and the percentage of the different gonadal development stages revealed that P. incisus spawning period occurred from August to October. This species uses its energetic reserves contained in the liver and the muscles to assure gonadal maturation. The size at first maturity (L50) was estimated at 15.33 cm for both sexes pooled. The stomachs examined showed a high vacuity index throughout the year (56.8%) and presented a significant difference between seasons. The stomach contents analysis revealed that the diet was composed of crustacean species as well as benthic and planktonic organisms that belong to 19 taxa. The percentage frequency of occurrence (F) computed for Crangon crangon, Hyperoche sp. and Geryon longipes (the most abundant prey in the diet) showed significant differences among seasons (χ ²obs= 31.228, 29.471 and 11.302 respectively, were superior to χ ²0.05). Age and growth were studied in the Canary Islands from samples collected between October 2000 and September 2001 (Pajuelo et al. 2003b). Growth analysis revealed that this species is a fast growing and moderately short-lived species (ages up to seven years recorded). Length-at-age was described by the von Bertalanffy growth model (L∞=309.58 mm; k=0.220/year; t0=-1.865 year), the Schnute growth model (y1=126.66 mm; y2=293.50 mm; a=-0.426; b= 5.963), and the seasonalized von Bertalanffy growth model (L∞=309.93 mm; k=0.218/ year; t0 = -1.896 year; C=0.555; ts=0.652). Individuals grow quickly in their first year, attaining approximately 60% of their maximum length; after the first year, their growth rate drops rapidly as energy is probably diverted to reproduction. The parameters of the von Bertalanffy weight growth curve were W∞ =788.22 mm; k=0.1567/year; t0= -1.984 year. Fish total length and otolith radius were closely correlated, r=0.912. A power relationship was estimated between the total length and the otolith radius (a=49.93; v=0.851). A year's growth was represented by an opaque and hyaline (translucent) zone--an annulus. Back calculated lengths were similar to those predicted by the growth models. Growth parameters estimated from the back calculated sizes at age were L∞=315.23 mm; k=0.217/year; and t0= -1.73 year. Chakroun-Marzouk and Ktari (2006) described the reproductive physiology of the Bastard Grunt and gave some characteristics on the reproduction and growth in weight. Pomadasys incisus were caught with small scale fishing fleet in the Tunis Gulf, and sampled several times a month, from October 1991 to September 1994. The whole sample consisted of 1,325 specimens with total length ranging from 11.3 to 25.2 cm and weight from 20 to 248.5 g. Sex ratio was always in favour of females. Sexual maturity is attained at the same time for males and females. Sizes related to 50% and 100% of matured fish were respectively 16.13 and 21 cm TL. Pomadasys incisus capture, by the artisanal fishery in the Tunis Gulf, occurs before sexual maturity. Therefore, biomass of spawners seems to be accessible to that fishing pattern. Sexual activity extended from June to November. Gonad maturation occurred between June and September, when mean sea water temperature raised from 15 to 22°C; spawning peaks occurred in October when temperature fell from 22 to 17°C. During winter time, when feeding activity was reduced, Bastard Grunt condition was the worst. Pomadasys incisus feeding is rather linked to seasonal variations of prey abundance than to physiological status. Female hepatic reserves are mobilized at the beginning of gonad maturation and are released during its terminal phase. Relative growth in weight was the same within males and females. Global length-weight relationship was Pb = 0.0107 LT3.078 and was isometric. Growths in length and weight seemed better in the Atlantic Ocean than in the Mediterranean Sea. This work also underlines the recent increase in abundance of the Bastard Grunt in Tunis Gulf; and that this fish, whose origin is tropical, finds favourable conditions for its reproduction in Tunis Bay. Due to its actual regional proliferation and its extension in the Mediterranean Sea, P. incisus may be considered as a biological indicator of the global warming of Mediterranean Sea.

threats:
Pomadasys incisus has no current commercial value over much of its range, but is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries in the Aegean Sea and Canary Islands (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008) and presumably also taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries elsewhere in its range. Landings data reported in FAO statistics for the 1980s and 1990s indicate some commercial utilization. Most reports suggest that it is discarded, although it is retained and consumed in parts of its range. In Tunisia, it is caught by artisanal gears such as trammel and gill nets, beach and purse seines, long lines and trawls and marketed fresh (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008). It is locally overfished in some parts of its range. A survey of the fisheries of the Canary Islands found that this species was in danger of recruitment-overfishing, as 45% of the individuals caught are below the breeding size (Pajuelo et al. 2003). In the Canary Islands an 80% reduction in non-exploited equilibrium rates are inferred from a growth-overfishing model. According to fishermen operating in the Argolikos Gulf, Aegean Sea, Greece in the last few decades, the stock also is heavily over-exploited there, since it constitutes one of the discarded by-catch species in a fishery targeting mullets and hake. Moreover, the fact that 15% of individuals caught in a study by Kaspiris et al. (2008) had a smaller length than that of the smallest mature specimen, possibly suggests that part of the exploited stock comprises individuals that have not reached sexual maturity, which might also have a negative impact on the Bastard Grunt population status in the area.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution coincides with some marine protected areas. Monitoring of the population and harvest levels of this species should be carried out. Conservation measures need to focus on minimizing the by-catch of this species to prevent this species becoming threatened.

useAndTrade:
This is a significant bycatch species in the Canary Islands, but is targeted in the southern Mediterranean and marketed fresh in Tunisia (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008). It is locally consumed in some locations in Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007), and is caught frequently in experimental shallow collections in Israel (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).


taxonomicNotes:
There has been some uncertainty surrounding the family and genus placement of this species (Prokofiev 2007).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA) Bathysphyraenops simplex is a widely-distributed species, which within Europe is restricted to the waters off mainland Portugal. This species is assessed as Not Applicable as it has a marginal occurrence in Europe. Its European population is considered to represent less than 1% of the global population.

range:
Bathysphyraenops simplex is cosmopolitan in subtropical to tropical oceans. Within Europe, it is known from the waters of mainland Portugal. Its depth range is 100-500 m (Mundy 2005). It is commonly reported from much deeper depths according to museum records on Fishnet2.

population:
There is little species-specific population information available for B. simplex. There are 95 occurrence records in the FishNet2 database.

habitat:
Bathysphyraenops simplex is a deep-water species found at depths ranging from 100 to 500 m.

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats to B. simplex.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information available for B. simplex. It is not likely to be utilized.


taxonomicNotes:
Howella atlantica is considered by some a subspecies of Howella brodiei Ogilby, 1899, although accepted by Eschmeyer (2015).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)The fish is widespread in the Atlantic Ocean. In the European region the fish is known from Iceland, France, Portugal (the mainland, the Azores archipelago and Madeira), and from Spain (the Canaries). The fish is not a target species in fisheries and there are no other known threats. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The fish is found in the Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, it is found in the Caribbean south to off northeastern Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic, adults occur from Iceland to the Bay of Biscay (France), while juveniles have been recorded as far south as Mauritania. Juvenile records from the Guinea Gulf need verification. In the European region the fish is known from Iceland, France, Portugal (the mainland, the Azores archipelago and Madeira; Carneiro et al. 2014), and from Spain (the Canaries; Bordes Caballero et al. 2009). Adults are found between 275 to 2,200 m in depth, while juveniles occur from 26 to 300 m.

population:
Howella atlantica is uncommon in museum collections (29 lots with a maximum of one specimen in one lot) (Fishnet 2 Portal 2012), but it has been reported to be abundant in some areas.

habitat:
Howella atlantica occurs near the bottom and likely feeds on zooplankton, mainly copepods. Howella atlantica embark on migrations to the surface at night. The maximum recorded total length (TL) is 11 cm.

threats:
There are no known major threats to the fish.

conservationAction:
There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or required. Research is required into the taxonomic placement of the taxon.

useAndTrade:
There is no use and trade information for Howella atlantica, however, it does appear in trawls.


taxonomicNotes:
Western Atlantic records of Tetrapturus belone through the early 1960s are of T. pfluegeri (Robins and de Sylva 1963). Tetrapturus belone is very close to T. pfluegeri (Collette et al. 2006, Hanner et al. 2011).  Previously thought to be endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, an International Game Fish Association record from Madeira (June 1980), outside the Mediterranean has been identified, based on a photograph, Tetrapturus belone; identification is uncertain, however expert opinion (B. Collette, J. Graves, J. Schratwieser pers. comm. 2013) is that the record is likely to refer to Tetrapturus belone.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Tetrapturus belone is known from the Mediterranean Sea, with a single unconfirmed record outside the Mediterranean from Madeira. Tetrapturus belone is a common and locally abundant epipelagic species. Although catches seems to be increasing, there is no directed commercial fishery and catch and release is commonly encouraged in the recreational fishery. There are no other known major threats. Therefore, T. belone is assessed as Least Concern. However, more research is necessary, as little is known about the biology and ecology of this species, and further information on the scale of take of the species as commercial bycatch and in recreational fisheries is required. While generally not a target species for commercial fleets, spearfish and billfish catches, including those from the recreational fishery, the fish should be monitored carefully.

range:
Tetrapturus belone has been considered to be restricted to the Mediterranean Sea. It is abundant around Italy and recently reported from Tunisia (Hattour 2006). There are no confirmed reports from the Black Sea. Catches have been reported from the Aegean Sea (Pennetti pers. comm. 2008), but no adults have been reported in the northern part of the Aegean.However, there is an International Game Fish Association record from Madeira (June 1980), outside the Mediterranean Sea (B. Collette pers. comm. 2013); identification, based on a photograph, is uncertain, but expert opinion (B. Collette, J. Graves, J. Schratwieser pers. comm. 2013) is that the record is likely to refer to Tetrapturus belone, representing a possible range extension for this species. It is typically found in the upper 200 m (Nakamura 1985).

population:
Catches are known to occur in all the Mediterranean Sea states where driftnet and longline fishing is carried out (STECF 2014). Landings data are limited, but appear to have increased in the most recent years, certainly over a level of about 100 t, even considering that very few countries (Italy, Spain and Portugal) are reporting their catches to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (STECF 2014). In 2005 and 2006 catches have shown fluctuations. Up to 40 fish were caught in the sport fishery over three years in Majorca (Masuti pers.comm. 2008). In Turkey, this species is mostly caught in bycatch and sport fishing, and in recent years the catches appear to be increasing (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2008). There are no visible trends in International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) data as only a few countries report their data. The population is thought to be stable.

habitat:
Tetrapturus belone is an epipelagic species. Little is known about the biology of this species. It is the most common istiophorid in the central basin of the Mediterranean Sea and completes its life cycle inside this sea as far as is known (Nakamura 1985). Undertakes limited vertical movements, ranging between 0 and 200 m depths (Romeo et al. 2009), generally above or within the thermocline. Spawning occurs from spring to winter (Potoschi 2000). The Mediterranean Spearfish feeds mainly on pelagic fishes and cephalopods (Castriota et al. 2008). The most important fishes in the diet of the Mediterranean Spearfish in the Strait of Messina, Italy are needlefishes, herrings, and sauries (Belonidae, Clupeidae and Scomberesocidae). A study on resource partitioning between the Mediterranean Spearfish and the Swordfish (Romeo et al. 2009) showed a feeding strategy that is more related to the habitat of the species than to the food availability.  Maximum size exceeds 2.4 m in body length and 70 kg in weight. The all-tackle game fish record supposedly of this species is of a 41.2 kg fish taken off Madeira in June 1980 (IGFA 2014). Information on the distribution of spearfishes in the eastern Atlantic is poorly known; the record was considered more likely to be either T. pfluegeri or T. georgii, neither of which were known in 1980, however revaluation of the photograph accompanying this record suggest that it may in fact refer to T. belone.

threats:
Tetrapturus belone is of minor commercial importance, and is mainly a bycatch of tuna fisheries. It is typically caught with hooks, lines and driftnets. It is also one of the target species for the traditional harpoon fishery and is occasionally fished in sport fishing activity, particularly in the Mediterranean. This species is highly exposed to lipophilic xenobiotic contaminants (Fossi et al. 2002).

conservationAction:
This is a highly migratory species mentioned in the Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Tetrapturus belone was assessed as Least Concern globally (Collette et al. 2011, IUCN 2011) and in the Mediterranean (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). While generally not a target species for commercial fleets, spearfish and billfish catches, including those from the recreational fishery, should be monitored carefully. Catches of Mediterranean spearfish must be reported by all Mediterranean States concerned, according to the European Community data collection framework and there is a need for better monitoring data to inform management actions, if required (STECF 2014).

useAndTrade:
Occurring in small numbers in commercial fisheries, the species is taken mainly as bycatch in longline and driftnet fisheries (STECF 2014) and also in sport fisheries; this is a very popular sportfish in the Mediterranean (J. Schratwieser pers. comm. 2013). Tetrapturus belone is taken at the surface by harpoons, longlines, driftnets and set nets incidental to fishing for swordfish, bluefin tuna, and albacore (Nakamura 1985, STECF 2014).

redListReviewers:
Allen, D.J., Graves, J., Schratwieser, J. & Polidoro, B.

redListContributors:
Bizsel, K., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Di Natale, A., Fox, W., Graves, J., Juan Jorda, M., Masuti, E., Nelson, R. & Oxenford, H.


taxonomicNotes:
Although the most distinct genetically of the four species of spearfishes (Collette et al. 2006, Hanner et al. 2011), this species was only recently confirmed as a valid species (Shivji et al. 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Tetrapturus georgii is known from the entire tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean. However, T. georgii has only recently been recognized as a distinct species, and there is very little information available. Although it was described on the basis of one specimen from Madeira and later re-examined based on four specimens from the Mediterranean and northeastern Atlantic Ocean, there are few records from this region. Reproductive and spawning data are lacking, though there is anecdotal evidence that spawning may occur near the Azores. Although there are no directed commercial fisheries for T. georgii, landings data for this species have been misclassified as Longbill Spearfish and White Marlin in the western Atlantic Ocean. This may also be occurring in the eastern Atlantic, confounding an evaluation of its status. Therefore, T. georgii is assessed as Data Deficient. Further research and monitoring is required for this species.

range:
This species is known from the entire tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean and the western Mediterranean Sea (Bernard et al. 2013). Originally described from Madeira and reported from several other eastern Atlantic localities, but its presence in the western Atlantic was only recently known with certainty (Shivji et al. 2006, Hanner et al. 2011, Piva-Silva and Amorim 2014). Tetrapturus georgii is found in the upper 200 m (Nakamura 1985).

population:
There are no catch data available for this species (Nakamura 1985). This species is easily misidentified in the field and it is likely that most captures of this species have been classified as White Marlin or Longbill Spearfish until only recently (Beerkircher et al. 2009, Beerkircher and Serafy 2011, Graves and McDowell 2012). The proportion of this species in landings classified as White Marlin or Longbill Spearfish is temporally unstable (White Marlin Biological Review Team 2007, Graves and McDowell 2012), complicating assessment of its population status.

habitat:
This species is pelagic and oceanodromous; found in subtropical waters. Very little is known about its reproductive biology (Collette 2010) but John Graves (pers. comm.) has seen a photo of a running ripe female from the Azores caught in May 2012. Maximum size for this species is at least 160 cm body length (Robins 1974). Maximum weight is 180 kg. In Brazil, maximum size recorded is 180 cm lower jaw FL (Piva-Silva et al. 2009). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 31.75 kg fish caught in Baltimore Canyon off Maryland (IGFA 2014).

threats:
This species is primarily taken as bycatch by longline fisheries, but also by purse seines, by some artisanal gears and by various sport fisheries. The increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices (FADs) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is possibly increasing the vulnerability of these stocks (STECF 2014).

conservationAction:
This is a highly migratory species listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Tetrapturus georgii was assessed as Data Deficient globally in 2011 (Collette et al. 2011, IUCN 2011). Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Serafy et al. 2009). The EU's Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) is concerned about the lack of attention to this species, because it might be affected by the same problems of other billfish species. STECF recommends that this species should be accurately monitored (STECF 2014).

useAndTrade:
Tetrapturus georgii is not targeted commercially as a food fish, but is taken as bycatch and can be found in sport fisheries throughout its range, as well as in artisanal fisheries.

redListContributors:
Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Juan Jorda, M., Minte Vera, C., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Viera Hazin, F.H. & de Oliveira Leite Jr., N.


taxonomicNotes:
Due to previous difficulties in the correct identification of the species, the records prior to 2013 are difficult to verify, and therefore the species' distribution in northeastern Atlantic waters is unknown for now. However, Sakai and Nakabo (2014) have a different view on the taxonomy of the Atlantic species of Kyphosus and do not consider K. bigibbus to occur in the Atlantic Ocean. Knudsen and Clements (2013) recently revised the family Kyphosidae. They determined that microcanthids, oplegnathids, kuhliids and terapontids are more closely related to Kyphosus than is Girella. Knudsen and Clements (2013) concluded that Girella, Scorpis, and Kyphosus should not be included within the same family and instead, be separated as individual families. Their study recognized 11 species in Kyphosidae, as well as one Neoscorpis, which is considered a distinct genus within Kyphosidae. Thus, there are 12 species total in the family Kyphosidae.  Kyphosus lutescens and K. pacificus are now treated as synonyms of K. sectatrix. Both K. incisor and K. analogus are now considered synonyms of K. vaigiensis. K. pacificus/sandwicensis is a synonym of K. elegans. Before Knudsen and Clements (2013) it was thought that only two Kyphosids occurred in the Atlantic, but there are in fact four species, K. sectatrix, K. vaigiensis/incisor, K. bigibbus, and K. cinerascens.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Kyphosus bigibbus is probably found in varying degrees throughout the region. Due to previous difficulties in the correct identification of the species, the records prior to 2013 are difficult to verify, and therefore the species' distribution in northeastern Atlantic waters is unknown for now. It inhabits coastal rocky reefs to depths of 20 m, and it feeds on algae and kelp. Juveniles are capable of long-distance dispersal. Kyphosus bigibbus is a valued food fish throughout its range, except Hawa'ii, where it is exploited to various degrees in a commercial capacity, as well as being taken for sale in the ornamental aquarium fish trade. Although this is a popular food fish, there does not seem to be a large commercial fishery for this species and it is unknown how the harvesting of this species is having an adverse effects on the species' population. There are no specific conservation measures in place for K. bigibbus, but its range intersects with numerous marine protected areas. Because the taxonomic verification of this species has been uncertain until recently, the status of this species in the region is unknown; therefore, Kyphosus bigibbus is assessed as Data Deficient pending further research.

range:
Kyphosus bigibbus is broadly distributed in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Indo-West Pacific. It has been found at San Blas in Panama and at Saint Helena Island (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Kyphosus bigibbus is probably found in varying degrees throughout the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It has been recorded at Madeira and it is possible that the records of K. sectatrix from the Canary Islands (Dooley et al. 1985), Portugal and the Azores (Santos et al. 1997, Carneiro et al. 2014) could have included the occasional K. bigibbus (Knudsen and Clements 2013). However, due to previous difficulties in the correct identification of the species, the records prior to 2013 are difficult to verify, and therefore the species' distribution in northeastern Atlantic waters is currently unknown. Kyphosus bigibbus is associated with shallow depths of the upper photic zone, in 2 to 20 m (Francis et al. 1999).

population:
The species is common globally. Currently, the population in the northeastern Atlantic waters is unknown due to taxonomic uncertainties and misidentifications.

habitat:
Kyphosus bigibbus inhabits coastal rocky reefs and surgey waters. They can be found down to 20 m from the surface. The maximum recorded size of this fish is 75 cm total length (TL) (Sommer et al. 1996). Kyphosus bigibbus feeds on algae and kelp (Myers 1991). Juveniles associate themselves with flotsam and can disperse across vast distances (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Males reach 50% maturity at 28.4 cm fork length (FL) and females reach 50% sexual maturity at 36 cm FL. Spawning occurs from June through October. It is a multiple batch spawner (Yamaguchi et al. 2011).

threats:
Kyphosus bigibbus is fished for on a commercial level, but accurate landings reports are difficult to find for this species. It is a gamefish, and it is also sold on the aquarium trade (Myers 1991). It is also sometimes taken as bycatch in shallow water fishing gear.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for K. bigibbus. However, its range intersects with numerous marine protected areas. Also, because of the dependence on reefs, conservation measures set in place to preserve reef systems may inadvertently help protect this species as well (Roff et al. 2013). Research into the taxonomy of this species is needed to accurately identify the biomass of the population of K. bigibbus in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters. Also, research into the ecology and early life history, as well as the harvest levels in the European and northeastern Atlantic regional fishing zones is needed.

useAndTrade:
This is a very valued food fish except in Hawaii (Randall 1985). There are no separate landing reports for Brown Chub, but it is commercially exploited in parts of its range (Myers 1991). However, this species does not seem to be heavily targeted in the northeast Atlantic region.


taxonomicNotes:
Knudsen and Clements (2013) recently revised the family Kyphosidae. They determined that microcanthids, oplegnathids, kuhliids and terapontids are more closely related to Kyphosus than is Girella. Knudsen and Clements (2013) concluded that Girella, Scorpis, and Kyphosus should not be included within the same family and instead, be separated as individual families. Their study recognized 11 species of Kyphosus in Kyphosidae, and the monotypic Neoscorpis. Thus, there are 12 species total in the family Kyphosidae.  Kyphosus lutescens and K. pacificus are now treated as synonyms of K. sectatrix (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Both K. incisor and K. analogus are now considered synonyms of K. vaigiensis (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Kyphosus sandwicensis is a junior synonym of K. elegans (Knudsen and Clements 2013).  Before Knudsen and Clements (2013) it was thought that only two Kyphosids occurred in the Atlantic, but there may in fact be four species, K. sectatrix, K. vaigiensis, K. bigibbus, and K. cinerascens. However, Sakai and Nakbo (2014) have presented an alternative view on the kyphosids occurring in the Atlantic.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Due to the fact that all records prior to 2013 are before the taxonomic review of the family, it cannot be determined what the presence and status of this species is in the region. Therefore, K. sectatrix is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Kyphosus sectatrix is widespread in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. In the eastern Atlantic, K. sectatrix is commonly found south of Morocco to Gulf of Guinea (Desoutter 1990), St. Paul's Rocks (Lubbock and Edwards 1981), Ascension and St. Helena. Although K. sectatrix was previously reported as rare in the Mediterranean and off Madeira (e.g. Tortonese 1986, Desoutter 1990, Smith-Vaniz et al. 1999), is likely much more widespread in the northeastern Atlantic as Kyphosus sectatrix was previously considered distinct from K. sandwicensis sensu Randall (2005) and K. pacificus (Knudsen and Clements 2013). However, the specific distribution is uncertain due to the recent taxonomic revision. This species is associated with depths of between one and 30 m (Cervigon 1993).

population:
It is unknown in the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean as the previous records cannot be confirmed as they were recorded prior to the taxonomic revision (Knudsen and Clements 2013).

habitat:
Kyphosus sectatrix is typically found in shallow waters over sandy, rocky, or grassy bottoms around reefs. Juveniles are commonly found among floating algae or below flotsam (Froese and Pauly 2007). The max recorded length is 76 cm total length (TL).  They inhabit coastal rocky reefs and surgy waters. They can be found down to 30 m from the surface. They feed on algae and kelp, as well as small crabs and mollusks (Tortonese 1986). The juveniles associate themselves with flotsam and can disperse across vast distances (Knudsen and Clements 2013) The fecundity, spawning periodicity, stages of maturation and early life history traits are poorly understood for this species.

threats:
It is collected in subsistence fisheries and in local/national markets. Species-specific landings reports are not available for K. sectatrix. There have been no measurable declines in population numbers due to the harvesting. 

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Kyphosus sectatrix, but its distribution may overlap with marine protected areas in parts of its range. Research into the taxonomy of this species is needed in order to properly determine the population status of this species in the northeastern Atlantic and adjacent regional waters and to assess potential threats towards it.  This species was assessed as Least Concern in the 2007 Mediterranean Assessment (Abdul Malak et al. 2011, IUCN 2011).

useAndTrade:
 Kyphosus sectatrix has a minor commercial use in fisheries, although species-specific statistics are not available. It is also used on gamefish and found in public aquariums. Marketed fresh.   


taxonomicNotes:
Knudsen and Clements (2013) recently revised the family Kyphosidae. They determined that microcanthids, oplegnathids, kuhliids and terapontids are more closely related to Kyphosus than is Girella. Knudsen and Clements (2013) concluded that Girella, Scorpis, and Kyphosus should not be included within the same family and instead, be separated as individual families. Their study recognized 11 species of Kyphosus in Kyphosidae, and the monotypic Neoscorpis. Thus, there are 12 species total in the family Kyphosidae.  Kyphosus lutescens and K. pacificus are now treated as synonyms of K. sectatrix (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Both K. incisor and K. analogus are now considered synonyms of K. vaigiensis (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Kyphosus sandwicensis is a junior synonym of K. elegans (Knudsen and Clements 2013).  Before Knudsen and Clements (2013) it was thought that only two Kyphosids occurred in the Atlantic, but there may in fact be four species, K. sectatrix, K. vaigiensis, K. bigibbus, and K. cinerascens. However, Sakai and Nakbo (2014) have presented an alternative view on the kyphosids occurring in the Atlantic.

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Data Deficient (DD) Due to the fact that all records prior to 2013 are before the taxonomic review of the family, it cannot be determined what the presence and status of this species is in the region. Therefore, K. vaigiensis is assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
Kyphosus vaigiensis is found in the Red Sea and throughout the Indo-West Pacific. It is also found in East Africa, South Africa, Madagascar and Réunion (Mascarenes), east to Hawaiian Islands, Line Islands and Marquesas Islands. To the north, it is found to central Japan, south to Western Australia, New South Wales (Australia), northern New Zealand, New Caledonia, Tonga and Rapa. It is now also being reported in the Atlantic (Knudsen and Clements 2013). Ligas et al. (2010) reported K. saltatrix from  the west coast off Italy, and Knudsen and Clements (2013) reidentified this reported catch as a specimen of K. vaigiensis. Azzurro et al. (2013) reported the capture of K. incisor off Almuñécar in the Mediterranean Sea.  It is most often found between the depths of 1 and 25 meters (Allen and Erdmann 2012).

population:
This species requires taxonomic clarification. There is little information on the population dynamics or trends for this fish in the northeast Atlantic due to the fact that the family recently underwent taxonomic revision (Knudsen and Clements 2013).  However, K. vaigiensis is very well represented in museum collections around the word, with 119 occurrence records found (FishNet2 retrived 24 January 2014). Along the Great Barrier Reef, K. vaigiensis accounted for over 20% of the total macroalgal biomass consumption (Hoey and Bellwood 2010) and is the second most consumer of macroalgae buy browsers (Verges et al. 2012). There are some discrepancies in the number of Kyphosus spp. found in the Atlantic (Sakai and Nakabo 2014)

habitat:
Kyphosus vaigiensis forms aggregates over hard, algal coated bottoms of exposed surf-swept outer reef flats, lagoons, and seaward reefs to a depth of at least 24 m. It is most often found in exposed areas around rocky reefs (Masuda et al. 1984). This fish is usually found in groups (Allen and Erdmann 2012) and sometimes schools with other kyphosid fishes (Sakai 2001).  The maximum size is recorded at 70 cm (Masuda et al. 1984). Young (up to 5 cm) are found among floating seaweed (Masuda et al. 1984). Clements and Choat  (1997) report that K. vaigiensis is strictly an herbavore, feeding soley on macroalgae. Kyphosus vaigiensis is one of the few reef fishes that feeds on adult brown macroalgae (Clements and Choat 1997). Unlike other benthic herbivorous fish species, it also exhibits large-scale (>2 km) movements. Individual K. vaigiensis cover, on average, a 2.5 km length of reef (11 km maximum) each day. These large-scale movements suggest that this species may act as a mobile link, providing functional connectivity, should the need arise, and helping to support functional processes across habitats and spatial scales (Welsh and Bellwood 2014).  The length at first maturity for females is approximately 36 cm standard length (SL) (Longenecker et al. 2012). 

threats:
There are no known species-specific threats towards K. vaigiensis. Kyphosus vaigiensis the most targeted and prized catches (Houk et al. 2012). Kyphosus spp. are highly prized by commercial fishers in Micronesia. In fact, Kyphosus spp. account for nearly 20% of the top 70 % of landings of all fishes in Micronesia (Houk et al. 2012). Furthermore, many of the Kyphosus spp. landed in Micronesia (60 to 75%) were below the calculated length at half maturity (36 cm) (Houk et al. 2012). Kyphosus vaigiensis is occurs on coral reefs and in the southwestern Indian Ocean, which includes 5270 km2 of coral reef area, 9% of the reefs have been effectively lost (90% mortality), while 24% are at a critical stage with 50 to 90% loss of coral cover as of 2008 (Wilkinson 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species of fish. Although its range overlaps with some marine protected areas (MPAs), larger MPAs are needed to effectively protect this large-range, roaming herbivore (Houk et al. 2012). It is also a species that can gain little protection from small (<1 km) MPAs. For this critical species, gear restrictions or species-specific protection may be a more appropriate management option (Houk et al. 2012). Research is needed in the taxonomic area of this genus to determine the status of the northeastern Atlantic and regional adjacent waters, so as to determine any possible threats towards it. Regulation of landings and fishing seasons/gear are suggested.

useAndTrade:
Kyphosus vaigiensis is considered a "good food fish" (Masuda et al. 1984). It is targeted by small, commercial fisheries throughout its range and by local, subsistence fisheries, as well (Houk et al. 2012).  It is most often caught with gill nets, handlines and spears (Sakai 2001). In Micronesia, >75% of the total Kyphosus spp. captured were caught during night time spear fishing (Houk et al. 2012). 


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Although uncommon, this species is widespread in the European region and there are no known major threats to this species. Habitat alterations may prove to be detrimental to this species, however there are no data at present to quantify this or other unknown threats. The species is therefore listed as Least Concern. Further research into the species distribution in the Mediterranean is required.

range:
In the European region this species is present in the eastern Atlantic from northern-central Norway southwards, excluding the Baltic Sea but including the southern coast of the United Kingdom, south to the Spanish coast and the Macaronesian islands (Azores and Madeira). In the Mediterranean Sea, the species is generally widespread, but it is very rare in the eastern Mediterranean, where it has been recorded from Lebanon but not from Israel in the Levant. It is not present in the Sea of Marmara nor in the Black Sea. This species probably also occurs around the main Mediterranean offshore islands, but additional information is needed (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Outside the European region, the species' distribution extends southwards to Central Africa.

population:
This species is considered to be relatively rare. However, this is likely to be an artefact of poor sampling by fisheries and/or fisheries independent methods.

habitat:
This species usually lives in benthic, coralligenous habitats. It also inhabits rocky overhangs, rocky cliffs and the entrances to underwater caves (Sartoretto et al. 1997), and it can also occur over sandy substrates (Golani et al. 2006). It is generally a solitary species but can also occur in small groups. Its diet likely consists mainly of benthic invertebrates although few data exist to confirm this.

threats:
There are no known major threats. The minor threats may include habitat alteration however at present there are no data to quantify the effects of such alterations.

conservationAction:
There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is assumed to occur in marine protected areas within its distribution.

useAndTrade:
The species is not known to be utilised in fisheries.


taxonomicNotes:
For taxonomic treatment see Gomon (2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) Listed as Vulnerable under Criteria B2ab(iv,v) as this Macaronesian species has a very restricted distribution in the eastern Atlantic, with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km2 and presence in less than ten locations. There is a continuing decline of over 30% on the number of mature individuals as a result of fishing pressures over the past 17 years in the Azores, with similar suspected and confirmed declines for the rest of its European distribution; with significant localized population declines in many parts of its range and in the yields of local fisheries (such as in Madeira and the Canary Islands).

range:
This species is endemic to the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary and Cape Verde (its southernmost distribution limit) (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).  In the European Macaronesian archipelagos, it inhabits rocky and mixed reefs down to 200 m depth (Gomon and Forsyth 1990, Franquet and Brito 1995, Brito et al. 2002, Menezes et al. 2006, Delgado 2007), but is commoner in shallower waters down to 100 m depth. In subtropical Cape Verde it apparently undergoes a shift in optimal depth, occurring down to 350 m and being commonest at 150-200 m (Menezes et al. 2004).  Based on the area of rocky sea bottom down to the 100 m isobath, the area of occupancy of this species is estimated to be less than 2,000 km2. The species is present at less than 10 locations: the Azores archipelago (three locations), Madeira, Savages, and the Canaries (two locations).

population:
Bodianus scrofa has a limited distribution range, in parts of which it was previously abundant but, most possibly due to fishing pressure, is now locally rare. The population size of this species has been measured in several studies through distinct sampling methodologies and sampled habitats, obtaining different information regarding its relative abundance (subtidal underwater visual census: Falcón et al. 1996, Afonso 2002, Ribeiro 2005, 2006; unpublished data M. Schmiing and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2014; survey cruises: Menezes 2003, Menezes et al. 2006, Delgado 2007).Bodianus scrofa shows significant differences in abundance and biomass among and within archipelagos surveyed. In the subtidal, underwater visual census indicate average densities across sites of contrasting habitats and islands of 0.022 fish/100 km2 (0-3 individuals, n = 577 transects) in the Canary Islands (Falcón et al. 1996) to 0.32 ± 0.57 fish/250 m2 in the Azores (0-3 individuals, N=520 transects, unpublished data M. Schmiing and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2014). It is naturally low in abundance across its preferred habitats, which reflects its social organization (haremic protogynic hermafrotite). Based on fishing surveys with bottom longline, it is rare in deeper areas of the Azores (Menezes 2003), common in Madeira (Menezes 2003) and frequent in Porto Santo islands (Delgado 2007). It is indicated generally as common in the Canaries from empirical knowledge (Franquet and Brito 1995; Brito et al. 2002). Local declines of the populations are suspected where fishery or environmental deterioration of the habitats is severe. Some authors suggest local population declines due to the very low numbers in some areas. In Madeira (Ribeiro et al. 2005, 2006) and the Canaries (Falcón et al. 1996), the populations are less numerous or even locally absent in sites where fishing is more intense. In the Azores, numbers of mature individuals have been reduced for over 30% in the last 17 years recent years, particularly those of larger (male) individuals at sites where fishing is highest (unpublished data M. Schmiing and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2014), including the southernmost islands where the natural abundance is believed to be the highest (Afonso 2002).

habitat:
The Barred Hogfish inhabits rocky reefs on island shores and offshore reefs, and shallow banks at depths from 20-100 m. It prefers areas of high bottom relief and strong hydrodynamic conditions. Bodianus scrofa is a large species with males reaching at least 70 cm TL in the Azores (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). A maximum length of 80 cm has also been recorded (Hanquet 2005). Ferreira et al. (2008) estimated the parameter a (0.002) of the weight-length relationship, setting b = 3. It feeds mainly on macro invertebrates (sea urchins, gastropods, etc.). It is a sequential protogynous hermaphrodite (all males result from sex-changing females at 45-65 cm TL). It shows marked haremic territorial system, typically one male to one to three females (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Supposedly a pelagic spawner, it does not build a nest or provide any parental care. Juveniles occur isolated below 30 m, sheltering within reef crevices and holes.

threats:
This species may be locally threatened by excessive fishing throughout its restricted range.  In the Canary Islands (El Hierro), the species was considered commercially threatened due to overexploitation, mostly in the 1990s (Brito and Morales 1998). Franquet and Brito (1995) also refer to a general decrease on the catches in the Canaries. In Madeira, it is rare in the littoral waters of the southern coast of the island (Ribeiro et al. 2005), most probably due to excessive fishing and habitat degradation of the coastal communities in past decades. In the Azores, numbers of mature individuals have been reduced in fished areas in recent years, particularly those of larger (male) individuals (Afonso 2002, Afonso et al. 2006). It is particularly vulnerable to capture by spearfishing or fishing by jigging, which are increasing in the recreational fisheries throughout its range.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the range of B. scrofa overlaps with multiple protected areas across its range and preferred habitat (e.g. Monte da Guia, Ilhéu da Vila and Formigas in the Azores; Garajau and South shore of Porto Santo in Madeira; the Savages; El Hierro, La Restinga or El Cabrón in the Canary Islands), including numerous EU Natura 2000 marine sites. However, most of these sites do not have management plans in place, do not have no-take regulations (i.e. only restrict specific fishing such as gillnetting), or are still frequently poached (e.g. Schmiing et al. 2014, Tuya et al. 2006). It is recommended that 1) MPAs include properly enforced and managed (including appropriate monitoring) no-take areas in exposed reefs, and 2) fishing of this species either cease or be greatly reduced, especially using techniques of greater catchability for this species. Research and monitoring should be conducted on the catches, population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
Bodianus scrofa is a commercially valuable species throughout its range. Where it occurs, it is commercially taken almost exclusively on hook-and-line, fish traps and rarely in nets in a context of small scale multispecies fisheries (Franquet and Brito 1995, Westneat in press). It is caught mostly by hook and line from moderately deep waters with rocky bottom, or freediving on shallower reefs. It is sold fresh in markets reaching considerable value per kilogram. Yields have notably diminished in the Canaries (Franquet and Brito 1995) and also in Madeira, where it reaches an average value of around three to four Euros per kilogram.


redListCategoryRationale:
The fish is found in the eastern Atlantic from central Norway southwards to central Portugal. It was introduced into the Mediterranean Sea in southern Spain, and outside the European region, the fish is possibly present in eastern Greenland waters, although unconfirmed, and it is considered endemic to the European region at present. Although there is very little information available on the populations of this cool temperate species within the European region, it not considered to be under any particular threat. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The fish is found in the eastern Atlantic from central Norway southwards to central Portugal, including off the coastlines of southern Norway and around parts of Denmark (the Skagerrak, and maybe also the Kattegat), and possibly also western Sweden (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014), the United Kingdom and Ireland. It was introduced into the Mediterranean Sea at Malaga, southern Spain, in 1979 (Golani et al. 2002). It is absent from the Baltic Sea (Louisy 2005). Outside the European region, the fish has in the past been reported present in Greenland waters, although unconfirmed, and it is excluded from a recent checklist of Greenland fishes (Møller et al. 2010). It is considered endemic to the European region at present.

population:
This species is thought to be relatively abundant in shallow waters around the cool temperate coastlines of Western Europe, however there is no specific population information available. It was also introduced into the Mediterranean Sea, near Malaga, Spain, in 1979, though there is no current information on its survival in this area (Golani et al. 2002).

habitat:
This species is mainly found in shallow inshore areas near seaweed-covered rocks and seagrass beds (Quignard and Pras 1986); although exact depth ranges are unknown, they are reported down to depths of around 35 m in UK waters (Picton and Morrow 2010). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, and particularly crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is used in salmon culture as a cleaner fish (Tully et al. 1996). It spawns in the summer, when the eggs are laid in a nest constructed of seaweed (Muus and Nielsen 1999).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. As with all coastal marine species, habitat alterations may prove to be a threat.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.

useAndTrade:
This small species is unlikely to be considered as fish food, but it is kept as cleaner fish in salmon cages and may therefore be collected commercially for this purpose (Darwall et al. 1992, Tully et al. 1996).


taxonomicNotes:
Coris julis has sometimes been confused with C. atlantica, which occurs further south along the West African coastline (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread and common in the Mediterranean Sea, where its population is showing signs of increasing in the Gulf of Lion (France). It is also present off the eastern Atlantic coastlines of Europe, and there are few major threats to its population. Therefore, this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the Eastern Atlantic, this species has an apparent disjunct northern European distribution from central Norway to northwestern Spain and Portugal, southwards along the West African coastline to around Senegal. It is not present around the United Kingdom or Ireland. It is also reported from the Azores, Selvagens, Madeira and the Canary Islands. Specimens from the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome Principe, and along the mainland coastline from around Senegal southwards to Gabon, belong to the closely related species Coris atlantica (Randall 1999, Guillemaud et al. 2000).  The species is present along most of the Mediterranean coastline, including around most of the main Mediterranean islands. In the eastern Mediterranean basin, however, this species is rare, being absent from Cyprus and Israel, though one locality is known from Lebanon. It is present in the Sea of Marmara and the extreme western part of the Black Sea (in Turkey and Bulgaria).

population:
The populations of this species are apparently increasing in the Gulf of Lion (France, north western Mediterranean Sea). This may be explained by water temperatures having increased there due to the construction of numerous dams on the Rhone River, which have reduced cold water inflow, though climate change may also be playing a part. Another hypothesis which has been offered to help explain these population increases could possibly be the installation of artificial reefs, providing an increase in suitable reef habitat.

habitat:
This common species generally occurs in littoral and inshore coastal waters around rocks and over seagrass beds. During the winter it can be found in deeper waters. It is typically found in aggregations but can also be found as solitary individuals, especially in rocky habitats. During the night, or when disturbed, it can bury itself in the sand. The eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani et al. 2006).  It feeds on small gastropods, sea urchins, worms, shrimps, isopods and amphipods. The small individuals are known to clean other fishes.  It reaches sexual maturity at one year and is a protogynous hermaphrodite with pronounced sexual dimorphism (Golani et al. 2006). The females change to males before reaching 18 cm in length. All individuals above 18 cm in length are males (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Sex change can take from several weeks up to 5.5 months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Reinboth 1962, Muus and Nielsen 1999).  It reproduces from May to August. The larger terminal phase males hold territories and spawn sequentially with haremic females, while smaller terminal phase males can live in groups up to several tens of individuals. The initial phase males live and spawn in large groups in pelagic waters (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). The Mediterranean and Atlantic populations show strong morphological and genetic differentiation (Aurelle et al. 2003).

threats:
It is taken in local fisheries off the African coast, mainly by hook and  line but occasionally also in trawls and by spearfishing, and found in commercial catches in the Mediterranean.

conservationAction:
There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it can be found within marine protected areas within its distribution, including six within Spanish and Portuguese waters (EUNIS 2014). Further research could be conducted to determine the populations trends, harvest, use and the livelihoods related to the species.

useAndTrade:
In some areas of the Mediterranean this species is caught in commercial  fisheries. Many specimens are also captured for the local aquarium  trade. In the Macaronesian islands it is caught in the small-scale,  artisanal fishery (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). It is taken in local fisheries off the African coast, mainly by hook and  line but occasionally also in trawls and by spearfishing.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) Although not common, this species is relatively widespread in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Eastern Atlantic (primarily Western European) coastal waters, and there are no major known threats to its populations. It is listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, this species is found in the Eastern Atlantic from central Norway southwards to southern Spain, including the United Kingdom, Ireland and the southern Baltic Sea. This species is present, though rare, throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, including up to Antalya in Turkey in the eastern basin, though it is absent from the Eastern Levantine Sea (Golani et al. 2006). This species is also found in the Marmara Sea, the Black Sea and the southern Sea of Azov (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Outside the European region the fish is known from a small part of the Atlantic coast of Morocco.

population:
There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

habitat:
This species is most commonly present on rocky, weed-covered substrates down to depths of around 50 m. Larger, older individuals may be found in deeper waters. It feeds on bryozoans, crustaceans and gastropods (Bauchot 1987).  It reaches maturity at two years, displays no sexual dimorphism, spawns from winter to summer, and has a lifespan of up to eight years (Golani et al. 2006). During the spawning season the male defends a territory (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Spawning takes place in mid water, and the pelagic eggs hatch to become planktonic larvae (Golani et al. 2006).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is mainly caught as a bycatch species in artisanal fisheries, including in the Mediterranean Sea. It has been used in salmon culture as a cleaner fish (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).


taxonomicNotes:
Some records of this species from the Mediterranean Sea may have been misidentifications of Labrus viridis (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in the European region, although the small number of records from the Mediterranean Sea require confirmation. There appear to be no major threats to this species, and it is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This fish is present in the eastern Atlantic from Norway to southern Spain, including the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens and the Canary Islands and the Atlantic coast of Morocco. In the Mediterranean Sea, there are some questionable records from the Adriatic and Marmara Seas and elsewhere (Quignard and Pras 1986) and the identification of these records require confirmation. It is absent from the Levant (Golani et al. 2006).

population:
There are currently no species specific population data for this species.

habitat:
This species is found mainly in inshore waters (10-20 m depth) around rocks, offshore reefs and amongst seaweeds. Young individuals are often found in intertidal areas. It feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986). The species is a protogynous hermaprohodite. All individuals are born females, and they change sex when they are between four and 14 years old (Muus and Nielsen 1999). One (or more) females spawn in a nest built of algae by the male in a rocky crevice. The male guards the nest for one to two weeks until the eggs hatch (Muus and Nielsen 1999). The larvae are pelagic.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but is assumed to occur in protected areas in parts of its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is found in subsistence fisheries, utilised as a gamefish, and found in commercial aquaria.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread and common in the European region, particularly in the Mediterranean. There may be some threats from habitat degradation (i.e. seagrass bed destruction), however, the population has not shown any serious signs of decline. Therefore, this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, this species is found in the eastern Atlantic in Portugal, and in the Mediterranean Sea except for the eastern Levantine Sea. It is not present in the Black Sea (Golani et al. 2006).

population:
This species is relatively widespread and common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008) but no species specific data are currently available.

habitat:
This species is found around rocks, amongst seaweeds and in seagrass beds. It exhibits some schooling but are more solitary when older. It feeds on sea urchins, ophiuroids, molluscs, crabs and worms.  Maturity occurs after two years at lengths between 15 and 20 cm. This species spawns from February to May in the western Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Pras 1986). Demersal eggs are laid amongst seagrasses and are protected by the males (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
The threats to this species include habitat degradation, specifically the reduction of Posidonia seagrass beds. The larger individuals may be caught in the artisanal fisheries and used as food locally in the Mediterranean region (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Further research should be conducted to improve knowledge on the habitat and ecology of the species and the populations of the species should be monitored for declines or increases.


taxonomicNotes:
This species was previously known as Labrus bimaculatus, e.g. in Golani et al. 2006 (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is present throughout most of the Mediterranean and in the eastern Atlantic. In the shallower parts of its distribution, habitat degradation is a concern, but there are presently no data to indicate that this represents a major threat. There is no specific population information for this species, although its population is thought to be stable. This species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, this species is known in the eastern Atlantic from central Norway southwards to the southern coast of Spain, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is widespread in the northern and western Mediterranean and common in Cyprus, but absent from the southeastern Levant, including Israel (Golani et al. 2006), Lebanon and Syria (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008), and from parts of the eastern North African coast. In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway southwards to Senegal.

population:
This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. There are very few data available to accurately assess population trends, however it is assumed to be stable.

habitat:
This species is mainly associated with coralligenous habitats, and particularly gorgonians. In the Azores (and probably in other Macaronesian islands), adults live below 50 m depth, only juveniles being sporadically found in shallower waters (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). It is usually either solitary or found living in pairs in the case of younger individuals in the Mediterranean and also in the Azoreas (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).  It mainly feeds on crustaceans, but may also consume small fishes and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986).  It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and sex reversal is completed in seven months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Lönnberg and Gustafson 1937). It displays marked sexual colour dimorphism, and in the breeding season builds nests of seaweed (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species, however with all coastal marine species habitat alterations may prove to be a threat. The larger individuals of this species may be caught and used as a food fish in the Mediterranean Sea (it is commonly caught in trammel nets in Cyprus; Golani et al. 2006). However at present there are insufficient data to quantify these minor threats.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.

useAndTrade:
This species is occasionally utilised for human food (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) This species is widespread in the Mediterranean, although it is now less common in some areas. Its population has suffered serious declines in the northwestern Mediterranean due to spearfishing for sport and food. There have also been severe declines in other parts of its range (e.g., in Tunisia). Habitat degradation may also be a major threat to this species. There have been local population declines of 50–80% in at least a third of its range in the western Mediterranean over the past 15 years. There is no information on current declines in the eastern portion of its range even though fishing is a threat throughout its range, however conservation measures are in place for the species in both Turkey and Croatia. Without further implementation of conservation measures, this trend in decline is predicted to continue into the future and throughout the eastern parts of the species range. Overall decline is therefore expected to be at least 30% over three generation lengths (26 years, based on an estimated generation length of 8.5 years). This species is therefore listed as Vulnerable (A4ad).

range:
In the European region, this species is present in the eastern Atlantic along the coast of Portugal, and in the Mediterranean Sea it is present throughout most of the area, including Cyprus (Golani et al. 2006), although it has not been recorded from Israel (Golani et al. 2006), Lebanon or Syria (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). This species is also found in the western Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to northern Morocco.

population:
In the European region, this is a widespread but now relatively uncommon species. In the north western part of the Mediterranean Sea the population is continuing to decline, and the situation in the rest of the area is unknown (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Declines in the numbers of large specimens have occurred over the past 10 to 20 years due to spearfishing in Italy (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008), and most likely also in France and Spain. The population decline in France has been around 80%, and in Tunisia around 50% (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). However, although this species may now be less commonly found in the western Mediterranean Sea, it is not known whether similar declines may have also occurred in other parts of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Based on overall declines of 50-80% in at least a third of its range in the western Mediterranean, overall population declines since at least the 1990s are inferred to be more than 30% and are predicted to continue into the future and in the eastern portion of its range.

habitat:
This species is found in seagrass beds and around rocky reefs, particularly algal-covered rocks. It is generally solitary or found living in pairs, but it may also be found living in small groups (Golani et al. 2006). It feeds mainly on crustaceans and small fishes. It displays very distinct sexual dimorphism, and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The adhesive demersal eggs are laid in vegetated habitats (Golani et al. 2006). This species is similar in demography with Notolbarus fucicola which has a generation length of about 7.5 years based on age at fist maturity of 2.5 years in southern New Zealand (H. Choat and D. Pollard pers comm. 2009). The generation length for this species is estimated to be approximately 8.5 years based on a longevity of 20 years and age of first maturity of three years.

threats:
This species is caught in local artisanal fisheries in Italy and Tunisia, and probably elsewhere within its distribution. Spearfishing in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea is also a major threat, and there are some concerns about the spread of this sport throughout the whole Mediterranean Sea. Habitat degradation, and more specifically seagrass bed reduction, is also a threat to this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

conservationAction:
The conservation actions for this species are in place in parts of its range (e.g., Croatia and Turkey). Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range, including eleven Natura 2000 sites in Italy and Spain (EUNIS 2014). The regulation of spearfishing of this species is recommended. Further research should also be conducted to determine the population trends, harvest, use, livelihoods and threats of this species in the western Mediterranean Sea and elsewhere in its range. Monitoring of the populations and levels of harvest are required.

useAndTrade:
This species is found in artisanal fisheries and taken in recreational fisheries and is taken by hook and spear. It is unknown the extent to which artisinal fisheries impact this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is widespread in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea and is also found around several of the Macaronesian islands. Although there is no species-specific population information available, the populations of this generally deepwater fish are thought to be currently stable. In addition, there are no known major threats affecting this species, thus this species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is mainly native to the western, and also parts of the northern and central parts of the Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic (Quignard and Pras 1986, Dulcic et al. 2006). It is found off Spain, France, Italy, in the Adriatic Sea, off the northern coasts of western north Africa, and also at the Macaronesian North Atlantic islands around the Azores (F. Tempera and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008) and Madeira (Wirtz et al. 2008). The lower depth limit of this species is found at 200 metres below sea level, while the depth upper limit is 30 metres below sea level (Louisy 2005).

population:
Although there is no species-specific population information available, this species may be naturally rare. However, few specimens are likely to be caught as the habitat where it lives in the Mediterranean Sea is not trawled. Therefore, the species can be presumed to have a stable population (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

habitat:
This species lives in benthic coralligenous (especially gorgonian-supporting) habitats, being mainly found in deeper rocky areas where it inhabits overhangs, the entrances to caves and rocky cliffs (Sartoretto et al. 1997). It feeds on crabs, gastropods and polychaete worms (Quignard and Pras 1986). The maximum size is 14 cm (SL) or 15 (TL) (Louisy 2005). There is not much information regarding its migratory patterns, but it appears to be relatively solitary and sedentary (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014). Likewise, there is lack of information on longevity, age at maturity, breeding and seasonality, although it is presumed to inhabit the same habitats throughout the year (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014).

threats:
There appear to be no major threats for this species. However, habitat degradation could be a threat in shallower areas of the western Mediterranean Sea, as a result of urban and agricultural development and waste disposal along the adjacent coastlines, causing siltation and eutrophication in this region. Moreover, boat anchoring can also cause habitat degradation (e.g., of coralligenous habitats) in shallower areas (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Mortality of coralligenous communities (and especially of gorgonians) due to the increasing warming of waters in the Mediterranean Sea may also have serious habitat effects in the longer term (Garrabou et al. 2009). Threats could also result from the use of bottom fishing gear over coralligenous habitats in the Azores, but this is currently not assessed (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species although its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range (although it generally lives too deep to receive any direct conservation benefits from most of these). There is a need for conservation actions regarding land and water management, policies, regulations, compliance and enforcement, specifically for anchor damage to coralligenous habitats, which marine protected areas (MPAs) may reduce. It is necessary as well to undertake research on this species' population size, distribution and trends, life history and threats. Monitoring of population and habitat trends is recommended too.

useAndTrade:
The species is not commercially utilized.

redListReviewers:
Craig, M.T., Nieto, A., García, M. & Allen, D.J.


taxonomicNotes:
Westneat and Alfaro (2005) recognize the Scarini as a tribe within the family Labridae.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea and is relatively abundant there and in the Canary Islands. The population is at least stable, and the species northerly distribution in the Mediterranean may increase with warming sea temperatures in the future. There is little known of subpopulations outside the Mediterranean, but there are no known major threats and it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, this species is found in the eastern Atlantic from northern Spain to the mouth of the Mediterranean Sea, including the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries. It is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the northwestern coast and most of the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Pallaoro 2001), although there is a recent record from Croatia (Kruschel et al. 2012) in the southern Adriatic. It has also been recorded from southeastern Italy (Guidetti and Boero 2001) and also around Sardinia.

population:
In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is uncommon in the northern Aegean Sea but very common in the southern Aegean Sea (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). It is also relatively uncommon in the northwestern Mediterranean including Spain and France (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007). The fish is common in the Canary Islands and in Cape Verde. It is considered one of the top two most common parrotfishes in Cape Verde (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).

habitat:
This is a reef-associated species that generally occurs in shallow water along rocky shores. It feeds on algae and also small invertebrates (Quignard and Pras 1986, Abecasis et al. 2005). It is primarily herbivorous (Bullock and Monod 1997, Monod et al. 1994). The breeding occurs from July to September, with juveniles recruiting in the late summer (Abecasis et al. 2005).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species and fishery impacts are likely to be localised. As with all coastal species, and in particular parrotfishes in general, habitat alterations may be a threat. At this time there are no data available to quantify this threat for this species.

conservationAction:
There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded from Natura 2000 sites in Spain (including Ceuta, North Africa), Italy and Portugal (EUNIS 2014). Monitoring of the population trend is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This species is targeted by spearfishers in the Canary Islands.  It is caught and sold as bycatch in parts of its range.

redListContributors:
Yokes, B., Francour, P., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is relatively uncommon in the European waters, where it is primarily found along Atlantic coasts, with occasional records from the Mediterranean Sea. The species is only occasionally caught off Spain and the Balearic Islands. It appears to be naturally rare and under no particular threat. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, this species is found in the eastern Atlantic primarily in western European waters from Belgium to the mouth of Mediterranean Sea. It is also an occasional inhabitant of the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been found off the coasts of Spain and the Balearic Islands (Quignard and Pras 1986). The species range extends southwards down the Atlantic coast of Africa to Mauritania. It has not yet been recorded from Macaronesia. It was recently reported from the western Black Sea coast of Turkey (Göktürk et al. 2012).

population:
There is little known about the Eastern Atlantic subpopulations of this species, and there are only a few records from the Mediterranean. It is relatively uncommon.

habitat:
This species inhabits littoral and inshore coastal habitats, mainly occurring around rocks but also in seagrass beds (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It is a small fish with a maximum length of around 20 cm (SL). It is found at depths of down to 50 m.

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. Although it is caught as food in artisanal fisheries, this is not considered a threat at present.

useAndTrade:
This species may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries in the Mediterranean, where it is probably mainly used for fish soup.


taxonomicNotes:
This and the other two species in the genus Centrolabrus were moved to the genus Symphodus, based on morphological and behavioural evidence (Almada et al. 2002).

redListCategoryRationale:
Listed as Least Concern as, even though this species has an area of occupancy of less than 500 km2 and there have been fluctuations in the number of mature individuals across seventeen years of monitoring, these have not been dramatic enough for the species to qualify as threatened. Populations of this species appear healthy throughout the Azores archipelago, where it is very frequent, and there are no major identified threats to the species. However, the species has a relatively restricted distribution, and the integrity of its algal habitat should be carefully monitored, particularly as it may be vulnerable to oceanographic and environmental changes associated with climate change. Further monitoring of the population size and trend of the species is also encouraged.

range:
This species is found in the sub-tropical Eastern Atlantic, and is endemic to the Macaronesian archipelago of the Azores (Azevedo 1999). Its estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is around 323 km2, conservatively based on the area of rocky reefs from zero to 50 m depth (as the species is typically restricted to the 30 m depth quota).

population:
This species occurs only in the shallow coastal waters around the Azores Islands. It is very frequent in shallow rocky reefs (five to 20 m, its preferred range) around all of the nine Azorean Islands, although adults typically occur in small numbers locally (Schmiing et al. 2013). It is the third most abundant labrid species in the Azores coastal waters (Porteiro et al. 1996, Afonso 2002). Average densities in underwater transects vary from 0.7± 0.1 to 7.0 ± 0.7 fish/250 m2 (0-58, n=570 transects), depending on the islands, and the islands with denser algal cover (Graciosa island, Dollabarat reef in Formigas bank) seem to support the highest fish densities (unpublished data, M. Schmiing and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2015). Also, there have been substantial fluctuations in densities across the archipelago (three to five times decrease in density of mature individuals and posterior recovery) across 17 years of monitoring, apparently showing that the population is highly dependent on stochastic factors (e.g. for recruitment) and/or natural fluctuations of habitat quality (e.g. through thickness and height of algal cover; Afonso et al. 2006).

habitat:
This inshore benthic species is found over shallow rocky reefs, sometimes with interspersed sand or gravel, in the shallow coastal waters of the Azores Islands, mid-north Atlantic. It is highly dependent on vegetated substrates (e.g. Cystoseira sp., Dictyota sp.) due to its feeding habits (on phytal invertebrates and algae; Azevedo et al. 1999), nest-building behavior and shelter for its recruits (Afonso et al. 2006). Juveniles can be observed in small shoals hiding among algal turfs of Asparagopsis armata (Bertoncini et al. 2009) or Cystoseira sp. (Afonso et al. 2006), and also in tide pools. This species is rarely observed as a cleaner species on shallow rocky reefs (Bertoncini et al. 2009), although it is very common in the Azores.  It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with maturation occurring at lengths of 12 cm (TL) (for males) and 14 cm TL (for females). Males can thus be initial phase fish or terminal-phase fish resulting from a sex changing female (Azevedo et al. 1999). During the spawning season (March to June), larger terminal males form harems and defend territories, attracting females to spawn their demersal eggs in the nest and providing exclusive care for the eggs (Porteiro et al. 1996, Azevedo et al. 1999). However, primary males, which have larger testes, can attempt to ‘steal’ fertilizations during spawning. The species reaches a maximum size of 27 cm in males and of 23 cm in females (Azevedo et al. 1999).

threats:
Although there are no known major threats to this species, it is suspected that the effects of climate change may alter the habitat of this species if the algal cover is changed, which might have profound effects in the population of these species.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, various coastal marine protected areas in the region protect portions of its population (Schmiing et al. 2013, 2014). Additionally, there are some limitations to gill netting and trapping, potentially the two gears with higher catchability. Further research and monitoring should be conducted on the population size and trend of the species.

useAndTrade:
This species is caught occasionally by artisanal and recreational coastal fisheries, but it is not priced.

redListContributors:
Pollard, D.A., Liu, M. & Bertoncini, A.A.


taxonomicNotes:
The subpopulations in French Mediterranean coastal lagoons may comprise a separate subspecies (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to Europe and present throughout the Mediterranean and in the eastern Atlantic coasts of southwestern Europe. There are no major threats to this species throughout most of its range, although there have been population declines recorded in France due to a localised fishery in Mediterranean coastal lagoons. There is very little population information available for this species, but overall its main subpopulations are thought to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The fish is endemic to the European region, and present in the eastern Atlantic from the Arcachon basin (Bay of Biscay, southwestern France) to Gibraltar. It is also found throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas (Quignard and Pras 1986, Louisy 2005).

population:
This small species (16 cm TL) is not generally targeted by any large fisheries. There have apparently been noticeable declines in some coastal lagoon subpopulations in France (Thau, Berre, Bage-Sijean and Salse-Leucate lagoons; J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2008), and it is possible that the subpopulations found in these lagoons may comprise a separate subspecies (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2008). If this turns out to be the case, this subspecies may warrant listing in a threatened or the Near Threatened category (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

habitat:
This species is generally found on sandy substrates, but it can also be found around weed-covered rocks and in seagrass beds. It is found in shallow coastal areas and in coastal lagoons. The diet mainly comprises small benthic crustaceans and molluscs (Golani et al. 2006). This is a small fish that is found between one and 30 m depth. It spawns in spring, and one or several females lay their eggs in a nest built by a single male (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
The major threats to this species in French coastal lagoons include overfishing, pollution and habitat degradation of seagrass beds, however there are no data available to quantify the level of these threats. There are no known major threats to this species in the open sea.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas within its range and it is recorded from 17 Natura 2000 sites in Italy (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
This small species (16 cm TL) is not generally targeted by any large fisheries, although it is fished locally in the Thau, Berre, Bage-Sijean and Salse-Leucate lagoons in France, where it is used in fish soup.


redListCategoryRationale:
This small species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. There is little specific population information available for it, however the population is thought to be stable and there appears to be no major threats to this species. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This Mediterranean endemic species is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for the Gulf of Lions in the northwestern basin, the eastern Levant (Golani et al. 2006) and the northwestern Aegean Sea. It is found also in the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea. Its lower depth limit is 50 metres, and its upper depth limit is around three metres below sea level (Louisy 2005).

population:
This shallow water species is relatively abundant in the Mediterranean Sea where it occurs, but is generally more common in the western basin. There is no specific population information available for this species but the population trend is considered stable.

habitat:
This species inhabits rocky shores and reefs, and also seagrass (Posidonia) beds. It feeds on bryozoans, worms, small molluscs and amphipods (Quignard and Pras 1986). Spawning takes place from May to July in the western Mediterranean (Golani et al. 2006). Its maximum size is 10 cm (TL) (Louisy 2005) and it is not a migrant species, while it is congregatory all year-round.

threats:
There are no known major threats for this species, although degradation and pollution of shallow rocky shores, reefs and seagrass beds could detrimentally affect its populations. The invasive introduced tropical alga Caulerpa taxifolia could have negative effects on its shallow-water vegetated habitats in some areas (Verlaque and Fritayre 1994, Villele and Verlaque 1995).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range. However, there is a need for conservation actions regarding resource and habitat protection of seagrass and rocky algal reef habitats, where control of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia needs to be undertaken, to promote habitat restoration. Awareness of the need to prevent water pollution, habitat degradation and control of the invasive algae species should be promoted, and policies and regulations need to be strengthened to reduce these impacts. More research is needed regarding the species' population size, distribution and trends, life history and threats. Monitoring is also needed to follow up population, harvest and habitat trends.

useAndTrade:
The species is not commercially fished, however like most other small wrasses, it is probably occasionally sold for use in fish soup when caught in Mediterranean small-scale artisanal fisheries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the European region the fish is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Macaronesian islands, and there are no known threats to its population. Although there is no specific information available on its population status, it is thought to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region the fish is present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal and Spain (although absent from northern coast of Spain in the Bay of Biscay according to Louisy 2005)), and throughout the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, the Selvagens and the Canary islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2007). It is also found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007). Outside the European region the range extends to the Atlantic coast of Morocco.

population:
This species is generally common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except along the coasts of the eastern Levant, where it is less abundant. The population is stable in Turkey, and most likely also throughout the rest of the Mediterranean Sea (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). In the Azores, it is quite common although found in relatively low numbers (Afonso 2002) throughout its preferred habitat, and populations are thought to be stable. In the Canary Islands, it is occasional and thought to have diminished in the last two decades (Brito et al. 2002).

habitat:
The species is generally found over vegetated rocky substrates and in coralligenous habitats. It is also found associated with seagrass beds (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007). It feeds mainly on gastropods, bivalves, tubiculous worms, chitons, sea urchins and bryozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986), and also crustaceans (Golani et al. 2006). It is found from one to 70 m depth. The spawning takes place in spring, and the eggs are laid in a nest constructed by the male (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this small species, although it may be utilised and sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range, including 15 Natura 2000 sites within Italy (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species may be utilised and sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries, where it is probably mainly used in fish soup (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, and there are no known major threats to its populations. Although there is no specific population information available for this species, its population is thought to be stable. This species is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in the Sea of Marmara (Golani et al. 2006), but it is absent from the eastern Levant (D. Golani pers. comm. 2008), the northern and eastern Adriatic, the northern and western Aegean, Cyprus, and the Black Sea. Its lower depth limit is found around 30 metres, while its upper depth limit is one metre below sea level (Louisy 2005).

population:
The abundance of this species is variable throughout the Mediterranean Sea. For instance, while it is common in Italy, it is uncommon in Turkey. Although there is no specific population information available for this species, its population is thought to be stable (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

habitat:
This species occurs in rocky areas and seagrass beds. It feeds on worms, small crustaceans (e.g., amphipods and copepods), bryozoans and hydrozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It also acts as a cleaner of ectoparasites from other fishes. Spawning takes place in spring and early summer, when the male guards a territory within which the females lay their eggs (Golani et al. 2006). The maximum size of this species is 14 cm (TL) (Louisy 2005). It is not a migrant species and usually congregatory (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species, although it may be sold as food when caught in artisanal fisheries. Its shallow inshore rocky reef and seagrass habitats may also be threatened by habitat degradation, pollution and the invasive introduced tropical alga Caulerpa taxifolia. (Verlaque and Fritayre 1994, Villele and Verlaque 1995).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range. However, there is a need for conservation actions, regarding resource and habitat protection of seagrass and rocky algal reef habitats, where control of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia needs to be undertaken as well, enabling this way restoration of the habitats. Creation of awareness must be carried out in order to prevent water pollution, habitat degradation and control of the invasive alga species. To this matter, policies and regulations need to be strengthened. More research is also needed regarding the species' population size, distribution and trends, harvest, use and livelihoods, life history and threats. Monitoring is needed as well regarding population, harvest and habitat trends.

useAndTrade:
Although it is very small, this species may be sold as food when caught in artisanal fisheries, where it is probably mainly used in fish soup.


taxonomicNotes:
This species has in the past been misidentified as Symphodus tinca and Symphodus roissali (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread off the Atlantic coastlines of western Europe, and present throughout much of the Mediterranean Sea. There are no known major threats to this species, and though there is little specific population information available, overall its population is thought to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is known from the eastern Atlantic from southern Norway to the Strait of Gibraltar, including much of the Baltic Sea, and around the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Azores. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the western and northeastern Mediterranean basins, the Levantine Sea and the Adriatic Sea, but absent in eastern parts of the North African coast. Outside the European region, the fish is known from northern Africa.

population:
There is very little population information available for this species. It is primarily a colder-water Eastern Atlantic species, and therefore is more common in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Its abundance varies throughout the remainder of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

habitat:
This schooling, territorial fish occurs around rocks, rocky reefs and seagrass beds, and also in coastal lagoon habitats. It feeds on molluscs, hydroids, bryozoans, worms and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986).  There is a clear sexual dimorphism, and this species is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The male constructs a nest of seaweed amongst rocks or in rock crevices, in which the adhesive eggs are laid (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species, although it is sometimes caught as bycatch in local fisheries and sold for food.

useAndTrade:
This species is sometimes caught as bycatch in local fisheries and sold for food.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is present throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, where there appear to be no known major threats to its populations. Although there is no specific population information available, its populations are thought to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is found throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, though it is rare in the Levant. It is also present in the western and northwestern Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Golani et al. 2006). Its lower depth limit is 30 metres, while its upper depth limit is one metre below sea level (Louisy 2005).

population:
This species is relatively common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, but is less abundant along the coast of the Levant. The population is considered stable.

habitat:
This species lives in small groups, mainly over algal-covered rocky substrates, but also in seagrass beds. It feeds on bryozoans, hydroids, tubiculous polychaete worms, shrimps, amphipods and molluscs. The young fish may act as cleaners of other fishes. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the male builds, maintains and guards a nest made of seaweed (Cystoseira), in which several females lay their eggs (Golani et al. 2006). The age of maturity of the female is one year, while for the male is between one and two years. Its maximum size is 12 cm (TL) (Louisy 2005). It is a non migrant species and congregatory year-round, at least in small groups (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries. Moreover, its inshore rocky reef and shallow seagrass habitats may be threatened by habitat degradation and pollution. The invasive introduced tropical alga Caulerpa taxifolia poses a threat to this species (Verlaque and Fritayre 1994, Villela and Verlaque 1995), but also to its algal and seagrass habitats, mainly based on Cystoseira algal beds, which are highly sensitive to changes in water quality (Sales et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range. However, there is a need for conservation actions, regarding resource and habitat protection of seagrass and rocky algal reef habitats, where control of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia needs to be undertaken as well, enabling this way restoration of the habitats. Creation of awareness must be carried out in order to prevent water pollution, habitat degradation and control of the invasive alga species. To this matter, policies and regulations need to be strengthened.  More research is also needed regarding the species' population size, distribution and trends, harvest, use and livelihoods, life history and threats. Monitoring is needed as well regarding population, harvest and habitat trends.

useAndTrade:
This species may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries, where it is probably used mainly in fish soup.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea, where it has no known major threats, and its range extends to the eastern Atlantic coasts of Spain and Portugal. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In European waters this fish is found in the Eastern Atlantic from Portugal southwards (Louisy 2005) to Gibraltar, throughout the Mediterranean Sea. There are records from the western and northern Black Sea; although possibly present throughout the Black Sea, Louisy (2005) considers it absent from the southeastern area. It is not considered present in the Gulf of Gascogne (i.e., Bay of Biscay, northwestern Spain) by Louisy (2005). Outside the European region the range extends to the Atlantic coast of Morocco.

population:
This species is widespread and common in the Mediterranean Sea and populations are considered likely to be stable.

habitat:
This species is found near rocks and in seagrass beds, where it is mainly solitary (Quignard and Pras 1986). It feeds on molluscs, shrimps, sea-urchins and hydroids (Quignard and Pras 1986).  Spawning takes place in spring, when a seaweed nest is constructed and guarded by the male, in which several females may lays their eggs (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. Although it may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries, this is not suspected to be a threat.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range, including 17 Natura 2000 sites in Italy (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries, where it is probably mainly used in fish soup.


redListCategoryRationale:
This species is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the western part of the Black Sea, and there are no known major threats to its populations. Although there is no specific population information available, its populations are thought to be stable. This species is listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is present throughout the whole Mediterranean basin and the western part of the Black Sea (Golani et al. 2006). The upper depth limit is 30 metres, while the lower depth limit is one metre (Louisy 2005).

population:
This species is common and widespread in the Mediterranean Sea and it has also been recorded from the western part of the Black Sea (Louisy 2005). The current population trend of this species is stable.

habitat:
This species lives mainly over Posidonia seagrass beds, though it is also present on algal-covered rocky reefs (Golani et al. 2006). It frequently occurs in large aggregations and feeds on small benthic organisms such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. Spawning takes place in spring, when the male builds and guards a nest of algae, in which one or more females lay adhesive eggs (Golani et al. 2006), and the breeding season seems to be from March to June (Louisy 2005). The age at maturity of this species is one year, its longevity of about 3-4 years and its maximum size is 13 cm (SL) or 14 cm  (TL) (Louisy 2005, Golani et al. 2006). This is not a migratory species and they tend to form aggregations year-round (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be utilized as food when caught in local artisanal fisheries. However, its shallow water seagrass and rocky reef habitats may be threatened with habitat degradation, as a result of urban and agricultural development and waste disposal along the adjacent coastlines, pollution (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008) and the invasive introduced tropical algae Caulerpa taxifolia (Verlaque and Fritayre 1994, Villele and Verlaque 1995).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range. However, there is a need for conservation actions, regarding resource and habitat protection of seagrass and rocky algal reef habitats, where control of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia needs to be undertaken as well, enabling this way restoration of the habitats. Creation of awareness must be carried out in order to prevent water pollution, habitat degradation and control of the invasive algae species. To this matter, policies and regulations need to be strengthened. More research is also needed regarding the species' population size, distribution and trends, life history and threats. Monitoring is also needed regarding population, harvest and habitat trends.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) In the European region this fish is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, and there are no major threats to its population. There is no specific population information available, but the population is thought to be stable, and the species is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region the fish is known in the Eastern Atlantic from northwestern Spain to Gibraltar, and throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas (Louisy 2005). Its range extends outside European waters to the Atlantic coast of Morocco.

population:
This species is common throughout the Mediterranean Sea and its populations there are assumed to be stable.

habitat:
This species is found near rocks and rocky reefs, over seagrass beds, and sometimes also in saline coastal lagoons.  It lives singly or in small groups, and feeds on sea-urchins, ophiuroids, bivalves, shrimps and crabs. There is a distinct sexual dimorphism, and the species is at least partially a protogynous hermaphrodite. Spawning takes place in spring, when a seaweed nest is built and guarded by the male, with one or more females laying their adhesive eggs in it (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no major threats known for this species. However, being the largest member of its genus, it is sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range; recorded from 25 Natura 2000 sites (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is caught in local artisanal fisheries and sold for food.


redListCategoryRationale:
Although there is very little information available on the populations or abundances of this species within its relatively restricted eastern Atlantic island distribution, it is listed as Least Concern as there are no known threats and it is protected in some marine protected areas within its distribution. However, the integrity of this species' habitat should be carefully monitored, particularly as the algal cover upon which it depends it may be vulnerable to oceanographic and environmental changes associated with climate change. Further research should also be conducted on the population size, trends, habitats and ecology of the species.

range:
This species is endemic to the eastern Atlantic Macaronesian archipelagos of Madeira, Savages and the Canary Islands, eventually and to be confirmed enlarged to the Cape Verde Islands (Brito et al. 2006). A few specimens were reported from the Mediterranean Sea, but they apparently resulted to be misidentifications (Azevedo 1999). It has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 2,000 km2. Its depth range is one to 30 m.

population:
This species has populations living in the shallow (one to 30 m) waters (rocky reefs and seagrass beds) of the eastern Atlantic archipelagos where it occurs (Madeira, Savages and Canary Islands), but very poorly studied. Using underwater visual census in inshore reefs, S. trutta was found to occur very frequently but at relatively low densities at Madeira Island (0.48 +/-0.45 ind./100 m2 transects, Ribeiro et al. 2005) and the Canary islands (0.552 ind/100 m2 transects, Tuya et al. 2004; 1.5 ± 2.4 ind/point count survey, 0-13 individuals in 41% of 577 surveys, Falcón et al. 1996).

habitat:
This small species is found in shallow inshore areas over rocky reefs and seagrass beds (Quignard and Pras 1986, D. Pollard pers. comm. 2014). It can be found in depths from one to 30 m. The species grows to around 18 cm TL but terminal phase males are generally larger than females. It is carnivorous, feeding primarily on small benthic invertebrates. It is oviparous and pair spawns, with the male building nests of algae and gravel and providing exclusive parental care to the eggs (Almada et al. 2002).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. However, the population of a sister species (S. caeruleus) was found to be highly fluctuating in response to stochastic factors and, most possibly, variations in the quality of the habitat, namely the nature and thickness of the algal cover (Afonso et al. 2006). The same ecological phenomenon might very well happen with this species, given the similarities in ecology and dependence in algal cover, and with seagrass beds, that may also serve as nursery habitat. These variations may, in face of climate change, be more acute in the future.

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but coastal marine reserves protect portions of its population (Tuya et al. 2004). Monitoring of population trends and habitats should be conducted, as well as research on the species’ ecology and population dynamics.


taxonomicNotes:
From Senegal southwards along the west African coast, this species is probably replaced by a separate species, Thalassoma newtoni.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) The species is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea and the Macaronesian islands, where there are no known major threats to its population. There is no specific population information available for this species in the northeastern Atlantic, though overall its population is thought to be stable. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
In the European region, this species is present in the Eastern Atlantic from Portugal southwards to Gibraltar, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Selvagens and Cape Verde Islands, and throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the northern coasts of the western Mediterranean and the Adriatic seas. It is however found in the Ligurian Sea and around Sardinia (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2006, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Guidetti et al. 2004, Guidetti et al. 2008). It is absent from the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). In the Eastern Atlantic, this Atlanto-Mediterranean species is present from Portugal southwards to around Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Selvagens and Cape Verde Islands. From Senegal southwards along the west African coast to Cape Lopez in Gabon, this species is probably replaced by a separate species, T. newtoni. References to this species occurring in Sao Tome and Principe (Afonso et al. 1999) probably also refer to T. newtoni (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008). It is found throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the northern coasts of the western Mediterranean and the Adriatic Sea. It is however found in the Ligurian Sea and around Sardinia (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Molinari 2005, Tunesi et al. 2006, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Guidetti et al. 2004, Guidetti et al. 2008).

population:
In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is less common in the northwestern basin, as it prefers warmer waters. It is common elsewhere.  The population declined in the 1970s in the Ligurian Sea, but is now recolonising this area (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2008). This species is now also expanding its range in the Gulf of Lion, where it was not previously present (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2008). Overall, the wider Mediterranean population of this species appears to be stable. It is the most abundant and common wrasse in the shallow rocky habitats of the Azores (Porteiro 1996, Afonso 2002), Madeira (Ribeiro et al. 2005, 2006) and the Canaries (Falcón et al. 1996, Brito et al. 2002). It is also common but not as abundant in Cape Verde (Monteiro et al. 2008).

habitat:
This species inhabits coastal waters near rocks and seagrass beds. It is also often found near man-made structures such as shipwrecks and jetties (Golani et al. 2006). It is either gregarious, being found in small groups or forming larger aggregations in loose schools, in association with the two types of mating system, territorial haremic or group spawning, respectively (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).  It feeds on small molluscs and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). The juveniles of this species often clean other fishes (Golani et al. 2006).  This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with distinct sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It spawns in spring, and the eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani et al. 2006).

threats:
There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is fished locally in the eastern Mediterranean and the Macaronesian islands with hook and line and with traps (M. Bariche and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).

conservationAction:
There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range, including Natura 2000 sites in Italy, Portugal and Spain (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
The species is fished locally in the eastern Mediterranean and the Macaronesian islands with hook and line and with traps. It is also collected for the aquarium trade.


taxonomicNotes:
There is some taxonomic confusion between the species under Xyrichtys and Iniistius. The genus Iniistius has been considered a synonym of Xyrichtys by some authors but it is now recognized as a separate genus, distinct from Xyrichtys (Randall and Earle 2002, Randall et al. 2002). Seventeen species are included in Iniistius and they are: I. aneitensis, I. auropunctatus, I. baldwini, I. bimaculatus, I. cyanifrons, I. dea, I. evides, I. griffithsi, I. jacksoniensis, I. melanopus, I. pavo, I. pentadactylus, I. spilonotus, I. trivittatus, I. twistii, I. umbrilatus and I. verrens.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) This species is widespread throughout the European region, and whilst it is commercially fished in some countries, the population trend is thought to be stable, with no evidence of any declines. This species is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
This species has a widespread tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic distribution from North Carolina to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, in the western Atlantic. In the Eastern Atlantic, the fish is found from southern Spain to Gabon, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Cap Verde Islands and Sao Tome and Principe. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

population:
There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered common and stable in the majority of its range. For example, this species is common in Lebanon and Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, but there is little or no population information available for it throughout most of its Mediterranean range (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). It is also common in the Azores islands on shallower sandy habitats (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).

habitat:
This species generally inhabits clear shallow areas with sandy substrates, usually in the vicinity of seagrass beds and coral reefs (Schneider 1990), although it can be found to 90 m. It lives singly or in small groups (Golani et al. 2006).  It feeds mainly on molluscs, but also on crabs and shrimps (Gomon 1978).  This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with sexual dimorphism apparent in the shape of the head and the length of the pelvic fin (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It builds nests out of coral debris in coral reef habitats. When disturbed it may dive head first into the sand (Lieske and Myers 1994). The western Atlantic fish are generally smaller than the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean fish.

useAndTrade:
The species is caught in artisanal fisheries in some parts of its range. In the Mediterranean, this species is fished commercially in Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2008) and Sicily (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2008) usually by hook and line. It may also be caught in trawls (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).

redListContributors:
Afonso, P., Tunesi, L., Bariche, M., Moura, R., Ferreira, C.E., Rocha, L.A. & Francini-Filho, R.


