# European_Red_List_2017_December

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. It survives in a wide variety of habitats and is considered a weed in parts of its range.

range:
Polygonum aviculare is native throughout Europe but in the extreme north it is replaced by Polygonum boreale (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). It is a widely naturalised weed through cultivation (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
This species is very common throughout Europe (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Heukels 2000).

habitat:
This species is a common annual weed which emerges during a restricted period only and is found on arable land (Courtney 1968). It is found on cultivated and open disturbed places, gardens, bare ground, roadsides, footpaths, walls, open grassland and seashores on dry or moist, sandy, loamy or stony soils (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Heukels 2000).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. This species is considered Least Concern in the national red list of Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In Bulgaria this species is present in national parks and listed as species scarcely spread, in single populations with small areas and limited resources of no economic importance (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004).

useAndTrade:
This species is known to have excellent antioxidant effects which is related to its high phenolic content and can be potentially effective for the treatment of diseases caused by the over-production of free radicals, such as Alzheimer's disease, cancer, coronary heart disease and Parkinson's disease (Hsu 2006). The whole plant has been used as an antipyretic, antiparasitic and diuretic agent (Kim et al. 1994). The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked or prepared as a tea. The seeds are edible as well and in their use similar to buckwheat. Blue, yellow and green dies can be produced from the plant (Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
<European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. It is not used extensively for medicinal purposes.

range:
Rumex acetosella is native to North Africa, temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent, and is found throughout Europe. It has become naturalised in other regions so that the distribution is now circumpolar (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
This is a widespread species, especially in western Europe (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).

habitat:
A rhizomatous hairy tufted perennial herb of dry meadows and grassy heaths, bracken, non-calcareous sand dunes, shingle beaches and short, open grasslands on acidic, impoverished, sandy or stony soils. It occasionally occurs on outcrops of acidic rocks. It is found in waste places, is common in urban gardens and is sometimes considered as a weed (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1990).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
‘Essiac’ is described as a formula that consists of four herbal substances which includes Rumex acetosella L., Arctium lappa L., Rheum palmatum L. and Ulmus rubra L. The preparation in the form of a herbal tea is used by cancer patients during chemo and radiation therapy (European Medicines Agency 2010). The leaves, roots and seeds of Sheep Sorrell are edible. The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked but should only be consumed in small quantities as they have a high oxalic acid content (Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in many mountainous regions all over Europe and has been introduced outside of its natural area. Its native populations and there environment are not known to be endangered or be in decline from any threatening processes at present, although archaeophyte populations in Great Britain have declined due to changes in land use (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012). The species is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species can be found naturally from the Pyrenees, through the Alps and south-central European mountains, the Balkans, to mountainous parts of Turkey and the Caucasus (Hanelt et al. 2001, GRIN 2010, Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010). In North America, northern Europe, Great Britain (archeophyte), Indonesia (Java) and elsewhere, the species is considered introduced and locally naturalized. Some European populations are considered archeophyte introductions, remnants of former cultivations (Hanelt et al. 2001, Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012), however populations in Norway at least are post-1800 (Artsdatabanken 2014).

population:
The species is widespread in Europe. In Britain, where it is considered an archaeophyte (present since the Middle Ages), the species is locally common, but considered nationally scarce and declining due to changes in land use (Preston et al. 2002).

habitat:
The species naturally occurs in mountainous and hilly areas, along the banks of streams, along roads and can also be found near human habitations (PFAF 2012). In the Alps, the species is found around Alpine huts and farms and in over-fertilized meadows (Info Flora 2014). The species is considered a noxious weed on grasslands in parts of Europe and can spread on large areas of mountain and alpine pastures (Gregori et al. 2013).

threats:
There are no known widespread threats for this species. Declining in the United Kingdom due to changing land use patterns Preston et al. 2002).

conservationAction:
No conservation actions for this species are known.The species has been listed as Near Threatened and 'Naturally scarce' in the United Kingdom (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2012). Found in protected areas through its range.

useAndTrade:
The root is astringent and laxative and has regulatory effect on the digestive system. Moreover, the plant can act either as a laxative or as a cure for diarrhoea according to dosage. The species was cultivated and frequently used in the past, but has now been abandoned (Hanelt et al . 2001). Northern populations may be partially remnants of former cultivations. Rumex species can contain quite high levels of oxalic acid, which is what gives the leaves an acid-lemon flavor. Not toxic when consumed in small quantities, the leaves should not be eaten in large amounts since oxalic acid can lock-up calcium in the food and causing mineral deficiencies (PFAF 2012). The species was widely used and introduced outside of its natural range, however current use and cultivation of the species is not certain (Hanelt et al . 2001) In the Alps and Central Europe, the species was cultivated and fermented to be used as pig fodder. In addition, the plants were also cultivated as a vegetable from 16th century to about 1800 (Hanelt et al. 2001).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species’ populations to severely decline in the near future.

range:
Rumex crispus is a cosmopolitan species with a widespread distribution that covers Europe, Macaronesia, Asia, northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
The species is very widespread in Europe, common in parts such as the Iberian Peninsula, France and Italy, with populations that appear to be stable.

habitat:
It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits a wide range of habitats. It occurs along the banks of watercourses, canals, ditches, humid grasslands, arable land, pastureland but can also occur on waste ground or along roadsides. It can also be found in coastal habitats such as sand dunes, shingle beaches, tidal river banks and saltmarshes (Preston et al. 2002, Castroviejo et al. 1990). Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-July).

threats:
The drainage, water extraction, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Least Concern on several European Red Lists: Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Rumex crispus is used in several ways for food, medicine, as a dye and as a bacteria activator in compost. The leaves, stems and seeds can be eaten, the latter have been used as a coffee substitute. The plant is useful in treating constipation as well as diarrhoea, skin diseases and blood complaints (Plants For A Future 2012).

redListAssessors:
Bilz, M., Grillas, P., Rhazi, L. & Rhazi, M.


taxonomicNotes:
Grey-Wilson (1997) identified two varieties of the species, C. hederifolium var. hederifolium and C. hederifolium var. confusum. ; he noticed that the populations in the southern parts of its range, particularly Sicily and Greece differ from other forms and also appear to be tetraploid.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is native to southern and southeastern parts of Europe, and has long been introduced elsewhere (e.g., France and the United Kingdom). As with most Cyclamen, the species’ tubers are highly prized and were collected from the wild in the past, but collection is now regulated under CITES and trade is allowed in cultivated varieties.

The plant is threatened in Switzerland and populations may have declined due to collection in the past; however, it has a large distribution and without information on the extent of population decline, it does not qualify for a threatened category. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. Monitoring of populations in the wild is recommended, as is monitoring of habitat and trade.

range:
The species is native to southern Europe and western Turkey (Anatolia) (Preston et al. 2002), from southeastern France to the Mediterranean coastal region of Anatolia (Davis 1999, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006, USDA 2010, Meusel and Jäger 2011), but widely introduced and naturalised. Introduced in the late-1500s in UK, the species became naturalized after escaping from gardens (Preston et al. 2002, The University of Oxford Botanic Garden 2014).

population:
No data on population trends of the species are available.

habitat:
The species natural habitat is woodland, garigue, maquis, scrub, and rocky hillsides from sea level to 1,300 m (The Cyclamen Society 2014). Associated with the following European habitat type: Helleno-Balkanic riparian plane forests belonging to the Platanion orientalis alliance (European Commission 2013).

threats:
Garden cultivation and human-assisted establishment of Cyclamen species well outside their native ranges in regions like northern Europe, north America, Japan, Australia and New Zealand underline their remarkable ability and plasticity to adapt to new ecological environments (M. Debussche and J. Thompson pers. comm. 2014). Yesson and Culham (2006) predicted a distribution decline for the genus in Europe ranging from 51-81% within the next 50 years due to habitat quality degradation arising from climate change, with many species facing the prospect of their local climate changing so much that their current distribution will be outside their current observed climate tolerance. However this modelled prediction is not applied in this assessment due to the problems associated with applying climate modelling to individual or suits of species.

conservationAction:
The species is included in CITES Appendix II, although artificially propagated specimens of cultivars is permitted, and it is listed as Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). Monitoring of populations in the wild is recommended, as is monitoring of habitat and trade.

useAndTrade:
In the past, this cyclamen's tuberous rootstock was used for medicinal purposes; decoction of the dried bulb was used for oedema ('dropsy'), mucous congestion, colds, flatulence, and intestinal worms (Grieve 1931). The bulb powder was used to help heal purulent wounds (Herzog et al. 2014). The species is currently utilised in homeopathic treatments, and the fresh rootstock is a drastic purgative (PFAF 2014). Wild-collected bulbs are traded for ornamental purposes (Hemley 1994), however the species and cultivated varieties are cultivated. Seed from cultivated plants is available within specialist circles and is also used to raise plants commercially on a small scale by specialist nurseries.


taxonomicNotes:
The species has numerous synonyms on The Plant List (2014) and is still under review by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP 2014). The Plant List considers C. fatrense as synonym whereas the EURO+MED PlantBase (2014) treats them as two distinct species. We follow WCSP here and consider C. fatrense to be a synonym.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is found in coniferous and deciduous woodland and forests in southwestern Europe, middle Europe and southeastern Europe. The species is known to be impacted locally by habitat conversion and collection of the plant. As with most Cyclamen, the species’ tubers are highly prized and were collected from the wild in the past, but collection is now regulated under CITES and it is cultivated. The plant is threatened in several European countries and populations may have declined due to collection in the past; however, it has a large distribution and without information on the extent of population decline, it does not qualify for a threatened category. It is therefore listed as Least Concern. Monitoring of populations in the wild is recommended, as is monitoring of habitat and trade.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe, where its distribution range includes southwestern Europe, middle Europe and southeastern Europe. It can be found through some parts of eastern France, Switzerland, northern Italy, southern Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia, Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary, growing at altitudes between 250-1,300 m (GBIF 2011, The Cyclamen Society 2014, Kučera et al. 2013, GRIN 2014). No records are known from Albania.

population:
Although the species, where it has been assessed at the national scale, is not considered threatened, local distributions in Germany and Switzerland have clearly diminished over the last 50-60 years (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2013, Infoflora 2013).

habitat:
The species does not easily set seed and the seed takes a full year to mature on the plant, and up to one year or more to germinate (Cyclamen Society 2014). The species is found in deciduous or partly evergreen woods, generally overlying limestone. It also grows in shaded and semi-shaded places amongst rocks and tree-roots and occasionally on stabilized screes, at altitudes between 250-1,300 m (GBIF 2011) and flowers between June and September. It is particularly common in Beech ( Fagus ) woods, where it can be found growing in up to 30 cm of leaf litter (Cyclamen Society 2014). Associated with the following European habitat types; Dinaric dolomite Scots pine forests, Illyrian oak –hornbeam forests (Erythronio-Carpinion), Illyrian Fagus sylvatica forests (Aremonio-Fagion), and Pannonic woods with Quercus petraea and Carpinus betulus (European Commission 2013).

threats:
The present species is regarded as endangered by wild collection as medicinal plants in Croatia (Kathe et al. 2003). Ongoing habitat loss arising from clearance and degradation of woodland is likely to result in localised populations declines and extirpations. Yesson and Culham (2006) predicted a distribution decline for the genus in Europe ranging from 47-66% within the next 50 years due to habitat quality degradation arising from climate change, with many species facing the prospect of their local climate changing so much that their current distribution will be outside their current observed climate tolerance. This prediction is not applied in this assessment due to the problems associated with applying climate modelling to individual or suits of species. Garden cultivation and human-assisted establishment of Cyclamen species well outside their native ranges in regions like northern Europe, north America, Japan, Australia and New Zealand underline their remarkable ability and plasticity to adapt to new ecological environments (M. Debussche and J. Thompson pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
All Cyclamen species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Davis 1999). The species is listed as regionally Endangered in Austria, Near Threatened in the Czech Republic (Danihelka et al. 2012), and protected in Croatia and Germany (Kathe et al. 2003, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). The species is protected in the Piedmonte region of northern Italy (Regione Piemonte 2009). Recorded as occurring in 94 Natura 2000 protected area sites, including in Italy, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy and Poland (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
In the past, the species' tuberous rootstock was used for medicinal purposes (Grieve 1931). A decoction of the dried bulb was used for dropsy, mucous congestion, colds, flatulence, and intestinal worms. The bulb powder was used to help heal purulent wounds (Herzog et al. 2014). It can still be found in the composition of several natural and homeopathic medicines, including for menstrual disorders, migraines and headaches (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). Wild-collected bulbs are traded for ornamental purposes (Hemley 1994). Seed from cultivated plants is available within specialist circles and is also used to raise plants commercially on a small scale by specialist nurseries.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is fairly common, native throughout much of Europe, and considered an archaeophyte elsewhere. The threats it is facing are unlikely to cause its decline in the near future, and it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is distributed in Europe and in northwestern central Asia (Taylor and Woodell 1992, Van Rossum et al. 2002, de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Botanical Society of the British Isles & Biological Records Centre 2014, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). In Europe, it is present in the west, centre, in mountainous areas of the south and was introduced in the north long ago (1700s and 1800s; DAISIE 2014, NOBANIS 2014).

population:
Considered extirpated extinct in a small area of France. Introductions in northern countries are not recent and it may be considered an archaeophyte. Densities in the UK has been decreasing in woodland sites during the past centuries, but the 10 km² distribution has little changed. The overall range is probably stable or slightly increasing in the north.

habitat:
Perennial herb growing in wet grasslands, along streams and mainly in woods dominated by Fagus sylvatica, Acer campestre, Corylus, Fraxinus, Quercus robur, Alnus ... The species is shade tolerant, but only flowers in profusion in the increased light levels following tree felling in traditionally coppiced woods. Found in the lowlands and up to 2550 m a.s.l..

threats:
Known threats in UK (and probably elsewhere) are browsing pressure from deer and rabbits, increasing competition because of changing management practices, and hybridization with introduced Primulas (Essex Biodiversity Project 2014).

conservationAction:
The species is threatened in the Czech Republic as are some range-restricted sub-species (e.g., subsp. poloninensis in the Carpathians (Kricsfalusy 2013). Conservation efforts must include forest management that maintain an adequate amount of light penetration and, at the same time, preserve the herbaceous strata.

useAndTrade:
Roots and flowers are used in folk medicine against coughs, bronchitis, colds, insomnia and migraine (Lange 1998, PFAF 2014; unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). Young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked in soups.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species demonstrates declines in most of its range being marked as threatened in several national Red List. It suffers from grazing and lack of management in its grassland habitats. However, the species is still widespread and unlikely to severely decline in the near future towards extinction. More information on the current population size, trend and the overall rate of decline is needed to review whether it would qualify for threatened under Criterion A.

range:
Primula farinosa is native to temperate Asia and throughout Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Bird’s-eye Primrose is a Nationally Scarce species in the United Kingdom, largely restricted to the northern Pennines. Whilst some of the remaining populations are relatively stable, decline has been reported at other sites (Jepson 2007). In Sweden, this species was common at the beginning of this century but has since declined due to changes in management practices and it now occurs sparsely in fens, meadows, shores and moist grassland (Lindborg and Ehrlén 2002). Population information for other countries is not available.

habitat:
A short lived perennial herb found in wet calcareous flushes, hummocks in spring and seeping banks with open turf, commonly on open marl but also occurring in damp habitats, grazed pastureland, peaty places and drier parts of mires (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1997). It is associated with Urocystis primulicola Magnus fungus which establishes within living plants of Primula spp., specifically within the native P. farinosa (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2010). It flowers during May and June and is pollinated by insects (Lindborg and Ehrlén 2002). Bird’s-eye Primrose is susceptible to drainage of its wet habitat and to the build up of nutrients, particularly nitrates, in the lime-rich soils where it grows (Jepson 2007).

threats:
P. farinosa is still frequent in suitable habitats, but locally losses have been caused by drainage and agricultural improvement (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). This species occurs in habitats such as hay meadows, semi-natural grasslands and shore meadows, associated with management practices which have become rare over the century. Artificial fertilisation and reduced grazing have contributed to its decline as they increase biomass and the average vegetation height which negatively affects this species as it increases competition for light (Lindborg and Ehrlén 2002, Jepson 2007).

conservationAction:
Primula farinosa is included in the following national red lists: Regionally Extinct in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Critically Endangered in Hungary (Király 2007), Endangered in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010), Vulnerable in Germany (category 3+, Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Lithuania (category 2, Rašomavičius 2007) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), Near Threatened in Denmark (NERI 2007) and Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).Local conservation plans are in place and it is included in protected areas in the United Kingdom (Jepson 2007). Protection of Primula farinosa populations will greatly benefit the survival of the associated and threatened fungus Urocystis primulicola (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2010). Monitoring of the populations and the rates of decline is recommended.

useAndTrade:
This species is used in homoeopathy but further details are unknown.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although declining in parts of its range, this species is classed as Least Concern as it is still widespread throughout Europe and is adapted to a variety of habitats including cultivated fields. It is unlikely to become extinct in the near future.

range:
Primula veris is native throughout Europe and temperate Asia occurring in lowland and montane areas. It has become naturalised in North America and Canada (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
Populations of Cowslip in Europe are declining. A study carried out in Switzerland suggested that a decline in habitat extent and quality and increased fragmentation indicate that the remnant populations were formerly part of more extant populations (Kéry et al. 2000).

habitat:
Primula veris is a small long-lived perennial rosette plant typical of nutrient-poor grasslands and the edges of woodlands and verges of the intensively used agricultural landscape. It is related to calcareous soils and cliffs, occurring in dry to mesic grasslands, open shrubland, decidous, mixed or pine forests and their herb fringes. It is mainly pollinated by Hymenoptera and Diptera (Kéry et al. 2000, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1997). This species has only restricted dispersal and recolonisation abilities although it is a long-lived species. Reproduction is significantly reduced in small populations of typically less than 200 individuals and that the plants produce fewer seeds, fruits and flowers (Kéry et al. 2000). This species is able to hybridise with P. vulgaris and P. tommasinii to create the False Oxlip which may be mistaken for P. elatior. Cowslip is a food plant of the Duke of Burgandy Fritillary Hamearis lucina (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

threats:
Declines in populations of this species have been attributed to pollen limitation and inbreeding in small populations as well as decline in habitat quality. Small populations may face an increased short-term risk of extinction because of reduced reproduction and an increased long-term risk because they are less able to respond to environmental changes. The decline of this species distribution can be attributed to the fragmentation of nutrient-poor grassland, a type of habitat that has declined strongly in many parts of Europe. Grazing on grasslands is a a threat, especially by cattle during fruiting time (Kéry et al. 2000, Brys et al. 2004). It is not known whether the collection of this species poses a threat.

conservationAction:
In Bulgaria this species is under a special regime of protection and use including prohibition of commercial use in national parks (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004). In Ireland, it is protected under the Wildlife (NI) Order, 1985 in Northern Ireland where it is an offence to intentionally pick, remove, uproot or destroy any wild plant listed on Part I of Schedule 8 of the Wildlife (NI) Order or to sell species on Part I or Part II - which lists the Primrose. This species is widespread in the Republic but within Northern Ireland is restricted to one or two sites or are sufficiently uncommon to be protected (Curtis and McGough 1988). It is listed as Least Concern on the national red lists of Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006). In the Czech Republic the subspecies Primula veris L. ssp. canescens (Opiz) Hayek is listed as Vulnerable (Holub and Procházka 2000).

useAndTrade:
The traditional herbal medicinal product is used as an expectorant in cough associated with cold, catarrhs of the respiratory tract and also to treat nervousness, headaches, rheumatism, gout. It also acts as a diuretic. The species contains triterpene saponins, flavanoids and traces of essential oils. The herbal substance is made from the whole or cut, dried flowers (with or without the calyx ) and a herbal preparation is made from the liquid extract or comminuted herbal substance for tea. Primula flower extracts are used in combinations with many other herbal substances/herbal preparations but there are no details on the use of tinctures (European Medicines Agency 2007, 2008). Coswlip has been used for treatment of jaundice, but is second in its effectiveness to Primula vulgaris (Allen and Hatfield 2004). The fresh or dried leaves of this plant can be used for making tea. This species has become much less common in the past 100 years due to habitat destruction, over-collecting from the wild and farming practices. When it was more abundant, the flowers were harvested in quantity in the spring and used to make a tasty wine with sedative and nervine properties. Cowslips have a very long history of medicinal use and have been particularly employed in treating conditions involving spasms, cramps, paralysis and rheumatic pains. The plant contains saponins, which have an expectorant effect and salicylates which are the main ingredient of aspirin and have anodyne, anti-inflammatory and febrifuge effects. The yellow flowers are recommended for treating insomnia and hyper-activity (Plants for a Future 2012). In Romania the flowers of this plant are drunk as an infusion for its diuretic, depurative and emollient properties for treating urinary disorders and bronchitis (Tita et al. 2009). In Albania this species is collected in large quantities for its flowers in the mountain ranges. It is also collected in large quantities in Bulgaria (Kathe et al . 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species greatly exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. Although it is found in specific habitat types, it can form dense thickets and is common in many parts of its range, and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) and population also exceeds these values. Although it may have suffered some declines due to over-collection or some local loss of habitat it has increased in other areas. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is native to western Asia (Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey), through the Caucasus to Siberia, Mongolia and China and also northwest India and northern Pakistan. In Europe it is found in many countries from Scandinavia, through central Europe south to northern Spain and east to Ukraine (RBG Edinburgh 1998, Tutin et al. 2010, GRIN 2014). Nikolić and Topić (2005) record the species as possibly extirpated in Croatia.

population:
This is a common species which can form dense thickets within its habitat, over much of its large range and the population is inferred to be large. It may have suffered some local declines through local habitat loss or over collection but in some areas it has increased, for example in the British Isles it is becoming dominant in some dune systems at the expense of other species, probably as a result in the decline of rabbit populations which browsed on young plants (Small et al. 2002). Overall the population is suspected to be stable.

habitat:
This shrub with spiny branches is found in dunes along seashores, on cliffs, along river beds and at the edge of streams in the arid and rocky places from the sea to the mountains, including in a vegetation type known as pre-Alpine willow and sea-buckthorn brush (APAVHD 2006, EUNIS 2014).

threats:
Small et al. (2002) note that the high nutrient and medicinal values of the fruit have led to uncontrolled exploitation and even destruction of this plant in some parts of its natural distribution. More research is needed to quantify the impacts of harvest from the wild. Nikolić and Topić (2005) report that the species has been impacted by hydropower developments, resulting in the loss of suitable habitat.

conservationAction:
This species occurs in protected areas within its range, for example, Wadden Sea National Park. Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is found in 25 Natura 2000 sites (EUNIS 2014). It is conserved ex situ in 112 botanic gardens worldwide (BCGI 2013) and is in a gene bank in Balsgard, southern Sweden and there a seed accession in the Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NORDGEN 2014). Although common in much of its range it is listed as Critically Endangered in Hungary and a subspecies is Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Meshinev and Petrova 2014). It is noted to often occur in isolated and genetically distinctive patches where conservation may be important in terms of germplasm resource (Small et al. 2002). Nikolić and Topić (2005) list the species as Regionally Extinct, but suggest that further survey is required within its previously known habitat, and that reintroduction may be possible from Slovenia and Hungary.

useAndTrade:
The species has medicinal uses and is also used as a food and fodder plant, a wood source and as an ornamental. It has been cultivated, for example, in Russia as an ornamental plant since 1850 and is widely cultivated elsewhere. Special farms to cultivate it were created in the 20th Century in parts of Russia and it is also grown as an agricultural plant in Germany, France and Finland. Many cultivated varieties have been developed. It is a valuable food plant containing vitamins, sugars, organic acids, and fatty oils in both pulp and seeds. It is a nectar plant used in the production of honey in Russia (Terekhina 2003-2009). It is very rich in vitamin C (700 mg per 100 g of fruit), higher than the level in many other fruits, and it is used as a fruit juice and made into jam. This high vitamin component provides for pharmaceutical use in the form of vitamin tablets (Small et al. 2002, APAVHD 2006). The species has also been planted in some areas to help stabilize dunes and prevent erosion and also to provide shade and windbreaks. The leaves can be used as green manure and the shrub fixes nitrogen in the soil (FAO 2010, GRIN 2014). Yellow pigments can be produced as a byproduct, extracted from the residue of the berries after the juice has been extracted and this product can be used as a natural food coloring in the organic food industry. Recent studies in China and Canada, have shown that Palmitoleic acid, a rare fatty acid and carotenoid, present in oils from this plant have a healing effect on burns and could alleviate other skin problems such as eczema and dermatitis. A range of skin protection products have been created based on oil from the seeds, for example, sunscreen, skin lotion and soap (APAVHD 2006). Its high antioxidant properties have promoted research into medicinal use for cancer treatment, and anti-inflammatory disorders. A high-quality medicinal oil is made from the fruit and used in the treatment of cardiac disorders (Plants for a Future 2014). The oil is also taken internally for diseases of the stomach and intestine (Small et al. 2002). The species has been promoted for use in erosion control, reclamation of polluted soils, and nitrogen fixing (Orwa et al. 2009).


range:
Berberis vulgaris has a dominantly European distribution but extends into the Caucasus and Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
There is no information available on populations, but they are assumed to be stable.

habitat:
Barberry is a shrub of up to 3 m height. It grows in alluvial forests, deciduous mixed and coniferous woodland and forests, hedgerows, and cliffs, preferably on limestone. It can also be found on waste ground (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Klotz et al. 2002, Castroviejo et al. 1986). This shrub was planted as part of hedgerows but removed from those in the 19th century when it became known that it is a host of the rust fungus Puccinia graminis which affects wheat crops (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
There are no known or recorded threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Berberis vulgaris is listed as Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Rare in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), and Least Concern on the national Red Lists of Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is considered not threatened in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012).

useAndTrade:
Barberry fruits are eaten raw or dried, and are particularly used in Middle Eastern cuisine. Young leaves are also edible (Plants For A Future 2012). Barberry has medicinal properties and various plant parts have been applied for the treatment of gallbladder and liver complaints, as well as rheumatism and other inflammatory disorders, for example in the eyes, kidney complaints, skin complaints etc. (Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011). A yellow dye is obtained from the root, bark and stem (Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011, Hanelt et al. 2001, Castroviejo et al. 1986). The dried berries can be used as beads and the shrub is sometimes used for fuel (Plants For A Future 2012). This shrub is planted as an ornamental (Hanelt et al. 2001).


taxonomicNotes:
Aconitum lycoctonum L. is accepted by The Plant List (2014), which lists a large number of possible synonyms. The taxonomy of the genus requires resolution, with Aconitum vulparia Rchb. considered a synonym of Aconitum lycoctonum here.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in many European countries and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present. It does not meet the threshold for any of the threatened categories, and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
A widespread temperate Eurasian species, recorded from the Iberian Peninsula through much of Europe to Central Asia (eastern Siberia, Mongolia, China (Heilongjiang, Liaoning) (RBG Edinburgh 1998, USDA 2014). The species has a large distribution and occurs in nearly all parts of the central, northern and southeastern European region (USDA 2014), although less common or absent from the northwestern parts (e.g., United Kingdom, northern France) and much of the Mediterranean (RBG Edinburgh 1998).

population:
No population data are available, however the species is widespread and populations are considered likely to be stable.

habitat:
A perennial species that grows on moist, fertile , humus-rich soils in lowland forests , amongst tall herbs and in wet meadows.

conservationAction:
No conservation information for this species is available. Taxonomic study is required.

useAndTrade:
Members of the genus Aconitum are amongst Europe's most toxic plants, and medicinal use is therefore not recommended. In the past, until the Middle Ages, the species was used as a medicinal and psychoactive drug (Frazer 1890). Nowadays, the species is still used in homeopathic and Chinese medicine (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). The root of the plant is alterative, anaesthetic, antiarthritic, antitussive, deobstruent, diaphoretic, diuretic, sedative and stimulant (Duke 2010, PFAF 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is endemic to Europe, where it is native to western and central Europe, but has been widely introduced elsewhere. Assessed as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, increasing populations and no known major threats.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe, where it is native to western and central Europe (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Castroviejo et al. 2010, ArtDatabanken 2010, Association Tela Botanica 2014, Botanical Society of the British Isles & Biological Records Centre 2014, GBIF 2014). It has been widely introduced introduced in northern Europe and North America (DAISIE 2014).

population:
No information on population trends are available. The species is spreading to the north and has only been extirpated from a few restricted locations. Consequently, populations are probably increasing.

habitat:
This herb grows along stream banks, woodlands, grasslands and even damp meadows. As an alien, it grows on roadsides. Generally found in lowlands in the north, but grows up to 2,700 m a.s.l. in the southern parts of its distribution (Lange 1998, Schippmann 2013, Plants For A Future 2014).

threats:
No major threats are known. A minor threats is water pollution for plants growing around meadows and streams.

conservationAction:
The species is included in the Swedish Red List (CR; ArtDatabanken 2010). There are no conservation measures needed and occurs in numerous Natura 2000 protected areas (EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
The species has been used as an antidote to poisoning, but the plant is itself very toxic. Dry roots are used primarily, but other fresh organs are also used. Roots are used externally in the treatment of rheumatism. All parts of the plant, except the root, are harvested when the plant is in flower and used to make a homeopathic medicine.


taxonomicNotes:
The species taxonomic status of the species is not well defined. In The Plant List (2014) the species is described as accepted taxon with various accepted synonyms. However some authors make a distinction between the European variety A. spicata var. spicata and A. spicata var./form acuminata from the Himalayan regions (e.g., Missouri Botanical Garden 2010). In the Plant List, A. spicata var./form acuminata is an accepted synonym of A. acuminata, but the latter is not considered as synonym of A. spicata (The Plant List 2014) . The status of this variety and the population occurring in northeastern China and Japan needs further taxonomic investigations.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in almost all European regional countries. Although data where not found on the species population trends and threats, its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy greatly exceed the thresholds for any threatened category, and it is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
A widespread Eurasian and Asian species, occurring naturally throughout all European countries Western-Asia, Caucasus and Himalaya (Tutin et al. 1980, USDA 2010, Missouri Botanical Garden 2010). The species is generally split into two varieties differing in morphology, habitat and geographical occurrence ( Missouri Botanical Garden 2010, GBIF 2011). The variety Actaea spicata var. spicata is mainly found in Europe and Western-Asia from 0 to 1,900 m above sea level, whereas Actaea spicata var. acuminata is mainly found at high altitudes from 2,500-3,700 m in southwestern Asia, the Himalaya, northeastern China and Japan (Missouri Botanical Garden 2010) . Intermediate forms can be found in Pakistan, Europe and East Asian regions (Missouri Botanical Garden 2010, Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010). In the European region, the species is found throughout all northern countries, and in mountainous regions in southern countries.

population:
No population data are available. The species is widespread in the European region.

habitat:
The species is a perennial and grows on moist and calcareous ground in shady mountain forests, preferably in deciduous and pine forests on nutrient- rich, humus-rich, loose, stony or pure clay soils up to 1,900 m in the european region (Düll and Kutzelnigg 2011).

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002).

useAndTrade:
The plant has been traditionally used in a range of treatments including rheumatism, inflammation, rheumatic fever, lumbago, nervous disorders, chorea, and as emetic, expectorant, laxative and purgative (Duke 2010, PFAF 2014). Moreover, the species has also been used in the traditional systems of medicines of various countries for the treatment of snake bite, asthma, and externally for skin complaints. In some parts of Europe the powdered leaves, stems and flowers were used as an insecticide (Madaan and Sharma 2011). Nowadays, the species is found in homeopathic medicines (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). Plant and seed are found in the horticultural trade.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Adonis vernalis is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread in Europe and found at hundreds of localities. The population trend is unknown and there are several factors causing habitat loss and degradation that threaten this species. Adonis vernalis is an important medicinal plants and unsustainable harvesting affects the plant negatively.

However, the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is suspected to be quite low. Information on the population trend and eventual rate of declines at European level should be collected and this might make a review of the threat status of this species necessary.

range:
This plant is found from Spain in the west to Ukraine in the east and extends from Central Europe southwards to the Balkan Peninsula. It is absent from northern Europe and the Mediterranean Islands (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Adonis vernalis also occurs in the Caucasus and is endemic to Europe and temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).

population:
In Germany, the populations are declining. In Serbia, it is estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanovic pers.comm. 2010). In France, it occurs in 17 communes in the south of France and on in Alsace, in the northeast. It can be abundant in southern populations. In Ukraine Adonis vernalis is distributed mainly in lesosteppe (forest-steppe zone (near 350 localities) and in steppe zone (near 150 localities). In the zone of deciduous and mixed forests in the Polesian lowland it occurs in only 17 localities. Separate parts of area of Adonis vernalis is situated in foot-hill of the Crimean Mountains from Sewastopol in the west to Feodosia in the east at the altitude of 150-800 m (near 150 localities). Some localities are founds in the plain part of Crimea on Tarchankut and Kerch peninsulas (near 20 localities). On the boundary between forest-steppe and steppe zones and in the Crimean Mountains the population density is high (8-25/m²) (Melnyk and Parubok 2004). The overall population trend at European level is unknown.

habitat:
Adonis vernalis is a perennial rhizomatous plant that flowers from April to May. It is found in dry and poor grasslands ( Festuco-Brometea societies) and in pine forests (Klotz et al. 2002). It can be found in forest margins and steppes or in the ecotone between forests and steppes. In Ukraine, Adonis vernalis grows in well drained places in meadow steppes of Botriochloeta ishaemi, Cariceta humilis, Ceraseta fruticosa, Elytrigeta repentis, Helictotricheta desertori, Festuceta valesiacea, Koeleria cristatae, Stipeta capillatae, Stipeta pennatae, Stipeta ucrainicae formation and petrophilous communities of Seslerieta heufleriana , Thymeta cretacei formations (Melnyk and Parubok 2004). In European Russia Adonis vernalis is a component of meadow steppe communities of Festuceta valesiacae, Koeleria cristatae, Stipeta capillatae, Stipeta pennatae, Stipeta tirsea, Stipeta pulcherimae, Stipeta zalesskii formations and in light oak forests (Pochkurlat 2000). In Poland, the species is a component of communities of Festuco-Brometea class, in Slovakia it is a component of Festucion valesiacae , Quercion pubescentis alliances. In Czech Republic it occurs in Festuceto-Caricetum humilis association. In Germany Adonis vernalis grows in dry light forest in Potentilo albae – Quercetum petraea and Adoniso-Brachypodietum pinneti associations. In Hungary it is a component of the Astragalo-Festucetum association. In Romania Adonis vernalis is found in steppes dominated by Chrysopogon gryllus, Stipa cappilata, Stipa pennata, Stipa pulcherima , and in light forest Aceri tatarici – Quercion association. In Moldova it also occurs in forest plantations of Robinia pseudoacacia . The species may be favoured by traditional sheep rearing, as sheep do not eat it (decline in traditional agricultural practice may threaten the species).

threats:
Habitat loss and degradation are serious threats and caused by the transformation of grassland into agricultural areas, wood plantations or building areas including the infilling of as well as soil extraction from the habitat. The abandonment of traditional agricultural activities often leads to overgrowth with shrubs and an increased competition for this plant. Inappropriate collection for medicinal use still poses a considerable threat. Locally, tourism has been described as a threat (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, WWF Germany and TRAFFIC unknown).

conservationAction:
Adonis vernalis is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and under Annex B of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. It has been classed as vulnerable in the Carpathian region on the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski et al. 2003). In Germany, the species is under protection and classed as threatened on the national Red List (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and included in several regional Red Lists (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). It is also protected in France where several localities are in Parc National des Cevennes, Réserve Naturelle or Natura 2000 areas. In Hungary, it is not inlcuded in the national red list but protected (Király 2007). In Croatia it is classed as Data Deficient (Flora Croatica Database 2010). It is classed as Near Threatened in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). Italy lists it as Critically Endangered (Conti et al. 1997), Czech Republic as Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Switzerland as Vulnerable (Moser et al. 2002). The species is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Rare and is protected in many reserves in Ukraine. Ex situ protection in the National Botanical Garden Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kyiv, is underway. In many countries harvest management plans are in place.

useAndTrade:
Parts of the plant or the whole species are used for medicinal purposes. It is used to treat heart and thyroid diseases as well as cardiac and circulatory troubles. The species is mainly collected from the wild and inappropriate harvesting, such as more often than every 3-4 years or removal of all shoots or the root, can damage the plant. Plants for the trade are mainly exported from Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, and Ukraine. The main importers are Germany and France (WWF Germany and TRAFFIC unknown). Adonis vernalis is sometimes sold as a garden plant. Its cultivation has not been successful from an economic point of view yet which increases the pressure on the wild populations (WWF Germany and TRAFFIC unknown).


taxonomicNotes:
The species and subspecies is still under review by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP 2014). The species is frequently found in both Pulsatilla and Anemone genera.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide but fragmented geographical distribution from southeastern France, southern Switzerland and Poland, extending eastwards to Greece, Bulgaria and Ukraine. Some subspecies are considered to be rare in several countries. There are no known widespread threats across its range, but it is vulnerable to changes in the management of pastures, and may be locally impacted by collection from the wild.

The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at c.81,000 km2, which exceeds the threshold for a threatened category. Based on available point data, it is not possible to calculate and estimate a reliable area of occupancy (AOO).


Although the species or its subspecies has been assessed as threatened in some countries across its range, it is considered Least Concern here as it has a wide geographical range with and EOO that greatly exceeds the threshold for a threatened category, and there are no known widespread threats. Since some populations are growing in high altitude, they are to some extent protected from natural afforestation and urbanization impacts. The species should be reassessed if population data become available that show decline across the range of the species.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe (Tutin et al. 1964-1980, Jalas and Suominen 1989) and occurs in sub-alpine and alpine regions of southeastern France (Université Claude Bernard 2014), southern Switzerland, northern Italy (Altervista 2014) and Poland, extending eastwards to Greece, Bulgaria (Assyov and Petrova 2006, Danova et al. 2009, Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Ukraine (Crimea; Schelag-Soconko 1996). The plant is cultivated for ornamental qualities (RBG Kew 2014).

population:
This species is considered rare in many countries. The global population trend is unknown, but is described as declining in Crimea and Bulgaria.

habitat:
A long-lived, early-flowering perennial species found in scattered localities. The flowers, which are purple, white, yellow or reddish, emerge in spring, before or with the leaves. The leaves are woolly, and therefore well adapted to cold conditions (RBG Kew 2014). Grows in mountain meadows and dry hills, in dry grassy and stony places, in scrub, on limestone; found in sub-alpine meadows and open spots in mountainous forests in the western Carpathian Mountains. Cultivated in botanical and private gardens (RBG Kew 2014).

threats:
Not known to be threatened across its range, but vulnerable to changes in the management of pastures. Considered as one of the most beautiful Anemone species and potentially impacted locally by collection (e.g., in Bulgaria; Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Moreover, populations of the subspecies taurica's are declining in Crimea due to environmental changes and habitat loss (Akimov 2009).

conservationAction:
The subspecies rhodopaea is listed as endangered in Slovakia and Bulgaria (EN B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii,iii,v); Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Listed as vulnerable on the national Red Lists of Switzerland (VU A4d) (Moser et al. 2002), Ukraine (Vinichenko 2006) and Poland (Witkowski et al. 2003). The species is also listed on Appendix 1 of the Bern Convention. Listed as protected species according to the Bulgarian Biodiversity Act. Some localities are in protected territories (Chervenata Stena Strict Nature Reserve in Rhodopi Mts, Sinite Kamani Nature Park in eastern Balkan Range). Moreover, the species occurs in sites of the European Natura 2000 protected areas in France and Bulgaria (Ministère de l'écologie, du développement durable et de l'énergie 2013).

useAndTrade:
The species is cultivated as an ornamental. Several subspecies have been described and are available commercially (Vaughan et al. 2003, RBG Kew 2014, GRIN 2010). No specific medicinal use has been found of this species, however most species within the genus have documented medicinal uses. Extracts of have been used to treat reproductive problems such as premenstrual syndrome and epididymitis, and additional uses include as a sedative and for treating coughs (Vaughan et al. 2003).


taxonomicNotes:
The species has several suggested synonyms (The Plant List 2014). Subspecies Aquilegia nigricans subsp. subscaposa (Borbás) Soó is an accepted infraspecific name of Aquilegia nigricans and also synonym of Aquilegia subscaposa Borbás (The Plant List 2014). Although Aquilegia nigricans and Aquilegia nigricans subsp. subscaposa (Borbás) Soó were considered synonyms in the literature (Chifu et al. 2006, Sarbu et al. 2013), these two taxa grow in different ecological habitats and have distinct flower colour and should and therefore be considered as two different species (A. Badarau pers. comm. 2014). Aquilegia nigricans subsp. subscaposa (Borbás) Soó is strictly linked to calcareous mountainous areas.

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: DataDeficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessmen Data Deficient (DD)


The species is endemic to Europe and occurs with a relatively broad distribution from central-eastern and southeast mountainous regions.

Although the plant and its subspecies are listed as threatened in some parts of its range (Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Romania), there are insufficient data available to assess the species against the Red List criteria at the global level. It is therefore considered Data Deficient, and further research is required into the species distribution and population trends.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe and occurs principally in central-eastern and southeastern mountainous regions, mainly in Austria, the southeastern Carpathian mountains (Coldea et al. 2009, Assyov and Petrova 2012, Oprea and Sirbu 2013), western Ukraine and northern Greece. Point locality data for the speceis are difficult to obtain.

habitat:
A perennial plant that is found in meadows, woodlands, and at higher altitudes. Found in sun or partial shade in moist, well-drained soils. Plants tend to be short-lived but self-seed readily, often creating natural hybrids with other nearby columbines.

threats:
The species is impacted locally by trampling by livestock.

conservationAction:
Assessed as vulnerable in Bulgaria (VU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i); Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), and as threatened in Ukraine (Diduch 2009) and Romania (Oprea and Sirbu 2013). The species is protected under the Medicinal Plants Act in Bulgaria (MOEW 2011). The species is recorded as occurring in thirteen Natura 2000 protected areas in Romania and Bulgaria (EUNIS 2014), and most likely occurs in PAs in other European countries. Research is required to understand the species distribution, population trends and threats.

useAndTrade:
The genus Aquilegia is cultivated and very popular in botanical and private gardens (a large number of hybrids exist). The plants are poisonous and medicinal use should be avoided (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). However, some species in the genus are used in homeopathic treatments (Kathe et al. 2003).


taxonomicNotes:
Jabbour and Renner (2011), based on molecular data, resolved Delphinium staphisagria L. into three separate species; Staphisagria macrosperma Spach: replaces Delphinium staphisagria L. Original described distribution of Crete, southern Italy (Apulia, Calabria), Croatia (Dalmatia), Istria (northern Italy, Slovenia, and Croatia), and southern France ('Galloprovincia'), however widely introduced around the Mediterranean basin through its use as a medicinal plant. Staphisagria requienii (DC.) Spach: restricted to the Hyères peninsula, southern France. Staphisagria picta (Willd.) F. Jabbour: endemic to the Mediterranean islands of corsica, Majorca, and Sardinia. We follow The Plant List (2014) here in considering Staphisagria macrosperma Spach a synonym of Delphinium staphisagria , but additional study are required to clearly resolve their taxonomic status and to confirm the position of Staphisagria requienii and Staphisagria picta .

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is endemic to the Mediterranean basin and is found in southern regions of European countries, and the species has been widely introduced within the region through cultivation for medicinal use. Some Greek sub-populations exceed 20,000 individuals (Orellana et al. 2009). Orellana et al. (2009) express concerns about the genetic diversity of some sub-populations of isolated islands (mostly Macaronesian). According to this study, population persistence could therefore be threatened by inbreeding depression, however most population on these isolated islands are believed to be remnants of past cultivation and can therefore be considered as non-native.


The plant is considered threatened in France and Croatia. Although it's area of occupancy is relatively restricted (440 km2, based on available data from GBIF (2014), however this is considered an underestimate), no important widespread threat or population declines has been observed, and it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is a Mediterranean basin endemic, recorded as native to north Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), western Asia (Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey) and southern Europe (USDA 2014). In Europe, the plant occurs mainly in Greece, the southern regions of Spain (including the Balearics and the Canaries), and France (including Corsica), but is also known from Portugal, Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Italy, Albania, Slovenia, Croatia, and Montenegro (Anthos 2010, GRIN 2014). The species was formerly cultivated in France and Italy (Hanelt et al. 2001, GRIN 2014), and introduced around the mediterranean by cultivation for historical medicinal use (Orellana et al. 2009); the original native range of the species is therefore somewhat obscured.

population:
Orellana et al. (2009) studied the genetic diversity of the species based on a population size of approximately 43,000 from 31 different populations across Europe. Although no population decline or fluctuation has been reported yet, many small sub-population occur on geographically isolated Islands (Macaronesia, Greek islands).

habitat:
The species occupies warm and dry habitats, disturbed areas with nitrate-rich soils, often located near villages, ruins,roadsides and rocky coastal areas. Most populations are believed to be remnant of past cultivation as medicinal plants (Orellana et al. 2009).

threats:
In Croatia, the species is threatened by habitat destruction, urbanization and change of pasture management (Nikolic et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
The plant is listed as Endangered in Croatia (Nikolic et al. 2007) and as Vulnerable in France (UICN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012), and DD in Cyprus (due to uncertainty over the origin of the single known specimen; Tsintides et al. 2007). The species does not occur in the Spanish Red List (Bañares et al. 2010). In Malta, the plant is very rare, but the origin of the species is believed to be due to human introduction for cultivation as herbal remedy (Lanfranco 1989).

useAndTrade:
In the past, the species was an mainly used as insecticide, parasiticide and vermifuge. Since antiquity, herbal preparations from seeds were recognized pediculicide (Grieve 1931). The plant and particularly the seeds contain a wide range of highly toxic alkaloids such as delphinine and should therefore not be taken internally and in general be avoided for medical use. The plant is still used in homeopathy (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). The plant is grown as ornamental in private and botanical gardens (Nikolic et al. 2007).


taxonomicNotes:
Previously assessed at the regional scale for the Mediterranean as Ranunculus ficaria , the species is now placed in Ficaria as Ficaria verna Huds. following Emadzade (2010).

range:
The species is present in most of Europe except parts of the north and with only scattered records in european Russia (Castroviejo et al. 1986, Castroviejo 1986-2013, Anthos 2014, Association Tela Botanica 2014, de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010, GBIF 2014, Greuter et al. 1989, Hoffmann 2008, Pignatti 1982, Tutin et al. 1964). Elsewhere, the species is recorded from western Asia and northern Africa. Introduced in Canada and USA.

population:
The species is very common in Europe occurring in numerous locations (Botanical Society of the British Isles & Biological Records Centre 2014). Populations appear to be stable and are even spreading northwards in Sweden, Finland and the Faroe Islands.

habitat:
This species is found in different habitats: forests, hedge banks, swampy prairies, wetlands, banks of rivers and streams, roadsides and maritime grassland. It has a wide altitudinal range, from 0 to about 2,000 m a.s.l.

threats:
The main threats to this species are the drainage and agricultural conversion of its habitat but this is not known to lead to population declines at the moment.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. The species is considered an invasive weed in America.

useAndTrade:
The first leaves in spring can be eaten in a salad, however the leaves turn poisonous as the fruit matures. The leaves, stalks and buds can be used like spinach. Flower buds make a good substitute for capers. Medicinally, the species has long been used in the treatment of haemorrhoids, ulcers and piles (Duke 2014, PFAF 2014). The root is used, which is astringent, but it is not recommended for internal use because of toxicity.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


In Europe, the species is found in southern and western Europe, and has been introduced elsewhere. The species is classified as Least Concern due to its increasing population and no major threats.

range:
In Europe, the species is found in southern and western Europe, and considered introduced in Ireland, parts of Germany, the Czech Republic and Sweden (Association Tela Botanica. 2014, Botanical Society of the British Isles & Biological Records Centre 2014, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, GBIF 2014). Outside Europe, the species is known from northern Morocco.

population:
No information on population trends are available. The species is extinct in a few small areas. In the northern area of distribution, the species is introduced. Overall, the population is probably increasing as new areas have been colonized.

habitat:
The species thrives in forests (with some light available), shrublands, hedge banks and gardens. In general, it is found lowland, but may grow up to 1,800 m a.s.l. in the southern area of distribution.

threats:
No major threats are known to impact this species.

useAndTrade:
The plant is very toxic and is considered to be useful for reducing blood pressure in various conditions of hypertension (Lange 1998, PFAF 2014; unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). The root is harvested in autumn and dried for later use. A homeopathic remedy is made from the roots and is used in the treatment of headaches, psychic disorders, enteritis and spasms.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This endemic species has a relatively wide distribution in central and eastern Europe. It is assessed as Least Concern as its estimated AOO and EOO are above the thresholds for any of the threatened categories, and there are no known widespread threats. Moreover no population decline has been observed for this species in the past 50 years in Hungary (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014).

range:
The species is endemic to Europe, where it is found through the Carpathian mountains; southwestern Ukraine into southeastern Poland and eastern and southern Slovakia, and extends west of Romania into central and northern Hungary (Rice 2002), where the species is known from two areas (the Bükk and Upponyi mountains, and the Börzsöny (South-Börzsöny), Naszály (rare), Visegrádi and Pilis mountains) (Szujkó-Lacza 1957, Bartha 2013, D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014). Also known from Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and northern Serbia.

population:
No data are available on population trends across the entire species range, however in Hungary, no significant population changes have been observed over the last 50 years (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
Found in nutrient rich, calcareous, shady forests. In Hungary, the species is mostly recorded from beech forests, hornbeam–sessile oak forests, and forests in gorges (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014). Reported to prefer open grassy alpine meadows in limestone areas (Rice 2002).

threats:
The species has no known widespread threats, although Kathe et al. (2003) express some concerns about possible population decline due to collection from the wild for traditional medicine in Romania.

conservationAction:
Listed as protected but not endangered in Hungary (Király 2007). The species is known to occur in twelve Natura 2000 protected areas in Hungary, Romania and Slovakia; EUNIS 2014).

useAndTrade:
The whole plant is extremely toxic, but the root is an anthelmintic, cardiac, cathartic, diuretic, emetic, emmenagogue, irritant, violently narcotic and a drastic purgative (PFAF 2014). The species is being investigated for compounds with medicinal uses (Neacsu et al. 2010, Moldovan et al. 2011, Maior and Dobrotă 2013). The species is an ingredient in unguents in Romania and is probably also used in folk veterinary medicine (Bogdan et al. 1990). The species is grown in botanical and private gardens (e.g., Missouri Botanical Garden).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is present in most of Europe and has become naturalised in some parts. It is assessed as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats, however monitoring of populations to determine the scale and impact of collection from the wild is recommended.

range:
A circumboreal species present in most of Europe (though considered naturalized in the United Kingdom), Siberia and eastern North America (Association Tela Botanica 2014, Botanical Society of the British Isles & Biological Records Centre 2014, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, GBIF 2014, DAISIE 2014, de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001).

population:
No information on population trends are available. A few small areas have been extinct and a few others are introduced. Overall the population seems stable.

habitat:
The species thrives in forests, scrubby grasslands and gardens in the lowlands but also high in the mountains (up to 2,200 m a.s.l.; Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013).

threats:
Logging and wood harvesting may impact populations locally, and collection of the plant from the wild for medicinal use is considered a threat in Macedonia (Council of Europe 2010).

conservationAction:
The species is included as threatened in the national Red Lists of Bosnia and Herzegovina and of Croatia (Šilić 1996, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). Monitoring of populations to determine the scale and impact of collection from the wild is recommended.

useAndTrade:
The leaves and flowers are astringent, demulcent, diuretic, rubefacient and tonic (Duke 2014, Lange 1998, PFAF 2014, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). It is a mild remedy that is little used in modern herbalism, but it is sometimes employed in treating disorders of the liver and gall bladder or indigestions. Externally, it is applied to skin diseases, slow healing cuts, etc. Also used in homeopathy.


taxonomicNotes:
The correct placement of the species requires confirmation, with some references (e.g., The Plant List 2014) placing the species in Anenome .

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is restricted to Europe but has a wide distribution there. It is assessed as Least Concern as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species populations to severely decline in the near future. The species has been assessed as threatened in parts of its range and conservation actions are recommended in these areas.

range:
The species is endemic to Europe and present in the north, centre and southwest of Europe (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Castroviejo et al. 2010, Grzyl et al. 2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, GBIF 2014). Its range spans most of the alpine systems (Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Sudetes, Balkans and Scandinavian chain (Astrom and Stridh 2003)) as well as the lowland areas of central Europe and in southern Scandinavia (Ronikier et al. 2008)

population:
Some populations in central Europe areas are now extinct. It is declining in Sweden, Denmark and Poland. Probably stable in the mountains of south Europe.

habitat:
The species thrives in grasslands in mountain areas (specially in south and central Europe) and in forests and shrublands in the lowlands (central and north Europe) (Grzyl et al. 2013).

threats:
Known threats mainly affect lowland populations. The species presence in Denmark is totally dependent on burning and grazing of the heaths. In Poland the main identified threats are intensification of forestry, small size of preserved populations and no natural regeneration. The main detected threats in Sweden are vegetation overgrowth leading to unfavorable light conditions and reduced germination opportunities.

conservationAction:
Listed in many country red lists (e.g. Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, and Poland). Actions are needed in Sweden, Germany, Poland and Denmark where it has disappeared or is declining. Recommended conservation actions include:  Site protection Active management such as forest clear-up that enable light to penetrate. Population monitoring

useAndTrade:
The species was used in folk medicine. Roots and seeds were used to drive out bladder stones; the flower was used as a compress on a fever pulse; the juice was rubbed upon warts (Lange 1998, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. com. 25.11.2013). Probably not currently used or used locally (Brøndegaard 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Described as synonym of Anemone pulsatilla L. by The Plant List .

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Over the last 100 years, the plant has severely suffered from habitat quality change and the population size has declined (Hensen et al. 2005). In the UK, pasture management has been identified as one of the major threats and principal cause of past population decline. Active habitat recovery and conservation programs have significantly increased the number of individuals over the past 50 years, while the number of subpopulations is still decreasing (Walker 2011). Part of the species distribution range is included in protected areas and recovery action plans at the species level are in place for the UK.


The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both above the thresholds to qualify for any of the IUCN threatened categories under criterion B. There are insufficient data across its entire range to assess the species against criterion A. However, populations declines are considered likely to be close to meeting the threshold for a threatened category under criterion A and the stability of the population size and/or the recovery of the species is largely conservation dependent (pasture management), and the species is assessed as Near Threatened.

range:
The species is confined to dry grasslands throughout western and central Europe extending from southern Sweden to the Bordeaux region of France and as far as Poland in the east (Hensen et al. 2005, GBIF 2014).

population:
The current German range is characterized by a high level of fragmentation, since numbers and sizes of populations have declined considerably during the last few decades, mainly as a consequence of land-use changes (Hensen et al. 2005). In the UK, the total population decreased until 1960, although since then, whilst the number of sub-populations has continued to decline, the total number of individuals has increased (Walker 2011).

habitat:
The species is a perennial rhizomatous herb of species-rich turf on the slopes of chalk or oolite escarpments, and the banks of ancient earthworks, usually with a S. or S.W. aspect (UK). Plants produce viable seed, but seedling establishment is rare. Lowland (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2014).

threats:
Pasture management and land-use changes have been identified as principal causes of population decline. In addition, the current range is characterized by a high level of fragmentation.

conservationAction:
Listed as Vulnerable in Ukraine, Slovakia (Witkowski et al. 2003), Sweden (VU A2ac; Gärdenfors 2010) and Great Britain (VU A2ac; Cheffings and Farrell 2005). Listed as Least Concern in Germany, however subspecies grandis (Wender.) Zamels listed as Critically Endangered and subspecies vulgaris listed as Endangered (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). The species is also listed as Endangered in Switzerland (A4d; B1+B2ce; C2a; Moser et al. 2002) and as Critically Endangered in Austria (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999). In the UK, conservation plans have been put in place such as pasture management and tree felling to restore suitable habitats for the species (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The species is unpalatable and poisonous to humans and animals due to the presence of the glycoside ranunculin in the leaves and roots which is converted to anemonine when the plant is dried (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014, drugs.com 2014). In the past, small doses were taken internally in the treatment of pre-menstrual syndrome, inflammations of the reproductive organs, tension headaches, neuralgia, insomnia, hyperactivity, bacterial skin infections, septicaemia, spasmodic coughs in asthma, whooping cough and bronchitis. Externally, it was also used to treat eye conditions such as diseases of the retina, senile cataract and glaucoma (Plants for a Future 2014). In homeopathy, extracts are used to treat measles as well as minor complaints such as nettle rash, toothache, earache and bilious indigestion (Plants for a Future 2014, drugs.com 2014). Despite its toxicity, plant extracts are still produced and sold (on the internet) and might therefore still be used by experienced herbalists.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in many European countries and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present, except in Northern Ireland. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
A Eurosiberian temperate element that has widely naturalised outside its native range (Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Biological Records Centre 2011). The species occurs in north and central Europe, west Asia, the Mediterranean and north Africa. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France (with Corsica: very rare, only one location), Italy (rare), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The species was introduced to North America before 1800 and has since become invasive ( Invasive Species Specialist Group 2011).

population:
Populations are scattered, but present in many countries. The species tends to increase in remoter areas in Europe resulting from abandonment of traditional land use.

habitat:
The species is a perennial tall shrub or small tree. It is present in wet shrub-land, forests, hedges and woods, riverine forests, peatbogs, acidic alder carrs, from 0 to 1,300 m. Flowering in Italy is from May to June, in France and Corsica from April to July (August).

threats:
In Northern Ireland, the plant is considered a priority species threatened by habitat destruction due to wetland drainage for agriculture and habitat loss from peat-cutting (National Museums Northern Ireland 2006-2010).

conservationAction:
Some populations occur in Ramsar sites, and occurs widely in Natura 2000 sites.

useAndTrade:
In the past, plants were cultivated commercially in Europe to produce high-grade charcoal for gun-powder manufacture. Nowadays, the species is a relict crop or planted for hedges (Hanelt et al. 2001 ). The species had many medicinal uses in the past, some of which continue. Herbal remedies to treat constipation are derived from the bark which contains the active molecule glucoside frangulin. The bark is used as infusion mixture or in the form of capsules (Hänsel and Sticher 2010; Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 214).


taxonomicNotes:
Two subspecies of Vitis vinifera L. are found in Europe: V . vinifera ssp. vinifera and V . vinifera ssp. sylvestris (C.C. Gmel.) Hegi. V . vinifera ssp. vinifera is cultivated grapevine and V . vinifera ssp. sylvestris is the progenitor of the crop.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The wild form of Vitis vinifera, V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris is widely distributed in Europe and therefore has a large extent of occurrence (EOO). The overall European subpopulation size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers).

The overall European subpopulation trend has also not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the threshold for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is regionally assessed as Least Concern.

range:
V . vinifera is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Knowledge of the national distribution of the wild subpopulations ( V . vinifera ssp. sylvestris ) in Europe is as follows: Portugal: according to Lopes et al. (2009), five subpopulations of wild grapevines ( V . vinifera ssp. sylvestris ) have been identified: (1) at Ribeira Brava near Valverde in the District of Évora (Ocete et al. 1995); (2) near the Guadiana River in the municipalities of Reguengos de Monsaraz and Mourão (Ocete et al . 1999); (3) in the Sado River basin near Alcácer-do-Sal; (4) in the Almansor River basin, near Santa Sofia, in the surroundings of Montemor-o-Novo; and (5) in the Ponsul River basin, near Malpica do Tejo, in the neighbourhood of Castelo Branco (Coelho et al. 2004). The population located on the Guadiana River was recently destroyed during the building of the Alqueva dam (Cunha et al. 2007). Slovakia: according to Bertová (1984), ten historical localities were known in the west, southwest and southeast of the country.

Recently, seven localities were confirmed: (1) the Danube River near Bratislava—part Devínska Nová Ves (Ondrášek pers. comm. 2010); (2) the Danube River near Čenkov farmstead (west from the Štúrovo town) (Maglocký 1999, Eliáš Jr. unpublished); (3) Chľaba (Maglocký 1999, Eliáš Jr. unpublished); (4) site Veľký les in the flood plains of the Nitra River near the Úľany nad Žitavou village (Sádovský unpublished); (5) Vojany in the Uh River flood plain, (6) Drahňov and (7) Zemplín in the Latorica River basin (Maglocký 1999). All subpopulations are stable except for the one at Chľaba. This micro-population includes only 2–5 individuals. Cyprus: a survey of the distribution of wild grapevines is in progress. To date, it has been recorded at five localities: Ayia, Stauros tis Psokas, Potamos tou Limniti, Potamos tou Pyrgou and Platys (A. Kyratzis pers. comm. 2010). Germany: occurs on the Rhine River only (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). Hungary: occurs in the northeast (Sátor mountain), southeast (Visegrádi-, Pilis-, Budai mountains), south Transdanubia (Dráva foodplain) and Great Hungarian Plain (Soó 1966). France: widespread; occurs in the majority of departments with the exceptions of 11 departments in the west, four departments to the east and the department of Gard in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Czech Republic: it used to be present in flood plain forests of the lower Morava River but is not confirmed at the present time (Koblizek 1997).

population:
To date, more than 70 individual plants have been recorded in Cyprus (A. Kyratzis pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.

habitat:
V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris grows in riparian woody vegetation alongside rivers and streams. The plants can be found climbing up the stems of pine and other deciduous trees up to 15 m in height. Specifically, in Hungary, the plant can be found growing in alluvial forests and alluvial deposition areas—particularly in forest clearings and margins (Soó 1966).

threats:
It is threatened by agricultural activities, urbanization, and natural events such as floods and fire (Lopes et al. 2009). Clearing of riverside vegetation can also destroy wild vine habitat (M.C. Duarte pers. comm. 2010). In Portugal, the subpopulation located on the Guadiana River in the municipalities of Reguengos de Monsaraz and Mourão was recently destroyed during the building of the Alqueva dam (Cunha et al. 2007). In Slovakia, the subpopulations located in Úľany nad Žitavou and Čenkov farmstead were damaged by forest cutting c . five years ago. However, both subpopulations survived and regenerated (Eliáš Jr. unpublished). Some plants are damaged by forest management in Cyprus and Germany. Fruit is also collected from some plants.

conservationAction:
Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris is as follows: Slovakia: Critically endangered (CR) (Feráková et al. 2001). Germany: highly endangered—needs conservation action (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (CR) (Holub and Procházka 2000). Cyprus: A survey of the distribution of wild grapevines is in progress. Hungary: Endangered (EN) (Király 2007) and protected (under the 3/2005. (VIII. 31.) KvVM decree) according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant and animal species and the Goverment decree on the Natura 2000 sites for the restoration of natual habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of protected species. It occurs in protected areas (e.g., Natura 2000 sites).

It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. EURISCO reports 48 wild accessions of V. vinifera and of these, 32 originate from within Europe: four from Germany (stored in Federal College and Research Institute for Viticulture and Fruit Growing, Austria), 24 from Greece (stored in Greek Genebank, Agricultural Research Center of Macedonia and Thrace, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece), one from Spain (stored in genebank of the scuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain) and three from Ukraine (stored in Institute of Grape and Wine 'Maharach', Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

In Portugal, some plants from the population located on the Guadiana River in the municipalities of Reguengos de Monsaraz and Mourão that was recently destroyed during the building of the Alqueva dam were transferred to the National Germplasm Collection in Braga (Cunha et al. 2007). In Slovakia, some plants from the subpopulation located in the Čenkov farmstead on the Danube River basin have been cultivated for c.25 years in the Botanical Garden of the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (Maglocký 1999, Eliáš unpublished).

useAndTrade:
V . vinifera ssp. sylvestris is the progenitor of cultivated grapes; wild populations adapted to specific environmental conditions may be important as gene donors for improvement of grapevine.

redListAssessors:
Kyratzis, A., Vörösváry, G., Magos Brehm, J., Eliáš, P., Vögel, R., Duarte, M.C., Tavares, M. & Holubec, V.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide range within Europe, and the extent of occurrence (EOO) very greatly exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. It generally occurs in mountainous regions or coastal cliffs and the area of occupancy (AOO) is also inferred to be very large. The population is suspected to be large and although has suffered declines in some areas, as a result of over-collection, the percentage declines in the whole population are inferred not to be sufficient to trigger a threatened category. It is assessed as Least Concern. However, some parts of the population require monitoring and protection from over-harvesting.

range:
The species has a very large range and is native from southwestern and northern Europe to the Russian Federation to Mongolia, China and Japan and also the United States, Canada and Greenland. In Europe it is found in Iceland, Scandinavia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, through central Europe and the Balkan Peninsula and also France and Spain (Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh 1998, Marhold 2011, GRIN 2014).

population:
This is a very widespread and relatively common species and it is inferred that the population is large. However, this plant is being increasingly collected for its medicinal properties and this has caused population declines; the scale of impact of these declines are not certain.

habitat:
This perennial succulent plant is found in meadows, grassland, coastal cliffs, on mountain rocks and screes on both acid and limestone from 0 to 3,000 m asl. It grows to about 35 cm in height with dense flat topped clusters of dull yellow flowers and is noted to be quite a variable species (Polunin 1969, Grey-Wilson and Blamey 1979). It has a thick almost tuberous rootstock.

threats:
The growing demand and the high price paid for plant material is increasing pressure on this species. As a result it has become a threatened plant in the Russian Federation, the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012), Slovakia (Ferakova et al. 2001) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Platikanova and Evstatieva 2008). In Bulgaria, it is included in the Law of Biodiversity and its collection is forbidden. In the Bulgarian Red List it is assessed as CR A4d; B2ab(iv) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is not red listed in the Scandinavian countries but commercial quantities are collected in Norway for the manufacture of new products and Norwegian scientists working with this species have received requests to facilitate deliveries of several tons of the root harvested from natural populations. It is under less threat from collection in some mountain areas of Europe as the difficulties of collection in such terrain make it less economic (Galambosi 2006).

conservationAction:
This plant is recorded from 12 Natura 2000 sites, from Romania, Bulgaria and Slovakia and it is found in protected areas such as Gran Paradiso National Park in Italy and the Wicklow Mountains National Park in Ireland. It is grown ex situ in 88 botanic gardens worldwide and is conserved in seed banks, such as, in Pavia, Italy (BGCI 2013, ENSCO 2014). It is considered to be Least Concern in Great Britain and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002, Chefﬁngs and Farrell 2005) although is considered threatened in some countries, such as, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Bulgaria.

Cultivation could reduce collection pressure on wild populations and several cultivation experiments have taken place. Cultivation has been found difficult outside mountain areas because of climatic differences. However, it has been successfully introduced as a commercial crop in the Rhodopes Mountains in Bulgaria, propagated by rhizome cuttings (Platikanova and Evstatieva 2008). Further research is needed since cultivation seems to be the only hope of producing raw material in sufficient quantities for the industrial scale production demanded (Galambosi 2006).

useAndTrade:
The leaves roots and stems can all be eaten. The leaves can eaten raw in salads or cooked and the stems cooked an eaten like asparagus. The root can be eaten raw or cooked and when dried has a rose scent. The species has been used in folk medicine for washing the hair since it gives a pleasant scent and was supposed to be good for the hair (Galambosi 2006). It has been used in traditional medicine as a tonic and to enhance endurance. Recent research has shown that it increases the body's resistance to stress by regulating hormonal responses. Its has a protective effect on neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. Studies have shown that use of this herb can increase brain serotonin by up to 30% (Plants for a Future 2014). There are other suggested medicinal uses such as in treatments for depression and for heart disorders such as irregular heartbeat and high cholesterol. Some consider it may be useful for treating a range of other disorders from cancer, tuberculosis, and diabetes to cold prevention, enhancing immunity and treating liver damage and even improving hearing (WebMD 2014). The chemical composition of the plant has been intensively investigated and many secondary metabolites have been identiﬁed within the chemical group of phenols. Cinnamic glycosides, such as rosin, rosavin, and rosarin, are considered the major group responsible for most of the pharmacological activities (Platikanova and Evstatieva 2008). Its medicinal use has increased worldwide (Galambosi 2006). It is cultivated as a garden plant. Also, as a response to over-collection and reduction of some populations in the wild, it is now grown as an economic crop and the acreage planted every year is expanding (Martin Bauer Group 2014).


range:
Sedum acre is native to North Africa, temperate Asia and Europe. It has become naturalised in Japan and New Zealand and is cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It is described as frequent throughout suitable habitat types and populations are presumed to be stable (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A hairless, evergreen, mat forming, perennial herb found in dry, undisturbed and open habitats especially on rocky and sandy places, sand dunes, shingle beaches, heaths, banks, old walls, pavements and road verges. It is widely cultivated in gardens. Flowering time is from May to July (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1997).

threats:
The species is common and widespread with no threats. Sand blowing on dunes and shading by taller shrub species can prevent this species from establishing but is not considered to be a threat (Huisman et al. 1993).

useAndTrade:
The pale green shoots have a peppery taste and the leaves are rich in vitamin C and can be eaten but can cause stomach upsets in large quantities. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant for the treatment of piles and anal irritations (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
This is an extremely variable species and has several sub-species and varieties. There is still debate about its taxonomic placement, for example, named putative hybrids have been contested by later authors and rejected or synonymised (Marhold 2011, IPNI 2103) At a specific level, despite variation of some of its characters such as leaf pubescence, which make it close to Sempervivum tectorum , S. marmoreum Griseb . is a quite well circumscribed species, although it encompasses several ill defined infraspecific components (Barca and Niculae 2006).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is a widely distributed in the Balkans and Carpathians. The extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. As it occurs over a wide range of altitudes, although mostly at higher altitudes, and is quite widespread, it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) also exceeds the values for threatened category.

Although considered rare in some areas the population greatly exceeds the values for a threatened category under criterion D. It is suspected that there have not been significant declines to trigger the use of Criteria A or C, as its high altitude rocky habitat has few threats and medicinal and other uses are thought to be generally on a small scale or from locally cultivated sources. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is a widely distributed in the Balkans and Carpathians with several sub-species and varieties (IPNI 2013). It is extremely variable and there is no possibility of geographically delimiting its morphotypes (Letz 2009). Populations often consist of relatively compact clones that have some geographical isolation which limits gene flow between them and favours speciation (Barca and Niculae 2006). Most authors consider it to be endemic to the Balkan peninsula although some include populations from central Italy under this name (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 1998).

population:
It is considered a rare species in the Muránska planina Mountains in Slovakia, but even here the population is estimated to number 1,350 plants (Blanar and Letz 2005). It is also considered rare in some parts of Romania, for example, in the Caraş and Gârlişte Gorges (Nicolin and Imbrea 2014) although it is generally well distributed through Romania (Barca and Nicolae 2006). It is reported to be common at the type locality, Mt. Athos in Greece, especially at altitudes above 1,700 m to the top of the mountain at 2,030 m. As the threats to its rocky often high altitude habitat are few, and it reproduces readily from stolons, it is inferred that the population is relatively stable.

habitat:
The plant grows on rocks, cliffs and scree. It is also found on walls, for example, of agricultural terraces. It can tolerate dry conditions and a wide temperature range and is generally found at high altitudes, typically above 1,500 m. It is a long lived perennial propagating by stolons (Barca and Niculae 2006).

threats:
One site in Hungary is noted to suffer from trampling by tourists and plants are possibly collected from the wild here (Sempervivophilia 2014). However, the rocky habitat of this species generally has few threats. This species grows at high altitudes and future climate change may have impacts on the species composition of high mountain flora.

conservationAction:
This species is conserved ex situ in botanic gardens, for example, the Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, Greece (ENSCO 2014). It is also found within protected areas such as the Pokoradzské jazierka Nature Reserve in Slovakia (Blanar and Letz 2005) and reported from 35 Natura 2000 sites (EUNIS 2010). The species is afforded formal protection in some areas, for example it is in the Hungarian list of protected species that are used as medicinal plants (Baricevic et al . 2002) and it is protected in Greece by Presidential Decree. It is listed in the Red Data Book for Bulgaria as Vulnerable and in Ukraine it is considered Critically Endangered, as it is at the edge of its range and only known from a small population at one site (Kathe 2003, Kobiv et al. 2007). In some areas monitoring of the population, distribution and trends may be necessary. Further research may help clarify the status of some sub-species.

useAndTrade:
The plant is cultivated as an ornamental. Extracts have anti-oxidant properties and have been shown to have activity against some molds, such as C andida albicans but not against the bacteria that were tested (Stojicevic 2008). It is reported to have medicinal and other household uses, sometimes replacing Sempervivum tectorum (Barca and Niculae 2006). The juice of the species is used to soothe skin conditions and a poultice of the leaves is used to treat burns, bites stings, warts and corns. Also sometimes used internally in the treatment of shingles, skin complaints and haemorrhoids and the young leaves can be eaten in salads and the juice used as a drink. Excessive intake can lead to sickness and and have a purgative effect (PFAF 2014).


taxonomicNotes:
This is an extremely variable species, with numerous synonyms and which can also hybridize.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is a widespread species which is often common within Europe. Its rocky habitat has relatively few threats and it is inferred not to have suffered any significant declines. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is native to north Africa (Morocco) and Europe. In Europe it is found from France, Spain and Italy through Austria, Switzerland, central and southern Germany and to parts of the Balkan region. It has been introduced and naturalized in many other countries within Europe (GRIN 2014), including and Hungary, western Poland, Ukraine and Scandinavia (Marhold 2011), however the exact introduced range is uncertain and it may be an archaeophyte in some areas.

population:
This is widespread species and the population is inferred to be large. There are relatively few threats to its rocky habitats and it is suspected that the overall population is generally stable.

habitat:
This is a plant of rocky places in mountains and lowlands and also often grows on walls and roofs (Polunin 1969). It can tolerate dry conditions and a wide temperature range. It is a perennial which propagates readily by stolons.

threats:
The rocky habitat of this species has relatively few threats. This species may be subject to some small scale collection from the wild for medicinal or other uses which may pose a threat to some local populations.

conservationAction:
This plant is found in many conservation areas throughout its range, for example, Montseny biosphere reserve in Spain and it is listed from 45 Natura 2000 sites (EUNIS 2010). Seeds are conserved e x situ, for example, in Cordoba, Spain (ENSCO 2014) and it is found in many botanic gardens (BGCI 2013). It is a protected plant species in Hungary (Botanycz 2014).

useAndTrade:
The plant is cultivated as an ornamental. It is sometimes planted on roofs and walls as it was believed to provide protection against lightning and fire (Polunin 1969). It is reported to have medicinal uses: the juice is used to soothe skin conditions and a poultice of the leaves is used to treat burns, bites stings, wart and corns. It is also sometimes used internally in the treatment of shingles, skin complaints and haemorrhoids and the young leaves can be eaten in salads and the juice used as a drink. Excessive intake can lead to sickness and and have a purgative effect (Plants for a Future 2012). Additionally it may be used homeopathically for the treatment of tumours, herpes infections and ringworm (abc Homeopathy 2014). In at least one small area in Croatia an extract has been used to treat ear pain (Pieroni et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern(LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This shrub is widespread in Europe, although possibly only native in the central and eastern parts. It has a large estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and inferred area of occupancy (AOO). The population is suspected to be large and stable.

range:
The species is considered native to parts of Europe, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Altai, eastern Siberia and northern and western Mongolia (GRIN 2014). It is widely distributed in Europe, apart from the Mediterranean areas. However, it is widely naturalized and cultivated and its native range is difficult to establish with any certainty. In Flora Europaea (Tutin et al . 1964-1980, 2010) it is considered certainly to be native in central and eastern countries, although there are others, such as Austria and Denmark, where it is doubtful and possibly native. It is considered a neophyte in the United Kingdom, with first record of cultivation post-1600, although considered native to wet woodland in East Anglia by some (Preston et al. 2002).

population:
It is a widespread species and the population is inferred to be large and stable.

habitat:
This small deciduous shrub is found in damp woodlands, rough meadows, hedges and shrubland (Polunin 1969). This species can form a dense shrub layer (Helle 1980).

threats:
This is a widespread and common species with no major threats at present or in the near future.

conservationAction:
This shrub is recorded from more than 100 Natura 2000 sites and in other protected areas through its range (EUNIS 2014). It is grown ex situ in 173 Botanic gardens, mainly as cultivars (BGCI 2013). It is conserved in seed banks, such as the National Germplasm Repository in North America (GRIN 2014). At the edge of its range it is less common, for example, it is only found in the Rhodopi Mountains in Bulgaria and is a protected species according to the National Biodiversity Act in this country (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).

useAndTrade:
This plant is widely cultivated for its edible fruits which are used in pies, jams, syrups, wines, alcoholic and soft drinks and as a flavouring. The leaves give a yellow dye and the fruits blue or violet. The oil from the seed is added to skin preparations and cosmetics. The leaves can be used in soups and dried for teas (Helle 1980). The fruits are very rich in Vitamin C. It has been used medicinally to help the body fight infections, such as colds. It has a diuretic action and can lower blood pressure. An infusion is used in the treatment of dropsy, rheumatic pain and whooping cough, and can also be used externally on slow-healing cuts and abscesses.It can be used as a gargle for sore throats and mouth ulcers. (Polunin 1969, Plants for a Future 2014). It is also the primary genetic relative of cultivated varieties of blackcurrant and tertiary genetic relative of gooseberry and has potential value for the development of new strains (GRIN 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is quite low. However, it is of concern that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and local conservation measures are required.

range:
Parnassia palustris is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution encompasses North America, northern and central Asia, North Africa and all of Europe where it is rare in the south.

population:
The species is fairly common in Europe, occurring in numerous locations. Local population declines have been noted.

habitat:
It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, mires, fens, peatlands, dune-slacks and short grassland (Preston et al. 2002, Castroviejo et al. 1997). Flowering occurs in summer and autumn (July-October).

threats:
The drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes is the main threat for this species.

conservationAction:
Parnassia palustris is included on the following national red lists: Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) Endangered in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) Vulnerable in Hungary (Király 2007), Germany (category 3 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)This species is protected in France: departmental (Moselle, Meuse, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Landes, Gironde) and regional protection (Alsace, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Basse-Normandie, Centre, Picardie, Pays-de-la-Loire) (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2012).

useAndTrade:
Parnassia palustris is a medicinal plant that is used to treat stomatitis in the form of a mouthwash, to heal wounds, or as an eye lotion (Plants For A Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although this species is locally declining and is considered to be threatened in Belgium and Cyprus, it is considered to be Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats in the majority of its range.

range:
Agrimonia eupatoria is native to and occurs throughout Europe (except the extreme north), temperate Asia and North Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). It has become widely naturalised outside its native range such as the Azores and in some states of the USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1998, Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
Throughout the areas in which Agrimonia eupatoria and Agrimonia procera occur, the hybrids are not rare (Castroviejo et al . 1998). There has been a slight decline in the UK (Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012). A regional survey to study the population dynamics of this species in Sweden showed that it was intermediately abundant yet patchy in distribution but revealed the populations were small (less than 100) and restricted to grassland fragments on road verges (Kiviniemi 2002). In Belgium this species is declining (Van Landuyt et al . 2006).

habitat:
Agrimony is a rosette-bearing hardy perennial herb which can be found on the fringes of forests and woodland borders, hedgebanks and mounds, thorny thickets, pasture land, field borders, open grassland, roadsides, railway banks and waste places. It occurs on basic to neutral soils and reproduces and spreads by seed (Castroviejo et al 2001, Online Atlas of British and Irish Flora 2012). It flowers between June and September. The fruits and seeds are sticky and adhere to animals, especially fur, and their adhesive properties may aid dispersal in fragmented habitats ( "author">Kiviniemi 1996).

threats:
It is locally threatened by land abandonment (i.e. succession of grasslands) and land development, for example in Cyprus (Tsintides et al. 2007).

conservationAction:
This species occurs in ex situ collections such as the UK Native Seed Hub at RBG Kew. There are no conservation actions in place however appropriate land management of suitable habitats such as field borders and grasslands is required in the areas where this species is declining. This species was last recorded from Cyprus in 1905 and is listed as Critically Endangered C2a(ii) and now exists in only two sites at Spilia and Pedoulas, at an altitude of 1000-1150 m where 137 plants in total were counted (Tsintides et al. 2007). In Bulgaria this species is protected in National Parks but is scarcely spread, with single populations with small areas and limited resources of no economic importance (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004). In Belgium this species is declining (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and it is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The seeds of this plant contain n -Hexane, dichloromethane and methanol extracts which have antibacterial and free radical scavenging activity (Copland et al. 2003). The leaves and flowers of this plant are rich in tannins and essential oil. It is used as an astringent, especially for infections of the mouth and larynx, as well as for the treatment of ulcers and verrucas. The fresh or dried leaves, flowers and stems can be used to make tea and the seeds are edible however large quantities can cause digestive problems and constipations due to the tannins. It has been popular as a herbal remedy for gentle cleansing of the digestive tract and an infusion has been reputed to be a good treatment for jaundice and liver problems as well as a strong decoction for treating skin problems, wounds and haemorrhoids. This herbal remedy has been approved by the German Commission E Monographs for treating diarrhoea, and inflammation of the mouth, skin and pharynx. The plant can be harvested in late spring and early summer and dried for later use or harvested in late autumn to obtain a yellow dye from the roots.This plant is listed as an angiosperm that provokes photodermatitis (Plants for a Future 2012, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). It is principally taken as tea as a mild tonic and stimulant and is one of several herbs to gain a reputation as a general prophylactic and purifier of the system especially when combined with other herbs. It can also be used as a veterinary remedy for cuts in horses and cattle (Allen and Hatfield 2004). In Romania an infusion can also be used for treatment of chronic cholecystitis and rheumatism (Tita et al. 2009).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Alchemilla acutiloba occurs throughout Europe except on the Iberian Peninsula and Ireland. Very little information is available on the population status, ecology, and actual or potential threats. It is listed as threatened in two countries, and considered Least Concern in several others. There is no information on the population in the rest of Europe, but it is not considered to be an important medicinal and aromatic plant and the threats appear to be quite localised.

Given that it is an apomict it can probably survive well in many places. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its very widespread distribution, presumably large overall population size, and the fact that aside from a few localised threats, there is no information to indicate it is threatened across most of its range.

range:
Alchemilla acutiloba is widespread throughout Europe, except for the Iberian Peninsula and Ireland, where it is absent (Kurtto 2009). Its range extends just outside of Europe in south-western Russia. In Bulgaria it is found at elevations between 1,200 and 2,600 metres (Assyov et al. 2006).

population:
Little information is available on the population size or trend across its range. It is very rare in the UK, where it has declined recently as the amount and quality of suitable habitat has decreased; numbers are estimated to have fallen by nearly 60% since the 1950s (Durham Biodiversity 2002, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is seldom found in the Kelemen (Calimani) Mountains in Romania (Hohn 1998).

habitat:
This is a perennial apomict "st"> found in neutral grassland, unimproved, species-rich hay meadows and more intensively managed meadow margins; it is frequent on herb-rich road verges and railway banks (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is able to reproduce asexually by the production of viable seed without the need for pollination (Durham Biodiversity 2002).

threats:
Very little information on threats to the species is available. In the United Kingdom, local population declines can be attributed to loss of hay fields due to agricultural intensification and inadequate management of road verges and railway banks, including loss of roadside verges (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The causes of its endangerment in Hungary are not known.

conservationAction:
This species is classified as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010); Vulnerable (A2c) in the UK, where it is nationally Rare (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Cheffings and Farrell 2005); and Endangered in Hungary, where it is protected (Király 2007). More information on the population size and trends, ecological requirements as well as potential threats is needed from across its range.

useAndTrade:
Alchemilla plants have fan-like leaves which were reputed to fold up at night and catch dew on their soft hairs; plant dew was highly prized by early herbalists and Alchemilla was prescribed for wounds (to stop bleeding), infertility and impotence (Durham Biodiversity 2002). The alchemists also required the ‘purest dew’ in their attempts at turning base metals into gold, which led to the name Alchemilla or "little alchemist".


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Alchemilla crinita is widespread in central Europe where it is found in montane hay meadows and grasslands. It is threatened in some parts of its range (Hungary and Bulgaria) and considered not at risk in others (Germany), but the overall population status is unknown. There is no information on the population size or trend, or the threats or evidence of declines within Europe. It is therefore classed as Data Deficient.

range:
Alchemilla crinita is native throughout Central Europe (Kurtto 2009). It is found in montane areas and has been recorded at elevations between 1,400 and 2,200 metres asl in Bulgaria (Assyov 2006). Outside of Europe, it is found in the Asian part of Turkey.

habitat:
It is found in hay meadows and grassland in upland areas. It has been described from the Parâng Massif and Găuri Mountain in Romania, where it has been found in meadows at elevations around 1,945 metres asl in rocky areas associated with Juniper.

threats:
There is no information available on actual or potential threats to this species.

conservationAction:
Alchemilla crinita is a protected medicinal and aromatic plant in Hungary, where it is Critically Endangered, though protection was given before threat evaluation so may not be sufficient (Baričevič et al. 2004, Király 2007). It is Endangered in Bulgaria (Kathe et al. 2003). It is not considered to be at risk in Germany, though it is possibly extinct in Sachsen and extremely rare in Baden-Württemberg, but unthreatened in Bayern (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is not protected or regulated in France (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013), and is not threatened in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). It occurs in the Magura National Park in Poland where it borders some Natura 2000 sites in Slovakia (Magura National Park 2007). More information is needed on the population size and trends, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
This is considered a medicinal and aromatic plant, but there is no specific information available on how it is used by humans.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Alchemilla mollis is native to the Balkan Peninsula and Southwest Asia; in Europe, it only occurs in four countries. Although it appears to be rare in its native range, it is a vigorous  alien species that has widely colonized Europe and extended much of its  range through cultivation in gardens. The only information available in its native range is from Bulgaria, where it is Critically Endangered due to its extremely small population size and restricted distribution, and where it is facing multiple threats. There is no information on the status of the population or potential threats in Romania or Greece, and further information is required on its occurrence in Turkey. It is therefore classed as Data Deficient.

Monitoring of the populations and research are needed to assess whether there is an actual risk of extinction to this species.

range:
Alchemilla mollis is native to the Balkan Peninsula, Transcaucasia and Asiatic Turkey; it has been introduced into other parts of Europe through cultivation in gardens where it occurs as an alien species (Kurtto 2009, Lipman et al. 2009, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In Bulgaria its presence has been confirmed in one locality; its extent of occurrence in Bulgaria increased from 150 to 200 m² between 1990-2010 (Vitkova et al. 2011).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown, and population data is lacking from most of its range. In Bulgaria the projected coverage of plants is 2% over an area of 200 m² with individuals distributed in small groups or patches on steep slopes with few single plants growing along borders of beech forest. The population comprises 33 seedlings, 18 juveniles and nine mature clones (covering an area of 3.1 m²), with only 15-20% individuals capable of regeneration (Vitkova et al. 2011). There is no information on the extent of the original population before declines.

habitat:
This is a perennial herb found in humid habitats along streams in the beech belt (Vitkova et al. 2011). It has been recorded in the forest habitats of the Siriu Mountains in Romania (Monica and Alexiu 2011). Within its alien range is is found in gardens, roadsides, riverbanks and rough or waste ground, often near rubbish dumps. It reproduces by seed which are produced abundantly and by rhizome fragments which has allowed it to become a vigorous colonizing species (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
In Bulgaria, erosion of terrain and hiking trails crossing the locality of its habitat has caused a decline in the area of suitable habitat and stamping or withering of juvenile plants and seedlings. Previous hot dry summers have caused flower stems to wither, and an increase in hot dry summers in the near future could have a serious affect on the age structure of the population and shifts in phenology, which may affect seed formation (Vitkova et al. 2011). Collection of wild plants may have contributed to its decline but there is no information to confirm this.

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Critically Endangered [CR B2ab(ii,iv,v);C2a(i)] in Bulgaria, where it has been trialled for cultivation and is protected under the Medicinal Plant Act of 2002 and the Biodiversity Act (Kathe et al. 2003, Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Estatieva et al. 2007). In Bulgaria it occurs in the Central Balkan National Park and studies conducted in the ex situ collections have shown that plants from the natural population can develop successfully to allow for its cultivation. It has been collected for the National Seed Bank in Sadovo. The natural population was being monitored since 2009 and it is important that this continues. Although the population has increased, there is a need for further protection (Vitkova et al. 2011). It is also classified as Least Concern in Switzerland although it is not native (Moser et al. 2002).

useAndTrade:
The above ground parts and rhizomes are used in modern medicine due to galotannins, flavanoids and saponins found in the Herba Alchemillae used for regeneration of skin epithelium and anti-inflammatory properties. The drug possesses astringent, diuretic and antispasmodic properties and is commonly used in traditional medicine as a cure for excessive menstruation and wounds. It is also a decorative and common garden plant (Trendafilova et al. 2011, Vitkova et al. 2011). Cultivation has only been started recently (Trendafilova et al. 2011). This would indicate it could only have been collected from the wild for medicinal purposes.


taxonomicNotes:
The species name Alchemilla xanthochlora is accepted by the Rosaceae Database (Jung et al. 2013). The species taxonomic definition is partially unresolved and has a number of synonyms (The Plant List 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species occurs in most European countries and is considered likely to be endemic to Europe. It does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present, and it is considered Least Concern. Further research is required to confirm the whether the species is endemic to the European region and the taxonomic placement of the species.

range:
The species is native throughout Europe where it occurs in most countries, although absent from Portugal and the Mediterranean islands (GBIF 2014). It occurs as an introduction in northern and eastern Europe (Kurtto 2009). The species has been introduced in North America and southeastern Australia (Australian Alps, New South Wales) (Hegi 1995), however Costin et al. (2000) comment on its early (first recorded in 1854) presence in remote, undisturbed and specialised habitats in the Australian Alps. In central Europe, the species is widespread in mountainous region and less frequent in the lowlands (Hegi 1995).

population:
No population data are available. The species is widespread in Europe.

habitat:
The species grows on stream banks and ditches , in shrubland, on fresh to moist meadows  , on slopes and on alpine pastures. The plant prefers moist to wet   , loamy to sandy  , lime-free to calcareous  and nutrient-rich soil. The species occurs from sea-level to 2,800 meters (Hegi 1995).

threats:
No threats are known for this widespread species.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are required for this widespread species. The species occurs in Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in the UK, and probably occurs within Natura 2000 sites across its range. It is a component of two European habitat types ( Illyrian submontane hay meadows and Sub-Atlantic lowland hay meadows ; EUNIS 2014). Further research is required to confirm the whether the species is endemic to the European region and the taxonomic placement of the species.

useAndTrade:
The species has a long history of use in traditional medicine as a remedy for women's ailments, especially menstrual problems (PFAF 2014). It is used internally and externally for painful menstruation, vaginal discharge and discomfort during menopause. Slight antispasmodic and astringent effects were observed and are probably related to the high tannin content. The plant is found in the composition of homeopathic preparations against chronic diarrhea due to liver diseases (Schönfelder and Schönfelder 2011). Use in the treatment of wounds has also been documented (PFAF 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Aphanes arvensis is a weed of arable crops and has therefore declined in parts of Europe due to intensified agriculture and use of herbicides which kill the seeds. It has gone extinct in Lithuania and is threatened or near-threatened in five countries in Europe, but as it is able to grow in a variety of other habitats, it remains frequent in many countries and is widespread throughout Europe. It is used in traditional medicine, but there is no information to suggest it is under high collection pressure. It is therefore classified as Least Concern.

range:
Aphanes arvensis is native throughout Europe and North Africa (Kurtto 2009). It is widespread in many countries (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013 , Anthos 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Though some sources cite it as introduced in Poland (Mirek et al. 1998, Kurtto 2009), it is an archeophyte (introduced pre-1500 AD; Tokarska-Guzik et al. 2010) and therefore considered native here.

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. It has declined in parts of its range and remains frequent elsewhere. It is still rather common as weed in arable fields in southern Sweden ( M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
A winter-, and less frequently spring-germinating, annual found in arable fields, bare patches in grassland and lawns, heaths, woodland rides, rough ground, waste places, gravel pits and railway banks. It grows in dry basic soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is a weed of arable crops (Chancellor 1985). The flowers are hermaphroditic and self-fertile (Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
Increased cultivation tends to have a negative effect on its abundance and it is favoured by reduced cultivation and soil disturbance (Pollard et al. 1981). As it is a weed of arable crops, it is controlled by herbicides (Roberts and Neilson 1981).

conservationAction:
It is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), and Luxembourg (Colling 2005); Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002); Vulnerable in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000); Endangered in the Netherlands (van der Meijden et al. 2000) and Croatia (Hulina 2005); and Extinct in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007). It occurs in three Natura 2000 sites: two in Italy and one in Slovakia (European Environment Agency 2010).

useAndTrade:
Parsley Piert has long been used in traditional medicine, and is astringent, demulcent, diuretic and refrigerant (Plants for a Future 2012). It is used as an infusion and is very effective in treating kidney and bladder complaints including urinary infections, kidney stones, cystitis and jaundice; the leaves can be eaten in salads or pickled, but it is rarely eaten these days (Plants for a Future 2012). It possess strong antioxidant activity and protective effects with very little cytotoxic effect and can therefore be used as a natural additive in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries (Hamad et al. 2010). There is no information to suggest it is used commonly.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


In Europe the species is considered native to Cyprus (present throughout the island at most altitudes) and Greece (Crete, some eastern Aegean islands, and one north Aegean island). Presence in Turkey-in-Europe is not confirmed, although the species is widespread in Turkey-in-Asia.

The species native range extends to west Asia and the Middle East and doubtfully to north Africa, and it has been very widely cultivated and introduced throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Although it is widespread and relatively common in places in Cyprus (O. Özden Fuller pers. comm. 2014), there is no accurate estimate of the population size, and populations at lower altitudes in both Cyprus and Turkey are impacted by urban and tourism developments (O. Özden Fuller pers. comm. 2014).

However, the species was not evaluated during the preparation of the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (2007) as it was considered abundant there (C. Kadis pers. comm. 2014). In Greece it is a rather rare species with an unusual distribution (Y. Bazos, P. Dimopoulos and A. Strid pers. comm. 2014).

Although it is widespread and considered abundant in Cyprus it does not form large colonies, and is impacted by habitat conversion and degradation, and by fire, which impacts survival of mature individuals; populations are declining at lower altitudes, and there is no accurate estimate of the population size from other parts of its European range.


The species has a large extent of occurrence within Europe, and whilst the area of occupancy (AOO) might be restricted (there are insufficient point data records available to calculate this), the species distribution is not severely fragmented, nor does its populations undergo extreme fluctuations. The species is considered Least Concern at the European level at present.

range:
The species is considered native from southeastern Europe to west Asia and the Middle East, although it has been very widely cultivated and introduced (Kurrto 2009). In Europe, it is considered native to Cyprus and Greece (Crete, and eastern (Rhodes, Symi, Kastellorizo) and northern Aegean (Limnos) islands; Y. Bazos, P. Dimopoulos and A. Strid pers. comm. (2014). In Malta the species is considered an archaeophytic naturalised species (D. Stevens pers. comm. 2014), introduced prior to 1500. On Cyprus it is a common species with a wide distribution throughout the island (in all bioclimatic zones) from sea level to (1,600)1,800 m. In Greece, the species is altitudinally distributed from 30 m to 1,210 m a.s.l., i.e. at the bioclimatic zones of the thermo- to the supra- Mediterranean vegetation zones. No records for Turkey-in-Europe have been found, though it appears to relatively widespread in southern parts of Turkey-in-Asia from Çanakkale in the west to the Syrian border in the east (Davis 1972). It has been introduced and naturalised in the western and eastern Mediterranean and the Caucasus and is cultivated widely throughout Europe (Kurtto 2009, USDA 2012) and it is difficult to determine its true native range (Castroviejo et al. 1998). Outside of Europe, it is considered native from Turkey (Güner 1998) to western Iran and northern Iraq (Viney 1994), doubtfully (Kurrto 2009) to north Africa (Tunisia and elsewhere along the north African coast), Egypt (Sinai) and temperate Asia; Israel, Jordan, Palestine (Meikle 1977), Lebanon, Syria, Middle Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan) (USDA 2012).

population:
Although it is widespread in Cyprus the species does not form large colonies, and there is currently no accurate estimate of the population size on the island. The species was not included in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Dimopoulos et al. 2007) since it was considered abundant in there (C. Kadis pers. comm. 2014). The species is found at both high and low altitudes in Cyprus; populations at higher altitudes are stable but those at lower altitudes are declining (O. Özden Fuller pers. comm. 2014). In Malta In Greece, this is a rather rare species with an unusual distribution, for which there is no accurate population size estimation; on the island of Crete, the species is distributed on all its three main mountain ranges (Dimopoulos et al. 2013, Y. Bazos, P. Dimopoulos and A. Strid pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
A deciduous hawthorn fruit tree which occurs in a wide variety of habitats including hedges, sloping banks, dry hillsides, montane ravines and rocky areas, and boundaries of woods (Castroviejo et al. 1998, Plants for a Future 2012). In Cyprus it occurs on rocky slopes and mountainsides as well as field-margins (Meikle 1977). The species also forms the basis of a sub-type (31.8B5p - Crataegus azarolus var. aronia ) of the European Union Habitat Type of habitat type 5330: Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub (European Commission 2013). Found at both low, medium and high and low altitudes in Greece, Cyprus, and Turkey (O. Özden Fuller pers. comm. 2014). In Greece, the species occurs on xeric Mediterranean phrygana and grasslands, as well as on open Pinus and Cupressus woodlands and scrub, roadside and edges of wine-yards (Dimopoulos et al. 2013).

threats:
Considered to be threatened by the expansion of intensive cultivation and residential and tourism developments at lower altitudes in both Cyprus and probably other parts of its native European distribution. Although the species regenerates after fire, repeated fires may destroy some individuals (C. Kadis pers. comm. 2014).

conservationAction:
There is generally very little information on this species. Considered threatened in Malta (Lanfranco 1989). The species was not evaluated (NE) during the preparation of the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (2007) since it is abundant in Cyprus (C. Kadis pers. comm. 2014). The species occurs within protected areas in parts of its range (e.g., in Malta and in Cyprus). The species was cultivated widely in the Mediterranean for centuries but in Italy this species is becoming very rare and few specimens are still cultivated in orchards and gardens for their fruit which is sold locally (Bignami et al. 2003). An EU conservation programme in 1996 dealt with the exploitation of this species (Bignami et al. 2003).

useAndTrade:
A fruit tree used as an ornamental, fruit and medicinal plant and is known for its antibiotic properties and high content of flavanoids and procyanidins. It has been cultivated in the Mediterranean and the use of its fruit for medicine has received more attention than other species of Crataegus for its qualitative and agronomic advantages such as good taste, easier fruit harvest and high plant yield under favourable conditions (Bignami et al . 2003). The leaves, fruit and stem of this plant are known to possess moderate antibiotic capacity and are used in Jordan as traditional anti-diabetic agents (Al-Mustafa and Al-Thunibat 2008). It can be used as a heart tonic for high blood pressure taken either as a tea or tincture (Plants for a Future 2012). The fruit can be eaten raw or cooked, commonly used for making pies and preserves (Plants for a Future 2012). In Cyprus the fruits are eaten raw and are also used for the preparation of marmalade (Tsintides et al. 2002).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major known threats.

range:
Crataegus laevigata is native to Europe. It is also cultivated widely in temperate zones and is naturalised in North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). In Europe it occurs predominantly in Central Europe to the north Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Romania at elevations between 450 and 1,200 m (Castroviejo et al. 1998).

population:
In Ireland and many other regions, this species is extremely uncommon yet is common in its hybrid form (C. monogyna and C. x media ) . However it is not native in Ireland and was most likely introduced from England from commercial nurseries supplying hedge plants (Invasive Species Ireland 2012). It seems abundant everywhere else in its range.    <em style="font-style: italic;

habitat:
Midland hawthorn is a shrub or small tree found in ancient woodlands, borders of woodlands, old hedgerows and banks growing on clay soil. It is also found in open pastureland and associated with Oak and Beech trees. It is a lowland species and is shade tolerant (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1998). The flowers are hermaphrodite and pollinated by midges (Plants for a Future 2012). Blackbirds, thrushes and finches nest in the branches and feed on the haws.

threats:
The threats to this species are not known. The hybridization with other Crateagus species may be causing a decline in this species. Hawthorn populations, especially in the UK, consist of a mixture C. laevigata and C. monogyna to a greater extent than C. laevigata , which is a product of hybridization in the wild and plantation of the hybrid species in nurseries. This hybrid may be considered an invasive species as it is not native to the UK (Allen and Hatfield 2004).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place. It is listed as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al . 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al . 2002) and the UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Hawthorn is considered to be extremely valuable as a medicinal plant and is used for treating heart and circulatory disorders, such as angina. Its fruit contains bioflavanoids which have high antioxidant properties and prevent deterioration of blood vessels. The fruit is also antispasmodic, cardiac, diuretic, sedative, tonic and vasodilator (Plants for a Future 2012). When Crataegus plants are subjected to heat and cold stress this increases the important secondary metabolites and their total antioxidant capacities in leaves. Flavanol and flavanoids are important metabolites used in the preparation of herbal hawthorn remedy for treatment of heart disease (Kirakosyan et al. 2003). The antioxidative flavanoid extracts from the fruit and flowers contain proanthocyanidins which improve blood supply to the heart by dilating coronary vessels, improving metabolic processes in the heart increasing contraction of heart muscles and eliminating some types of arrhythmia and also inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme for treating high blood pressure. Hawthorn extracts have a long history of use in Europe for treating congestive heart failure, especially when combined with digitalis or other plants containing cardioactive glycosides and arteriosclerosis (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution and apparently common occurrence. It is unclear if there has been an overall decline in this species and it is recommended to monitor exploitation and harvest trends, especially in national parks.

range:
Crataegus monogyna is native to North Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), western Temperate Asia and Caucasus and throughout Europe, except the extreme north. It has been introduced and naturalised in North America, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). This species has been widely planted as a hedging plant for many centuries, and the limits of its native distribution are unclear, especially in the United Kingdom. In north Scotland it is found near inhabited areas and in some sites it is certainly introduced but it has a stable distribution (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

population:
It is abundant throughout Europe (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). The overall population trend at European level is not known, but there might be declines as the species is harvested.

habitat:
Hawthorn is a shrub or small tree growing up to 10 metres tall and occurs on the borders of forests and woodland, scrub, hedgerow and along fences and with bramble and other thorny thickets, rough grassy habitats, heaths and moors, lowland and upland (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1998). It can persist on grazed sites as scattered bushes and is able to spread rapidly when grazing is reduced. Its fruits are an important winter food for birds (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
There are no major threats to this species in most part of its range. It is possible that land clearance and development and overgrazing may stop this species from occurring naturally in some areas. Collection from the wild in large quantities may be threatening this species in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed, except perhaps where this species is collected from the wild in large quantities. It is listed as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is considered to be Vulnerable (A2ac) in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010) and Data Deficient in Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012).

useAndTrade:
It is a popular native shrub used as a hedging plant ornamentally as it produces white blossom in spring and red haws in autumn which provides food for many birds species and its dense thorny branches provide ideal roosting and nesting for birds (HedgesDirect 2012). The entire plant is edible. Its fruit can be eaten raw, although it does not taste pleasant, so is used to make preserves and jams. The flowers can be used in syrups and sweet puddings; a tea can be prepared from the dried leaves (Plants for a Future 2012). Hawthorn can be used as a veterinary remedy for diarrhoea in bullocks (Allen and Hatfield 2004). Its medicinal properties are very similar to that of Crataegus laevigata in that the antioxidative flavanoid extracts from the fruit and flowers contain proanthocyanidins which improve blood supply to the heart by dilating coronary vessels, improving metabolic processes in the heart increasing contraction of heart muscles and elimating some types of arrhythmia and also inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme for treating high blood pressure. Hawthorn extracts have a long history of use in Europe for treating congestive heart failure, especially when combined with digitalis or other plants containing cardioactive glycosides and arteriosclerosis (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). In Bulgaria Hawthorn is collected in largest quantities from the wild (3% of the average total declared export, around 400 tonnes per annum including leaves, fruits and flowers) and is listed as being amongst the top six plants used predominantly for medicinal purposes that are harvested from the wild throughout the entire country (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004, Kathe et al. 2003). In Albania this species is among the top ten most collected plants, among many others and collection is determined by the region, season and demand, for its leaves and berries. It is collected from within National Parks in Albania. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hawthorn is one the top eighteen most collected species harvested from the wild, an estimated 10 tonnes of dried plants collected annually for its fruit. One hundred percent collected plants are intended for the international market. In Romania the leaves are collected from Transylvania at an estimated 58 tonnes of which 20% is intended for local market, 25% for national market and 55% for international market. The flowers and leaves, approximately 28 tonnes traded, bring around $52,000 in revenue from trade (Kathe et al . 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)


The species is endemic to central-eastern Europe (Carpathian Basin) and the northern Balkans; confirmed historical native records of the species are from Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia, Romania, and Serbia, however it appears that the species range has greatly diminished in recent years, with confirmed current records only known from the Danube floodplain in Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers com 2014) and Serbia, with no recent records of the species from other former parts of its range, and it is considered possibly extinct in Slovakia and Romania. In Hungary, the forest habitat area has been reduced due to industrialization. It is also impacted by a range of threats including forest clearance, forest management methods, development of plantations, declining groundwater levels, and grazing by wild animals (primarily deer). Based on available recent records of the species from Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014), the extent of occurrence of the species is estimated at 3,188 km2 and the area of occupancy at 128 km2 (the latter is assumed to be an under-estimate).

This species is given a precautionary assessment of Endangered (A2ac; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)) in both Europe (and thus globally) and the EU 27, as it is threatened or has disappeared across a significant portion of its range over the past several decades, and continues to decline. Although the population decline can't be accurately estimated with the data available, it is thought to approach or exceed 50% in the past three generations, with causative declines in AOO, EOO, and habitat quality and extent.


More information on the current population size, trends and the overall rate of decline is needed, and confirmation of the species presence and distribution in all parts of its former range. This species' habitat should be protected, unfavourable forest management methods improved, and alien species controlled to protect declining populations.

range:
The species is endemic to central-eastern Europe (the Carpathian Basin) and the northern Balkans (Kurtto 2009, USDA 2013 ). Confirmed records of the species are from Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia, Romania and Serbia (G. Király pers. comm. 2013), however it appears that the species' range has greatly diminished in recent years, with current confirmed records known only from the Danube floodplain in Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014). In the northern Balkans, the species was known from the Danube basin, but is considered possibly extinct from here, with no recent records (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014). Records from the Suva Planina Mountains in southeast Serbia (Papp and Erzberger 2009) require confirmation as they may be a misidentification of Crataegus pentagyna, as may records from Montenegro (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014). Hungary 26 recent populations known, ten populations disappeared in the last 50 years, with recent records of the species restricted to along the Danube from Csepel Island to the Hungarian border. Slovakia Possibly extinct; previously recorded from Bratislava (old data); currently only known in cultivation (Marhold and Hindák 2014). Croatia The species is present south from the Hungary-Croatia border along the Danube, in the Baranja and Eastern Slavonia regions; the southeastern population is near Ilok. Serbia Previously known from nine sites along the Danube, but considered likely to have been lost from some; there are recent records from the Begečka Jama wetlands (Danube Virtual Museum 2014), the Gornje Podunavlje Ramsar wetland (Stojnić 2007) and the Karapandža natural park (Márkus and Ŝakić undated); records of the species from the Suva Planina Mountains require confirmation. Romania Five sites were known along the Danube; possibly extinct, the eastern occurrence of the species was from Turnu Severin, with the last record from 1955. Considered introduced (cultivated) in the Czech Republic (Danihelka et al. 2012). The species has in the past been misidentified as Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd., but this species lives in xerotherm forests, while C. nigra is found in alluvial forests (Bartha and Kerényi-Nagy 2010). Based on available recent records of the species from Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014), the extent of occurrence of the species is estimated at 3,188 km2 and the area of occupancy at 128 km2 (the latter is assumed to be an under-estimate).

population:
The total population size is unknown, but this species is uncommon across its remaining range; it is rare in Hungary and Croatia (M. Idzojtic pers. comm. 2014), and possibly extinct in the wild in Serbia, Romania, and Slovakia (Kurtto 2009, G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

In Slovakia its threat status is unclear according to Čeřovský et al. (1999); Marhold and Hindák (2014) list it as occurring only in cultivation in Slovakia. Although it is rare and fairly unknown in Croatia, it is naturally widespread along the Danube River in Baranja and Eastern Slavonia. The population is considered endangered and declining in Hungary, where a majority of the subpopulations are found (Baričevič et al. 2004, Király 2007, G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

In Croatia, the number of known sub-populations has declined by nearly 50% (from 57 to 29 sub-populations; D. Bartha, pers. comm. 2014).

habitat:
A deciduous tree or shrub found in found in alluvial forests (Bartha and Kerényi-Nagy 2010), forest edges and shrubland. It occurs sporadically in closed forest stands, though it does not thrive there. It differs from other European species of Crataegus in that it is found in flooded alluvial habitats along major waterways and edges of poplar, ash and oak forests, where it usually forms small stands in the form of secondary hydrophilic bushy communities (Papp and Erzberger 2009, Čarni et al. 2004, Franjić et al. 2006). Many Crataegus species are long-lived, with some living for hundreds of years; the generation length for this species is estimated at 30-50 years.

threats:
In Hungary, the forest habitat area has been reduced due to industrialization (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is also threatened by forest clearance, rough forest management methods, forestation with alien species, overpopulated game-stock, introgressive hybridization, gene pool erosion and shrub clearance (Bartha and Nagy 2004, Bartha and Kerényi-Nagy 2013), as well as    significant hybridization with Crataegus monogyna   (Király 2007). Additional threats include declining groundwater lev els, and grazing by wild animals (primarily deer).

conservationAction:
Assessed as Endangered in Hungary, where a major proportion of its subpopulations are found and it is strictly protected (Király 2007, G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is listed as presumably extinct in Slovakia in the Euro+Med Plantbase (Kurtto 2009), though according to Čeřovský et al. (1999), its threat status is unclear. It does not appear in the Carpathian Red List (Witkowski et al. 2003), and is not listed in the Red Book of Vascular Flora of Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). The species occurs in several protected areas within its range including Béda-Karapancsa / Karapandža transboundary park, the Begečka Jama wetlands, and the Gornje Podunavlje Ramsar wetland. More information is needed on the overall population size and trends. Where the species is threatened, its habitat should be protected, unfavourable forest management methods improved, and game-stock and alien species controlled to protect declining populations.

useAndTrade:
This species is planted along water courses to repair embankments (Papp and Erzberger 2009, Čarni et al. 2004, Franjić et al. 2006). It is considered to be a medicinal and aromatic plant (Kathe et al. 2003) and is known for its fruit (Baričevič et al. 2004).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Crataegus pentagyna has a wide distribution in eastern Europe and the Balkans. There is no information on the population size or trend, actual or potential threats, or evidence of declines within Europe. It is therefore classed as Data Deficient.

range:
Crataegus pentagyna is native to eastern Europe, east of the Black Sea and Asian Turkey (Kurtto 2009). Its presence in Bosnia and Herzegovia is uncertain (Kurtto 2009, Franjić and Škvorc 2010), and Franjić and Škvorc (2010) doubt its occurrence in Croatia as well. It is found in several localities in Albania (Bistricë (Delvina District), Draç Gjiri i Lalzit (Durrësi District), Çajup, Zhej, Picar (Gjirokastëra District), Mali i Thatë, Voskopojë (Korça District); Shelegurë (Erseka District)) (L. Shuka pers. comm. 2013).

habitat:
A large shrub or deciduous tree found in woodland margins, Pannonian Oak and mixed forests (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011, Plants for a Future 2012). Flowering in June, its flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by midges; it can tolerate atmospheric pollution (Plants for a Future 2012).

conservationAction:
It is not listed in any National Red Book. Quercus polycarpa habitat in Bulgaria is classified as Endangered (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2012), but it is unknown if this species is restricted to this habitat type. It is cultivated in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). More information is needed on the population size and trends, and the actual or potential threats to this species.

useAndTrade:
There is no specific use information available for this species, but the fruits and flowers of many Hawthorn species have an extensive history of use in traditional medicine to treat cardiovascular disease, and are widely used today for treating heart conditions. Normally prepared into a tea or tincture, the fruits and flowers have a hypotensive effect and act as a direct and mild heart tonic, and are especially indicated in the treatment of weak heart combined with high blood pressure (Plants for a Future 2012). The fruits of several Hawthorn species are reported to have very high amount of total phenolics and high antioxidant capacity and activity (Çalişkan et al. 2012). The heavy, hard wood can also be used for making tool handles, mallets and other small items (Plants for a Future 2012). Although some Hawthorn species are cultivated, usually they are selected from nature (Çalişkan et al. 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Filipendula ulmaria is native to temperate Asia (Mongolia, Siberia and China), and North, Middle and East Europe except the high Arctic and much of the Mediterranean region. It has been cultivated and become naturalised in other regions in Europe and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Heukels 2000). It covers a great part of Europe but is scarce around the Mediterranean regions and limited to montane environments. It can be found from sea level to elevations between 1,600 and 2,000 m (Castroviejo et al. 1998).

population:
The distribution and populations in the United Kingdom are stable (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). This species is listed as Least Concern in several European countries and there is no information about populations declining anywhere.

habitat:
Meadowsweet is a perennial herb associated with damp or wet habitat types on neutral or calcareous fertile soils. It is common on sites where water levels fluctuate but absent from permanently water logged sites. The associated habitats include marshes, streams, riversides, wet deciduous woodland, damp meadows, swamps, fens, ditches, railway banks, damp roadsides and montane herb community habitats. However, it can sometimes persist and grow on north facing chalk grasslands which are often dry. It flowers from May to August (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Heukels 2000).

threats:
The threats to this species are not known. This species is affected by the rust pathogen Triphragmium ulmariae and the incidence of the disease is positively correlated with population size (Burdon et al . 1995). It is likely that this species is susceptible to reduced water levels during droughts and habitats such as fens are threatened by drainage, over-abstraction of ground water and increased temperatures and prolonged droughts by climate change (Fojt 1994).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. This species is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Like willows, the meadowsweet contains salicylate which is used widely as an alternative to aspirin without the side effects. Historically it has been used for treatment of agues and fevers and even colds, coughs, sore throats and headaches. It is also reputed to be a treatment for burning or itchy eyes, curing diarrhoea and stomach pains. This plant is also used as a veterinary remedy for diarrhoea in calves (Allen and Hatfield 2004). The compound salicin was isolated from the flower buds of F. ulmaria in 1839 and has been synthesised since then as an anticoagulant (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The leaves, flowers and roots are used for brewing tea, flavouring and making non-alcoholic beverages. The plant is harvested in July when in full bloom and dries for later use. It has anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, diaphoretic and aromatic properties (Plants for a Future 2012). Filipendulae ulmariae herba consists of the whole or cut, dried flowering tops of Filipendula ulmaria . The uses of Filipendula shifted over the years from a diuretic towards an antirheumatic. The flowers and herb are comminuted as a herbal tea for oral use but is also available as a powdered herbal substance and liquid dosage as well as a tincture of the herb. The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia states its uses as having stomachic, mild urinary antiseptic, antirheumatic and antacid actions whilst the British Herbal Compendium describes its uses as anti-inflammatory. It is therefore used for treatment of colds, articular pains, renal and digestive problems and as an analgesic for headache and toothache (European Medicines Agency 2011).


range:
Filipendula vulgaris is native to northern Africa (Morocco), western temperate Asia and Siberia and Europe. It has become naturalised in Macaronesia (Portugal and Azores) and is adventive in the Russian Far East and western North America. It is also cultivated widely in the northern temperate hemisphere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m elevation (Castroviejo et al. 1998).

population:
This species has declined in southeast England due to loss of chalk habitat and is described as rare and uncommon in the UK. However, it easily escapes and becomes naturalised in a variety of habitats (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Dropwort is a perennial herb generally found in calcareous grasslands, chalk and limestone downs, rough pastures and meadows but also in waterlogged soils, along borders of streams, oak and pine groves and plantations and gardens. It also occurs on coastal inland heaths on limestone and chalk (Castroviejo et al . 1998, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). This species may be more drought tolerant than other species in the Rosaceae family (Stace et al. 2012). In Denmark it is characteristic of non-acidic grasslands which are highly fragmented and occurring in marginal areas not suitable for agriculture or development. Populations here are isolated but this does not reduce genetic variability as it is insect pollinated and wind pollinated to a lesser extent (Weidema et al. 2000).

threats:
Declines have been reported from southeast England due to the conversion of grasslands into arable land, loss of chalk habitats and due to lack of grazing (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). There appear to be no threats from collection as it has limited uses in medicine.

conservationAction:
The species occurs on the following national red lists: Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) Near Threatened in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). Filipendula vulgaris exists in ex situ collections (RBG Kew 2012).

useAndTrade:
The roots of Rosaceae plants are generally rich in tannins and and antioxidants (Oszmianski et al 2007). The leaf essential oil of this species consists mostly of salicylaldehyde which has high antimicrobial activity to bacteria and fungi and works more effectively in combination with linalool than on its own (Radulovic 2007). This plant can be used for the treatment of epilepsy, kidney and bladder stones, genital discharges and intestinal worms (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Fragaria vesca L. is a tertiary wild relative of strawberry, Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Fragaria vesca is widely distributed across Europe and is common and widespread throughout its European range. It is therefore regionally assessed as Least Concern. However, declines in subpopulation size have been reported in some countries and it is threatened by changes in grazing regimes in Finland and Norway. Therefore, population and habitat monitoring is needed throughout its range.

range:
F . vesca is native to and widely distributed throughout northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia and North America, and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries: Finland: found throughout the country but most frequently in southern and central parts (H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010). France: widespread; occurs in all departments within the country, including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000– 2010). Ireland: widespread throughout the whole of the country (Preston et al . 2002). Netherlands: occurs throughout the country (Mennema et al . 1985). Norway: occurs all over, but is more frequent in the south. Portugal: common in central, northern and Algarve regions; thought to be not present in the centre of the country. UK: widespread distribution throughout England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston et al . 2002).

population:
This species is common and widespread throughout its European range. However, according to Preston et al . (2002), there may have been a decline in its frequency in the last 40–50 years in the UK. In the Netherlands it occurred in 532 hour-squares before 1950 and after 1950 in 406 (Mennema et al . 1985). Tamis et al. (2003) report that the species occurs in 1,001–3,000 1x1 km grid squares. The species is included in the Dutch Red List and is considered as sensitive.

habitat:
F. vesca is often found in woodland and shrub areas in Europe. In Finland it can be found in herb-rich and heath f orest, field and road edges, and in open and/or rocky fields ( H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010) . In the UK it occurs in woodland and scrub habitats, hedge banks, railway banks, roadsides, on rocky outcrops and in scree in upland areas (Preston et al . 2002). It is also known to colonize open areas in quarries and chalk pits, is able to grow on walls and prefers dry, stony soils (Preston et al . 2002). Tamis et al. (2003) report that in the Netherlands the species occurs in forests and shrub habitat on humid/dry and basic soils with a low fertility. It can also be found in grasslands with a humid and moderately fertile soil.

threats:
Although this species is common in Finland and Norway, it is losing suitable habitat due to a lack of grazing, leading to a decrease in the number of subpopulations in these countries. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout the rest of its European range.

conservationAction:
The genus Fragaria is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Fragaria vesca is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). As it is a widespread species, some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. EURISCO reports 130 germplasm accessions of F. vesca held in European genebanks, 28 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 11 originate from within Europe: Austria (one), Croatia (three), Italy (four), Spain (two) and the Ukraine (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
F . vesca is a tertiary wild relative of and potential gene donor to strawberry and is also sometimes collected from the wild for human consumption. The leaves of this species can be used for medicinal purposes and tea mixtures.


range:
Geum urbanum is native to North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), temperate Asia and Europe where it is very widespread at elevations from sea level to 2,100 m. It has become naturalised in Australasia and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1998).

population:
Populations in the UK have remained stable and this species is widespread and abundant throughout its range (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Vandepitte et al. 2007).

habitat:
Geum urbanum is a perennial herb which grows on drained, mildly acid to calcareous soils and occurs along forest fringes, deciduous woodland, especially disturbed secondary woodland, scrub, hedgerows, meadows and disturbed open habitats, fences and as a weed in gardens (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1998). Its wide distribution pattern suggest it has wide climatic tolerances, and photosynthesis and growth at high altitudes are directly linked to temperature (Taylor 1997).

threats:
Overall, the species does not appear to be threatened. Vandepitte et al. (2007) reports that deforestation is affecting this species as it primarily occurs in woodland and even where regeneration occurs, it has been found to be absent from successional patches younger than 50 years .

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
This herb species is not commonly used in medicine but it does have astringent properties to treat problems of the mouth, throat and gastrointestinal tract. It has the ability to soften tissue and is used for treatment of mouth ulcers, ideal for gargling for throat problems. All parts are anti-inflammatory, especially the roots, and can be taken as an infusion internally to alleviate diarrhoea and gastrointestinal problems or applied externally to wash haemorrhoids, genital discharges and skin infections (Plants for Life 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. is a primary wild relative of apple, M . domestica Borkh. (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Three subspecies are native to Europe: M . sylvestris ssp. orientalis (Uglitzk.) Browicz, M . sylvestris ssp. praecox (Pall.) Soó and M . sylvestris (L.) Mill. ssp. sylvestris (Kurtto 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Although Malus sylvestris is relatively widely distributed in Europe, hybridization with cultivated M. domestica is thought to be having a significant impact on the population. It is not known to what extent the genetic diversity of the species has been affected; therefore, it is regionally assessed as Data Deficient.

range:
M . sylvestris is native to many parts of northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows: Finland: occurs in the southwest. Norway: scattered in the north; more common in south. Slovakia: common throughout the country (Marhold 1992). Netherlands: widespread (Mennema et al . 1985). Portugal: only in the north. Spain: widespread. France: widespread throughout the most of the country but not recorded in the departments of Paris and Seine-Saint-Denis in the north, Rhône to the east or Lot-et-Garonne to the southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). United Kingdom: widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland, although its distribution is patchy in northern Scotland (Preston et al . 2002). Ireland: widespread throughout the whole of the country (Preston et al . 2002).

population:
Knowledge of the European subpopulation is available for the following countries:  Finland: infrequent.  Italy: not very common. Slovakia: stable. Germany: common but hybridized with cultivated plants. Netherlands: before 1950 the species occurred in 124 hour-squares and after 1950 in 628 hour-squares (Mennema et al . 1985). Tamis et al . (2003) reported that the species occurs in 3,001–10,000 1x1 km grid squares.

habitat:
In Finland, this species grows in rocky, herb-rich forests, waterfront thickets and forests and rich meadows—it favours limy soil (H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010). In the United Kingdom and Ireland it grows in hedgerows, scrub, copses, roadsides and also on rough ground (Preston et al . 2002), while in the Netherlands, it grows in forests and shrubwoods on humid and moderately fertile soils (Tamis et al . 2003). Where the species grows in forest margins, it has to compete with taller forest species. In Iberia, it grows from sea level to 1,800 m, in Germany the maximum altitude is 1,000 m, while in Norway it is 550 m.

threats:
The main threats are hybridization with M. domestica and forest management, particularly as the species tends to grow in forest margins. As  the plants mainly occur as isolated individuals, rather than as viable populations, they are susceptible to events.

conservationAction:
Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of M. sylvestris is available for the following European countries:  Germany: Endangered; there is an ongoing rescue management project in place (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). Finland: Vulnerable (H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010). Denmark: Least Concern (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). Netherlands: Least Concern (C. Kik pers. comm. 2010). Germany: possibly threatened but no regional data on occurrences (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010).        It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of the protected areas in which it occurs.      EURISCO reports 52 germplasm accessions of M. sylvestris held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin and does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage is a priority for this species. Research is needed to determine the effect of hybridization with M. domestica on the genetic diversity of M. sylvestris .

useAndTrade:
M . sylvestris is a primary wild relative of and potential gene donor to apple, M . domestica and is also a widely cultivated ornamental tree. It is sometimes collected from the wild for food (for humans and farmed animals) and for medicinal purposes.


range:
Potentilla erecta is native to Macaronesia (Portugal and Azores), temperate western Asia, Caucasus, Siberia and Europe and occurs from sea level up to 2,300 m. It has become naturalised in North America and is cultivated widely in northern temperate regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1998).

population:
It is widespread and abundant throughout Europe (Botanical Society of the British Isles 2012).

habitat:
Tormentil is a perennial herb commonly found in upland and montane grasslands, heaths, moors, wet hay and fen meadows, edges of watercourses, open forests, bogs and hedgebanks on acid soils, avoiding chalk (Castroviejo et al . 1998, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The Tormentil Mining Bee (a Biodiversity Action Plan species in the United Kingdom), Andrena tarsata and its rare listed cleptoparasite Nomada roberjeotiana are strongly associated with P. erecta as well as other Potentilla species (Botanical Society of the British Isles 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Near Threatened in the national red list of Luxembourg (Colling 2005) but Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Tormentil is used as a traditional herbal medicinal for the symptomatic treatment of mild diarrhoea and minor inflammations of the oral mucosa. It can be administered through herbal preparations by comminuted herbal substance for diffusion or decoction, tincture, liquid or dry extract for oromucosal use (European Medicine Agency 2010). This plant contains high concentrations of tannin (20% in the roots) and all parts of the plant are considered to be one of the safest native astringents and is used widely for treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and sore throat. A red dye can be produced from the roots (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Prunus spinosa L. is a wild relative of almond, P. dulcis (Mill.) D. A. Webb, peach and nectarine, P . persica (L.) Batsch, plum, P . domestica L., cultivated sloe, P . spinosa L. and sweet cherry, P . avium (L.) L. Two subspecies are native to Europe: P . spinosa ssp. dasyphylla (Schur) Domin and P . spinosa ssp. spinosa (Kurtto 2009). In Portugal, an endemic subspecies is recognized: P. spinosa ssp. insititioides (Fic. & Coutinho) Franco, which is easily confused with P. domestica L. ssp. insititia (L.) C.K. Schneider (Espírito-Santo 1996).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Prunus spinosa is widely distributed across Europe and is known to be widespread, common and stable throughout much of its range. It is therefore regionally assessed as Least Concern.

However, it is nationally threatened in some countries at the periphery of its range and national level monitoring is required.

range:
P . spinosa is native to and widely distributed throughout northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, and is also native to Iran, Turkey and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). P. spinosa ssp. insititioides is an endemic species from centre-west areas of Portugal, although there are records from the northeastern part of the country dating back the end of the 19th century (Espírito-Santo 1996). Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries: Slovakia: P. spinosa ssp. spinosa is common throughout the country; P. spinosa ssp. dasyphylla is distributed in the south (Bertová 1992). France: widespread, occurring in all departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000– 2010). UK: widespread in all areas of England, Wales and Northern Ireland; also widespread in Scotland although its distribution becomes patchy in the far north (Preston et al . 2002. Ireland: widespread across the whole of the country (Preston et al . 2002). Netherlands: widespread (Mennema et al. 1985).

population:
It is reported to be widespread and common in many countries and is known to be stable in Slovakia, Italy, Spain, Portugal , the Netherlands and the UK.

habitat:
This species is able to grow in various soil types, occurring in open woodland, scrub, hedgerows, scree and cliff-slopes in the UK (Preston et al . 2002). In Finland it is found in forest edges, roadside thickets, rocky sites and meadows, favouring limy soil. The Portuguese endemic P. spinosa ssp. insititioides occurs in alkaline soils and is frequent in woods, ditches, edges of paths and hedges (Espírito-Santo 1996).

threats:
There is thought to be some hybridization occurring with cultivated P. domestica , which is threatening the genetic integrity of the species.

conservationAction:
This species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007 ) and as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. The Portuguese endemic P. spinosa ssp. insititioides occurs partly in the Natural Park of Serra de Aire e Caindeeiros (Espírito-Santo1992) and the Natural Park of Sintra-Cascais (Espírito-Santo 1996). According to Espírito-Santo (1996) there is no need to undertake special conservation measures. EURISCO reports 30 germplasm accessions of P. spinosa held in European genebanks, 13 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe—four from Spain (stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain) and one from France (stored in Nikitskyi Botanical Gardens, Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).

useAndTrade:
P . spinosa is a wild relative of and potential gene donor to almond, peach and nectarine, plum, cultivated sloe and sweet cherry . P. spinosa ssp. insititioides is used as an ornamental and in hedges separating private land properties (Espírito-Santo 1996). The fruits of this subspecies are also used in producing alcoholic beverages (Espírito-Santo 1996).

redListAssessors:
Korpelainen, H., Draper, D., Tavares, M., Eliáš, P., Strajeru, S., Smekalova, T., Collett, L., Labokas, J., Magos Brehm, J. and Bulińska, Z.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Rosa agrestis has a widespread distribution throughout Europe. There is no evidence of significant declines across its range; though it has gone extinct in Denmark (cause unknown) and is Critically Endangered in Sweden (due to its extremely small population size), it is not known to be threatened in any other countries. It may be naturally uncommon. Threats appear to be relatively localised, and include habitat and direct loss due to ploughing, reduction of grazing, afforestation, invasion of alien species, and shrub clearance. It does not appear to be widely collected or used. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, presence in a number of protected areas, and lack of known significant threats.

range:
Rosa agrestis is native to Europe, north Asia and north Africa (Kurtto 2009). It becomes more rare in the north and is absent in the extreme north. It has been recorded in Bulgaria over the entire country (Assyov et al. 2012). It is widespread and common in northeast Spain, France (especially northern France), and central to southern Germany (Anthos 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, INPN 2012).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. In United Kingdom it has been described as scarce as the subpopulations are fragmented and often consist of only a few individuals; however, it is easily overlooked and underdocumented, and new locations are being found with increased surveying (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, BSBI 2004). It may be naturally uncommon.

habitat:
A rather inconspicuous deciduous shrub, found in scrubland and calcareous grassland growing on chalk or limestone (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is also found in Central Iberian sub-Mediterranean deciduous thickets (European Environment Agency 2010), and in hedges and woodland clearings in slate, red sandstone, gravel and other substrates (Castroviejo et al. 1998).

threats:
It is threatened by habitat loss due to ploughing, reduction of grazing which causes overshading and competition (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In Hungary it is threatened by afforestation, forestation with alien species, invasion of alien weeds and shrub clearance (Bartha and Nagy 2004).

conservationAction:
Rosa agrestis is classified as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002); Near Threatened in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), and considered to be Near Threatened in Hungary (Bartha and Nagy 2004) but listed as Data Deficient (Király 2007); Rare in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006); Critically Endangered in Sweden (criterion D) (Gärdenfors 2010) and Regionally Extinct in Denmark (NERI 2007). It is Data Deficient in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012). It is fully protected in the Swiss cantons of Geneva, Schaffhausen and Vaud (Info Flora 1994-2012). It occurs in the following protected areas: Carpathian Biosphere Reserve (Ukraine), Kungsbackafjorden (Sweden), Montagne Saint-Pierre (Belgium), Parco Del Somma-Vesuvio e Miglio D'Oro National Park (Italy), Severn Estuary and New Forest and Y Fenai a Bae Conwy/ Menai Strait and Conwy Bay (United Kingdom) (Global Species 2009-2012). It

The species is found in several Natura 2000 sites in Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Ireland, Sweden and Spain (European Environment Agency 2010). Its habitats require protection where they are in significant decline. More information is required on the population size and trend, as well as the impact of actual or potential threats on the population across its range.

useAndTrade:
There is very little use and trade information for this species; it does not seem to be an important medicinal or culinary species. Bitis et al. (2010) found Rosa agrestis leaf extract to show significant antioxidative activity, attributed to its high content of total phenolics, flavonoids and proanthocyanidins. Roses are popular ornamental plants; their petals are commonly used for perfumery and food industries, and their fruits, called rose hips, are known for their high vitamin C content and are often cooken into jams, syrups, etc. and made into tea. However, whether this species is sourced for such uses is unknown.


range:
Rosa canina is native to North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), Macaronesia (Madeira and Canary Islands), western and middle temperate Asia, Caucasus, Pakistan and Europe from sea level to 2,000 m elevation. It has become naturalised in USA, New Zealand and Australia and is also cultivated widely (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1998).

population:
This is a common and widespread species.

habitat:
Dog-rose is a deciduous shrub of well-drained calcareous to moderately acidic soils. It is found in habitats such as woodland, scrub, hedgerows, cliffs, river banks, rock outcrops, hedges, thickets and pine or oak groves. It can rapidly colonise open, disturbed sites and is found on roadsides, railways and waste ground (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1998).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010) and Least Concern in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The rose hip seed contains valuable oil used for medicinal purposes. The fruits is rich in vitamin A, C and E flavanoids, which are found in higher concentration in wild plants than cultivated ones. The petals and fruits are astringent, diuretic, laxative, ophthalmic and tonic. It is commonly used to treat flu, colds, sore throats, minor infectious diseases, scurvy, diarrhoea and gastritis and can be administered as capsules, powders, gels, creams, infusions, teas and syrup. The fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and is used for making jams and syrups (Szentmihályi et al. 2002, Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Rosa gallica is widespread in Europe, but it has suffered substantial declines in several countries. The threats are unknown across most of its range, though it is threatened by habitat loss and degradation in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), and these threats are likely to exist in other parts of its range. It is also one of the few species frequently used to obtain essential oil and distilled water of roses, and is especially common in phytotherapy for its richness in tannins, so collection pressure may exist on wild populations. It does not appear to be very widespread or abundant in any country with readily available population information.

At the European level, this species is listed as Data Deficient as, though it is declining in parts of its range, no information is available on its status in substantial portions of its range, nor have population declines been quantified across Europe. Given known declines, notably across central Europe, it may be threatened at the European level, but this cannot be confirmed with current information.


Within the EU 27, this species is threatened and declining in four countries (Czech Republic, Germany, Italy and Poland), which make up a substantial part of its EU 27 distribution. It is therefore suspected that population declines within the EU 27 may approach 30% over the past three generations, and the species is classified as Near Threatened, nearly meeting VU A2c.

It is not known whether populations outside the EU 27 could help maintain the EU 27 population, as the status of subpopulations in the eastern part of its range is unknown and there is no data available on their dispersal ability. The original category is therefore unchanged. Further research is needed into the population status and trends, particularly from the eastern part of its range, as well as the threats that may be affecting it across its range. It is strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all the data is available. It might then require a higher threat category. Habitat management is recommended to protect the species where it is threatened.

range:
Rosa gallica is native to central and southern Europe, eastward to Turkey and the Caucasus; it is also found in north Africa, where it is extremely rare and presumed not native but rather escaped from gardens (Maire 1980, Kurtto 2009, Dobignard and Chatelain 2013). Kurtto (2009) reports the species as native to France, but INPN (2012) reports it as introduced. It occurs in Spain as an alien species but is recorded from less than 30 localities (Anthos 2010). It occurs over many scattered localities in southern Poland, where there are also many varieties of the subspecies Rosa gallica subsp. gallica (Wronska-Pilarek and Boratynska 2005). South-western Ukraine and the western Caucasus form the absolute border of this species' range (Chukhina and Sinitsyna 2003-2009).

population:
The total population size is unknown, however, this species is known to be declining in various parts of its range. It does not appear to be very widespread or abundant in France. It has strongly declined in parts of its range in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012). In Switzerland, there are less than 2,500 mature individuals and the population is declining (Moser et al . 2002). This species has declined sharply in Germany and is threatened in the last remaining sites; it is declining across all of central Europe ( Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). More information is needed on the population status in other countries, particularly in the eastern part of its range.

habitat:
This is a spiny deciduous shrub. It is found in a variety of habitats, including as a naturalised garden escape in scrub and hedgerows, on roadsides and railway banks, and in rough grassland (Castroviejo et al. 1998, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012)

threats:
The threats are unknown across most of its range, though in Germany this species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, including both the loss of shrubland through clearing, and succession from shrubland habitat to forest (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). Collection from the wild for may be an additional, though probably minor, threat.

conservationAction:
This plant is classified as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000, Grulich 2012), Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Italy (Baričevič et al. 2004), and is threatened (3+: gefährdet) in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). According to Wronska-Pilarek and Boratynska (2005), it was classified as Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book of Plants by Zielinski in 2001. In France, wild specimens are protected from all forms of destruction, and any kind of collection, transportation or trade is subject to authorization [Liste des espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire français métropolitain : Article 2, Article 3]. Further research is needed into the population status and trends, as well as the threats that may be affecting it across its range. Habitat management is recommended to protect the species where it is threatened.

useAndTrade:
Rosa gallica is grown for medicinal use in the form of rose petal syrups or conserves, and as an ornamental flower (RBG Kew 2013). Rose petals are most commonly used for perfumery and food industries, and rose hips are known for their high content of Vitamin C. Of the large number of rose species and varieties, only a few are used to obtain essential oil and distilled water of roses; while R. damascena is the most important species, R. gallica is also frequently used (Castroviejo et al. 1998). Flower buds and the petals of some roses, especially Rosa gallica , are used in phytotherapy for their richness in tannins; they are used topically to treat some skin afflictions (Castroviejo et al. 1998). The leaves are used in Chinese medicine for treatment of carbuncles, furuncles and burns, the roots for treatment of arthritis and injuries (Nowak and Gawlick-Dziki 2006). This is not considered to be an important medicinal plant in Europe.


taxonomicNotes:
The species is believed to be a highly complex phylogenetic taxon and needs further investigation (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species plays an important ecological role as shelter, nesting site and food resource for birds and wild animals. The range of occurrence has declined since the 1960 in the western parts of its European range, but no decline has been reported in the last 20 years (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). This plant is considered rare in several European countries; however, it has a large distribution and without information on the extent of population declines, it does not qualify for a threatened category in Europe or the EU 27. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species distribution extends from central and southern France through the Jura and the Alps to the German low mountain ranges , including the Carpathians and the Balkans, southwestern Russia and the Caucasus (GRIN 2010, GBIF 2011, Euro+Med Plantbase 2014).

population:
The species population has declined in Germany and Switzerland over the last 60 years, probably due to habitat destruction due to industrial and agronomic development (Infoflora 2013, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).

habitat:
The species grows on warm dry sites , forest edges , in thickets and hedges and on rocky slopes, preferably on calcareous soil . In the mountains, the plant occurs up 1,800 m altitude (Assyov and Petrova 2006). The plants provide important ecological services as the species' fruits are an important food source and nesting site for over 25 bird species, 10 wild bee species and over 100 insect species (Timmermann and Müller 1994).

threats:
In the past, habitat destruction due to urbanization, industrial and agricultural development are responsible for declines in some parts of the species range (Infoflora 2013, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). Current threats are not known.

conservationAction:
The plant is listed as Least Concern in Germany and Near Threatened in Switzerland (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, Infoflora 2014). In Austria, the species is Critically Endangered ( stark gefährdet ) (Herzog.Baum 2014). In Russia, the species is listed as vulnerable in the Kursk Oblast (Zolotukhin 2002).

useAndTrade:
Like other wild roses, the species produces rose hips which are used for herbal teas, jam, jelly, syrup, rose hip soup, beverages, pies, bread, wine, and marmalade. Rose hips are particularly high in vitamin C content (Ziegler et al. 1986). Moreover, rose hips contain high amounts of lycopene, an important and strong antioxidant (Jacoby and Wokes 1944). Traditionally, rose hips are used to help prevent influenza and colds. Rose hips are also the main ingredient of Litozin capsules to treat rheumatoid arthritis (BBC News 2007). Although the species produces rose hips, commercially available products are most probably made of the very abundant wild or cultivated roses like Rosa canina . The species is also found in the ornamental plant trade.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Rosa pendulina is widespread throughout European montane pine forests and scrub. Rose hips and leaves are known for their medicinal value and are widely used in food products, but there is no information on the quantities of this species harvested from the wild or in cultivation. It is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, there are no significant threats or declines documented, it occurs in a number of protected areas, and because the information available indicates it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. More information on the population size and trends, as well as the extent of collection pressure, is needed.

range:
Rosa pendulina is native to central and southern Europe, found at elevations up to 2,500 metres asl (Kurtto 2009, Assyov and Petrova 2006). It occurs predominantly in mountains and hills in the Alps, Carpathians, Balkan Mountains, Apennines and Pyrenees (Fer et al. 2007).

population:
There is no information on the population size or trend available. In Spain all individuals are found only across the northern part of the country (Anthos 2010), while in Germany it is distributed primarily in the south (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is restricted to montane areas in France. In the Czech Republic it is common in mountainous and hilly landscapes. All populations at locations in the Czech Republic and surrounding regions are of Carpathian origin. A contact zone between Carpathian and Alpine migration routes of Rosa pendulina is probably located in the Danube valley (Fer et al. 2007).

habitat:
A woody shrub found in scrub and woodland. It has been described from subalpine forests in northern Italy (Renzo and Paola 2001), montane subalpine vegetation in the Fatra Mountains in Slovakia up to 1500 metres elevation (Vesela 1995), and Omorika spruce forests, which are protected under the Council of Europe Bern Convention Res. No. 4 1996 (European Environment Agency 2010).

threats:
It is collected from the wild for its medicinal, alimentary and ceremonial properties, but the extent of this collection is unknown. Collection usually involves removing the leaves, fruits or rose petals, rather than taking the entire plant.

conservationAction:
Rosa pendulina is classified as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007), where it is a protected species (Baričevič et al . 2004). It is not threatened in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). It is found in several Natura 2000 sites in Germany, Hungary, Romania, Italy and Poland (European Environment Agency 2010). More information on the population size and trends, as well as the extent of collection pressure, is needed.

useAndTrade:
This is a medicinal and aromatic plant. Roses are also used for alimentary and ceremonial purposes, particularly in Hungary and Romania (Baričevič et al . 2004, Leaman 2004, Ahmed and Guvenc 2009). The fruit of the rose plant, called rose hips, are known for their high content of Vitamin C, and rose petals are commonly used in the perfumery and food industries. The leaves are used in Chinese medicine for treatment of carbuncles, furuncles and burns, and the roots for treatment of arthritis and injuries (Nowak and Gawlick-Dziki 2006). The seeds and plants are also commonly available as a garden ornamental.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Sweet Briar Rosa rubiginosa, is a widespread species with no known significant threats, and is therefore classified as Least Concern.

range:
Rosa rubiginosa is native throughout Europe and western Asia (Kurtto 2009). It has been introduced into South America (Argentina, Chile) and New Zealand, where it is an alien invasive species (Zimmermann et al. 2010).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown, but it is thought to be widespread and common. It is a frequent escapee through cultivation.

habitat:
A deciduous or semi-evergreen shrub up to 3 metres tall, which can form dense thickets on dry grasslands and scrub in lowlands and montane areas over 1,000 metres asl. It is able to reproduce sexually and also spreads vegetatively by root suckers, and therefore has the ability to colonise new habitats. It is an invasive species and is able to colonise from a single seed or ramet (De Cock 2008, Zimmermann et al. 2010). It is also found in gardens and hedgerows (Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
There are no known significant threats, however roses are susceptible to many diseases such as black spot, powdery mildew and rust, and plants in cultivation require regular herbicide treatment (Missouri Botanical Garden 2013).

conservationAction:
Rosa rubiginosa is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005); Near Threatened in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010); and Vulnerable in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It is found in ten Natura 2000 sites in France, one in Latvia and one in Austria (European Environment Agency 2010). It is widely cultivated. No additional conservation measures are required.

useAndTrade:
It is valued for its scented flowers, for use as an ornamental plant and making perfume (Royal Horticultural Society 2011, Missouri Botanical Garden 2013). The cooked fruit, which is rich in vitamin C and flavanoids, is edible and used in making jams, jellies, syrups, etc., and to make tea. The petals are used in confectionary. The flowers and hips are astringent and stomachic. An infusion of dried rose petals can be used to treat headaches and dizziness; with the addition of honey it is used as a tonic for heart and nerves and to purify the blood. A decoction of petals can be used for mouth sores. The seed is rich in Vitamin E and the extracted oil can be applied externally on burns, scars and wrinkles (Franco et al . 2007, Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
There is much taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this species, and the current name is unresolved (The Plant List 2012). It is sometimes considered a possible synonym with Rosa canina.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)

Rosa stylosa is native to northwest Europe, where the main population extends from Ireland and southern Britain, through France to northeast Spain. It is rare in ;Spain, Portugal, Italy and Belgium, and appears to be abundant only in the United Kingdom and France. It is threatened in Germany, Luxembourg and Switzerland and possibly extinct in Hungary.

However, there is much taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this species; it is sometimes considered a possible synonym with R. canina, and its exact distribution and assessment of its population status is not possible without resolving the taxonomic uncertainties. It is therefore listed as Data Deficient. Research is needed to resolve its taxonomy, and more information is required to determine its total population  size and overall population trend, and to assess which threats it  currently faces. In addition, more information on the causes of threat in the countries where it has been listed as well as adequate measures to prevent this are needed.

range:
Rosa stylosa is native to northwest Europe and north Africa (Kurtto 2009). Although the Euro-Med Plantbase (Kurtto 2009) does not list it as occurring in Luxembourg or Hungary, it is included in the Red Lists of these countries and so they are here included as part of its range. In the United Kingdom, its distribution is restricted to the south; it only occurs in two states in Italy and has a sparse fragmented distribution in Spain (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Lattanzi 2012, Anthos 2010). There is only one recorded locality in Portugal.

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. The main population extends from Ireland and southern Britain, through France to northeast Spain. In Italy it is rare and the subpopulation is fragmented between Lazio and Piedmont states. It is also very rare in Belgium, Portugal and northwest Spain (Rushton and Green 2008, Lattanzi 2012). It appears to be abundant only in the United Kingdom and France.

habitat:
This is a deciduous prickly shrub up to four metres tall found in montane thorny hedge and scrub at elevations up to 1,500 metres asl. In the UK it grows on well drained calcareous soils in chalk and limestone areas in open woodland, hedgerows, scrub and disused quarries (Castroviejo et al. 1998, Rushton and Green 2008).

threats:
The threats to this species are unknown. Current threats are likely to be attributed to habitat loss, as there is no information indicating it has medicinal uses or is collected from the wild

conservationAction:
Rosa stylosa is classified as Data Deficient in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), Vulnerable in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), and Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). It is classified as Data Deficient in Hungary (Király 2007), however, Bartha and Nagy (2004) state it is likely to be have gone Extinct, as the level of threat increased since it was listed as Vulnerable in 1988. It is protected in France in Alsace (INPN 2012), where it occurs in one Natura 2000 site (European Environment Agency 2010). Research into its taxonomy to clarify its taxonomic status is required. Once this is clear, more information will be needed to determine this species' total population size and overall population trend, and to assess which threats it currently faces. In addition, more information on the causes of threat in the countries where it has been listed as well as adequate measures to prevent this are needed.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Rosa tomentosa has a widespread distribution throughout Europe. It appears to be declining in northern Europe, as it is highly threatened in Denmark and Sweden, but the population in western Europe appears to be frequent and healthy. Although it is impacted by several threats, these appear to be localised, and it is not thought to be used widely for medicinal purposes. It is therefore classified as Least Concern.

range:
Rosa tomentosa is native throughout Europe and Asiatic Turkey, and is doubtfully native to Transcaucasia (Kurtto 2009). It is found in the north half of France and Spain, is widespread in Germany and Italy, limited to the far southern tip of Sweden, and is found throughout the United Kingdom and Ireland, though concentrated in the south (Anthos 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Altervista 2013). It has disappeared from the Channel Islands (Kurtto 2009).

population:
The number of individuals is unknown. The subpopulations in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Spain and Italy appear to be frequent, though it has declined dramatically in Sweden, where only one mature individual remains. Like many Rosa species, it is probably under-recorded; it can be difficult to identify, especially in areas where hybrids with Rosa canina ( R . x scabriuscula ) are found (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A shrub found in hedges, along fence lines and dikes, in dry deciduous woodland, scrub, forest margins and glades, and open, dry grassland in montane and lower subalpine zones, growing in deep humid soil (Castroviejo et al. 1998, NERI 2007).

threats:
In Hungary, it is threatened by clear cutting, rough forest management methods, forestation with alien species and shrub clearance (Bartha and Nagy 2004). In Sweden, removal of hedges, planting of pastures and chemical control are threats, while in Denmark habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and arable farming practices and grazing are threats; urbanization is also believed to have had a negative impact (NERI 2007, ArtDatabanken 2010).

conservationAction:
Rosa tomentosa is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is Critically Endangered in Denmark (criteria B2ab(iii); D) (NERI 2007) and Sweden (criterion D) (Gärdenfors 2010), where populations are restricted to very small areas. It is listed as Data Deficient in Hungary (Király 2007), though some consider it to be Vulnerable (Bartha and Nagy 2004).

This species is protected under regional legislation in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, as a 'Taxon of special interest' under Decreto 200/2001 (D.O.C.M. no. 119, 13 November 2001), and in Nord-Pas-de-Calais France, where all collection, destruction and sale of wild specimens is prohibited (Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Nord-Pas-de-Calais : Article 1 ). Given its widespread distribution, it almost certainly occurs in protected areas.

useAndTrade:
The fruit is edible raw or cooked and is rich in Vitamin C, and the seeds are a good source of Vitamin E (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


There is insufficient information available to properly assess this species and it is thus listed as Data Deficient. Apple Rose Rosa villosa, is widespread throughout Europe, though it is fragmented across mountain regions and the total population size and trend are unknown. It is threatened in many countries and may be threatened at a regional level, but there is no information available on the threats it is facing. More information is required on the population size and trends, as well as the actual or potential threats to this species.

range:
Apple Rose, Rosa villosa , is native and widespread throughout Europe, Asiatic Turkey and the Caucasus (Kurtto 2009), though it is fragmented across mountain regions. In Spain it is found predominantly in the north in around 80 localities (Anthos 2010). In France it has a small distribution which is fragmented (INPN 2012).

population:
The size and trend of the populations is unknown.

habitat:
A thorny deciduous shrub found in woods, hedgerows, scrub and pastures in montane and lower subalpine areas up to 2,250 metres asl, growing in limestone soils (Castroviejo et al. 1998, Plants for a Future 2012).

threats:
Precise threats to the species are unknown. Its habitat is sensitive to human activities (Oprea et al. 2011).

conservationAction:
Rosa villosa is listed as Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and in Hungary (listed under the variety Rosa villosa L. var. sancti-andreae (Deg. et Trtm.) Soó), where it is protected under the 3/2005. (VIII. 31.) KvVM decree (Király 2007). It is listed as Vulnerable (VU D2) in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), though these populations are introduced. The subspecies Rosa villosa L. subsp. villosa is very rare in Romania, and could be considered Vulnerable as the habitat of this species is sensitive to the human activities (Oprea et al. 2011). This species is not threatened in Germany, though it is considered threatened in several states (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). It is classified as Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and Denmark (subspecies Rosa villosa L. ssp. mollis (Sm.) R. Keller & Gams; NERI 2007). This species is not listed on the French national red list, but its wild populations are protected from all forms of collection and trade under the List of protected plant species in Alsace [Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Alsace: Article 1]. It is protected in Spain under regional legislation in Castilla-La Mancha and in Madrid (Anthos 2010). It occurs in seven Natura 2000 sites in Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium and Romania (European Environment Agency 2010). The species is cultivated in parts of its range at least (Király 2007, Oprea et al. 2011). More information on population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed.

useAndTrade:
The fruit, called rose hip, can be eaten raw or cooked, is used for making jams and preserves and is particularly rich in Vitamin C. It is also rich in the antioxidant lycopene, along with other vitamins, minerals and fatty acids. The seed is also a good source of Vitamin C, and the leaves are used as a tea substitute (Plants for a Future 2012). Rose hip is common as a tea, syrup, beverage, in soups and other food products, and is used to treat colds and flu. It is being investigated as a food capable of reducing cancer incidence and halting or reversing cancer growth (Plants for a Future 2012). The fruits from R. canina have shown potential for the treatment of arthritis due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Willich et al. 2010), which may hold for this species as well.


range:
Rubus caesius is native to Temperate Asia and Europe at elevations between sea level and 1,650 m. It is also naturalised elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al . 1998).

population:
In the United Kingdom, this species has declined in the north and west of its range and in Ireland it is rare (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). However, it is common throughout its native and non-native range and is sometimes thought of as a weed.

habitat:
Dewberry is a dioecious perennial deciduous shrub with prickly stems found in damp habitats such as hedges, woodland borders, scrub and grassland and frequently on sea dunes. It prefers dry to moist basic soil, preferably calcareous and usually over limestone. It hybridises with Rubus fruticosus aggregate which in some places is more frequent (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Heukels 2000, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

threats:
The threats to this species are not known. It has suffered declines in the UK perhaps due to changes in land use management and habitat alteration.

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Near Threatened in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The leaves are used for making tea and the berries are sweet and edible and can be eaten raw or cooked and used to make jam, jellies and pies. It is not commonly used for medicinal purposes (Plants for a Future 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
The taxonomy of Rubus species is very challenging. Rubus fruticosus comprises an aggregate of over 329 closely-related microspecies in Rubus subgenus Rubus , most of which are facultatively apomictic. Rubus fruticosus L. is considered a synonym of Rubus plicatus Weihe & Nees according to the Euro+Med PlantBase (Kurtto and Weber 2009), but is accepted as a valid species on The PlantList (The Plant List 2010).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Bramble Rubus fruticosus is classified as Least Concern as it has widespread distribution across central and northern Europe, it has a high colonisation ability and can occupy a range of habitat types, its population is stable, and there are no major threats recorded.

range:
Bramble ( Rubus fruticosus taxonomic aggregate) is native throughout Europe (except the south) and western Asia. In the 19th Century it was intentionally introduced for fruit production in North and South America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa (Clark et al. 2012). It is now a widespread alien invasive plant in Australia and USA (Kurtto 2009). Given the taxonomic uncertainties around this species aggregate, the precise native distribution of Rubus fruticosus is not fully clear.

population:
The total population size is unknown, but surely numbers in the millions as this species is extremely widespread and common. It readily hybridises with other species of Rubus and the European population has maintained a high genetic diversity (Salvini et al . 2006).

habitat:
A deciduous or semi-evergreen shrub found in a variety of habitats such as woodlands, scrubland, heaths, dunes, gardens, hedgerows and waste places, thriving best on acidic soils. It has an underground root stock and is prolific during spring and summer and can form dominant stands which increases competition for other plants. It has a very high ecological tolerance and can spread vigorously (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Woodlands 2008). Seed dispersal by birds and animals also allows it to be easily dispersed, and it is able to colonise new habitats, causing it to be invasive outside Europe (Salvini et al . 2006).

conservationAction:
Bramble is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005), and is not threatened in the Czech Republic (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013). As the taxonomy is unclear, it is considered a synonym of Rubus plicatus on several national flora and at least one national red lists; R. plicatus is listed as Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is undoubtedly present in many national parks and protected areas. Its harvest is regulated in Croatia and Italy (Kathe et al. 2003, Baričevič et al. 2004). No conservation measures are needed.

useAndTrade:
This species is an important food source and provides refuge and shelter for many birds, mammals, insects and humans (Salvini et al . 2006). Blackberries are eaten raw and made or incorporated into many different food products. A tea is made from the leaves, the roots can be eaten cooked and the young shoots can be peeled and eaten raw (Plants for a Future 2012). The root-bark and leaves are astringent, depurative, diuretic, tonic and vulnerary, and are used to treat dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, cystitis, and more. Externally, they are used as a gargle to treat sore throats, thrush, mouth ulcers and gum inflammations, as well as being used as a mouthwash. A purple-blue dye is obtained from the fruit, and fibre from the stem is used to make twine. In Croatia, where it is one of the most frequently collected species, collection permits and an annual quota of 3200 kg of leaves were established in 2001. This is one of the most important medicinal and aromatic species harvested from the wild in Croatia, with the national market making up 30% of trade and the international market the remaining 70% (Kathe et al. 2003). It is also an important medicinal and aromatic species in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it is collected in the vicinity of national parks (Kathe et al. 2003). Its harvest is regulated in Italy (Baričevič et al . 2004).


range:
Raspberry is native to temperate Asia and Europe and occurs up to 2,200 m elevation. It has also become naturalised outside its native range (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1998).

population:
A very widespread and common species (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). As it is cultivated widely it can be difficult to distinguish native and alien populations (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A tall perennial found in open woodland, heaths, moors, commons, hedgerows, railway embankments and on waste places as an escape from cultivation. The fruits are dispersed by birds and the plant can also spread by suckers, often forming thickets (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed.It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The fruit are edible when ripe and are used for making jams, pies, tarts and sweets. In folk medicine an infusion of the leaves can be drunk regularly during pregnancy to alleviate labour pain as it contains the compound fragarine which relaxes the womb muscles but it also contains muscle stimulants. Raspberry leaves have astringent properties similar to blackberries and strawberries (Allen and Hatfield 2004). The leaves and roots are anti-inflammatory, astringent, decongestant, ophthalmic, oxytocic and stimulant and can also be used for diarrhoea, muscle cramps and menstrual pains. The leaves and roots when gargled can treat tonsillitis and mouth inflammations. As a poultice it can be used for sores, minor wounds, burns and ulcers (Plants for a Future 2012). The European Medicine Agency (2011) issued a call on scientific data on the use of this species.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Sanguisorba officinalis has declined in some parts of its range but it remains widespread throughout Europe. It is found in several habitat types but predominantly in lowland damp hay meadows, which are protected under the EU Habitats Directive. Its most common use nowadays is as an ornamental plant and its distribution has been extended through cultivation. The main threat is habitat loss, often through improvement of pastures, but any declines are unlikely to be significant enough to threaten it with extinction. This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Sanguisorba officinalis is a circumpolar Boreo-temperate element, though it is not native to eastern North America; it has been widely naturalised outside its native range (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is native throughout Europe and occurs in all countries except Portugal and the Mediterranean islands; it is introduced in Finland and is doubtfully native to Denmark (Kurtto 2009). In Spain its distribution is predominantly in the north and central areas, with few localities in the south (Anthos 2010). It occurs as an ornamental and escape from cultivation (Nature Gate 2013).

population:
The total population size is unknown. Wild stands are found in Sweden, Estonia, and the south of Kola Peninsula in Russia. It has escaped from cultivation in southern Finland and grows as an introduced alien in the wild, but is rare (Lampinen and Lahti 2009, Nature Gate 2013). It is frequent in England but is also cultivated, and is rare in Ireland where there are few recorded localities (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). In Ireland, it was threatened by extension of disposal areas onto its habitat; as it is a protected species, a mitigation project for translocation of plants was successfully carried out in 2007 (BECC 2013). There appears to be an increase in hybridisation in wild and cultivated populations (Sutton 2007).

habitat:
Sanguisorba officinalis is a perennial herb of neutral moist grassland, unimproved pastures, mesophile grasslands and lowland hay meadows, wet meadows, grassy river banks, lake shores and grassy heaths; it grows in alluvial or peaty soils (Council of the European Communities 1992, Mirgos et al. 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> 6510 "Lowland hay meadows ( Alopecurus pratensis , Sanguisorba officinalis )".

threats:
Threats across the species range have not been reported. Improvement of pastures (the practice of sowing a pasture with a mixture of introduced grasses and legumes inoculated with rhizobia to fix nitrogen, and fertilising on a regular basis) have caused declines in the United Kingdom and Ireland (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
This plant is classified as Least Concern in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is Vulnerable in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006) and Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), and early warnings have been issued in Germany due to population declines (V: Vorwarnliste, Bestände zurückgehend; 1996 assessment) (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012). The mesophile grassland habitat is protected in the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC (Council of the European Communities 1992).

In Ireland, the plant is found in few localities and was threatened by extension of disposal areas onto its habitat; as it is a protected species, a mitigation project for translocation of plants was successfully carried out in 2007 (BECC 2013). In the United Kingdom there are five sites where it occurs in lowland hay meadows which are designated Special Areas of Conservation (JNCC 2012). No specific conservation actions are recommended for this species. The habitat 6510 "Lowland hay meadows (Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis)" is listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive.

useAndTrade:
This species was traditionally used primarily for its medicinal properties. Its pecies name officinalis refers to the fact that it was used medicinally, while the name of its genus, Sanguisorba , means ‘to absorb blood’, and the plant was used to arrest bleeding (Nature Gate 2013). In Poland, the underground organs (rhizomes and roots) are used primarily, while the leaves are used less frequently, though all have astringent, antibacterial, analgetic and diuretic properties and are used for treatment of skin disorders, haemorrhoids, colon cancer and digestive problems (Mirgos et al. 2012). The active compounds are tannins, polyphenolic acids, saponins and sterols. In Lithuania, its collection from the wild is regulated by law and in Latvia there are accessions from four regions of the country (Baričevič et al. 2004, Lipman 2009). It was cultivated in Finland as a medicinal herb. The leaves are also used in salads and it is more commonly grown as an ornamental plant (Nature Gate 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species occurs in most European countries and is widespread in the northern latitudes. Although historical declines have been observed in parts of its European range (Preston et al. 2002, Lampinen and Lahti 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, Infoflora 2013), it is assessed as Least Concern on the basis of its very large extent of occurrence.

range:
The species is found in temperate circumboreal regions of the Eurasian and North American continents (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010). The plant occurs throughout all European countries, widely distributed in Northern European countries, the frequency diminishes gradually southwards (Euro+Med Plantbase 2010; Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010). In general, the species is common in cold and wet conditions, growing from sea level up to 2,000 m above sea level (Naturgate 2014).

population:
The species has an important distribution across northern Europe, but population trend is not known.

habitat:
The plants natural habitats are stream-sides, ditch verges, bogs, woodland seeps, cliffs and gullies waterside meadows and other wet and cool places (Passauer 1996, Preston et al. 2002). Seed dispersal occurs when raindrops strike the lids of the seed capsules (Lehmuskallio 2014).

threats:
Over the past 60 years, the plants' distribution has declined in Germany, Switzerland, Finland, and in parts of the United Kingdom (Preston et al. 2002) most probably due to land drainage and industrial development (Lampinen and Lahti 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, Infoflora 2013). Current threats are not understood.

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland and Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, Infoflora 2013). Research and monitoring of habitat trends is suggested.

useAndTrade:
Various scientific research studies could show strong antiviral, antitumor and antioxidant effects of secondary metabolites contained in some Chrysosplenium species (Arisawa et al. 1991, Olszewska and Gudej 2009, Lu et al . 2013). The species is well known in traditional European and oriental medicine for the treatment of liver and spleen-related digestive disorders, dizziness, skin diseases, and the common cold (Olszewska and Gudej 2009). Current use in traditional medicine is unclear, although it is used in homeopathic medicines (Unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann pers. comm. 2013), Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). Young spring leaves are also used as food ingredients, mostly eaten in salads (Hedrick 1972, PFAF 2014).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Saxifraga vayredana is listed as Least Concern for it occurs within a protected area, the populations are stable and there are no significant threats affecting the species or its habitat at the moment.

range:
This plant is endemic to Les Guilleries and Macizo de El Montseny, eastern Spain, in the provinces of Barcelona and Gerona. Its extent of occurrence is 904 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its distribution area extends through at least 123 UTM squares of 1x1 km.

population:
Saxifraga vayredana has been recorded in nine localities in Spain (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It presents rather stable dynamics.

habitat:
This plant grows on stony sites and fissures in silicon crags.

threats:
There are currently no significant threats affecting the population. Human presence has been cited as a factor impacting on the species. Climate change is a potential threat.

conservationAction:
This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). This species is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened flora of Cataluña. It occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de El Montseny.

useAndTrade:
This species has medicinal properties as expectorant and balm.


range:
Galium aparine is native throughout Eurasia, Mediterranean and Macaronesia. It occurs in temperate Europe and is a widely naturalised weed so its distribution is now circumpolar-temperate from sea level to 2,600 m elevation (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2007).

population:
A widespread and abundant species with a stable and perhaps increasing population.

habitat:
A scrambling annual plant often found on hedges, railway banks, waste places, cultivated land, scree slopes and shingle. It inhabits tall herb, ruderal communities growing on fertile soils. It is a very successful and abundant weed and the use of herbicides does not appear to limit its ability to grow (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2007). It is tolerant of polluted sites with nitrogen enrichment (WHO 2000).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It can be a nuisance as a weed but its fruit can be roasted as a substitute for coffee and its young shoots can be eaten as a green vegetable or salad. It is used in herbal medicine for purifying the blood (Forey 1991). A decoction of the whole dried plant can also be drunk as tea to help insomnia. It has a long history of herbal medicinal use as it is diuretic and the whole plant, except the roots are antiphlogistic, aperient, astringent, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic and vulnerary used for treating a variety of ailments such as a poultice for wounds, ulcers, skin irritations, glandular fever, hepatitis, cystitis and also tonsillitis (Plants for a Future 2012). It has been used in veterinary medicine to treat ringworm in dogs and to increase sperm in stallions (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. Although this species has declined in some areas due to loss of ancient forest and woodland, it is still a common species.

range:
Galium odoratum is native to temperate Asia (Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russian Federation and Kazakhstan) and Europe at elevations between 290 and 1,850 m. It has also become naturalised outside its native range such as North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2007).

population:
This species has a wide distribution but is more rare around the Mediterranean region (Castroviejo et al. 2007). It has declined in England with the loss of ancient woodland but is still frequent and locally abundant throughout its distribution (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Woodruff is a rhizomatous perennial herb which is found predominantly in deciduous woodland and scrub but is also found in shaded hedgebanks, meadows and grasslands and rural gardens and it is a good indicator species of ancient woodlands (Castroviejo et al. 2007, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is a shade tolerant plant and soon dies out when shade cover is removed. The attractive plant grows in shady damp places on base rich soils forming mats or carpets of leaves and flowers in early summer (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). Similar to Galium aparine this nitrophilic species is tolerant of soil acidification (Falkengren-Grerup 1989).

threats:
This species has declined in areas where ancient woodland has been removed or replaced with plantations such as in the south of England (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
Although this species is not threatened, conservation of existing deciduous forests and ancient woodlands and management without large clear fellings will help this species persist in this habitat type. It is listed as Near Threatened in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010) and Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
In certain European countries such as Luxembourg and Germany this plant is used to flavour white wine and other drinks as its leaves are coumarin scented (a sweet hay like scent). It retains its fragrance even when dried and has been used to keep clothes and linen smelling sweet in drawers and cupboards and also added to perfumes (Forey 1991). The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked in salads and the dried leaves and flowers for making tea for feverish colds and lung infections. In the Middle Ages this plant was used as a herbal medicine and applied to wounds or cuts and taken internally for liver and digestive problems. Nowadays it is valued for its tonic, diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties (Castroviejo et al. 2007, Plants for a Future 2012). The major component of the essential oil of Galium odoratum is thymol and isothymol and it is considered to be an aromatic plant (Baser et al. 2004). Coumarin has anticoagulant activity similar to aspirin (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003) and the plant is grown commercially for the production of anticoagulant drugs. If consumed in large quantities it can cause dizziness and mild poisoning and the compound asperuloside can be converted into prostaglandins to stimulate uterus and blood vessels and is therefore a homoeopathic remedy for inflammation of the uterus. This genus is of particular interest to the pharmaceutical industry for these properties as well its antispasmodic, cardiac, diaphoretic, diuretic, sedative properties of its leaves, taken as an infusion for insomnia and nervous tension, varicose veins, biliary obstruction, hepatitis and jaundice (Plants for a Future 2012).


range:
Galium verum is native to North Africa ( Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), temperate Asia, tropical Asia (Pakistan) and Europe and has become naturalised outside its native range such as North America. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 2,600 m (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al . 2007).

population:
There have been declines with changes and improvements to grasslands however it remains a common invasive throughout its distribution (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A low growing stoloniferous perennial herb forming dense patches in short grassland, open woodland, fixed sand dunes and along roadsides and hedgebanks. It is a common wayside flower which blooms throughout summer and the flowers have a strong coumarin (sweet hay like) scent. This species can hybridise with G. album, G. glaucum and G. mollugo (Forey 1991, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Vulnerable in Finland (Rassi et al. 2010) and Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
Like Galium odoratum, this species contains coumarin used for stuffing mattresses and to discourage fleas and moths from linen. It can be used in making cheese as its flowers curdle milk and it is also used for dyeing wool red (Forey 1991, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). It is used commonly in wild flower seed mixtures (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and a yellow dye can be used for colouring food. The seeds can be roasted as an alternative to coffee and the flowering tops distilled for making beverages. Its uses in folk medicine are limited as are its modern medicine uses. As it is diuretic, it is mostly used for skin irritations in the form of a powder to reduce inflammation and the leaves, stems and flowering shoots are antispasmodic, astringent, diuretic, lithontripic and vulnerary (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


White Poplar Populus alba has declined in some areas of its native range in southern Europe. However, due to its high adaptability its range has expanded and its total population size is extremely large. It is a very widespread and common species and despite its various threats, it is not showing significant declines. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The White Poplar tree ( Populus alba ) is native to central and southern Europe and North Africa, and eastwards to Central Asia. It has established itself as a naturalised alien in northern Europe through large scale cultivation (Uotila 2011). It is very widespread, occupying 627 60x60 km grid cells in Europe (though the area measured includes introduced White Poplar populations in Belgium, Denmark, and southern Ireland and UK) (Svenning and Skov 2007). This species also occurs in North and South America, Asia and Australia (CABI 2012).

population:
The total population size of White Poplar is unknown, but it is a common and widespread tree throughout Europe. Brundu et al. (2008) found that the Sardinian population consisted of a few hundred to several hundred thousand individuals over 30 sites; the total European population is thus presumed to number in the millions or more.

habitat:
White Poplar is a fast-growing tree found in lowland Mediterranean riparian woodland and floodplain forests associated with Salix, Populus and Acer species (European Environment Agency 2010). It is planted along roadsides and in parks for urban landscaping and also occurs on coastal dunes (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Poplars have dispersal distances of up to 16 km and seedling establishment relies on connection between patches of suitable habitat (Fussi et al. 2010). Its habitat is highly fragmented in some areas and its distribution range has been subject to long-term human interference; although this has caused range expansion, the origin of some populations is uncertain (Brundu et al. 2008). Many populations on Mediterranean islands are relicts of native flora which have spread through available habitats by vegetative propagation and human activities (Brundu et al. 2008). This tree can reproduce sexually, and also asexually through cuttings and root suckers. It is resistant to insect pests and fungal and bacterial pathogens, and tolerates diverse environmental stresses such as drought, wind, salinity and high temperatures (Brundu et al. 2008). The species is of ecological importance for maintaining the high biodiversity of riparian woodland (EUFORGEN, accessed 2013). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> "hps atn"> 92A0 " Salix alba and Populus alba galleries" and 3280 "Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with Paspalo-Agrostidion species and hanging curtains of Salix and Populus alba ".

threats:
Threats to this species include afforestation with exotic tree species and cultivars, logging and deforestation (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). Alteration of the riparian forest habitat by human activities such as hydraulic engineering, agriculture and urbanisation of floodplain areas is another main threat. Flood regulation has a negative impact on natural regeneration, causing gradual replacement by hardwood forests. White Poplar has locally highly successful regeneration capability, though there have been significant reductions or complete disappearance of the species in some areas of Europe (EUFORGEN, accessed 2013).

conservationAction:
White Poplar is classified as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). White Poplar galleries in south Bulgaria are Vulnerable (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). It is considered to be At Risk in Serbia and Montenegro (FAO 2006). In situ conservation is the most effective for maintaining the high genetic diversity required for evolutionary adaptation and future climate change (EUFORGEN, accessed 2013). It occurs in thirty one Natura 2000 sites in Germany, Spain, Italy, Bulgaria and Romania (European Environment Agency 2010). The habitats 92A0 "Salix alba and Populus alba galleries" and 3280 "Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with Paspalo-Agrostidion species and hanging curtains of Salix and Populus alba" are listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive.

useAndTrade:
In Malta, White Poplar is cultivated for agricultural or horticulture and is found in the wild as an escape (Malta Wild Plants 2013). It is commonly utilised as an ornamental or in afforestation and reforestation for its resistance to drought and salinity. In the Mediterranean it is commonly used for production of matches and fruit boxes, and as a parent for cultivation of the hybrid species Populus canescens , used around the world as ornamental and landscape trees (EUFORGEN, accessed 2013).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Salix alba is a widespread and common species found along river banks throughout Europe. There are no significant declines reported and it does not meet any criteria for being threatened. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.

range:
White Willow, Salix alba , is native to Asia and Europe and is naturalised in North America (Uotila 2011). It is widespread throughout Europe.

population:
The total population size has not been estimated, but this is a widespread and common species.

habitat:
White Willow is a tree found in marshes, wet hollows, ditches, ponds, streams, rivers and lakes, riverine and riparian woodland (European Environment Agency 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 3280 "Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with Paspalo-Agrostidion species and hanging curtains of Salix and Populus alba " and 92A0 " Salix alba and Populus alba galleries".

threats:
Salix alba var. caerulea (Cricket Bat Willow) is particularly vulnerable to Watermark Disease caused by the bacterium Erwinia salicis (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). River management activities have altered river flow and sediment rates and reduced the area of floodplains, which can reduce the regeneration capabilities of Willow (Barsoum 2001).

conservationAction:
White Willow is classified as Vulnerable [D2] in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), and Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It occurs in over 30 Natura 2000 sites across Europe (European Environment Agency 2010). The habitats 3280 "Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with Paspalo-Agrostidion species and hanging curtains of Salix and Populus alba and 92A0 " Salix alba and Populus alba galleries" are listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive.

useAndTrade:
White Willow bark has been used throughout the world as an antipyretic (drug that reduces fever) and analgesic (painkiller). The European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP) has approved willow bark extract to treat fever, pain, and mild rheumatic complaints. Its use has fallen since the development of synthetic acetylsalicylic acid. Salix alba has the lowest concentration of salicin of all Salix species (Highfield and Kemper 1999). Permission was granted in 1991 for its collection from the wild in Croatia; an annual quota was established in 2001 which limited collection to 1,320 kg of bark, of which 70% is used in international trade and 30% in national trade (Baričevič et al. 2004, Kathe e t al. 2003). The twigs are used for crafts and the timber for cricket bats. It is a fast-growing tree ideal for use as pulp for the paper industry, and has more recently been explored as a source of biomass for power stations (The Natural History Museum 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The European Violet-Willow Salix daphnoides is native to three disjunct areas in the Alps, Pyrenees and the Carpathians, and has been naturalized through cultivation over a wider area. It is important for medicinal value as the bark has a high content of salicin, although this is not considered to be a threat as it is cultivated. This species is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, occurence in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.


However, it is concerning that the species is classed as threatened on various national red lists and research into the causes of those declines as well as adequate measures to prevent this are needed. Further information is also required on its precise distribution in Austria, Slovenia and Russia and the status of the subpopulations.

range:
Salix daphnoides is native to the mountains of northern, central and southern Europe. Its distribution consists primarily of three disjunct and fragmented areas: 1) southern Spain and France, where it is found in very few localities in the Pyrenees near the border between France and Spain, over an area of 700 km² (Anthos 2010); 2) Central Europe where it occurs in France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Croatia and Slovenia; 3) over small areas close to the borders of Slovakia, Czech Republic and Poland and larger areas in Romania and Ukraine, while its precise distribution in Russia is unknown. It is also native to middle-eastern Sweden and the adjacent areas in Norway (ArtDatabanken 2010, Artsdatabanken 2010). The species' range has been expanded through cultivation over a wider area. It has been introduced into the United Kingdom, where it is found frequently throughout as a landscape and ornamental tree (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Evarts-Bunders 2003) and is found as a vagrant in Denmark and Finland (Uotila 2011). It occurs in two areas in southern France, in the Alps and on the border with Spain (INPN 2012). In the Czech Republic it is found in the easternmost part in the Beskydy Mountains and only occurs naturally in this part of the country (Sochor et al. 2010). It is found at elevations up to 2000 metres asl in the Alps (Skvortsov 1999). It is found throughout Germany and Switzerland.

population:
The total population size is unknown, though it is not thought to be abundant anywhere in its range. The European Violet-Willow is not frequent throughout its distribution and is rare in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012). The population is Spain is likely to be very small. In Latvia, it is found growing wild and is very common in cultivation; hybridization occurs between wild and cultivated populations, but hybrids are very rare. In the part of the Carpathians located in the Czech Republic, there are three subpopulations found in three distinct habitat types: the subpopulation found along river gravel banks is rich in the number of individuals and similar, including in age-structure, to subpopulations found in the Alps and Carpathians, while the subpopulations found in wet Cirsium meadows and Ash-Alder alluvial forests are spatially limited and age structure is not well differentiated; the latter may be naturalized through human activities (Sochor et al. 2010). In Sweden there are an estimated 3000 mature individuals, and the population is believed to be declining; it is also declining in Norway (ArtDatabanken 2010, Artsdatabanken 2010). This species is similar to Salix pomeranica , which is native to the Baltic states (Evarts-Bunders 2003). Further information is required on the subpopulation in Italy. In Spain there are only 21 records restricted to the Pyrenees (Anthos 2010).

habitat:
European Violet-Willow is a tall shrub or small tree found only along montane river banks and riverine scrub in European alpine areas on sandy, pebbly and bouldery alluvia, often together with Salix elaeagnos and Myricaria germanica . It may descend from mountains to lowlands along large rivers such as the Rhine or Visla, and can also be found on loose dune sand (Skvortsov 1999, Baričevič et al . 2004, European Environment Agency 2010). It has been planted to reinforce coastal and continental dunes and is also planted widely in parks and roadsides; the species has naturalized through cultivation (Evarts-Bunders 2003).

threats:
This species is important for medicinal value as the bark has a high content of salicin, though this is not considered to be a threat as it is cultivated. Activities including regulation of large scale rivers, changes in gravel and mud flats, overgrowth following grassland management, and a general decline in availability of suitable floodzone habitat have caused it to become threatened in parts of its range (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, ArtDatabanken 2010, Artsdatabanken 2010). The specific causes of its rarity in Spain and Czech Republic are unknown.

conservationAction:
This species is classified as Endangered in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), though it appears to be widespread and records occur throughout the country; Endangered in the Czech Republic (Grulich 2012), having been upgraded from Vulnerable (Holub and Procházka 2000); Vulnerable A2c in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010); Vulnerable <span id="ctl00_MainContent_RedListCriteria B2ab(iii,iv,v) in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010); Near Threatened in Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012); and Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002). In Spain it is classified as Vulnerable D2 (Moreno 2008, Anthos 2010). In Croatia, it is listed as Data Deficient (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It occurs in nineteen Natura 2000 sites in Italy, Germany, Spain and France (European Environment Agency 2010). In France it is included in the protected areas in Midi-Pyrenees (INPN 2012). More detailed information is required on the causes of threat in the countries where it is listed as threatened, and measures to prevent further declines are needed. Further information is also required on its precise distribution in Austria, Slovenia and Russia and the status of the subpopulations.

useAndTrade:
The whole or fragmented dried bark is used as a traditional herbal medicinal product for the symptomatic relief of minor articular pain, fever and headache (European Medicines Agency 2007). Green aspirin derived from this species is described in the European Pharmacopoeia as it has a high content of salicin and, along with Salix purpurea, is one of the most important for medicinal value. For production of high yield, samples with high salicin have to be selected from collections along transects through gallery forests of alpine rivers (Baričevič et al. 2004). In Latvia, the large catkins and twigs are used as Easter decorations (Evarts-Bunders 2003). In Slovenia, this species has been overlooked with no efforts made for its use or preservation (Turok et al. 1996).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

Crack Willow Salix fragilis can be classified as Least Concern as it is a common and widespread species that is facing no significant threats. Further research is recommended to determine the distribution and abundance of non-hybrid native populations which established before this species became naturalised or extended its distribution through plantings.

range:
Salix fragilis is native to Europe, though it is rare in the Mediterranean region and probably introduced in much of the north (RBG Edinburgh 1988). It may have originated in northern and northwestern Asia Minor (Skvortsov 1973). It has become naturalised throughout Europe where it exists as pure or hybrid species originating from plantings. It is very difficult to determine its native distribution, as it has been cultivated since antiquity; in addition, it is very similar to S. alba and S. alba x S. fragilis hybrids are found throughout Europe, often more frequently than pure S. fragilis individuals, further complicating the determination of its natural range (Castroviejo et al. 1993). The area of its original distribution is thought to be smaller than indicated on distribution maps as many occurrences include hybrid species which are morphologically identical (Skvortsov 1973, CABI International 2012). It is an archeophyte in the United Kingdom and Ireland (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012), and may be native in the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo et al. 1993). The species is almost certainly introduced in the Baltic states as elsewhere in Northern Europe (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). It is listed on the Invasive Species Compendium as it has been introduced into North America and is invasive in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

population:
The total population size of the Crack Willow is unknown, but natural stands are common and widespread throughout Europe. Hybridisation occurs with other Willow species (Barcaccia et al. 2003).

habitat:
Salix fragilis is a large, deciduous, pioneer broadleaf tree commonly found by rivers and lakes, alluvial plains and riparian zones. It is called Crack Willow because of the cracking sound made by twigs breaking off. Often planted on river banks to prevent soil erosion, it is able to disperse over wide areas along watercourses by vegetative reproduction: as twigs are carried downstream, they can regrow throughout large distances. It is dioecious with male flowers in the form of yellow catkins and female flowers as green catkins which transform into wooly white seeds spread by the wind (RBG Kew, accessed 2013). The seeds remain fertile for a short time and require moist soil for germination. This species is well adapted to a montane-submediterranean climate and is also found along river valleys, mountain creeks and wet soils between cultivated fields, ditches and roads (CABI International 2012).

threats:
Willow trees are generally not threatened. They can sometimes have negative impacts on the environment in areas where they are abundant: the twigs and debris can block small streams and rivers during floods, often requiring high-cost removal and restoration, and can have negative environmental impacts on hydrology, erosion and water quality, along with the associated negative impacts on biodiversity (CABI International 2012). In the United Kingdom, the trees are host to a large number of herbivorous insects and rust diseases; foliage damage is caused by willow beetles.

conservationAction:
Crack Willow is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). Salix species are protected in Switzerland (Lipman 2009). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Albania (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations 2006). No specific conservation actions are required for this species.

useAndTrade:
This fast-growing tree produces a tough, light wood that is used to make baskets, fencing and cricket bats (RBG Kew, accessed 2013). It is used for fuelwood and is grown as an ornamental tree. The whole or fragmented dried bark is used in traditional medicine as a herbal substance, and the liquid extract and powdered dried bark as herbal preparations, all of which contain salicin used for the symptomatic relief of minor articular pain, fever associated with cold and headache (European Medicines Agency 2007).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Purple Willow Salix purpurea is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
Purple Willow ( Salix purpurea ) is native to Europe, western Asia and the Caucasus; it has been introduced into the United States of America (Uotila 2011). It has become naturalised across Europe through cultivation.

population:
The number of individuals is unknown, but it is widespread and common throughout Europe.

habitat:
Purple Willow is a large pioneer deciduous shrub found in wet soils along river banks, streams, woodland margins, marshes and fens (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

conservationAction:
Purple Willow is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). No specific conservation actions are required for this species.

useAndTrade:
The whole or fragmented dried bark is used in traditional medicine as a herbal substance, and the liquid extract and powdered dried bark as herbal preparations, all of which contain salicin used to make 'green aspirin' for the symptomatic relief of minor articular pain, fever associated with cold and headache (European Medicines Agency 2007). In Poland it is collected from natural sites (Baričevič et al. 2004). Outside of Europe, it is a cultivated crop in the USA for bioenergy (Smart et al. 2005).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is present in most parts of the EU27 and the European region. It is classified as Least Concern as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species populations to severely decline in the near future, however research is need to understand the impacts of high levels of harvest from the wild in some parts of Europe.

range:
The species has a wide distribution from southwestern Europe to central and southern Asia, and in northern Africa (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013; de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, GBIF 2014). The species has a very long history of introduction and it is not possible to determine native and introduced ranges. Present in almost all European countries, but limited to southern parts of Norway and Sweden and apparently absent from Finland.

population:
No information on population trends are available. The population has become extinct in some areas of Sweden. In contrast, the species has spread to the north and west in the United Kingdom but the last survey show a stable distribution (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). In general, the population seems to be stable or may have slightly increased.

habitat:
Hemiparasite on a wide range of trees in orchards, hedgerows, parklands gardens and woodlands. More rare in dense or primary woodlands. Hosts are of the genus Malus, Pyrus, Crataegus, Sorbus, Prunus, Populus, Salix, Acer, Tilia, Betula, Corylus, Quercus, Robinia, Olea, Fraxinus, Pinus and Abies (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014).

threats:
There are areas in Germany where the species is threatened, partly because of the decline of the hosts. In contrast, it is spreading out in areas where hosts have been damaged by air pollution (Kahle-Zuber 2008). Especially in eastern Europe, the main threat is the harvesting for commercial purposes.

conservationAction:
It is recommended that studies are required into the scope and impact of harvest in eastern Europe (e.g. Croatia and Albania).

useAndTrade:
The plant is used to lower blood pressure and heart rate, ease anxiety and promote sleep (Lange 1998, Hoffmann 2008, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, PFAF 2014). Certain constituents of the plant, especially the viscotoxins, exhibit an anticancer activity. A homeopathic remedy is made from the berries and leaves. Collected in many countries (e.g. Germany, Bulgaria, Spain, Albania, Croatia etc.) and mainly traded fresh (Kathe et al. 2003 "Apple-style-span">). Is one of the most important species harvested from the wild in Albania (130 tonnes/y in 2001). In 2001, Croatia had a annual quota of wild-collected plants of 3,500 kg, most of it was exported (90%).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This shrub has an extent of occurrence (EOO) in Europe that is much larger than the value needed for a threatened category. The population and area of occupancy (AOO) are also inferred to exceed the thresholds. There are suspected to be no significant declines, fluctuations or fragmentation. It is assessed as Least Concern in Europe and the EU 27.

range:
This species has a wide global range and is considered native in parts of Europe, Iran, Syria, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russian Federation (Ciscaucasia, Dagestan), China, India, Nepal and Pakistan. It is naturalized and cultivated elsewhere, for example in the United States. In Europe this shrub is reported from Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Russian Federation (European part), Ukraine (including Krym), Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Greece (including Crete), Italy, Romania and eastern France (Komarov et al. 1934-1960, Greuter et al. 1989, Devatek 2002, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004, USDA 2012).

population:
There are many records for this species, for example, more than 1,000 submitted to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2013). This shrub is reported to be a common species of an area of sub-Mediterranean woodland and scrub studied in Slovenia (Devetak 2002). It forms part of a major shrub vegetation type in Iron Gates Natural Park in the southwestern part of Romania (Rozylowicz 2003). From this it is inferred that the population is large and it is suspected to be stable.

habitat:
This dense spreading shrub grows to about three meters in height. It is found in dry hills, rocky places, open woods and shrub lands (Polunin 1969). The silky spreading hairs in the inflorescence give the bush a hazy appearance, which has lead to the vernacular name of 'Smoke-Tree'.

threats:
There are not thought to be any major threats to this species at present. It occurs in open shrubby and rocky habitats which may be less suitable for agricultural development and it has also been noted to expand into degraded areas in Italy (Nardini et al. 2003). It is possibly collected on a local scale for medicinal use but this is not thought to cause mortality or significant impacts on the population in general.

conservationAction:
This shrub is known to be conserved ex situ , for example it is grown in a Dye Plants Collection Garden in Turkey (Turkmen et al. 2004). It is also known to occur within protected areas, such as, Iron Gates Natural Park in the south-western part of Romania, a protected area situated on the border of Romania and Serbia (Rozylowicz 2003) and the Lefkimi-Soufli National Park, north-east Greece. Germplasm has been conserved and there are accessions in the United States (USDA 2012).

useAndTrade:
This species is widely used as an ornamental shrub and there is a purple leaved cultivar. Plants are traditionally used to dye carpets and woven matting in the eastern Mediterranean region (Turkmen et al. 2004). The wood produces an orange dye (Polunin 1969). In folk medicine, it is routinely used as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antihaemorragic agent in wound-healing (Demirci et al. 2003). In Bulgaria this species has reportedly been used to prepare herbal tea for medicinal use, for the treatment of diarrhea, mouth inflammation and gastric and duodenal ulcers, and extracts have been shown to have high phenolic content and antioxidant properties (Ivanova et al. 2005). The wood, known as 'young fustic' is also used for tanning (Polunin 1969).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is widespread through the Mediterranean area and forms an abundant shrub of the typical maquis vegetation. It is reported to be common in many areas within the region and the population is inferred to be very large and to have no significant overall declines. The extent of occurrence (EOO) and inferred area of occupancy (AOO) greatly exceed the thresholds for a threatened category under criterion B. It is assessed as Least Concern in the European region and within the EU27 zone.

range:
The species has been widely introduced and cultivated, however the native range is considered to be from northern Africa (from Morocco to Egypt), Macaronesia, the Mediterranean region, including the Middle East (Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and western parts of Syria and Turkey (Anatolia; Akgün et al. 2013)) (Al-Saghir and Porter 2012, GRIN 2014). The recent taxonomic revision by Al-Saghir and Porter (2012) creates the subspecies Pistacia lentiscus L. subsp. emarginata (Engl.) Al-Saghir that extends the distribution of the species to eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania). In the European region, the species is considered native to Macaronesia (Canary Islands), most Mediterranean coastal countries and larger islands (Spain (including the Baleares), Portugal, France (including Corsica), Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Croatia, Albania, and Greece (and Crete) (GRIN 2014).

population:
No detailed population data are available. However, as this shrub is a characteristic species of maquis vegetation and open rocky areas around most of the Mediterranean and its island, the population is inferred to be very large. Palacio (2005), for example studied just one natural population of this shrub, located in north east Spain, which had more than 300 adults. There are more than 20,000 records for this species in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF 2013) with a very large number from Spain and many records from France and Greece. It is reported to be extremely common in Crete, common in Sardinia and along the coast of Italy (Fielding and Turland 2005, Delfino 2010, Pignatti 1982). Grove and Rackham (2001) suggest there may be some recent expansion of this species within Mediterranean Europe.

habitat:
This dense evergreen shrub, or less commonly, small tree, forms part of what is thought of as typical Mediterranean vegetation of thick-leaved evergreen maquis . It is also found in more open steppe, on dry rocky slopes and is common near the sea, sometimes on sand dunes, and in open oak forest (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1993, Al-Saghir and Porter 2012). In the interior of the Iberian Peninsula it grows in low-altitude scrublands (garrigas) and sheltered areas, avoiding places with cold winters (Palacio 2005). The species is noted to be deep-rooted and long-lived (more than 100 years), relatively combustible, but with a good ability to survive fire and also an ability to tolerate some degree of wood-cutting. It is also noted to be an unpalatable shrub which may confer protection from grazing (Grove and Rackham 2001). It has been noted to have a transient seed bank with rapid germination of seedlings within the year (Garcia-Fayos and Verdu 1998). It is a dioecious species, with separate male and female plants.

threats:
This species suffers only from the general threats associated with expanding human populations and associated habitat loss and disturbance, for example, sub-populations may be affected by tourist developments in Mediterranean coastal area and the extension of areas of cultivation under plastic, such as in the south of Spain. However, these threats are suspected to be at a local scale only and not to have significant impacts on the the overall population.

conservationAction:
The germplasm of this shrub is conserved within the United States Genetic Resources Programme (GRIN 2014) and it is grown in botanic gardens, for example the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, Missouri Botanic Garden and Copenhagen's University Arboretum (GBIF 2013). It occurs in protected areas within its range such as Coto Donana National Park in Spain and Parco Nazionale del Gargano in Italy, and Parc Regional de Camargue (specimen data).

useAndTrade:
This shrub produces an aromatic resin known as mastic which has a long history of use, for example, it is noted to have been used in ancient Egypt as part of the embalming process (Hanelt et al. 2001). It has also been used in the production of varnishes and adhesives, for chewing gum, in photography, lithography and dentistry and it is used in liqueurs and cordials (Polunin 1969). The mastic oil is also part of distinct perfumes, hair and skin lotions and the resin is also used in a number of cakes, pastries, sweets and desserts and is an important ingredient in Greek festival breads (Hagidimitrio 2013). The seeds contain about 25% oil, which is used as salad oil, and the wood can be used to produce charcoal, and the branches are used by basket makers (Hanelt et al. 2001). There has been recent interest in its medicinal properties and the oil and gum are natural antimicrobial agents and possibly have some anti-fungal properties (Iauk 1996). Anti-ulcer (Al-Said 1986) and anti-tumour activity has also been investigated and a possible future role in cancer prevention suggested (Magkoutaa et al. 2009). This species is cultivated for the extraction of mastic on the Greek Island of Chios. The production of mastic in 1997 was said to amount to 160–170 tonnes annually and to be important to the economy of the island, being the main source of income for about 20 villages in the south (Browicz 1987). It is thought that Chios is the main source of mastic for commercial use. It is not known to what extent other wild populations are utilized.


redListCategoryRationale:
Global and European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


The Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) is a major amenity tree native to Greece and the central Balkan peninsula and planted across Europe. It has been significantly damaged by the leaf miner moth Cameraria ohridella across its entire native and introduced range; the extent of decline caused by infestation is thought to be insignificant, however, compared to the multiple threats the Pindus Mountain mixed forest ecoregion is facing. The species is threatened or likely to be extinct across most of its native range: it is Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011), where it remains in two locations, and in Greece, where the declining population is estimated at only 259-407 trees; it is probably Extinct in Albania. The status of the population in Macedonia is unknown, but given the small range in the country, it is likely to be small.

The species occurs in protected areas in Greece and Bulgaria, including national parks/reserves and Natura 2000 sites, although mining, deforestation, tourism development and other threats still impact some national parks. Given the widespread and varied threats across its native range, the population is almost certainly suffering a continuing decline, though the overall decline has not been quantified. Although the total population size across its native range has not been estimated, it is unlikely to consist of more than 10,000 mature individuals and may even be fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. Based on the subpopulation structure in Greece and the ongoing threats across its range, all wild subpopulations are likely smaller than 1,000 individuals. At the European level, Aesculus hippocastanum is therefore assessed as Vulnerable C2a(i). It also qualifies for Vulnerable C2a(i) in its EU 27 range (Bulgaria and Greece), where the majority of the native population is found. There is likely to be immigration of propagules into its native range as it has been introduced throughout Europe, so the original category is downlisted to Near Threatened in both Europe and the EU 27.

Recommended conservation measures include controlling the Cameraria ochridella leaf miner, enforcement of protection regimes in nature reserves, regulating human impacts on its habitats, and ex situ cultivation using genetic material from remaining natural populations. Research is needed on the genetic similarity between native and introduced subpopulations, to determine if introduced subpopulations likely to be the source of propagules may indeed help augment declining native populations.

range:
Horse Chestnut ( Aesculus hippocastanum ) is native to Greece and the central Balkan Peninsula and has been introduced throughout Europe and North America. It was introduced into the UK in the 17th century as an ornamental tree (Lack 2002, RBG Kew accessed 2013, Daws et al . 2004). Its native range includes Albania, Macedonia, Greece and a restricted area in eastern Bulgaria. In Greece, it is restricted to the Pindus mountain range in the regions of Epirus in the northwest, Thessaly in central Greece, Evrytania and Fthiotida in the south. It is found at altitudes up to 1,485 metres (Avtzis et al. 2007). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of its native extant range is estimated at 163,642 km².

population:
In Bulgaria, only one population is known with a relatively high number of individuals and density (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). This species is rare in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). Between 2001-2004, 37 new scattered locations of natural trees were found in Greece, as isolated and scattered trees, in small or large clusters, and in mixed stands with beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), dominating an area of 750 ha. The trees were of various ages with diameters from several cm to over 100 cm; importantly, regeneration was observed in almost all locations. The total number of trees observed in the 37 locations was estimated to be between 259-407 or more (22 locations had &lt;5 trees, 1 location had 6-10 trees, 7 locations had 11-20 trees, and 7 had &gt;21 trees); approximately 45 were below a diameter of 25 cm (Avtzis et al. 2007). Given the threats currently impacting the species in Greece, this population can be presumed to be declining, though evidence of regeneration is a positive sign. The population in Albania is probably extinct (Xhuveli et al. 1996). The status of the population in Macedonia is unknown.

habitat:
Horse Chestnut is a long lived monoecious broad-leaved deciduous tree found in deciduous and broad-leaved forests of the Pindus Mountain mixed forests. At present the only natural stands in southeast Europe are glacial relicts in canyon forests (Thalmann et al . 2003). The endemism rate of this region’s mountain ranges can exceed 35% (WWF 2013). This species shows remarkable habitat adaptability, as it occurs in a wide range of altitudes from 228 m to 1,485 m a.s.l. (Avtzis et al. 2007).

threats:
Horse Chestnut trees have suffered from severe defoliation by alien invasive species of leaf miner moth, Cameraria ohridella , which impairs the growth and survival of trees by reducing the weight of seeds; this may endanger the long term persistence of the species within its native range and throughout Europe. The leaf miner infestation was first observed in the late 1970s in Macedonia. Since 2002 it has been reported in the United Kingdom, Spain, Albania, Turkey, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and western Russia (Thalmann et al . 2003, Forestry Commission 2013). In Bulgaria, Horse Chestnut has a restricted distribution and is threatened by local tourism and pollution, wood extraction and forest fires (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). In recent years, Greece has been subject to increased deforestation and forest fires, which could occur within protected areas; rapid changes in the landscape through overgrazing, firewood collection and agriculture are accelerated with population growth, socio-economic and political instability, leading to deforestation and soil erosion. However, the Pindus mountain ranges still host significant old-growth forest stands, mainly related to inaccessible high mountain slopes and canyons. Human impact is high in this ecoregion, particularly in Albania where illegal logging has destroyed extensive forest areas, including certain National Parks in Albania. Mountain tourism, ski facilities and road construction are strongly degrading huge mountain forest ecosystems due to soil erosion and clear cutting operations, which have provoked significant landslides and the collapse of large mountain slopes. Mining, particularly for bauxite in Iti National Park, is a direct and indirect threat. Related activities threaten certain protected areas and their endangered habitats and species. Overgrazing and over-collection of plants continue to threaten the region's ecosystems (WWF 2013).

conservationAction:
This species is listed as Endangered [EN B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)] in Bulgaria, where it is located within a Natura 2000 site, part of the population is within the Dervisha Managed Nature Reserve, and it is a protected species under the Biodiversity Act (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). The data derived from the survey in Greece by Avtzis et al. (2007) shows a natural population of 259-407+ trees, which is presumed to be suffering an ongoing declining given current threats. This species can therefore be classified as Endangered C2a(i) in Greece. This species' mixed forest habitat is found within National Parks in Greece, where under half the natural population is included in reserves and 18 of 37 locations are within the boundaries of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, managed by the Greek Forest Service and Ministry of the Environment. Protection and conservation of the southern populations should be a primary concern for conservation.   The Pindus Mountains Mixed Forest ecoregion status is classified as Critical/Endangered (WWF 2013), and the population in Albania is probably Extinct (Xhuveli et al. 1996). It is classified as Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), though those populations are introduced. Recommended conservation measures include controlling the Cameraria ochridella leaf miner, enforcement of protection regimes in nature reserves, regulating human impacts on its habitats, and ex situ cultivation using genetic material from remaining natural populations. Research is needed on the genetic similarity between native and introduced subpopulations, to determine if introduced subpopulations likely to be the source of propagules may indeed help augment declining native populations.

useAndTrade:
This tree is used in homeopathic medicine as a tincture (abc Homeopathy 2001-2009). The seeds (called 'conkers') are popular in children's games and the tree is commonly planted for ornamental and landscape features in parks and urban areas. It is of economic importance for wood production and medicinally the major active substance Aescin extracted from the seeds is used for upset stomachs (Avtzis et al. 2007). The conker is processed by the pharmaceutical industry to produce treatments for vascular problems such as varicose veins and haemorrhoids. The unprocessed seeds are poisonous and a decoction of the bark and leaves is used in Albanian folk medicine to treat circulatory problems (Gloyer 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Dictamnus caucasicus (southern Russia), D. gymnostylis (Ukraine and southern Russia) and D. hispanicus (eastern and southeastern Spain) are frequently maintained as separate species, however we follow WCSP (2014) and maintain these as synonyms of Dictamnus albus L.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide distribution throughout much of both the EU27 and pan-European regions. The species is considered 'rare' in several parts of its range (e.g., some parts of European Russia), and whilst there have been declines in some parts of its range (e.g., Germany and Italy) due to declines in habitat quality and extent and the scarcity of pollination services (Hensen and Wesche 2006), the species range is expanding northwards.


The species is assessed as Least Concern for both the EU27 and European region as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species populations to severely decline in the near future. Further research into threats, and population and distribution changes is suggested, and in some parts of its range conservation measures are required.

range:
The species has a very broad distribution from Europe to China and Siberia in Russia, and Korea (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, GBIF 2014). Introduced in the USA. The species is widespread in Europe, occurs in central, south and eastern parts (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001).

population:
No information on population trends are available. The species range is extending northwards. However, in countries such Italy and Germany the populations are decreasing in number and size due to habitat loss and scarcity of pollination services (Hensen and Wesche 2006). The species is considered 'rare' in many places.

habitat:
This herbaceous perennial is native to warm, open woodland habitats and to mediterranean shrublands, typically found at the fringes between woodlands and (semi)natural grasslands, It often grows in woodland fringes and clearings of both deciduous and perennial tree species (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013). Also used in gardening. It is a long-lived perennial herb (up to 30 years), and is characterized by thick storage roots.

threats:
The species faces a loss of suitable habitat (woodland fringes and clearings) because of land-use changes related to the abandonment of traditional agro-forestry activities (Hensen and Wesche 2006). Other major threats are the scarcity of pollination services due to habitat fragmentation and declines in pollinators, changes in land use and increasing use of pesticides and herbicides.

conservationAction:
The species is included in national Red Lists (e.g. Switzerland (Vulnerable, with higher threat status regionally; Info Flora 2014), Austria (EN), Romania VU), and Ukraine (VU), and considered Vulnerable in the Carpathian region (Witkowski et al. 2003). The species occurs in regional Red Lists in Russia (IAS PAs Russia 2014); Republic of Bashkortostan (Category 3: "Rare. Taxa with a naturally small population occurring in a limited area or sporadically distributed over large areas, for whose survival it is necessary to adopt special measures of protection."); Samara Oblast (Category 5/F: "Rare species, with stable numbers", and, Voronezh Oblast (Category II: "Declining populations: Taxa with steadily declining species, further exposure to factors that reduce populations may quickly move the species to the Endangered category."). The species is protected under national or regional legislation in several places (e.g., France (Association Tela Botanica 2014), Switzerland (national and some canton level; Info Flora 2014)).

An on-going EU LIFE project in Italy (PP-ICON, LIFE09 NAT/IT/000212 (http://www.pp-icon.eu/index.php) focus on enhancing the community of natural pollinators in order to ensure the persistence of an isolated population of Dictamnus albus . General conservation measures recommended are habitat management to maintain suitable habitats and pollinators safeguard. The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.

useAndTrade:
Used in folk medicine as a menstruation inductor, abortifacient, against bacterial and fungal infections, as a diuretic and vermifuge (Lange 1998, Duke 2014, Association Tela Botanica 2014, PFAF 2014). Both the flowering stems and the root-bark are employed. Also used in homeopathy and in Chinese herbal medicine. A lemon-scented tea is made from the dried leaves that is a good digestive. The species is now little used in western herbalism.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The origin of the plant is uncertain, but is thought to be the Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria and Krym (Ukraine), and perhaps elsewhere in the Mediterranean region (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 2014). The species has been very widely naturalized in central, southern and more recently northern Europe (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, GBIF 2014), however little information was found on the timing of introductions within the European region (i.e., whether the species should be considered an archaeophyte or neophyte). This species is assessed as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats.

range:
The plant originates in eastern Europe (Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria and Krym (Ukraine); GRIN 2014) and perhaps elsewhere in the Mediterranean region (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 2014), and it is very widely naturalized in central, southern and more recently northern Europe (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, GBIF 2014), and in temperate and tropical regions of the world. No information was found on the timing of introductions within the European region (i.e., archaeophyte or neophyte).

population:
Little information is available on population trends within its natural range. In Bulgaria the species has been assessed as threatened based on loss of sub-populations (Peev and Vladimirov 2011). It may be increasing as new introductions are registered.

habitat:
Plant tolerant to hot and dry soil conditions. It grows in Mediterranean shrublands, openings in woods and mainly in gardens. In parts of its native range in Bulgaria, the species is found in dry, stony and rocky places on limestone, in grass and scrub communities (Peev and Vladimirov 2011).

threats:
No major threats are known to this species across its wider range in Europe. Peev and Vladimirov (2011) cite overcollection, afforestation, and grazing and trampling by livestock.

conservationAction:
The species is protected in Bulgaria (where it has been assessed as Endangered; Peev and Vladimirov 2011) and Switzerland (unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). Further research into the status and distribution of the species within its original range of distribution is required.

useAndTrade:
The plant is cultivated as a medicinal herb, as a condiment and also as an insect repellent. It is used in folk medicine to regulate the menstrual cycle, as an abortifacient, eye strengthener, antispasmodic, stomachic, etc. (Hoffmann 2008, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, Duke 2014, Association Tela Botanica 2014, PFAF 2014). A homeopathic remedy is obtained from the fresh herb. Leaves are used as a seasoning, but should only be used in small quantities as it is slightly toxic. An essential oil is obtained from the leaves and young shoots that is used in perfumery and as a food and drink flavouring. For a full review of medical applications see EMA (1999).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species is fairly common and the threats it is facing are unlikely to cause its decline in the near future.

range:
The species has a native distribution from southern Europe to southwestern Asia and northern Africa (de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014). Currently introduced to all continents as a weed growing in farm land. In Europe, the species is native to the Mediterranean region and around the Black Sea, and has been introduced in central and northern countries (Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Norway and Sweden; Euro+Med 2014).

population:
No information on population trends are available. The species range has been increasing northwards, but the plant is also gathered by humans in countries like Bulgaria (Evstatieva and Tchorbanov 2011 and the populations may be decreasing.

habitat:
An annual weed typically growing in disturbed places such as pastures, arable land, orchards and along roadsides (Botanical Society of the British Isles and Biological Records Centre 2014). The plant can grow under a wide range of conditions, but its success is likely due to its ability to thrive in hot and dry conditions where other plants cannot.

threats:
The species is mainly threatened by human gathering.

conservationAction:
Harvest management of the species is recommended in countries with significant collection from natural habitats (e.g. in Bulgaria).

useAndTrade:
The seed is used in folk medicine as an aphrodisiac, to stimulate blood circulation, treat male impotency, gonorrhea, incontinence of urine, etc. (Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013, PFAF 2014). The stems are used in the treatment of scabious skin diseases and psoriasis. The dried and concocted fruits are used in the treatment of congestion, gas, headache, stomatitis, etc. Also used in homeopathy. The herb is currently used in many food supplements to treat impotence, libido disorders, to optimize health and by sportsmen to keep fit and as a testosterone booster. However, research shows that it does not raise testosterone levels (Rogerson et al. 2007). It is also used in veterinary medicine to increase reproductive performances of cockerels. Leaves and young shoots can be eaten cooked. The unexpanded seed capsules are ground into a powder and backed into a bread. It is a famine food only used when all else fails. Bulgaria is a leading exporter of natural herbs and significant quantities of this species are are being collected annually (Evstatieva and Tchorbanov 2011).


redListCategoryRationale:
Global, European, and EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Although restricted to the Pyrenees and pre-Pyrenean hills in France and Spain, and to areas of southern Catalonia in Spain, and found in fragmented populations, the species is considered as Least Concern as there appear to be no major threats; although utilised, harvesting is not thought to be extensive and impacts from livestock grazing not currently considered to be significant. It occurs in ravines, often on vertical cliffs and is drought tolerant. Prolonged periods of summer drought may be a threat to both seedlings and reproducing individuals and therefore to long-term population persistence, particularly in its southernmost range. Estimates of sub-population sizes across the species range suggest that the species may be close to the population size threshold for a threatened category, and it is recommended that populations should be monitored for the impact of drier conditions arising from future climate change.

range:
The species is native to northern Spain and southern France (Castroviejo et al. 2001, Association Tela Botanica 2014), found in the Pyrenees and pre-Pyrenean hills and is in addition present in mountainous areas of southern Catalonia (Ports Massif and Montsià (Tarragona Province); L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014), with a fragmented distribution within this range (Picó and Riba 2002). Found from 390 m altitude (M. Riba pers. com. 2014), but more commonly 500 - 2,000 (2,300) m (Castroviejo et al. 2001). It is described as a preglacial relict species with a fragmented distribution in Mediterranean mountains.The species is one of the few gesneriads whose species are mostly pantropical, living in southern Europe and it is considered as a preglacial relict species, assuming that the species underwent glaciation episodes surviving in mountain valleys. Its main distribution area occurs in the Pyrenees although it also occurs in other calcareous massifs in west and central Catalonia (Picó and Riba 2002).

population:
Research suggests it is rare within its distribution. Dubreuil et al. (2008) estimated the size of sub-population within eight main clusters across the species range; all populations were estimated to contain fewer than 500 individual flowering plants, with the majority containing between 100-500 individuals. It is not possible to estimate the total number of mature individuals from these data. Populations are isolated within mountain massifs and therefore the regional persistence of the species depends on the persistence of local populations. These population dynamics are of the remnant type and refer to persistent local populations that survive enough to bridge periods of unfavourable environmental conditions. Although recruitment may be sporadic its persistence is due to its high longevity. Its distribution is typically fragmented and sub-populations occur between 2-7 km apart. A census in 1997 reported around 13,330 individuals over five populations located at different exposures within the same ravine and no distinction was made between these populations. Seedlings with three leaves or less are considered to be non-reproductive as they have a survival probability of &lt;75% (Picó and Riba 2002). A six year study in Cerdanya (in the eastern Pyrenees) showed the main life-history features of the species are the great longevity of adult plants and the high mortality of seedlings due to high drought sensitivity and the availability of safe sites dominated by moss.Variation in climatic conditions at Cerdanya from year to year explained an important part of variations in population growth rates. Projections indicate that local populations tend to decline over time but with a long time to extinction, so the persistence of the species within Cerdanya is determined by the persistence of its remnant local populations (Picó and Riba 2002). Modelling of populations based on rainfall patterns suggest that, as a result of the species reduced rates of reproduction in dry conditions, southern populations might be declining, with only populations in the Pyrenees being stable. Estimates of the relationship between climate and the species' finite rate of increase (Lambda), as well as potential trends according to stochastic population growth taking into account long term rainfall patterns in different parts of the species range predict: 1. Based on estimates of finite rate of increase, most populations in most southernmost populations under extreme drought conditions (May – July Rainfall &lt;100 mm) might be declining; and 2. Stochastic simulations considering the past (50-75 years) temporal variability in rainfall patterns suggest that most populations except those located in the Pyrenees might be declining (M. Riba pers. com. 2014).

habitat:
A Mediterranean sub-alpine long-lived iteroparous perennial herb which grows among shaded limestone crags and on siliceous substrates (L. Sáez pers. comm. 2014) in mountain areas in spruce, pine or deciduous forest and also in shady ravines on northern mountain slopes in the Pyrenees and other calcareous massifs in central and west Catalonia, northeastern Spain. Pyrenean populations are found at the bottom of shady ravines following the course of the streams. It is described as a species with an exceptional persistence despite drastic alterations in the environment. Flowers are produced from May to July and are hermaphroditic, self-compatible but not capable of autopollination and are mainly visited by bumblebees and syrphids. The plants are exposed to fluctuations in temperature, humidity and sun exposure on ravine slopes and the leaves are known to be able to endure complete desiccation. The roots can also be a stronghold even in shallow soils on moss covered vertical slopes (Castroviejo et al. 2001, Association Tela Botanica 2000-2012, Picó and Riba 2002).

threats:
There is no management by humans or induced perturbations such as fire in the Mediterranean habitats in which it occurs. The species is grazed by domestic cattle, however this is not currently a significant issue. Previous studies have shown that desiccation in spring reduces the reproductive output and growth of R. myconi plants as it causes flowers to abort early and fruit to wither and reduces the survival of seedlings. Prolonged periods of drought may threaten the persistence of this species or cause short term fluctuations if the adult population is threatened by other factors as they are not susceptible to drought. Over-collection for medicinal use has not been observed to be a threat.

conservationAction:
It is recommended that populations should be monitored for the impact of drier conditions arising from future climate change. The species has been listed as 'Taxon de interés especial ' in Aragón , but is considered 'Taxon de precupación menor' (LC) in Catalonia (Sáez et al. 2010).

useAndTrade:
All parts of the plant are harvested for medicinal use, but predominantly the leaves, collected before flowering. Used to treat colds and flu (expectorant, balm and cough suppressant); the most common way to use this herb is as infusion (Hierbas medicinales 2014). Fresh leaves applied as a poultice on fresh wounds are said to help heal wounds (a woundwort ) and shingles (herpes zoster).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


In Europe, the species is present throughout the Mediterranean region. It is classified as Least Concern as the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species populations to severely decline in the near future.

range:
The species is present in the Mediterranean region (southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa), especially on the western side (e.g. France, Spain, Morocco, Algeria; Marhold 2011, de Bolòs and Vigo 1984-2001, Castroviejo et al. 1986-2013, Association Tela Botanica 2014, Euro+Med 2014, GBIF 2014).

population:
No information on population trends are available, but it is probably stable in most parts of its range, however local extinctions or strong rarefaction of populations has been noted on the islands around Sicily (La Mantia and Pasta 2013).

habitat:
The species thrives in Mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Grows in the lowlands and up to 900 m a.s.l..

threats:
Urban sprawl affects locally. No major threats are known for this species.

conservationAction:
The species is protected in a couple of French departments. There are no major conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
The leaves are used medicinally in countries such as Spain, Greece and Italy as a strong purgative, against fever and as an aphrodisiac (Association Tela Botanica 2014, Duke 2014; unpublished factsheet from MAPROW database: U. Schippmann, pers. comm. 25.11.2013). Leaves are traded dry.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species is found in Europe across mountain areas from the Pyrenees to the Carpathians. Although less common or considered threatened in parts of its range in Europe, it is considered Least Concern as there are no known widespread threats and it has a very large range.

range:
The species is native to mountains in western, central and eastern Europe to Eurasia (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007). In Europe, it is found from northeastern Spain (Pyrenees; Anthos 2014) and southern and southeastern France (Jura, Alps, Massif Central; Lozère and Aveyron, Pyrenees; Association Tela Botanica 2012) through mountain areas to the Carpathians.

population:
The species is rare in the Iberian peninsula, but widespread elsewhere in Europe (Sales and Hedge 2001).

habitat:
This plant is an evergreen, woody-based perennial up to 10 cm in height that forms mats. It is found on rocky, sunny, and calcareous slopes, on dryer, stony soils (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007). This plant grows in upland meadows, in central Europe it is found in Pinus nigra forest, and in steppe-like, dry grasslands found to the south of the Carnic and Julian pre-Alps. It grows at elevations from ca 100 m to 2,600 m asl, but predominantly between 500-1,980 m asl.

threats:
There are no known widespread threats to this species. However, it is possibly impacted locally by overgrazing or habitat loss.

conservationAction:
Globularia cordifolia is considered Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), not threatened in Germany ( Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Least Concern (Near Threatened) in Slovakia ( Feráková et al. 2001), and Critically Endangered (IUCN criteria) in Hungary (Gergely 2007).

useAndTrade:
This plant is used for medicinal purposes, an infusion of the leaves is a powerful laxative, and extracts from the plant are being promoted as having dermatological uses. The species is very common in the ornamental flower trade from cultivated sources.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with stable populations throughout most of its European range and does not face any major threats.

range:
P. vulgaris has a more or less circumboreal distribution, from Europe east through the Caucasus and Siberia to Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island in the Russian Far East and Japan, it also occurs throughout much of northern North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe except for the Balkans.

population:
P. vulgaris is classed as Critically Endangered in Belarus and Croatia and has declined in the United Kingdom, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.

habitat:
P. vulgaris typically occurs in damp, nutrient-poor habitats such as bogs, crevices of wet rocks, rock outcrops with flowing water, flushes, fens.

conservationAction:
P. vulgaris is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and in Belarus, is protected at a regional level in France in Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne, Pays de la Loire, Franche-Comté, Picardie, Basse-Normandie, Centre and Île-de-France. There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
As with most carnivorous plants, there is some sale of P. vulgaris for horticulture and it is not clear whether this has any effect on wild populations.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Narrow-leafed Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) is widespread across Europe (distributed globally across Europe and northwest Africa, though the Black Sea regions to Russia). It is valued for its hardwood and is an important species for maintaining temperate forest habitats.


Although the population is declining due to ash dieback disease, population declines are not currently as high as those seen for Common Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and the species may well be spared such high decline rates in the future. As current evidence does not indicate it is likely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category, it is classified as Least Concern. However, the threat of fungal infection remains a serious issue, and as the disease is spread by wind it is extremely difficult to reduce or prevent its spread tree nurseries have also been infected and the disease is often spread through afforestation with nursery trees, with young plants being more susceptible.

range:
Globally, Fraxinus angustifolia is native to the Iberian Peninsula and southern Europe eastwards through the Mediterranean, Balkan and Black Sea regions to Russia, and also northwest Africa (RBG Kew 2012; Fraxigen 200 5a, 2005b). It is reported from one locality in Velipoja in Albania, very close to the border with Montenegro (Shuka et al. 2008). It is a post-pioneer fo rest tree with a colonizing behaviour and has a discontinuous spatial distribution across Europe (Gerard et al. 2006).

population:
The number of individuals of Narrow-leafed Ash in the wild is unknown. This species is very similar to Fraxinus excelsior and the two species have hybridised in areas where their range overlaps, such as the Balkans, Italy and southern France, even though they have different flowering phenologies (Gerard et al. 2006, Fraxigen 2005a). In eastern Romania it is very frequent and found in large areas (Fraxigen 2005b). In mainland Greece, eight natural subpopulations with at least 230 individuals have been surveyed (Papi et al. 2011).

habitat:
Narrow-leafed Ash is a wind pollinated tree found in thermophilous broadleaved deciduous woodland habitats, such as southern European forests, Mediterranean riparian mixed forests, Sicilian Ash woods and floodplain forests; it prefers areas along rivers where flooding may occur. It begins flowering in late December and disperses the seeds late in the fall; no seed dormancy is observed (Fernandez-Manjarres et al. 2006). It is found in pure and mixed stands and grows in well-drained soils in uplands, rich soils at lower elevations, and can withstand temporary flooding; although this reduces regeneration from seed, it can be maintained by coppicing (Fraxigen 2005b). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 91B0 "Thermophilous Fraxinus angustifolia woods" (a priority habitat) and 91F0 " Riparian mixed forests of Quercus robur , Ulmus laevis and Ulmus minor , Fraxinus excelsior or Fraxinus angustifolia , along the great rivers ( Ulmenion minoris )".

threats:
The most serious threat to this species is Ash dieback disease caused by the pathogenic fungal organism Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus , which causes discoloration of the wood, lesions and necrosis, dieback and tree mortality; severe Ash dieback has affected Fraxinus species since the early 1990s, particularly in the Baltic States, Poland, Scandinavia, Germany and Austria (Bakys et al. 2008, Kirisits et al. 2010, EPPO 2013). Tree epidemics cause secondary impacts to biodiversity, other tree species composition, structure and ecosystem functioning of woodland (Jonsson and Thor 2012). The incidence of infection has been increasing throughout Europe. Ash dieback has been reported from 24 countries to date, though F. excelsior is the most severely affected species; however, F. angustifolia is also susceptible ( EPPO 2013, Forestry Commission 2013, RBG Kew 2013). The disease is most commonly spread via wind; contaminated forest nurseries are another source of the infection, which then spreads through afforestation (Kirisits et al. 2010, Forestry Commission 2013). Browsing of fodder and bark stripping by deer is a minor threat, as it frequently damages young trees in natural regeneration and plantations (Fraxigen 2005b). </sp

conservationAction:
Narrow-leafed Ash is listed as Lower Risk-Near Threatened in the Czech Republic, as it is potentially in danger because it is declining in abundance (Grulich 2012). It is considered to be threatened in Albania, where thermophilous Fraxinus angustifolia woods are a priority habitat under Natura 2000 (code 91BO) (Shuka et al. 2008). In Spain, it is listed under regional legislation as a 'Taxon of species interest' in Asturias, the subspecies oxycarpa is a strictly protected plant taxon in Cataluña, and it is listed as Endangered in Murcia (Anthos 2010). In France, it is listed under regional legislation as a protected endangered species in Auvergne [Liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Auvergne: Article 1], where all destruction, collection, and trade of wild specimens is prohibited (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 2003-2013). This species is included in the EC Council Directive 1999/105/EC on the marketing of Forest Reproductive Material subject to regulation (Fraxigen 2005a) and the Council Directive 92/43/EEC for conservation of natural habitats (Council of Europe 1992). It occurs in numerous Natura 2000 sites in Spain, Portugal, France, Greece and Italy (European Environment Agency 2010). The habitats 91B0 "Thermophilous Fraxinus angustifolia woods" (a priority habitat) and 91F0 " Riparian mixed forests of Quercus robur , Ulmus laevis and Ulmus minor , Fraxinus excelsior or Fraxinus angustifolia , along the great rivers ( Ulmenion minoris )" are listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive. Research into and monitoring of its population size and trends is required to track the spread and impact of ash dieback disease. As Ash dieback disease is spread by wind, it is extremely difficult to reduce or prevent spread of the disease, which can even reach isolated trees found more than 10 km from the nearest tree; the best hope for control of the outbreak is that natural resistance will develop (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). <span c

useAndTrade:
Narrow-leafed Ash has ecological and economic importance for afforestation, for example along the river March in eastern Austria (Kirisits et al. 2010). Ash species are one of the main species in hardwood plantations in Europe for their valuable wood and fast growing characteristics. F. angustifolia is increasingly being used for plantations. It is a suitable tree for lowland and submontane areas and is a fast growing species which provides good quality wood, which tends to be higher in dryer parts of southern Europe (Cicek and Yilmaz 2005). The leaves, both fresh and dried, are palatable and nutritious to animals and were used as fodder in southern Europe. It is widely used throughout Europe as an ornamental tree and for urban landscaping (Fraxigen 2005b). It used to be valued as traditional herbal medicine. Fraxini folium, or ash leaf, is by definition the dried leaf of Fraxinus excelsior or F. angustifolia , of hybrids of these two species, or of a mixture of both, where the comminuted herbal substance is used as herbal tea or powdered leaves in capsule. Both are on the market in Spain and Belgium for traditional use as a purgative, diuretic and rheumatic remedy and to enhance urinary and digestive function. The German Commission E listed this drug within the unapproved herbs but it is described in various pharmacopoeias. There is no data for requirements of its effectiveness for med icinal use (European Medicine Agency 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)


Common Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) has a very large distribution and is a keystone species of European temperate forests, forming vast pure stands in some areas. It occurs in ;all European countries except Portugal. It is a hardwood species and is important for silviculture, and is an economically valuable source of timber from tree nurseries and plantations.


Ash dieback is an infectious disease that has caused severe dieback of Common Ash throughout Europe. This is the most serious threat to the species, with recorded incidence in 24 countries and a high risk of spread to areas where it has not yet been observed. This species is considered to be seriously threatened in Hungary where there is a high incidence of infection, and is threatened or Near Threatened in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Albania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as in regions of Spain. As Ash dieback disease is spread by wind, it is extremely difficult to reduce or prevent spread of the disease and the entire population is at risk of further disease outbreaks. The overall population decline has not been quantified and little data is available to precisely estimate future decline rates, but given the dramatic declines seen in some parts of the species range, a future decline of at least 20-30% across Europe is possible. This species is therefore precautionarily listed as Near Threatened approaching criterion A3e on both the European and EU 27 levels. Potential immigrants from outside Europe will be susceptible to the disease and will not be able to rescue the European population; the category therefore remains unchanged.


More information is needed on how much the population has declined from fungal infection, through mortality or felling for preventative measures, and there is a need for population monitoring, including for signs of disease. Management of infected stands for preventative spread of the disease should be attempted, though the best hope for control of the outbreak is that natural resistance will develop. Populations should be monitored for signs of resistance to the disease, in the hopes that resistant stands may be found. It is strongly recommended to collect detailed population information and decline rates from each country and to re-assess the species when all the data is available. It might then warrant listing in a more threatened category.

range:
Fraxinus excelsior has a large native range and is the most widely distributed ash species in Europe. It is found in all countries in Europe, except Portugal, and ranges eastward to Russia and Iran. It is found in the Alps and Pyrenees at elevations up to 1600-1800 metres, but only up to 450 metres in more northern latitudes (e.g. in the United Kingdom). This species has a continuous distribution except for the two subpopulations in Norway and Gotland (a Swedish island in the Baltic Sea), which are fragmented and isolated and also at the edge of the species' northern range (Fraxigen 2005).

population:
The Common Ash's total population size in Europe is unknown. It remains widespread and common, but the population is declining as a result of Ash dieback disease. In Sweden, the population has declined by 10-30% in the past 100 years, and is expected to decline by up to 30% (best estimate within a range of 20-80%) over the next 100 years; the possibility exists that the Swedish population may be eliminated very rapidly as a result of the disease (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, where there it reason to believe this effects of the disease will be severe, the population is expected to decline by 10-30% over the next century (Artsdatabanken 2010). Population declines are expected to be as severe in at least some other parts of the species' range as well. This species is widely planted and therefore it can be difficult to determine which populations are native and which are alien (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). It is very similar to Fraxinus angustifolia and the two species have hybridised in areas where their range overlaps, such as the Balkans, Italy and southern France, even though they have different flowering phenologies (Fraxigen 2005, Gerard et al. 2006). A study in Gotland island in the Baltic Sea surveyed 20 stands with at least 50 individuals (Jonsson and Thor 2012).

habitat:
This is a wind pollinated tree of deciduous broadleaved Tilio-Acerion forests but also found in scrub, hedgerows, rock scars and cliffs, and stable scree slopes. It is tolerant of waterlogged but not flooded soils and only grows in lime rich soils. It occurs in pure stands, mixed woodland or scattered trees and is a dominant species in young and juvenile stages of forests. Its natural distribution in central Europe is defined by its low tolerance to cold winters and hot dry summers as young shoots are sensitive to spring frost. It is a rapid coloniser of waste ground, disused quarries and railway banks (Fraxigen 2005, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, JNCC accessed 2013). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 91E0 "Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior ( Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae )" (a priority habitat) and 91F0 " Riparian mixed forests of Quercus robur , Ulmus laevis and Ulmus minor , Fraxinus excelsior or Fraxinus angustifolia , along the great rivers ( Ulmenion minoris )".

threats:
The pathogenic fungal organism Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus has been causing severe Ash dieback in central and northern Europe since the early 1990s, particularly in the Baltic States, Poland, Scandinavia, Germany and Austria (Bakys et al. 2008, Kirisits et al. 2010). Tree epidemics cause secondary impacts to biodiversity, other tree species composition, structure and ecosystem functioning of woodland (Jonsson and Thor 2012). The incidence of infection has been increasing throughout Europe. The disease causes dieback of the crown and loss of leaves and can lead to death of the tree. A wide range of Fraxinus species have reportedly been infected with this disease, although F. excelsior is the most severely affected species (RBG Kew 2013). Ash dieback has been reported from 24 countries to date (EPPO 2013). In Lithuania and Poland, where the disease was first discovered , between 60 and 80 % of the Ash population was lost within a decade (ArtDatabanken 2010). The disease was recorded in Finland in 2007 and seems to be spreading (T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013). It was recorded in seven localities in Hungary in 2008, though it can take 2-3 years for the symptoms to become apparent so it may be more widespread (Koltay et al. 2012). It spread to Great Britain in 2012, where the reported incidence was low with only two sites with confirmed positive incidence of the disease plus two with suspected but not positively confirmed cases, out of 469 sites surveyed (Forestry Commission 2013b). It has also been detected in Sweden, Norway and Slovenia (ArtDatabanken 2010). Ash dieback has now occurred throughout the entire region in Poland, Denmark, Austria, Slovakia and Germany and there is a high risk of spread to areas where it has not yet been observed , such as Ireland, northern Spain, western, southern and central France, north-western Italy, Bulgaria, Serbia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Albania, northern Greece, no

conservationAction:
Common Ash is classified as Least Concern in Belgium (Van Landuyt et al. 2006), Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (assessment from 1996; Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is listed as Near Threatened (NT A3e) in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), and as Vulnerable (VU A3ce+4ce) in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), though it is very likely that situation in Sweden is much worse than the limited available data indicate (ArtDatabanken 2010). It is considered to be seriously threatened in Hungary (Koltay et al. 2012). It has been classified as Endangered in Albania and Rare/Endangered in Serbia and Montenegro (FAO 2006). In Finland, it is regionally threatened in all areas where it occurs (T. Ryttäri pers. comm. 2013). In Spain, this species is listed as Vulnerable in Castilla-La Mancha, and as a 'Taxon sensitive to habitat alteration' in Madrid (Anthos 2010). It is found in many Natura 2000 sites in Spain, Finland, Germany and Italy (European Environment Agency 2010). Neither Chalara fraxinea (anamorph) nor Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus (teleomorph) are listed in the EC Plant Health Directive 2000/29/EC. In Bulgaria its riverside woodland habitat is considered to be Vulnerable, but the species is included in Annex 1 of the National Biodiversity Act, it occurs in protected areas and national parks and is part of the Natura 2000 network (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Ministry of Environment and Water 2011). The habitats 91E0 "Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior ( Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae )" (a priority habitat) and 91F0 " Riparian mixed forests of Quercus robur , Ulmus laevis and Ulmus minor , Fraxinus excelsior or Fraxinus angustifolia , along the great rivers ( Ulmenion minoris )" are listed on Annex I of the Habitats Directive. As Ash dieback disease is spread by wind, it is extremely difficult to reduce or prevent spread of the disease, which can even reach isolated trees found more than 10 km from the nearest tree; the best hope for control of the outbreak is that natural resistance will develop (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2013). Populat

useAndTrade:
Common Ash is valued as a hardwood species for its strong durable wood for making tools and furniture. In silviculture it grows best when mixed with other species such as Prunus avium and Fagus sylvatica. The leaves are palatable and nutritious to animals and were once used as fodder during winter. It is planted widely around Europe as an ornamental and urban landscaping and can also be used for woodland restoration and reforestation (Fraxigen 2005). This species used to be valued as traditional herbal medicine. Fraxini folium, or ash leaf, is by definition the dried leaf of Fraxinus excelsior or F. angustifolia , of hybrids of these two species, or of a mixture, where the comminuted herbal substance is used as herbal tea or powdered leaves in capsule. Both are on the market in Spain and Belgium for traditional use as a purgative, diuretic and rheumatic remedy and to enhance urinary and digestive function. The German Commission E listed this drug within the unapproved herbs but it is described in various pharmacopoeias. There is no data for requirements of its effectiveness for medicinal use (European Medicines Agency 2012).


taxonomicNotes:
Four subspecies and one variety of Olea europaea L. are native to Europe: O. europaea ssp. cerasiformis G. Kunkel & Sunding, O. europaea L. ssp. europaea , O. europaea ssp. guanchica P. Vargas, J. Hess, Muñoz Garm. & Kadereit, O. europaea ssp. oleaster (Hoffmanns. & Link) Negodi, and O. europaea var. sylvestris Brot. (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). These taxa are related to cultivated olive.

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Olea europaea is regionally assessed as Data Deficient as there is currently insufficient information available on the European subpopulation size and distribution to make an informed decision. It is also not known to what extent the genetic identity of the wild subpopulations has been affected by hybridization with cultivated olive.

range:
O. europaea is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), Macaronesia (Madeira and Canary Islands), other parts of Africa, the western Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Peninsula (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Portugal, the species occurs in the northeast and centre-south of the country, while in Spain it is found all over the country. In France, it occurs in 18 departments to the south and southeast as well as Corsica and Paris (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).

population:
The plants are scattered; often solitary. The European subpopulation is suspected to be decreasing.

habitat:
It grows in secondary habitats, on dry slopes, and in maquis (in rocky areas), from 0–900 m.

threats:
It is threatened by fires, secondary succession and by hybridization with cultivated olive.

conservationAction:
EURISCO reports 937 germplasm accessions of O. europaea held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from Spain and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage is a priority for this species. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of the protected areas in which it is found. Research is needed to determine the effect of hybridization with cultivated olive on the genetic diversity of the wild subpopulations.

useAndTrade:
O. europaea is widely cultivated and wild populations are important as potential gene donors for crop improvement. It is also collected from the wild for food and medicine.

redListAssessors:
Magos Brehm, J., Kell, S.P., and Draper, D.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. It occurs in a variety of habitats over a range of altitudes and it is inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO), over its wide range, also exceeds these values. The population is suspected not to be small and it is considered a frequent species in some areas of its range, for example, in Romania (Badarau and Malos 2014). There may have been some declines in area, extent and quality of habitat and also of the number of subpopulations or mature individuals but these are not thought to be sufficient to trigger a threatened category.


The species is listed in two National Red Lists and is considered Near Threatened in Croatia and Least Concern in Switzerland (Zoological Society of London 2014). It may be locally threatened, for example it is considered to be Endangered in Bavaria, and some population sampling and monitoring is recommended to detect and enumerate any declines. It occurs within many Natura 2000 sites, many of which have some protected status, as well as other protected area, such as Risnjak National Park in Croatia. It is inferred that threats in such areas are minimized, and it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
Outside Europe this species is native to Turkey and western Siberia. Within Europe it is found from Latvia and Lithuania to Ukraine in the East, through the Balkan peninsular, Italy and central Europe to France and Belgium in the west (Marhold 2011, GRIN 2014).

population:
The population of this species is suspected not to be small, for example, at one site in oak forest in central Poland sixteen hectares contained approximately 80 individuals (Kiedrzyński 2008). In Romania it is considered a frequent species in mesoxeric to mesic grasslands and bushy associations (Badarau and Malos 2014).

habitat:
This perennial plant grows to a metre in height and has large pale yellow bee pollinated flowers. It is found in mountains in open woods, clearings, grassland and shrubland stream sides and rocky areas (Polunin 1969, Badarau and Malos 2014). It is mentioned to characterize eight habitat types in Europe, for example, Pannonic turkey oak-sessile oak woods and hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels (EUNIS 2014).

threats:
Loss of habitat and collection from the wild are threats to this species (Missouri Botanical Garden 2014). Wild collection for medicinal use is cited as a reason for its threatened status in Croatia and it is known to be collected, even from protected areas, in Bulgaria (Kathe et al. 2003) and plants of unknown origin are sold in Serbian markets (Baricevic 2002).

conservationAction:
This species is recorded from 127 Natura 2000 sites from countries such as Germany, France, Poland and Latvia. It is found in protected areas such as the Risnjak National Park in Gorski Kotar, Croatia (Vrbek and Buzjak 2001) It is grown ex situ in 124 botanic gardens worldwide and is recorded from several seed banks, for example, the Millennium Seed Bank, Kew, United Kingdom (BCGI 2013, EUNIS 2014, RBG Kew 2014). It is assessed as Least Concern in Switzerland and Near Threatened in Croatia. It is considered not at risk in Germany as a whole but is rare in some parts, for example it is considered Endangered in Bavaria (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014, Zoological Society of London 2014). Collecting from the wild is regulated by law in Lithuania (Baricevic 2002) and it is a protected species in Poland (Kiedrzyński 2008), Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014) and in some areas of France, for example the Auvergne (Association Tela Botanica 2014).

useAndTrade:
This plant is very poisonous. The leaves contain compounds which have effects on the heart and is noted to be used for the treatment of heart disease in ethno-therapy in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Redzic 2007). It has been used in folk medicine in a similar way to Digitalis purpurea which is widely used in herbal medicine with a recognised stimulatory effect upon the heart (Plants for a Future 2014). It is a widely cultivated garden plant.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species exceeds the values needed for a threatened category under criterion B. However, this species is considered Critically Endangered in Croatia and Moldova, Endangered in Albania, Vulnerable in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Near Threatened in Hungary (Vangjeli et al. 1995, Andreev 2004, Király 2007, Nikolić and Topić 2007, Muftic et al. 2011). It is not in the Carpathian List of Endangered species, which covers parts of Romania.

Although no population data were found, the conspectus of the Bulgarian Vascular Flora (Assayov et al. 2012) maps this species as occurring throughout the country and it is not in the Red List of Bulgarian plants (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Millaku (undated), from studies between 2007 and 2009, estimated that the biomass in kilograms for this species in areas of Kosovo which implied considerable abundance, for example, a total of 38,900 kg is given for the Western mountains of Kosovo. This suggests that within the core range it is more common and the population is inferred not to be small. It is noted to be threatened by collection from the wild but it is uncertain whether this has resulted in population declines that exceed the percentage values required for a threatened category under criterion A. It is suspected that, as the overall population is inferred to be sufficiently large, that the declines have been less than these values.


The area of occupancy (AOO) is difficult to assess with certainty, the widespread occurrence in Bulgaria and its part as a characteristic species of Dobrogean sessile oak-lime-oriental hornbeam-ash forests (EUNIS 2014) and occurrence in pine plantations (Gyurova 2005) and roadsides suggest that it is likely, over its range, to exceed the 2,000 km2 value needed for a threatened category. It also occurs within several protected areas such as the Dajti National Park, central Albania, and the Rila national park Bulgaria and nine other Natura 2000 sites. It is assessed as Least Concern. However, this based on significant inferences and surveys are needed to establish the current population status and AOO and monitoring is needed to detect and enumerate declines.

range:
In europe, this species is native from Turkey through Greece, throughout Bulgaria (Assyov and Petrova 2012) and parts of the Balkan peninsula to Hungary and Romania. Outside Europe the species extends into Anatolia (Turkey).

population:
No population data were found for this species. However it is noted to grow throughout Slovenia.

habitat:
This perennial plant grows to a height of about half a metre. It is found in woods, scrub, meadows and roadsides. It is mentioned to characterize Dobrogean sessile oak-lime-oriental hornbeam-ash forests (EUNIS 2014) and has also been found in pine plantations (Gyurova 2005).

threats:
Collection from the wild for medicinal use poses a threat to this species. It is known to be collected, even from protected areas, in Bulgaria (Kathe et al. 2003) and plants of unknown origin are sold in Serbian markets (Baricevic 2002).

conservationAction:
This species is listed from a total of nine Natura 2000 sites, found in Hungary, Greece, Bulgaria and Romania and in national parks such as Rila National Park in Bulgaria (Rila National Park Management Plan 2001) and Dajti National Park, central Albania (Kalajnxhiu et al. 2011). It is grown ex situ in 101 botanic gardens worldwide and is recorded from several seed banks, for example, the Millennium Seed bank, Kew, United Kingdom (BCGI 2013, EUNIS 2014, RBG Kew 2014). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia (CR(DD) a4c); Nikolić and Topić 2005) and Moldova, Endangered in Albania, Vulnerable in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Near Threatened in Hungary (Vangjeli et al. 1995, Andreev 2004, Király 2007, Nikolić and Topić 2007, Muftić et al. 2011).

useAndTrade:
The leaves of this plant contain compounds which have effects on the heart. It has been used in folk medicine in a similar way to Digitalis purpurea which is widely used in herbal medicine with a recognised stimulatory effect upon the heart (Plants for a Future 2014). This species is noted to be used for the treatment of heart disease in ethno-therapy in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Redzic 2007) It has been investigated for extraction of medicinal digoxin from cultures (Reinhard et al. 1989) and some efforts are being made to domesticate and cultivate this species, for example, in Romania (Kathe et al. 2003). Extracts are reported to have three times the physiological effects of those from Digitalis purpurea and are used in preference (Plants for a Future 2014). In modern medicine digitoxin and digoxin (cardiac glycosides) are isolated and purified from this species and are used as heart stimulants in the drug digitalis (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2014). It is also very widely grown as a garden plant.


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This is a widespread and common species and no significant declines have been identified. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and population all exceed the values for a threatened category. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
This species is thought to be native to Morocco and western, southwestern and west-central Europe, and to be widely naturalized further east. Whether it is native or naturalized, in each country is often uncertain. Following Marhold (2011) it is treated as native to the following countries: Norway, Sweden, Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Corsica, Germany, the United Kingdom (considered native by Preston et al. 2002), Ireland, Italy (Sardinia), Portugal and Madeira, Spain and the Balearics (Marhold 2011, Royal Botanic gardens Kew 2014).

population:
This is a very common species within much of its range and it is inferred that the population is large and relatively stable.

habitat:
This erect biennial or short lived perennial grows to an average of one metre in height. It flowers generally between June and September and the flowers are pollinated by bees. It grows in open places, especially woodland clearings, hedges, sea cliffs, heaths and mountainsides, on waste ground, disturbed sites and as a pioneer on burnt areas. It is found often found on acid soils but is also found on calcareous soils (Polunin 1969, Stace 1997, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2014).

threats:
Although habitat loss as a result of human activity is a generalized threat, there are not thought to be any significant ongoing threats to this species in its main native range and none are envisaged in the near future.

conservationAction:
This species is listed from a total of 27 Natura 2000 sites, found in France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Spain and grows in other protected areas, for example, Glenveagh National Park County Donegal Ireland. It is grown ex situ in 147 botanic gardens worldwide and is recorded from several seed banks, for example, the Millennium Seed bank, Kew, United Kingdom (BCGI 2013, EUNIS 2014, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2014).

useAndTrade:
Despite its toxicity, it has long been used in folk-medicine. Foxglove tea, from an infusion of the leaves, was taken for colds, fevers and catarrh, and compresses were used for ulcers, swellings and bruises. It was most commonly used as a diuretic against dropsy, an accumulation of fluid in the body tissues, it was sometimes effective, but occasionally fatal (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2014). In modern medicine isolation and purification of digitoxin and digoxin (cardiac glycosides) have been used as heart stimulants in the drug digitalis although today this is made mostly from Digitalis lanata which has higher concentrations of these substances (Plants for a Future 2014). It is cultivated as a medicinal plant species in Romania (Kathe et al. 2003). It also contains loliolide, a potent ant-repellent which was once used on walls in the Forest of Dean, England (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2014). It is a popular garden plant.


taxonomicNotes:
In some sources this species is considered to be synonym of Euphrasia officinalis (GRIN 2014) but Stace (1997) notes that E. officinalis is often applied in an aggregate sense to the whole genus. Marhold (2011) notes that E. officinalis is a pro parte synonym of E. rostkoviana . E. rostkoviana is considered the accepted name by Stace (1997) and Marhold (2011) and these are the sources that have been followed in this assessment. It is noted to have several subspecies and to hybridize with other species, for example, E. rostkoviana x E. rivularis .

redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) for this widespread species of natural and semi-natural grassland exceeds the values needed for a threatened category. The population is inferred to be very large and any declines not sufficient, in percentage terms, to trigger a threatened category. It is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is native to Turkey and Georgia and through most of Europe from Sweden and Finland in the north to Spain, Italy and Bulgaria in the south and eastward to the Russian Federation and Ukraine (Marhold 2011, GRIN 2014).

population:
This is a common species in much of its range, for example it is considered widespread and common in Ireland. It is less common in the north of its range, for example it is rare in Denmark (Pugsley 1930). It is inferred the population is very large, for example, at one site in Sweden in 2005, the rare subspecies here, had a population count of 13,550 individuals (Schmalholz and Kiviniemi 2007). It is suspected that it may be subject to some overall declines as the area of semi-natural natural grassland in most of Europe is noted to have declined (Schmalholz and Kiviniemi 2007).

habitat:
This annual plant grows to a height of 35 cm in meadows and grasslands in lowland and hilly areas (Stace 1997) and is semi-parasitic on grasses. It is also noted to occur on roadside verges which may be beneficial in providing connectivity should grassland habitat patches become fragmented in some areas (Schmalholz and Kiviniemi 2007). Schmalholz and Kiviniemi (2007) in a study of E. rostoviana subsp. fennica found that it was not represented in the seed bank and relied on annual recruitment from seed for its persistence.

threats:
Some of the subspecies are rare and threatened in some localities, for example E. rostkoviana subsp. fennica is Endangered in Sweden under category B with a declining area of occupancy (AOO) and area, extent and/or quality of habitat and extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals. Causes of declines are cited as the reduction of semi-natural grasslands with conversion to arable land, woodland or abandonment with cessation of mowing or grazing. Fragmentation is leading to smaller habitat patches and making dispersal of propagules more difficult, and the subspecies is absent from the seed bank in Sweden and relies on annual recruitment from seed for its persistence (Schmalholz and Kiviniemi 2007). It is suspected that the general reduction in grazed and mown grasslands in Europe may have some, but a much lesser, impact on the species as a whole.

conservationAction:
This species is grown ex situ in eight botanic gardens worldwide (BCGI 2013) but it is not known whether seed is conserved in any seed bank. It is listed from a total of 23 Natura 2000 sites, from Germany, Sweden, Finland and Italy and protected are such as Högänge nature reserve in Sweden (EUNIS 2014, Västernorrland County Administrative Board 2001).

It is assessed as Least Concern in Switzerland although various sub-species are considered threatened, for example E. rostkoviana subsp. fennica is Endangered in Sweden and E. rostkoviana subsp. montana Vulnerable in the United Kingdom (Zoological Society of London 2014) . Further research on the taxonomy of this species may clarify the position of various hybrids and subspecies.

useAndTrade:
This is a difficult group of species to distinguish and it is suspected that it will have been used medicinally in the same way as other Euphrasias , to which the name Eyebright has been applied. Eyebright has a range of traditional medicinal uses and has a long history of herbal use in the treatment of eye problems, such as infectious and allergic conditions affecting the eyes. It is also used for infectious and allergic conditions affecting of the middle ear, sinuses and nasal passages and can be used externally as a poultice to heal wounds (Plants for a Future 2014). Recent trials have given support to its claimed beneficial effects on the eye, conjunctivitis was cured in 95% of patients in a trial treated with Euphrasia eyedrops (Blazics et al. 2008).


range:
Gratiola officinalis has a circumboreal distribution, including central and southern Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa and northern America.

population:
G. officinalis is classed as Extinct in Estonia and Vulnerable in Switzerland, it is common in Spain, common in nearly all France apart from the Mediterranean region and occurs throughout much of Italy including Sardinia.

habitat:
G. officinalis typically occurs in the margins of lakes and ponds, particularly in the draw down zones, often on margins of large water bodies on silt that is very rich in organic matter.

threats:
Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species.

conservationAction:
G. officinalis is classed as Extinct in Estonia and Vulnerable in Switzerland and is protected at national level in France (espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire: Article 2), otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.

useAndTrade:
The plant is used in phytotherapy but it is toxic in high doses. In Europe, it is sometimes cultivated for this purpose. Apart from this, there is some low-level trade for pond landscaping but it seems unlikely that this has any impact on wild populations.


range:
Scrophularia nodosa is native to temperate Asia (Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russian Federation) and Europe and occurs at elevations between sea level and 1,900 m. It has been introduced into North America and has become naturalised widely outside its native range (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Castroviejo et al. 2009).

population:
Populations are known to be stable (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A medium to tall hairless woodland perennial herb found in hedgerows, margins of woodland, rivers, streams and damp habitats. It has an unpleasant scent to attract wasps for pollination (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). In places it is part of the subnitrophilic communities surrounding urban areas (Castroviejo et al . 2009).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
In folk medicine, this plant was believed to be a herbal remedy for scrofula that produced abscesses and skin sores (Forey 1991). In Europe, the whole plant is still used to treat cutaneous eruptions like abscesses and sores (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). A poultice has been used for sprains and other swellings (Allen and Hatfield 2004). A decoction can be applied externally to chronic skin diseases, gangrene, sprains, burns and inflammations. The fresh leaves can be applied as an ointment (Plants for a Future 2012). The mature seed pods of this plant contain acylated iridoid glycosides shown to stimulate the growth of human dermal fibroblasts which have ethnobotanical use for healing wounds (Stevenson et al. 2002). A veterinary remedy is produced for scabs in pigs, farcy, expulsion of afterbirth in cows and red water fever (Allen and Hatfield 2004).


taxonomicNotes:
Most Verbascum , including V. densiflorum , have the ability to hybridize and to produce fertile offspring (Niehus 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in many European countries and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present, and it is assessed as Least Concern.

range:
A Eurasian temperate species, the plants' distribution ranges from Europe to Turkey (Anatolia and Thrace) to the Caucasus (Azerbaijan and Georgia) and southern European Russia, and northern Africa (Morocco (Euro+Med PlantBase 2014, GRIN 2014). Widely introduced (north (eastern and central USA) and south (Chile) America and to Australia. The species is widespread and occurs in all temperate regions of Europe, but is rare in the western and northern (Sweden or Norway and absent from Finland (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010) countries. Introduced in parts of Europe, and considered a neophyte introduction to the British Isles and Ireland (Preston et al. 2002).

population:
No population trend is known for the species. The species has wide distribution range and growth in anthropized areas (Fischer et al. 2008).

habitat:
The species is a biennial flowering plant, growing to 0.3–3 m tall. In the first year, the plant forms a rosette of densely hairy leaves at ground level. During the second year, the plant grows a tall flowering stem. The species occurs scattered in sunny meadows , on dumps , roadsides, embankments , banks , even in forest beats . It prefers nutrient-rich , mainly calcareous soils (Fischer et al. 2008). "hps atn">

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Least Concern in Switzerland and Endangered in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2005, Moser et al. 2012). Recorded from four protected areas in European Russia (IAS PAs Russia 2014), and probably occurs in Natura 2000 sites in Europe.

useAndTrade:
The species is used as herbal medicine across most European countries (European Medicines Agency 2008). The flowers and leaves of the plant can be used as infusion in the treatment of various respiratory complaints including coughs, bronchitis, asthma and throat irritations. The species has many medicinal properties including as an anodyne, antiseptic, astringent, demulcent, emollient, expectorant and vulnerary (PFAF 2010). Most medicinal properties are related to various saponins and other secondary metabolites contained in the plants (Natural Standards 2010). Moreover, plant extracts are used in homeopathy (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). Widely found and traded as an ornamental plant.


taxonomicNotes:
Most Verbascum species, including V. phlomoides , have the ability to hybridize and to produce fertile offspring (Niehus 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species occurs in many European countries. Although there have been declines in parts of the species range in Europe (e.g., assessed as Endangered in Switzerland, Regionally Endangered in Austria, and Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg), its estimated area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are much greater than the threshold for any threatened category, and it is considered Least Concern at present.

range:
A temperate species found from western Europe to western Asia (Turkey and the Caucasus), western Siberia and Kazakhstan (GRIN 2014). The species is widespread in Europe, mainly occurring in central and southern Europe. Besides its native range, the plants' range is expanding northwards and can nowadays be found in the UK and Scandinavia (Denmark, Sweden and Finland); considered an introduced neophyte in these areas. Introduced globally e.g., the Americas, Pacific islands, and New Zealand (Nesom 2012).

population:
No population trend data are known for this species. The species grows well in disturbed and anthropogenic habitats and is therefore probably not declining.

habitat:
Found on dry and stony soils (PFAF 2014). The plant often occurs scattered on embankments and other disturbed and anthropogenic habitats such as roadsides and on dumps. It preferentially grows on nitrate and nutrient-rich loamy soils. It can be found on small hills in sub-mountainous regions. Its hairy leaves protect the plants direct sunshine which allows it to grow in warm, dry and cold regions. The species commonly hybridizes with other species from the Verbascum genus such as V. thapsus, V. densiflorum and V. nigrum (Niehus 2009).

conservationAction:
The species is listed as Endangered in Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002), Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), and Regionally Endangered in Austria (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999).

useAndTrade:
The species is used as herbal medicine across most European countries (European Medicines Agency 2008). The flowers and leaves of the plant can be used as infusion in the treatment of various respiratory complaints including coughs, bronchitis, asthma and throat irritations. The species has many medicinal properties like anodyne, antiseptic, astringent, demulcent, emollient, expectorant and vulnerary (PFAF 2014). Most medicinal properties are related to various saponins and other secondary metabolites contained in the plants (Natural Standards 2010). Moreover, plant extracts are used in homeopathy (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014).


taxonomicNotes:
Most Verbascum species, including V. thapsus, have the ability to hybridize and to produce fertile offspring (Niehus 2009).

redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This species occurs in many European countries and does not appear to be in decline from any threatening processes at present. As its estimated AOO and EOO are ways above the thresholds for any of the threatened categories, it is therefore listed as Least Concern.

range:
The species is widespread and occurs naturally throughout much of Europe, in northern Africa and in Asia. Its distribution ranges from Macaronesia (the Azores and Canary Islands; naturalised in Madeira) east to Central Asia and western China, north to Scandinavia and Siberia, and south to the Himalaya region (Tutin et al. 1964, Wu et al. 2007, GRIN 2014). In northern Europe, the species grows from sea level up to 1,850 m altitude (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). The species is considered an invasive weed (Parker et al. 2003), and has been very widely introduced and naturalised to the Americas, temperate Asia, Australasia and the Pacific (GRIN 2014).

population:
The species' population trend in Europe is unknown.

habitat:
The species most frequently grows as a coloniser of bare and disturbed soil, usually on sandy or chalky ground. It grows best in dry, sandy or gravelly soils, but grows also well in a variety of habitats, including meadows, roadsides, forest clearings and pastures. The ability to grow in a wide range of habitats has been linked to high phenotype variation, which might be related to its ability to hybridize with other species of the Verbascum genus (Parker et al. 2003, Niehus 2009)

threats:
The species is not known to be threatened.

conservationAction:
No conservation actions are thought to be required for this species. It occurs in protected areas in its European range.

useAndTrade:
The species has a tradition of use as an herbal medicine across most European countries (European Medicines Agency 2008). The flowers and leaves of the plant can be used as infusion in the treatment of various respiratory complaints including coughs, bronchitis, asthma and throat irritations. The species has many medicinal properties like anodyne, antiseptic, astringent, demulcent, emollient, expectorant and vulnerary (PFAF 2014). Most medicinal properties are related to various saponins and other secondary metabolites contained in the plants (Natural Standards 2010). Moreover, plant extracts are used in homeopathy (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit 2014). The plant is used to make herbal teas and flavour beer, and is widely available as an ornamental plant.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large overall population, it occurs in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.

range:
Veronica officinalis is native throughout temperate Asia, Macaronesia (Azores and Madeira) and Europe, except Spitsbergen and the high Arctic and it is less common in the Mediterranean. This plant has become widely naturalised outside its native range where it has been introduced such as North America and New Zealand. It occurs in lowland up to 2,150 m asl (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003). Its other vernacular name is Common Speedwell and this describes the distribution which covers all the UK and Ireland (Wildflowers of the British Isles 2012).

population:
The broad distribution of V. officinalis is little changed, though there have clearly been local declines where its habitats have been lost, particularly in the English Midlands (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Heath speedwell is a perennial herb found in open woods and woodland rides and clearings, on banks and heathland, pastures, sand dunes and road verges but mostly in short grassland. It grows on well-drained, often moderately acidic or leached soils, and in some grasslands it is confined to raised ground or anthills. It grows up to around 20 cm tall, is short and hairy and flowers from May to August (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Heukels 2000).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. In Bulgaria this species is collected but is not considered to be of economic importance and is described as being scarcely spread, with single populations with small areas and limited resources (Evstatieva and Hardalova 2004). In Bulgaria this plant is collected from protected areas and is considered to be Endangered in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Kathe 2003). It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
The Speedwell has been known for possessing a range of healing properties and its folk use in Romania for treating stomach ulcers has been confirmed by experiments. Its use in folk medicine throughout the UK is rare except in Ireland where it was used for coughs and chest problems. In Germany this species is well reputed for pulmonary tuberculosis treatment (Allen and Hatfield 2004). It is also used to treat chronic skin diseases (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). A bitter tangy tea is made from the fresh flowering herb or the dried leaves. The leaves and roots have been used for the treatment of pectoral and nephritic complaints, haemorrhages, skin diseases and treatment of wounds. The plant is considered to be obsolete in modern herbalism (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classed as Least Concern as it is widespread with overall stable populations. There are some localised threats and local declines and therefore monitoring of the populations is recommended.

range:
Menyanthes trifoliata occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Scandinavia south to Morocco and east through the Middle East, Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan, India, Nepal and Mongolia to the Russian far East, Japan, China and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout northern and western North America. In Europe, it occurs from Iceland east through Finland to Arctic Russia and south to the Iberian Peninsula and east throughout central Europe and the Mediterranean to Belarus and the Ukraine. In Bulgaria, it is scattered with nine (possibly 11) localities in different parts of the country and occurs mostly in mountains: Rhodope mountains, Piirin mountains, Rila Mountains, Samokov plain, central Balkan mountains. In the Czech Republic, it is scattered in the lowlands and highlands but less frequent in the east and southeast. In France, it is common in all regions but absent from the Cote d'Azur. In Germany, the plant is widespread throughout the country. In Greece, it is present at five sites (with the most recent findings from 1979 and 1998) in the north near the border of former Yugoslavia, and found in Kato Olimbos, Iti, Vermio, Paiko. In Iceland, it can be found around the perimeter but not the glaciers and the centre. In Italy, it is found in nearly the whole country. In Lithuania, it occurs in the entire country in the low lying area. In Scandinavia, it is widespread and occurs throughout. In Slovakia, it is more frequent in lower areas, scattered but with many sites: Zahorska nirina lowland, western part of the country; Podunajska nirina Bezodne lowland, southwestern part of the country; Vychodoslovenskanirina lowland, eastern part of the country; Orava region, Sucha hora, northern part of the country. In Slovenia, the species is everywhere apart from the eastern or hilly region. In Switzerland, it is everywhere but scattered. In the UK, it is widespread and abundant in the west and north .

population:
The populations are mostly stable, not fragmented and there are no extreme fluctuations. However, there are local declines even in areas where the overall trend is stable such as Italy (extinctions in the southern region Campania) and Switzerland. In Hungary, the species has heavily declined and this decline continues, it now occurs at 50 localities. In Slovenia, there were 227 locations recorded but the majority of the records has not been confirmed recently, there is no monitoring in place. M. trifoliata is declining in Croatia.

habitat:
M. trifoliata is found in various wetland habitats such as fens, pools, marshes, older woods, ditches, bogs, lake shores, swampy prairies, particularly in acid or oligotrophic conditions.

threats:
There are several local threats to this species. In Hungary, the declines were caused by collection in the past, now the main threat is changing of the water level by agricultural methods and water pollution from agriculture (eutrophication). In Italy, water extraction is a threat, in Slovenia it is the change of agricultural methods. In the Czech Republic, fish production impacts on some subpopulations. Overall, anything affecting the aquatic zone could affect subpopulations locally. Outcrossing with garden populations is another threat to the plant.

conservationAction:
This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, and fruits are subject to this regulation. There are several national conservation measures in place: Bulgaria: classed as Endangered on national red list and protected. It is found in two national parks, two protected areas, five Natura 2000 sites in the Piirin, central Balkan, western Rhodope, and Riila mountains. Croatia: classed as Endangered on national red list (Nikolić and Topić 2005) Czech Republic: classed as Vulnerable on the national red list, protected by national law in the lowest category. France: protected in five regions (Haute-Normandie, Pays de la Loire, Lorraine, Picardie, Centre) Greece: no protection Germany: listed as Vulnerable on the national Red List and several regional red lists (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). Hungary: categorized Endangered in the Hungarian Red List (Király 2007) and protected nationally. Most localities (80%) occur in protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. Italy: protected regionally and possible included in some protected areas. Lithuania: present in 32 regional parks and two national parks. Luxembourg: categorized Vulnerable on the national Red List (Colling 2005). Slovakia: currently classed as Endangered but it is considered to downgrade the listing; some sites are under protection. Slovenia: recognised as Vulnerable in the national red list, not protected. Switzerland: regionally protected and classed as Least Concern on national red list (Moser et al. 2002). UK: found in several natural parks and protected areas.

useAndTrade:
There are medicinal uses to treat leukaemia and anorexia, and as a laxative. Plants used in horticulture are bought from nurseries. In Hungary, it used to be heavily cultivated about 50 years ago, some years had a production of 10 tonnes.

redListAssessors:
Sorensen, M., Lansdown, R., Dostalova, A., Ericsson, S., Gigot, G., Gygax, A., Hodálová, I., Jogan, N., Montagnani, C., Rasomavicius, V. & Petrova, A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional and EU 27 assessment: Endangered (EN)


Atropa baetica is listed as Endangered because of its restricted and fragmented distribution, with an area of occupancy of 33 km² and a total population size of an estimated 139 individuals. Negative trends have been observed for its habitat and number of subpopulations. Predation and human presence limit the expansion of the species.

range:
This species can be found in the north of Morocco and in Spain (Martínez Lirola et al. 2004). In Spain, the populations with major number of individuals occur in the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas (Jaén); in Andalusia further populations exist in the provinces of Almería, Granada, Málaga, Cádiz and Córdoba. In addition, it is found in the provinces of Cuenca (Serranía de Cuenca) and Guadalajara (Sierra de Armallones). Its area of occupancy is 33 km² and it presents a highly fragmented distribution.

population:
The total number of subpopulations has been estimated in between 22 (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and 25-27 (Martínez Lirola et al. 2004). Total population size has been reported to be 139 individuals (Martínez Lirola et al. 2004). The subpopulations are severely fragmented as there is only one important nucleus of individuals in the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y las Villas (Jaén). All the other subpopulations are very dispersed and distant from each other with one to two individuals only.

habitat:
It appears sporadically in forest clearings, within different communities (Martínez Lirola et al. 2004), generally unstable. These communities often occur on basic rather moist soils, on shady sites with open exposure.

threats:
The main threat is population fragmentation due to ecological specificity and dispersal mechanism, predation by wild animals, human presence and hybridisation phenomena (Martínez Lirola et al . 2004). Predation by livestock and impact due to the presence of highly used paths, have been also reported as threats.

conservationAction:
This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(i,iii,iv); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).Most of the subpopulations occur within protected areas Parque Natural. Herbivores erradication plans have been implemented in some areas and most of the subpopulations are monitored. Ex situ propagation and seed viability tests have been developed and plant material has been stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz (Córdoba) and Escuela Técnica de Ingenieros Agrónomos (Madrid). A recovery programme is being developed in Andalucía and Castilla La Mancha. Proposed measures include new subpopulations search, awareness and education measures development and management of herbivores presence in some areas.

useAndTrade:
Medicinal use of the species has been reported (as a homeopathic preparation), and the plant contains compounds with potential medicinal applications (e.g., tropane alkaloids, including atropine) (Maqbool et al. 2014).

redListAssessors:
Rodríguez Vicarío, F., Arévalo, T., Sánchez Morenilla, D., Rivas Rangel, A., Martínez Lirola, M.J., Luque Moreno, P., Gutiérrez Carretero, L., and Algarra Ávila, J.A.


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Physalis alkekengi is distributed throughout Europe, inhabiting a wide variety of habitats, including altered habitats and waste lands, and is widely naturalised in temperate zones. It is popular as an attractive ornamental and is used in traditional herbal medicine; it is widely cultivated and can be an invasive weed. This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. More information is needed on the population size and the actual or potential threats to this species.

range:
Physalis alkekengi is native to Europe east across southern Asia to Japan (Valdes 2012). It is found throughout Europe except in the far north, though its origin is uncertain in some countries. It was introduced into the United Kingdom by 1548 and into Norway after 1800; whether it reproduces in the wild in Norway in uncertain (Artsdatabanken 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Though Valdes (2012) reports it as being native to Switzerland, it is in face introduced, being cultivated and naturalised (Hess et al. 1967-1972, Aeschimann and Burdet 1994, Moser et al. 2002, Lauber et al. 2012). It is widely naturalised in temperate regions (eFloraSA 2013, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2013). In Spain there are only 38 recorded occurrences, and there are few localities in Switzerland (Anthos 2010, Info Flora 2012). It is widespread in Germany, Italy and Bulgaria. In western Greece it has been recorded from Lakes Trichonis and Lisimachia, but it is not thought to be restricted to this area (Zotos and Dimopoulos 2006). Its precise distribution in other central and eastern European countries is unknown.

population:
The total number of individuals is unknown, but the population is almost certainly quite large, and is stable. It is widespread in Germany and less so in France; the subpopulations in the United Kingdom, Spain and Switzerland are not very widespread or frequent (Anthos 2010, INPN 2012, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). Many localities may have originated from ancient cultivations of the species (Talavera et al. 2012).

habitat:
A persistent rhizomatous perennial herb found on lowland cultivated ground and vineyards, hedgerows, near damp paths, and on altered habitats such as waste land, rubbish tips and railway banks (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Plants for a Future 2012). Its introduced range has increased into northern Europe through garden escapes, as dispersal by seed is limited. It can be invasive, as it is very persistant once established and can send up new shoots far from where it was originally planted.

threats:
There is no information on any significant threats. In Croatia is has declined due to intensified soil cultivation, seed cleaning and chemical weed control (Hulina 2005).

conservationAction:
It is classified as Least Concern in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2012) and Near Threatened in Switzerland (though it is introduced in Switzerland; Moser et al. 2002). It is found in three Natura 2000 sites in France and one in Italy (European Environment Agency 2010). It is listed as the only Vulnerable weed species in Croatia (Hulina 2005). Research into the population size and distribution, as well as any potential threats, would be beneficial.

useAndTrade:
It is cultivated for its attractive ornamental fruits and its popularity has caused it to be invasive (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012). All parts of the plant except the ripe fruit are poisonous; the fruit can be eaten raw or cooked, and is rich in vitamins, especially vitamin C (Plants for a Future 2012). The dried fruit is used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine as a diuretic, antiseptic and sedative (Tong et al . 2008, Rasheed et al . 2010). The whole plant is antiphlogistic, antipyretic, antitussive and expectorant, and is used to treat urinary and skin diseases; the fruit is aperient, strongly diuretic and lithontripic, and is used for kidney and bladder disorders, fever and gout; the seed can promote early labour (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


Scopolia carniolica is a montane perrenial herb with a global range located almost entirely in Europe. Its precise native distribution is unclear, most likely due to imprecision around when the species arrived in countries around Europe. Within Europe, it most likely has a discontinuous native range made up of three separate populations: one in the eastern Alps, another in the Carpathian mountains, and a third in European Russia to the east of the Black Sea. It is an important medicinal plant and is collected in the wild for its medicinal properties; in Croatia this collection is quite intense, but is carried out artisanally (it is not reported to have been collected commercially). It is listed as threatened in several countries, but most of these are presumably small populations which appear to be on the edge of its range, and there is no evidence that they are currently declining significantly. Its largest range is in Romania, where there are extensive beech forests in the Siriu Massif which presumably provide substantial habitat. No information is available on the population size or trend. Scopolia carniolica is classified as Least Concern as it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for a threatened category, and the existing threats are unlikely to cause the species’ populations to severely decline in the near future.


Further research on its population size and trends, clarification of its native distribution, and research into potential additional threats would be useful.

range:
The global range of Scopolia carniolica is located almost entirely in Europe. According to The Natural History Museum (2013), this species is found in three non-overlapping areas: two Alpine regions in central and eastern Europe and in the Caucasus between the Black and Caspian Seas. Its distribution became fragmented after periods of glaciation in the Quaternary period, where it survived in areas which were not covered by ice (The Natural History Museum 2013). Valdes (2012), however, reports the species from a much wider native distribution. In Poland it is found over a very small area in the southeast in a few localities (Stawowczyk 2009). In Italy it is restricted to the north in the western Alps (Piedmont), at around 420 km from the subpopulation in the the eastern mountain range (Lonati and Siniscalco 2009). This species is present in Croatia according to the Flora Croatica Database (Nikolić 2013), with numerous localities (I. Boršić pers. comm. 2013). Its largest range is in Romania where there are extensive beech forests in the Siriu Massif (Monica and Alexiu 2011). It is a neophyte in the Czech Republic, having been introduced relatively recently (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2013).

population:
The total population size and trends are unknown. In Serbia, this species is very rare, with only 50-250 mature individuals remaining (Baričevič et al. 2004). There are two subpopulations in Italy and Hungary which are fragmented or separated over large distances. The population in Piedmont, Italy, has 8,000-9,000 ramets over an area of 800 ha (Lonati and Siniscalco 2009).

habitat:
Scopolia carniolica is a montane perennial herb found in Alpine regions growing on damp, rocky calcareous soils in shady fir-beech forests at elevations above 1700 metres asl, and in humid places along streams and river valleys in hornbeam and ash forests at lower elevations (The Natural History Museum 2013). In the western Alps it occurs mainly in highly shaded habitats, located on scree and boulder fields (Lonati and Siniscalco 2009). It reproduces mainly by rhizome fragmentation which can cover a large area in a short time, and also sexually. The seeds are dispersed by ants and the flowers pollinated by bees. Seedlings stay in the juvenile period for about five years (The Natural History Museum 2013).

threats:
This species is threatened by collection from the wild for medicinal purposes, particularly in Croatia where it is one of the most frequently collected medicinal plants from the wild (Baričevič et al. 2004).

conservationAction:
Scopolia carniolica is legally protected in Croatia and listed in the Ordinance on Proclamation of Wild Taxa as Protected and Strictly Protected (Official Gazette 99/09), but there have been no requests to collect it commercially (I. Boršić pers. comm. August 2013). It is Critically Endangered in Serbia (Kathe et al. 2003, Baričevič et al. 2004). It is classified as Vulnerable in Hungary and is protected (Király 2007). The population in northwest Italy is said to be Critically Endangered (Lonati and Siniscalco 2009). It is found in nine Natura 2000 sites in Slovakia and two in Hungary (European Environment Agency 2010). Forest management planning should be encouraged with a conservation purpose where the species is found (Lonati and Siniscalco 2009), and populations should be monitored to ensure they are sustainable.

useAndTrade:
This is a hallucinogenic plant used as a sedative, cosmetic and truth serum. It produces tropane alkaloids known as Scopolamine, commonly used to treat motion sickness (The Natural History Museum 2013). Efforts have been made in Romania to domesticate and cultivate this species for medicinal purposes. In Croatia it is one of the most frequently collected medicinal plants from the wild. The main parts used are the roots whilst flowering (Kathe et al. 2003).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)


This species is classified as Least Concern due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats. As this plant is poisonous it is not collected in large quantities or consumed.

range:
Solanum dulcamara is native to North Africa, temperate and tropical Asia (India, Pakistan) and Europe. It has become naturalised in North America and outside its native range. It occurs between sea level and 2,000 m (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012, Talavera et al. 2012).

population:
This species is widespread and the populations are assumed to be stable.

habitat:
A climbing, scrambling perennial commonly reaching 2 m tall with red berries when ripe. It occurs in damp woodland, scrub, thickets, stream banks, scrambling over shrubs or fence, and occasionally on seashores, shingle or sand dunes, waste places and hedgerows and can even grow in shallow water (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Forey 1991, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora).

conservationAction:
There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It is an old medicinal herb used mainly to treat skin diseases, asthma and whooping cough (Forey 1991). The plant has steroid alkaloid glycosides which affect the nervous system to a potentially dangerous degree and all parts are considered to be poisonous (Allen and Hatfield 2004). It is recommended to be used with caution and under supervision of a qualified practitioner as it can cause paralyses, convulsions and death. The woody stem, when dried, is the most valued part medicinally, although the leaves are also used to treat skin eruptions, ulcers, rheumatism and cellulite. A decoction of the root is used in the treatment of cancer and swellings and a homoeopathic remedy is made from the harvested fresh stems and leaves for a variety of complaints including backaches, cough, diarrhoea, eye inflammations, joint pains and rheumatism. The German Commission E Monographs, a therapeutic guide to herbal medicine, approve this herb for eczema, boils, acne and warts (Plants for a Future 2012). Pharmaceutical forms presently used include comminuted herbal substance for infusion or decoction preparation for cutaneous use made up of dried 2 to 3 year old stems harvested in spring prior to leafing or after in autumn (European Medicine Agency 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)
EU 27 regional assessment: Data Deficient (DD)


Withania somnifera is found on lowland disturbed land in the Mediterranean, from Spain through the Mediterranean islands to European Turkey. It appears to be very rare and scattered across its distribution, though no specific information on population size or trend is available. There is no information on the threats or causes of its rarity. It is a very important medicinal plant, especially for treatment of cancer and neurological diseases; collection may therefore be a threat, though it is thought to be cultivated which would mitigate the impact from collection in the wild. It is considered to be Endangered in India, where there is more information on its use as a medicinal plant than in Europe. This species may be tolerant to some degree of habitat degradation, as it is known from disturbed areas and arable and waste lands, but this is not known for certain.

Given its rarity, restricted and scattered distribution, it may well qualify for Vulnerable or Near Threatened under criterion B, but there is not enough information to confirm its AOO, whether it is severely fragmented, or how tolerant is may be to declines in habitat quality.

Considering the degree of uncertainty and lack of information available, this species is listed as Data Deficient. It seems to be rare in most of its range without information on a population trend or the effects of potential threats.


More information is required on the population status and trends, causes of rarity, and potential threats to assess whether there is an actual risk of extinction to this species.

range:
Withania somnifera is native to the Mediterranean, north and east Africa and southwest Asia as far as India (Castroviejo et al. 2012, Valdes 2012), where it is found in lowlands from 25-400 m asl. There are no records for Portugal (Anthos 2010). It is scattered and rather rare in Greece (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2013). Its origin in Malta is uncertain; it is thought to be a naturalized alien (Malta Wild Plants 2002-2013), but according to Valdes (2012) is is native. In Spain, its distribution is restricted to the southern and eastern coasts where it has been recorded in 28 localities over an area of 2,800 km², with a further 3 localities in the Balearic islands distributed over an area of 300 km²; these areas are calculated based on presene in 10x10 km grid cells but as the species occupies only a portion of the full area of the grid cell, it can be inferred that the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2000 km² in Spain. Given its scattered and disjunct distribution, its AOO across Europe may indeed be less than or only slightly greater than 2,000 km², but more specific distribution data is required to confirm this.

population:
There is no information on population size or trend available, though it is considered very rare throughout its European distribution. It is known from 45 records in Spain, which are scattered along the southern and eastern coast as well as the Balearic and Canary Islands (Anthos 2010). It is said to be very rare in Malta (Malta Wild Plants 2002-2013). In Italy, it is only found in Sicily and Sardinia and is also very rare and difficult to find; it grows spontaneously and is considered to be in danger of extinction (Nicoletti 2001, Scartezzini et al. 2007). In Greece, the population status is unknown, though it is scattered and rather rare (I. Bazos pers. comm. August 2013). Outside of Europe, is is reportedly common and widespread in Israel (Baričevič et al. 2004).

habitat:
This hermaphroditic ruderal ( "st">first to colonize disturbed lands) woody bush or shrub is found in open places and disturbed areas, along edges of rivers and roads and in arable land and waste land (Castroviejo et al. 2012).

threats:
Specific threats to this species are unknown, as are the reasons for its rarity. It is likely to be collected from the wild, though whether this is impacting wild populations and causing declines is unknown.

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It has not been assessed for any national red book. More information is required on its specific distribution, population size and trends, and threats impacting the species.

useAndTrade:
In Asia, this species has been commonly used in Ayurverdic medicine over the past 3000 years, as it has anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antistress, antioxidant and rejuvenating properties and also has a positive impact on the endocrine, cardiopulmonary and central nervous systems to treat insomnia, bronchitis, dementia, Parkinson's disease and cancer (Sharma et al. 2011). The roots are the main part used; the bright red fruit is harvested in the late fall and seeds are dried for planting in the following spring, and the berries have been shown to have an emetic effect (Mishra et al. 2000, Thorne Research Inc. 2004). Details of cultivation are unavailable, though it is said to be cultivated around the world for its roots, especially in India (Kothari et al. 2003). In addition to its medicinal properties, the seeds can be used as a substitute for rennet to curdle milk, the fruit is rich in saponins and can be used as a soap substitute, and the leaves are an insect repellant (Plants for a Future 2012).


redListCategoryRationale:
European Regional Assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 Assessment: Least Concern (LC)


The species has a wide range in central Europe but is ;relatively infrequent in the west. ;The extent of occurrence (EOO) exceeds the values needed for a threatened category under Criterion B. Numerical population data are lacking, but it is inferred not to be very small or restricted. It is difficult to estimate percentage declines, however it is suspected that there have been declines particularly in the EU27 area. This is inferred from its threatened rating in several countries and the reports of habitat loss, for example, with conversion of grassland into arable land and eutrophication of soils. Abandonment and lack of management in some grassland areas can result in regeneration of woodland which may also diminish the habitat available for this species.


According to the FAO (2006), the area of grasslands in the EU declined by 12.8% from 1990 to 2003. If this is taken as a very approximate index of decline that could be applied to this species, the values are not thought to meet those required for a threatened category under Criterion A, and the species is considered Least Concern. However, further surveys are needed to confirm the current population and habitat status and monitoring is needed to detect and enumerate declines. It appears to be most threatened in the western part of its range, where conservation management may be significant, but maintains populations to the east.

range:
The species is found in central and eastern Europe from Germany in the west to the Russian Federation in the east. In European Russia it is has been recorded from the Volga-Kama, Transvolga, Lower Don, Ciscaucasia, Daghestan, Volga-Don, Upper Volga areas, in Ukraine the Upper Dnieper, near Kremenets, the Middle Dnieper, Upper Dniester, the Black Sea area and in Crimea. It is apparently absent from Transcaucasia, despite area records in Gorschkova from 1949. In Germany it is found in Saxony and Rhineland and its found in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Moldova, Serbia, Bulgaria and Turkey (European). Its native range continues into Turkey the Caucasus and Siberia (Marhold 2011, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014, Hypericum online 2014, GRIN 2014).

population:
At one site in Serbia it is reported to occur frequently in the forest steppe vegetation (Butorac et al. 2008) and it is reported as moderately frequent in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014). It is reported as rare in Poland but common in the Ukraine (Didukh 2010). Although it is recorded from relatively few sites in Europe, it is inferred that the population is not very small. However, its threatened status in countries such as Germany and Poland suggest that it may be subject to declines. For example, Bundesamt für Naturschutz (2014) cite the loss of small locations.

habitat:
This perennial herb, which grows up to 0.5 m tall, is found in dry and semi-dry grassland and open woodlands (Klotz et al. 2002). It prefers well-drained habitats in meadows, stony and scrub steppes and stony slopes on chalk and limestone, sands and loess. It is found in Betula and Pinus-Betula woods on sand and also on river banks and lake shores ( Hypericum online 2014). It is thought of as a typical of the steppe vegetation alliance Festucion Rupicolae (Butorac et al. 2008)

threats:
The habitat of this species has suffered loss and degradation. There has been conversion of grassland into arable land and eutrophication of soils with the application of manure and fertilizer, as well as urban encroachment (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014). Tourist development is also a threat to its sandy coastal habitats such as in the Crimean peninsula (Drescher et al. 2007). In the Ukraine up to 88% of the steppe has been converted to agricultural use (Goriup 1998), which has caused a loss of steppe habitat.

conservationAction:
This species has been rated as Endangered in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2014) and Critically Endangered in Slovakia (Feráková et al. 2001). The population in Poland is considered Endangered and has protective legislation (Kazmierczakowa and Zarzycki 2001). It is rated as Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007). It is listed as occurring in eleven Natura 2000 sites, six in Germany, three in Hungary, one in Romania and Poland (EUNIS 2014). It is conserved in 18 botanic gardens worldwide (BGCI 2013). Seeds are stored at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London (ENSCO 2014).

useAndTrade:
This species is used in Bulgarian folk medicine for treatment of wounds, depression, gastrointestinal and bacterial disease. A recent chemical analysis has found that it is a natural source of bioactive compounds and benzophenones that could possibly be useful in the treatment of free radical pathologies and neurodegenerative disorders (Zheleva-Dimitrova et al. 2013).


range:
Hypericum perforatum is native to northern Africa, temperate Asia, tropical Asia (India) and throughout Europe except the extreme north. It has become naturalised outside its native range in South America, Africa, Japan, Australasia and North America. It occurs at elevations up to 2,000 m asl (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1993, USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012).

population:
Large populations spreading across Europe, this species is often considered a weed/invasive. There has been little change in the distribution of this species, although its suitable habitats may be less common in the northern parts of Europe it is still widespread and common along roadsides and railway banks throughout its distribution (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
A short to tall hairless aromatic herbaceous perennial with extensive creeping rhizomes found in dry fields, woods and scrub, pastures, rough grassland, road verges and hedgebanks, meadows and railway banks on neutral or calcareous soils. The flowers do not produce nectar and are sometimes apomictic. It reproduces by seed and also sometimes by root buds (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, World Health Organization 2010, Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Castroviejo et al. 1993).

useAndTrade:
St. John's-wort has a long history of herbal use. It is used as a botanical antidepressant taken as monotherapy and is much safer than conventional antidepressants. The oily extracts of the flowers contain extracts such as hypericin and hyperforin and work by selective inhibition of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine re-uptake in the central nervous system. This is affected when taken with other medicines. Oily preparations of the above ground parts are used for treatment of myalgia, acute and contused injuries and first degree burns. However the Hypericin compound in this plant can induce changes in lens protein in the presence of light which can lead to the formation of cataracts and appropriate precautions must be taken to protect eyes from sunlight when taking this for medication. An infusion of the root has been used as a wash to give infants strength. It is poisonous to animals and photodermatitis has been observed in grazing animals ingesting large amounts of this plant (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). It is prepared as a homeopathic tincture by ethanolic extraction of fresh flowering aerial parts and infusions prepared with water are widely used in the traditional medicine at least in Central Europe. Proposed traditional indications are by oral use, aqueous extracts, liquid ethanolic extracts, dry extracts and comminuted herbal substance for tea preparation. Herba hyperici consists of dried flowering tops or aerial parts of St John's Wort. The plant material is harvested at flowering time. It is a traditional herbal medicinal product for the relief of temporary mental exhaustion, symptomatic relief of mild gastrointestinal discomfort. The traditional use of liquid preparations of Hypericum for wound healing is supported by pharmacological data however anti-inflammatory activity, analgesic activity, astringent activity and antibacterial activity are documented but clinical data are lacking in support of this and its traditional use for the treatment of symptoms caused by an injury or related to rheumatism is not yet plausible. Antiviral effects are documented for several types of viruses, but not for Varicella zoster and so the traditional use in the treatment of shingles cannot be supported (European Medicines Agency 1999 and 2009, World Health Organization 2010). Yellow, gold, red and brown dyes are obtained from the flowers and leaves. The plant is said to contain good quantities of tannin (Plants for a Future 2012).


range:
Humulus lupulus has a wide distribution and is native to North Africa (Morocco) and throughout temperate Asia, North America and Europe, except the far north (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012).

population:
It occurs in cold northern temperate zones and is more frequent around the middle of the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo et al. 1993). It is frequent as an escape from cultivation or as a planted ornamental and many relics in Britain are from cultivation since the 16th Century (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012).

habitat:
Humulus lupulus is a scrambling, dioecious climbing perennial herb found in moist open woodland, humid thickets and groves, fen carr, hedgerows, scrub and occasionally on walls growing in loamy peaty soils (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora 2012, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Castroviejo et al . 1993).

conservationAction:
There are no known conservation measures in place or needed. It is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Estonia (eBiodiversity Estonia 2012), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).

useAndTrade:
It is used as a herbal preparation in solid or liquid dosage forms for oral use as a traditional herbal medicinal product for relief of mild symptoms of mental stress and to aid sleep from either herbal preparations used in fixed combinations with Valeriana officinalis of dry and liquid extracts of hop strobiles. Or the hop strobiles are used to derive a herbal preparation from comminuted herbal substance, liquid extract and tincture (European Medicines Agency 2008, 2009). The leaves have Lupulin (glandular hairs) which can cause allergic dermatitis.The glandular hairs of inflorescences possess bitter components serving as stomachics and tonics. A natural remedy for stomach ulcers can be made from an infusion which can increase urination and reduce acidity of the stomach. Hops (dried flowers) have also been used for phytotherapy to treat anxiety through sedation, the inflorescence contain complex volatile oil for nervousness and insomnia (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The ripe female cones are used for flavouring beer since the early nineteenth century. Hops is commercially important because it contains an a-acid that turns sweet ale into bitter beer and also acts as a preservative. It contains lupulon and humulon which are active against gram positive and acid fast bacteria and prevent bacteria from growing in beer. The a-acid is a major component of soft resins found in the lupulin gland on the hop flower; these glands are more plentiful on female flowers than on male flowers, and so female plants are more prized by commercial growers. Humulus lupulus has the highest concentration of lupulin glands, and therefore is far more commercially valuable (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2003, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003, Natural History Museum 2011). Male hop plants are useful as pollinators in commercial hop yards to stimulate cone development and produce seeded hops. In most parts of the world, however, seeds are considered undesirable. Most hops are grown unseeded and vigorous efforts are made to remove all sources of hop pollen near commercial yards (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2012). Hops is also used as an ornamental for garden us.


taxonomicNotes:
There are no significant taxonomic issues associated with this name, although a number of subspecific taxa are recognised in different regions.

range:
U. dioica occurs throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and the Himalayas in Bhutan; India, Nepal and Pakistan to China, it also occurs throughout much of North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.

population:
U. dioica is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.

habitat:
U. dioica is strongly associated with nutrient-rich, organic soils, it occurs in a very wide range of natural habitats, particularly wet woodland and river banks and fens but also in disturbed ground such as scrub, grasslands, hedgerows, roadsides, cultivated and waste ground.

useAndTrade:
The leaves of the plant have a long historical and well as contemporary use as a medicine and herbal remedy, food (leaves and young shoots), tea, beer flavouring, dye and food colourant, fibre, and many other applications(Plants for a Future 2010).


